application_number
string | publication_number
string | title
string | decision
string | date_produced
string | date_published
string | main_cpc_label
string | cpc_labels
string | main_ipcr_label
string | ipcr_labels
string | patent_number
string | filing_date
string | patent_issue_date
string | abandon_date
string | uspc_class
string | uspc_subclass
string | examiner_id
string | examiner_name_last
string | examiner_name_first
string | examiner_name_middle
string | inventor_list
string | abstract
string | claims
string | background
string | summary
string | full_description
string | ipcr_label_section
string | ipcr_label_class
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class label | ipcr_label_group
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11692558
|
US20070233715A1-20071004
|
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, METHOD AND PROGRAM FOR SELECTING CANDIDATE TAG
|
ACCEPTED
|
20070920
|
20071004
|
[]
|
G06F700
|
["G06F700", "G06F1730"]
|
9069867
|
20070328
|
20150630
|
715
|
234000
|
94935.0
|
HILLERY
|
NATHAN
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Rekimoto", "inventor_name_first": "Junichi", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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Resource management system, method and program for selecting candidate tag are provided. The tag can be readily attached to a resource by presenting a candidate tag also to a resource newly registered in a database. The degree of similarity of a new registration resource to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database is calculated. A tag attached to an already-registered resource of which the degree of similarity is large is selected as a candidate for a tag to be attached to the new registration resource. Thereby, a candidate tag can be also presented to a resource newly registered in the database. A user can further readily attach a tag compared to a conventional system.
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1. A resource management system comprising: degree-of-similarity calculating means for calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database; and candidate tag selecting means for selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which said degree of similarity calculated by said degree-of-similarity calculating means is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to said new registration resource. 2. The resource management system according to claim 1, wherein; said resource is a web page, and said degree-of-similarity calculating means calculates the degree of similarity between text date described in an already-registered web page and text data described in a new registration web page. 3. A method for selecting a candidate tag, comprising: the degree-of-similarity calculating step of calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database; and the candidate tag selecting step of selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which said degree of similarity calculated in said degree-of-similarity calculating step is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to said new registration resource. 4. A candidate tag selecting program embodied on a computer-readable medium for making an information processing unit executes: the degree-of-similarity calculating step of calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database; and the candidate tag selecting step of selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which said degree of similarity calculated in said degree-of-similarity calculating step is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to said new registration resource.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates to a resource management system, a method for selecting a candidate tag, and a candidate tag selecting program, and is applicable to the case of managing many resources by using a tag. Hereinafter, on the Internet, a system in which many users attach a tag to a common resource (a picture and a web bookmark) for arrangement has been generally used. For example, in the Flickr that is a picture sharing service for sharing a picture on the network (see http://www.flickr.com), an arbitrary tag such as “TOKYO”, “FOOD” or “PARTY” is attached to (associated with) a picture uploaded on a database, so that only a resource having a specified tag can be retrieved and extracted. Further, because resources are unnecessary to be classified in a specified hierarchical structure, a plurality of different images can be attached to one resource as tags, so that resources can be arranged further flexibly. This tag attachment may be individually performed. However, in the case where many users share the same resource, it works further effectively. For example, in the del.icio.us that is a social bookmark service for sharing an web bookmark on the network (see http://del.icio.us), a user can attach an arbitrary tag such as “PROGRAMMING”, “GUIDE”, “SERVICE” or “SHOPPING” to a bookmarked web page for arrangement. Further, this del.icio.us has a candidate tag present function in that if the same web page has been already bookmarked by other user, a tag attached by the above other user is presented as a candidate tag. Thereby, if a desired tag has been already attached by other user, it is unnecessary to enter the character string, and the user can readily perform tag attachment by selecting the presented candidate tag with a mouse or the like. However, in the aforementioned candidate tag present function, when in newly performing a bookmark registration of an web page that has not been bookmarked by other user, because existent tag information cannot be used, the user have to enter a tag explicitly. Therefore, there has been a tendency that as to a famous web page of which the degree of sharing is high such that many tags have been already attached, plentiful tags will be attached and it can be readily retrieved, however, as to an web page newly bookmarked, because a tag attachment operation is complicated, tag attachment is not performed so actively. As the above, in a conventional social bookmark service, there has been a problem that a tag attachment operation to a new bookmark is complicated.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In view of the foregoing, it is desirable to provide a resource management system, a method for selecting a candidate tag, and a candidate tag selecting program in that a tag can be readily attached to a resource newly registered. The present application can be applied to various resource management systems. According to an embodiment, there is provided degree-of-similarity calculating means for calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database, and candidate tag selecting means for selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which the degree of similarity calculated by the degree-of-similarity calculating means is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to the new registration resource. By selecting a tag attached to a resource of which the degree of similarity is high as a candidate tag, a candidate tag can be also presented to a resource newly registered in a database. Thereby, a user can further readily attach a tag compared to a conventional system. The nature, principle and utility of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which like parts are designated by like reference numerals or characters. Additional features and advantages are described herein, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description and the figures. BRFSUM description="Brief Summary" end="tail"?
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application claims priority to Japanese Patent Application JP 2006-095051 filed in the Japanese Patent Office on Mar. 30, 2006, the entire contents of which is being incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND The present invention relates to a resource management system, a method for selecting a candidate tag, and a candidate tag selecting program, and is applicable to the case of managing many resources by using a tag. Hereinafter, on the Internet, a system in which many users attach a tag to a common resource (a picture and a web bookmark) for arrangement has been generally used. For example, in the Flickr that is a picture sharing service for sharing a picture on the network (see http://www.flickr.com), an arbitrary tag such as “TOKYO”, “FOOD” or “PARTY” is attached to (associated with) a picture uploaded on a database, so that only a resource having a specified tag can be retrieved and extracted. Further, because resources are unnecessary to be classified in a specified hierarchical structure, a plurality of different images can be attached to one resource as tags, so that resources can be arranged further flexibly. This tag attachment may be individually performed. However, in the case where many users share the same resource, it works further effectively. For example, in the del.icio.us that is a social bookmark service for sharing an web bookmark on the network (see http://del.icio.us), a user can attach an arbitrary tag such as “PROGRAMMING”, “GUIDE”, “SERVICE” or “SHOPPING” to a bookmarked web page for arrangement. Further, this del.icio.us has a candidate tag present function in that if the same web page has been already bookmarked by other user, a tag attached by the above other user is presented as a candidate tag. Thereby, if a desired tag has been already attached by other user, it is unnecessary to enter the character string, and the user can readily perform tag attachment by selecting the presented candidate tag with a mouse or the like. However, in the aforementioned candidate tag present function, when in newly performing a bookmark registration of an web page that has not been bookmarked by other user, because existent tag information cannot be used, the user have to enter a tag explicitly. Therefore, there has been a tendency that as to a famous web page of which the degree of sharing is high such that many tags have been already attached, plentiful tags will be attached and it can be readily retrieved, however, as to an web page newly bookmarked, because a tag attachment operation is complicated, tag attachment is not performed so actively. As the above, in a conventional social bookmark service, there has been a problem that a tag attachment operation to a new bookmark is complicated. SUMMARY In view of the foregoing, it is desirable to provide a resource management system, a method for selecting a candidate tag, and a candidate tag selecting program in that a tag can be readily attached to a resource newly registered. The present application can be applied to various resource management systems. According to an embodiment, there is provided degree-of-similarity calculating means for calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database, and candidate tag selecting means for selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which the degree of similarity calculated by the degree-of-similarity calculating means is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to the new registration resource. By selecting a tag attached to a resource of which the degree of similarity is high as a candidate tag, a candidate tag can be also presented to a resource newly registered in a database. Thereby, a user can further readily attach a tag compared to a conventional system. The nature, principle and utility of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which like parts are designated by like reference numerals or characters. Additional features and advantages are described herein, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description and the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an overall configuration of a bookmark sharing system. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram showing the configuration of a bookmark registration screen. FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a candidate tag selecting processing procedure. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram for explaining the calculation of a tag factor corresponding to the attached number of tags. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram for explaining a text management system to which an embodiment of the present invention is applied. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Preferred embodiments will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. (1) Overall Configuration of Social Bookmark System Referring to FIG. 1, the reference numeral 1 designates a bookmark sharing system as a whole. The bookmark sharing system 1 is formed by that a plurality of user terminals 4 are connected to a bookmark server 2 via the Internet 3. Each user terminal 4 is an information processing unit having an Internet connection function such as a personal computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA) and a cellular phone. Each of them accesses an web server on the Internet 3 (not shown) according to a user operation, obtains web page data, and displays an web page based on the above obtained web page data to make a user view it. In addition to this, in the bookmark sharing system 1, by that the user of the user terminal 4 registers a user account on the bookmark server 2, a bookmark list peculiar to the above user account can be formed in the bookmark server 2. The registration user of the bookmark sharing system 1 (hereinafter, it is also simply referred to as “user”) can register the bookmark of an arbitrary web page in the user's own bookmark list (hereinafter, it is also simply referred to as “bookmark an web page”). Additionally, in the bookmark sharing system 1, when in registering a bookmark in the bookmark list, the user can attach an arbitrary tag to the above bookmark. Further, the user also can retrieve a bookmark registered by other user, by using an arbitrary tag as a keyword. That is, in the bookmark server 2, the lists of their respective bookmarks of each user have been stored in a bookmark database in a hard disk drive 11 (FIG. 2). If receiving a bookmark registration request from the user terminal 4, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) 10 of the bookmark server 2 enters this in the bookmark list of the registration user by associating an web page with a tag that are specified in the above bookmark registration request. Further, if receiving a bookmark retrieval request from the user terminal 4, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 performs retrieval from the bookmark database, by using the tag specified by the above registration request as a keyword, extracts a bookmark to which the same tag as the specified tag has been attached as the retrieval result, and returns this to the user terminal 4. In this manner, in the bookmark sharing system 1, users can register their own bookmark lists in the bookmark server 2 respectively. At the same time, many bookmarks registered by each user can be shared among all of the registration users, and a desired bookmark can be retrieved using a tag from among the above many bookmarks. (2) Automatic Presentation of Candidate Tag (2-1) Configuration of Bookmark Registration Screen In addition to the above configuration, at the time when a user newly registers an arbitrary web page in a bookmark list, if this new registration page has been already registered by other user, the bookmark server 2 presents a tag attached to the already-registered page by the other user or the like as a candidate tag. That is, if accepting a predetermined bookmark registration operation by the user via input means such as a keyboard, the user terminal 4 transmits the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of the new registration page that was specified by the user as an object of a bookmark in this operation to the bookmark server 2, with a bookmark registration temporary request. If receiving the bookmark registration temporary request transmitted from the user terminal 4, by responding this, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 returns display data for displaying a bookmark registration screen 20 shown in FIG. 2 to the user terminal 4. Thereby, the bookmark registration screen 20 is displayed in the above user terminal 4. As shown in FIG. 2, in the bookmark registration screen 20, a URL display field 21 to display the URL of the new registration page specified as the bookmark object in the bookmark registration temporary request (hereinafter, it is referred to as “new registration URL”), a page name display field 22 to display the name of the new registration page, a tag display field 23 to display a tag to be attached to the new registration page, and a bookmark registration button 24 to register the new registration page in the user's bookmark list are displayed. In the URL display field 21, the page name display field 22 and the tag display field 23, an arbitrary character can be entered by the user via input means such as a keyboard provided in the user terminal 4. For example, in the page name display field 22, a page name attached to the new registration page is automatically displayed. However, the above page name can be freely changed by the user. Similarly, the URL displayed in the URL display field 21 can also be freely changed by the user. Thereby, a lower-order page, a higher-order page or the like in the web page can be arbitrary specified and set as a new registration URL. Further, in the tag display field 23, one or a plurality of character strings to be attached to a bookmark can be arbitrary entered by the user as a tag. Further, at a part lower than the tag display field 23 in the bookmark registration screen 20, one or a plurality of candidate tags 25 recommended by the bookmark server 2 for the new registration URL specified in the bookmark registration temporary request are displayed. This candidate tag 25 is that the bookmark server 2 selected a tag related to the new registration URL by candidate tag selecting processing that will be described later. Then, the user can select an arbitrary one of the displayed candidate tags 25 to make it display in the tag display field 23. That is, if accepting a candidate tag 25 selecting operation by the user via the input means such as a keyboard, by responding to this, the user terminal 4 copies the character string of the selected candidate tag 25, and displays it in the tag display field 23. In this manner, in the bookmark sharing system 1, the bookmark server 2 presents candidate tags 25 related to a new registration URL. Thereby, the user can readily perform tag attachment. Then, if accepting a pressing operation of the bookmark registration button 24 by the user via the input means, by responding to this, the user terminal 4 transmits the new registration URL and the page name, and an attached tag to the bookmark server 2 with a bookmark registration request. If receiving the bookmark registration request transmitted from the user terminal 4, by responding to this, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 associates the page name and the tag with the new registration URL received at the same time, and registers this in this user's bookmark list as an already-registered URL. Further, at this time, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 accesses an web page specified by the new registration URL, obtains a document described in the above web page as already-registered text data, and registers this in the bookmark list in association with the already-registered URL. (2-2) Candidate Tag Selecting Processing Next, the aforementioned candidate tag selecting processing for a new registration URL by the bookmark server 2 will be described in detail. If receiving a bookmark registration temporary request from the user terminal 4, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 retrieves the same URL as the new registration URL that was received with the above bookmark registration temporary request from the bookmark lists of all of users on the bookmark database. If the same URL as the new registration URL has been registered in some bookmark lists as an already-registered URL, the CPU 10 obtains a tag attached to the above already-registered URL from the bookmark database, and transmits this to the user terminal 4 as a candidate tag with display data for displaying the bookmark registration screen 20. On the contrary, if the same URL as the new registration URL has not been registered in any bookmark lists (that is, if this URL will be registered in the bookmark database for the first time), the CPU 10 cannot select a candidate tag in this state. Therefore, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 accesses a new registration page specified by the above new registration URL, and obtains a character string described in the above new registration page as new registration text data. Then, the CPU 10 compares the obtained new registration text data with all of already-registered text data stored in the bookmark database and calculates the degree of similarity respectively (the calculating method will be described later), selects a predetermined number of (for example, ten) already-registered text data of which the degree of similarity to the above new registration text data is high, and transmits a tag attached to the already-registered URL corresponding to the above selected already-registered text data of which the degree of similarity is high to the user terminal 4 as a candidate tag, with display data for displaying the bookmark registration screen 20. Then, the user terminal 4 displays the candidate tag received from the bookmark server 2 in the bookmark registration screen 20 to present this to the user. In this manner, the CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 retrieves an already-registered page having the contents similar to a new registration page, and selects a tag attached to this as a candidate tag. Thereby, a candidate tag can be also presented to a bookmark registered in the bookmark database for the first time. (2-3) Calculation of Degree of Similarity and Selection of Candidate Tag Next, the aforementioned method for calculating the degree of similarity between new registration text data and already-registered text data, and a method for selecting a candidate tag will be described. As a method for calculating the degree of similarity between text data, a method for obtaining the number of co-occurrence of words, a method using Latent Semantics Analysis (LSA), and the like have been generally used. These various methods for calculating the degree of similarity can be used in the present invention. Further, as a method for selecting a candidate tag, if the degree of similarity between new registration text data and already-registered text data Sim(Newpage,Webi) was calculated as being within −1 to 1, a tag attached to the already-registered page is added by the following formula: W(Tagj)≡Σ{Sim(NewPage,Webi)*(Σ hasTag(Webi,Tagj))} (1) Here, the W(Tag) is an weighting factor to determine whether or not Tag should be set as a candidate. Further, if the tag Tagj has been attached to a certain web page Webi, the tag factor hasTag(Webi,Tagj) becomes 1, and if the tag Tagj has not been attached, it becomes 0. In this manner, the weighting factor W(Tag) can be calculated about the respective tags attached to all of the already-registered pages. Thereby, an adequate number of (for example, ten) tags of which the above weighting factor W(Tag) is large are selected, and are transmitted to the user terminal 4 as candidate tags. (2-4) Candidate Tag Selecting Processing Procedure Next, the procedure of the aforementioned processing that the bookmark server 2 selects a candidate tag for a new registration page and transmits this to the user terminal 4 will be described in detail, with reference to a flowchart shown in FIG. 3. The CPU 10 of the bookmark server 2 enters a candidate tag selecting processing procedure RT1 from the start step, and proceeds to step SP1. If receiving a new registration URL from the user terminal 4 with a bookmark registration temporary request, the CPU 10 proceeds to the next step SP2. In step SP2, the CPU 10 retrieves the same URL as the above new registration URL from already-registered URL in the bookmark database, by using the received new registration URL as a retrieval keyword, and proceeds to the next step SP3. In step SP3, the CPU 10 determines whether the same already-registered URL as the new registration URL has been registered in the bookmark database, based on the retrieval result. If an affirmative result is obtained in step SP3, this means that an web page that is going to be performed bookmark registration has already been registered in the bookmark database by other user. At this time, the CPU 10 proceeds to step SP4 to select a tag attached to the same already-registered URL as the new registration URL as a candidate tag, and proceeds to step SP7. On the contrary, if a negative result is obtained in this step SP3, this means that the above web page will be registered in the bookmark database for the first time. At this time, the CPU 10 proceeds to step SP5. In step SP5, the CPU 10 serving as degree-of-similarity calculating means accesses a new registration page specified by the new registration URL, obtains a character string described in the above page as new registration text data, and compares the above new registration text data with all of the already-registered text data stored in the bookmark database and calculates the degree of similarity respectively. Then, the CPU 10 proceeds to the next step SP6. In step SP6, the CPU 10 serving as candidate tag selection means calculates the respective weighting factors W(Tag) of tags attached to each already-registered page based on the calculated degree of similarity, and selects a tag of which the above weighting factor W(Tag) is large as a candidate tag. Then, the CPU 10 proceeds to the next step SP7. And then, in step SP7, the CPU 10 transmits the selected candidate tag to the user terminal 4, and proceeds to the next step SP8 to finish the candidate tag selecting processing procedure. (3) Operation and Effect According to the above configuration, if a new registration page accepted from the user terminal 4 has been already bookmarked by other user, the bookmark server 2 in the bookmark sharing system 1 selects a tag that has been attached to this page by that other user as a candidate tag, and transmits this to the user terminal 4. Thereby, a tag attachment operation to the above new registration page can be readily performed. Further, even if the new registration page accepted from the user terminal 4 has not been bookmarked by other user, the bookmark server 2 selects a tag that has been attached to a page having the similar contents to the new registration page, in all of the web pages that have been performed bookmark registration in the bookmark database as a candidate tag, and transmits this to the user terminal 4. Thereby, a tag attachment operation can be also readily performed to an web page that will be completely newly performed bookmark registration in the bookmark database. (4) Other Embodiments In the aforementioned embodiment, it has dealt with the case where a tag factor is calculated based on the presence of tag attachment, by setting a tag factor hasTag(Webi,Tagj)=1 when a tag Tagj has been attached to a certain web page Webi, and by setting a tag factor hasTag(Webi,Tagj)=0 when a tag Tagj has not been attached. However, the present invention is not only limited to this but also the tag factor may be calculated by considering the number of users who attached a tag. For example, it can be considered that when n pieces of tag Tagj have been attached to a certain web page Webi, a tag factor HasTag(Webi,Tagj)=n is set. That is, in a social tagging system as the bookmark sharing system 1 of an embodiment of the present invention, there is often a case where a plurality of users attach the same tag to a certain web page. For example, in FIG. 4, to a certain web page WebA, a tag “WINE” has been attached by three users, a tag “BAR” has been attached by two users, and a tag “RESTAURANT” has been attached by one user. A tag factor in this case is hasTag(WebA,WINE)=3, hasTag(WebA,BAR)=2, and hasTag(WebA,RESTAURANT)=1. In this manner, if calculating a weighting factor W(Tag) using a tag factor in consideration of the attached number of tags, a candidate tag which reflects tag attachment state and is highly accurate can be selected. Further, in the aforementioned embodiment, it has dealt with the case where the present invention is applied to tag attachment to an web page in the bookmark sharing system 1. However, the present invention is not only limited to this but also it can be widely applied to the case of attaching a tag to various resources of which the degree of similarity can be calculated. As such resources to which the present invention is applicable, audio data and image data, and the like can be considered. Then, as a method for calculating the degree of similarity for audio data, a similarity of power spectrum in musical compositions (J.-J. Aucouturier and F. Pachet: Music similarity measures: What's the use? Proc. ISMIR 2002, pp. 157•63 (2002)), a similarity of rhythm (J. Paulus and A. Klapuri: Measuring the similarity of rhythmic patterns. Proc. ISMIR 2002, pp. 150-156 (2002)), the feature amount of a modulation spectrum (Dixon, E. Pampalk and G. Widmer: Classification of dance music by periodicity patterns. Proc. ISMIR 2003, pp. 159•65 (2003), or the like can be used. On the other hand, as a method for calculating the degree of similarity for image data, a method based on fractal images (Takanori Yokoyama, Toshinori Watanabe and Ken Sugawara: “Feature Amount Based on Correspondence of Fractal Coded Images and Similarity Retrieval”, the technical report by the Institute of Image Information and Television Engineers, Vol. 26, No. 54, pp. 29-32, 2002), or the like can be used. Further, in the aforementioned embodiment, it has dealt with the case where the present invention is applied to a system in that a plurality of users attach a tag to a resource to manage information as a social tagging system. However, the present invention is not only limited to this but also can be applied to an individual information management system in that one user manages information. As an example of such individual information management system, a text management system in that a tag is attached to a text memo and is managed on a computer can be considered, for example. That is, as shown in FIG. 5, in the text management system, an arbitrary tag is attached to a text memo entered by a user, and the text memo can be retrieved using the above tag. Then, if a new text memo is entered by the user, the CPU of a computer executing the text management system calculates the degree of similarity between the above new text memo and existent text memos already entered, and presents a tag that has been attached to a text memo of which the degree of similarity is high as a candidate tag for the new text memo. Thereby, in this text management system, the user can perform tag attachment to a text memo with a simple operation. According to an embodiment, there is provided degree-of-similarity calculating means for calculating the degree of similarity of a new registration resource newly registered in a database, to each of a plurality of already-registered resources that have been already registered in the database, and candidate tag selecting means for selecting a tag attached to an already-registered resource of which the degree of similarity calculated by the degree-of-similarity calculating means is large, as a candidate for a tag to be attached to the new registration resource. Thereby, a resource management system, a method for selecting a candidate tag, and a candidate tag selecting program in that a candidate tag can be also presented to a resource newly registered in a database, and a user can further readily attach a tag compared to a conventional system can be realized. It should be understood that various changes and modifications to the presently preferred embodiments described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present subject matter and without diminishing its intended advantages. It is therefore intended that such changes and modifications be covered by the appended claims.
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G
| 60G06
| 161G06F
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7
|
00
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11923664
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US20090113553A1-20090430
|
METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR HIDING INFORMATION IN THE INSTRUCTION PROCESSING PIPELINE
|
ACCEPTED
|
20090416
|
20090430
|
[]
|
G06F2100
|
["G06F2100", "H04L900"]
|
8141162
|
20071025
|
20120320
|
726
|
026000
|
65882.0
|
EL HADY
|
NABIL
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Myles", "inventor_name_first": "Ginger Marie", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A system, article of manufacture and method is provided for transferring secret information from a first location to a second location. The secret information is encoded and stalls in executable code are located. The executable code is configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor. The encoded information is inserted into a plurality of instructions and the instructions are inserted into the executable code at the stalls. There is no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code. The executable code is transferred to the second location. The location of the stalls in the transferred code is identified. The encoded information is extracted from the instructions located at the stalls. The encoded information may then be decoding information to generate the information at the second location.
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1. A method for embedding information in a computer program comprising: performing data dependency analysis on said computer program to identify locations within said computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall, said locations including no-operation instructions: encoding said information; and inserting an instruction in said location, said instruction containing at least a portion of said information by dividing said information into a plurality of consecutive sections and inserting said instructions containing said consecutive sections non-consecutively into said locations within said computer program. 2. (canceled) 3. (canceled) 4. (canceled) 5. (canceled) 6. (canceled) 7. (canceled) 8. (canceled) 9. (canceled) 10. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. (canceled) 13. (canceled) 14. (canceled) 15. (canceled) 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. (canceled) 19. (canceled) 20. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Steganographic and watermarking techniques have been used to hide ancillary information in many different types of media. Steganographic techniques are generally used when the purpose is to conduct some type of secret communication and stealth is critical to prevent the interception of the hidden message. Watermarking techniques are more appropriate where the primary concern is to protect the hidden information, the watermark, from damage or removal. In steganography a classic model is known as the “prisoners' problem”. One example of the prisoners' problem is a scenario where Alice and Bob are two prisoners sent to different cells. Any communication between them must go through a warden Wendy. Because the warden wants to ensure that they are not developing an escape plan, she will not allow encrypted messages or any other suspicious communication. Therefore, Alice and Bob must set up a subliminal channel to communicate their escape plan invisibly. Based on this model, steganography works as follows. When Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob she first selects a cover-object c. The cover-object is some harmless message which will not raise suspicion. She then embeds the secret message m in the cover-object to produce the stego-object s. The stego-object must be created in such a way that Wendy, knowing only the seemingly harmless message s, will not be able to detect the presence of a secret in the cover-object c. Alice then transmits the message s over an insecure channel to Bob. Once received, Bob is able to decode the message m since he knows the embedding method and their shared secret key. Steganography is useful in many applications, such as the prevention of piracy of media. When using still images, video, or audio as the cover media we are able to leverage limitations in the human visual and auditory systems. This has led to a plethora of research on digital steganography and watermarking. Unfortunately, when the cover medium is an executable program we are far more restricted as to the type of transformations we can apply. These restrictions have resulted in fewer techniques, most of which suffer from inadequate data rates and/or poor resistance to attack. In contrast to image and sound steganography very little attention has been paid to code steganography. Most of the research directed at hiding information in executables has focused on providing piracy protection and thus has taken the form of software watermarking. A number of software watermarking techniques have been developed and proposed. Some software watermarking algorithms embed the watermark through an extension to a method's control flow graph. The watermark is encoded in a subgraph which is incorporated in the original graph. In other techniques, the instruction frequencies of the original program are modified to embed the watermark. A dynamic watermarking algorithm has been proposed which embeds the watermark in the structure of the graph, built on the heap at runtime, as the program executes on a particular input. Other proposed techniques are path-based and rely on the dynamic branching behavior of the program. To embed the watermark the sequence of branches taken and not taken on a particular input are modified. An abstract interpretation framework may also be used to embed a watermark in the values assigned to integer local variables during program execution. Other techniques leverage the ability to execute blocks of code on different threads. The watermark is encoded in the choice of blocks executed on the same thread. Also, a branch function may be used which generates the watermark as the program executes. In addition to software watermarking, other techniques are aimed directly at code steganography. For example one technique draws on the inherent redundancy in the instruction set to encode a message by noting that several instructions can be expressed in more than one way. For example, adding a value x to a register can be replaced with subtracting −x from the register. By creating sets of functionally equivalent instructions, message bits can be encoded in the machine code. Two improvements on the equivalent instruction substitution technique have been proposed using alternative encoding methods. The first technique is based on the ordering of basic blocks. The chain of basic blocks is selected based on the bits to be encoded. The second technique operates on a finer granularity and relies on the ordering of the instructions within a basic block. One recent code steganography technique is suggested not as a method for transferring secret messages, but as a way to provide additional information to the processor. The information encoding is accomplished by modifying operand bits in the instruction. To ensure proper execution a look-up table is stored in the program header. Each of the above techniques has certain disadvantages such as inadequate data rates and poor resistance to attack. Accordingly, there is a need for methods and systems for providing hidden messages in executable programs which have acceptable data rates and are very resistant to attack.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To overcome the limitations in the prior art briefly described above, the present invention provides a method, computer program product, and system for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In one embodiment of the present invention a method for embedding information in a computer program comprises: identifying at least one location within the computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall; and inserting an instruction in the location, the instruction containing at least a portion of the information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of hiding information in the instruction processing pipeline of a computer program comprises: identifying at least one stall in the instruction processing pipeline; and filling the stall with an instruction that encodes a secret message, the instruction not altering the functionality of the computer program. In a further embodiment of the present invention includes an article of manufacture for use in a computer system tangibly embodying computer instructions executable by the computer system to perform process steps for transferring information from a first location to a second location the process steps comprising: encoding the information; locating stalls in executable code, the executable code being configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor; inserting the encoded information into a plurality of instructions; inserting the instructions into the executable code at the stalls, there being no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code; transferring the executable code to the second location; identifying the location of the stalls in the transferred executable code; extracting the encoded information from the instructions located at the stalls; and decoding the encoding information to generate the information at the second location. An additional embodiment of the present invention comprises a system for embedding a digital signature in executable code comprising: stall identifying unit for identifying the location of stalls within the executable code; and instruction insertion unit for inserting an instruction in a first of the locations, the instruction containing at least a first portion of a digital signature. Various advantages and features of novelty, which characterize the present invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed hereto and form a part hereof. However, for a better understanding of the invention and its advantages, reference should be made to the accompanying descriptive matter together with the corresponding drawings which form a further part hereof, in which there is described and illustrated specific examples in accordance with the present invention.
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FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention generally relates to computer implemented steganographic and watermarking techniques, and particularly to methods and systems for encoding secret information in arbitrary program binaries. BACKGROUND Steganographic and watermarking techniques have been used to hide ancillary information in many different types of media. Steganographic techniques are generally used when the purpose is to conduct some type of secret communication and stealth is critical to prevent the interception of the hidden message. Watermarking techniques are more appropriate where the primary concern is to protect the hidden information, the watermark, from damage or removal. In steganography a classic model is known as the “prisoners' problem”. One example of the prisoners' problem is a scenario where Alice and Bob are two prisoners sent to different cells. Any communication between them must go through a warden Wendy. Because the warden wants to ensure that they are not developing an escape plan, she will not allow encrypted messages or any other suspicious communication. Therefore, Alice and Bob must set up a subliminal channel to communicate their escape plan invisibly. Based on this model, steganography works as follows. When Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob she first selects a cover-object c. The cover-object is some harmless message which will not raise suspicion. She then embeds the secret message m in the cover-object to produce the stego-object s. The stego-object must be created in such a way that Wendy, knowing only the seemingly harmless message s, will not be able to detect the presence of a secret in the cover-object c. Alice then transmits the message s over an insecure channel to Bob. Once received, Bob is able to decode the message m since he knows the embedding method and their shared secret key. Steganography is useful in many applications, such as the prevention of piracy of media. When using still images, video, or audio as the cover media we are able to leverage limitations in the human visual and auditory systems. This has led to a plethora of research on digital steganography and watermarking. Unfortunately, when the cover medium is an executable program we are far more restricted as to the type of transformations we can apply. These restrictions have resulted in fewer techniques, most of which suffer from inadequate data rates and/or poor resistance to attack. In contrast to image and sound steganography very little attention has been paid to code steganography. Most of the research directed at hiding information in executables has focused on providing piracy protection and thus has taken the form of software watermarking. A number of software watermarking techniques have been developed and proposed. Some software watermarking algorithms embed the watermark through an extension to a method's control flow graph. The watermark is encoded in a subgraph which is incorporated in the original graph. In other techniques, the instruction frequencies of the original program are modified to embed the watermark. A dynamic watermarking algorithm has been proposed which embeds the watermark in the structure of the graph, built on the heap at runtime, as the program executes on a particular input. Other proposed techniques are path-based and rely on the dynamic branching behavior of the program. To embed the watermark the sequence of branches taken and not taken on a particular input are modified. An abstract interpretation framework may also be used to embed a watermark in the values assigned to integer local variables during program execution. Other techniques leverage the ability to execute blocks of code on different threads. The watermark is encoded in the choice of blocks executed on the same thread. Also, a branch function may be used which generates the watermark as the program executes. In addition to software watermarking, other techniques are aimed directly at code steganography. For example one technique draws on the inherent redundancy in the instruction set to encode a message by noting that several instructions can be expressed in more than one way. For example, adding a value x to a register can be replaced with subtracting −x from the register. By creating sets of functionally equivalent instructions, message bits can be encoded in the machine code. Two improvements on the equivalent instruction substitution technique have been proposed using alternative encoding methods. The first technique is based on the ordering of basic blocks. The chain of basic blocks is selected based on the bits to be encoded. The second technique operates on a finer granularity and relies on the ordering of the instructions within a basic block. One recent code steganography technique is suggested not as a method for transferring secret messages, but as a way to provide additional information to the processor. The information encoding is accomplished by modifying operand bits in the instruction. To ensure proper execution a look-up table is stored in the program header. Each of the above techniques has certain disadvantages such as inadequate data rates and poor resistance to attack. Accordingly, there is a need for methods and systems for providing hidden messages in executable programs which have acceptable data rates and are very resistant to attack. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To overcome the limitations in the prior art briefly described above, the present invention provides a method, computer program product, and system for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In one embodiment of the present invention a method for embedding information in a computer program comprises: identifying at least one location within the computer program where pipeline processing dependencies require a stall; and inserting an instruction in the location, the instruction containing at least a portion of the information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of hiding information in the instruction processing pipeline of a computer program comprises: identifying at least one stall in the instruction processing pipeline; and filling the stall with an instruction that encodes a secret message, the instruction not altering the functionality of the computer program. In a further embodiment of the present invention includes an article of manufacture for use in a computer system tangibly embodying computer instructions executable by the computer system to perform process steps for transferring information from a first location to a second location the process steps comprising: encoding the information; locating stalls in executable code, the executable code being configured to perform a predetermined function when executed on a pipeline processor; inserting the encoded information into a plurality of instructions; inserting the instructions into the executable code at the stalls, there being no net effect of all of the inserted instructions on the predetermined function of the executable code; transferring the executable code to the second location; identifying the location of the stalls in the transferred executable code; extracting the encoded information from the instructions located at the stalls; and decoding the encoding information to generate the information at the second location. An additional embodiment of the present invention comprises a system for embedding a digital signature in executable code comprising: stall identifying unit for identifying the location of stalls within the executable code; and instruction insertion unit for inserting an instruction in a first of the locations, the instruction containing at least a first portion of a digital signature. Various advantages and features of novelty, which characterize the present invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed hereto and form a part hereof. However, for a better understanding of the invention and its advantages, reference should be made to the accompanying descriptive matter together with the corresponding drawings which form a further part hereof, in which there is described and illustrated specific examples in accordance with the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is described in conjunction with the appended drawings, where like reference numbers denote the same element throughout the set of drawings: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a typical computer system wherein the present invention may be practiced; FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a system for embedding a message in executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 shows a flow chart of a method of embedding a message in executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a system for extracting the message embedded in the system shown in FIG. 2 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 5 shows a flow chart of a method of extracting a message from executable code in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention overcomes the problems associated with the prior art by teaching a system, computer program product, and method for hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize, however, that the teachings contained herein may be applied to other embodiments and that the present invention may be practiced apart from these specific details. Accordingly, the present invention should not be limited to the embodiments shown, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features described and claimed herein. The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the present invention and is provided in the context of a patent application and its requirements. The various elements and embodiments of invention can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention may be implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, the invention can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-usable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk-read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. Input/output or I/O devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modem and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a computer system 100, in which teachings of the present invention may be embodied. The computer system 100 comprises one or more central processing units (CPUs) 102, 103, and 104. The CPUs 102-104 suitably operate together in concert with memory 110 in order to execute a variety of tasks. In accordance with techniques known in the art, numerous other components may be utilized with computer system 100, such a input/output devices comprising keyboards, displays, direct access storage devices (DASDs), printers, tapes, etc. (not shown). Although the present invention is described in a particular hardware embodiment, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize and appreciate that this is meant to be illustrative and not restrictive of the present invention. Those of ordinary skill in the art will further appreciate that a wide range of computers and computing system configurations can be used to support the methods of the present invention, including, for example, configurations encompassing multiple systems, the internet, and distributed networks. Accordingly, the teachings contained herein should be viewed as highly “scalable”, meaning that they are adaptable to implementation on one, or several thousand, computer systems. The present invention provides a system and method of hiding information in an instruction processing pipeline. In particular, the present invention hides information in arbitrary program binaries. This is done by identifying stalls in the instruction processing pipeline. Instead of filling these stalls with no operation (nop) instructions the stalls are filled with instructions which will not adversely alter the functionality of the program, but which encode a hidden message. The present invention can be used for secret communication or for watermarking/fingerprinting. It can also be used for encoding a digital signature of the executable code. The present invention, in one embodiment, is a code steganographic technique that takes a message and an executable as input, and outputs a semantically equivalent executable which contains the secret message. To accomplish this, the present invention may analyze how the executable's instruction sequence would be processed in the instruction processing pipeline. The present invention takes advantage of the manner in which the executable's instruction sequence is processed. Due to data dependencies between instructions it is not always possible to maintain a completely full instruction pipeline. These dependencies result in instruction stalls, often referred to as bubbles in the pipeline. Until the dependency can be resolved, the processing of a new instruction is stalled for x time units. The stall is generally accomplished by inserting x nops in the instruction sequence. In accordance with the present invention, message encoding occurs by replacing those nop instructions with instructions that will not adversely alter the functionality of the program. Each instruction substitution may then represent a single bit, or some piece, of the secret message. In one embodiment the present invention may be employed on Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages (MIPS) Executable and Linking Format (ELF) executables. However, the principles of the present invention may be applicable to any pipeline architecture. The MIPS architecture is a useful example due to the relative simplicity of the instruction pipeline processing and the fixed length instruction set, which makes binary rewriting easier. The embedding process itself is aided by the analysis that is normally performed during compilation. That is, when a program is compiled instruction scheduling analysis is performed, which identifies data dependencies. Depending on the specific level of optimization, when a dependency is found different actions take place. For an application compiled with optimization disabled, identification of a dependency results in the insertion of one or more nops in the instruction sequence. When optimization is enabled the compiler tries to reorder the instructions. Then if reordering fails the fall back is nop insertion. As a result, the embedding process of the present invention may not require data dependency analysis, although it is possible to employ data dependency analysis as part of the embedding process. With nops already inserted as part of the conventional data dependence, in accordance with one embodiment of the invention, the instruction sequence may be scanned for nop instructions. When a nop is found it may be replaced with an instruction corresponding to the current message bit. The inserted instruction may be selected from an instruction codebook which may be constructed and shared with the intended message recipient prior to beginning the secret communication. Alternatively, the method for constructing the instruction codebook may be shared with the recipient prior to the secret communication. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a message embedding system 200 for embedding information into an instruction processing pipeline in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Executable code 202 is received by a message embedder 204. The message embedder 204 uses a stall locater module 206 for finding all the stalls in the code. In cases where dependency analysis has been done, the stall locator simply needs to locate the nops. In situations where the dependency analysis has not been done, the stall locator may do this analysis first before locating the stalls. A secret message 208 is received by a message encoder 210, which converts the message into a form that is suitable for insertion into the executable code 202. For example, the message may be in human readable form, and the message encoder 210 may converts it into an encoded digital representation. In some embodiments, this encoded message may be encrypted using conventional encryption techniques. The encoded message is then received by the message embedder 204 where an insertion module 212 inserts the encoded message into the executable code in the locations where the nops were located. In particular, the nops are removed and an instruction containing the encoded message is inserted in its place. Generally, it will take several nops to represent the entire encoded message, so the insertion module 212 will separate the encoded message into sections that will be inserted into multiple nop locations. The result will be a version of the executable code 214 that performs the same as the original executable code 202, but now contains the hidden message. 208. In should be noted that the insertion module 212 will insert instructions, which include parts of the encoded message, which will take the place of the nop instructions. The inserted instructions will be constructed so that they will have the same effect as a nop; that is, they will occupy one execution cycle without performing any operation. Alternatively, an inserted encoded message may comprise an instruction that actually does perform some operation, but a subsequent instruction will undo that operation so there will be no net effect. This approach may be preferred in some instances because it may make it more difficult for an unauthorized person to detect the locations of the instructions containing the encoded message. FIG. 3 shows a flow chart of a process 300 for embedding a message in executable code in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. In step 302 the secret encoded message and the executable code are received, for example, by the message embedder 204. In step 304 the first and subsequent instructions are selected one at a time. Step 306 determines if a stall exists at this instruction. As discussed above, where dependency analysis has already been performed, this step may simply comprise determining if the selected instruction is a nop instruction. If it is not, the process returns to step 304 and the next instruction is selected. If step 306 determines that the instruction is a stall, the process moves to step 308, which looks at the code book and at the message to determine which instruction to put in that location in the place of the nop. In step 310 the proper instruction message containing the correct portion of the secret message is inserted into the executable code. Step 312 then determines if the entire message has been embedded. If not, the process returns to step 304 and the next instruction is selected. If the entire message has been embedded then step 314 outputs the semantically equivalent, executable code containing the encoded message. In many steganographic techniques it is often common to assume what is called a passive warden. This means that any person serving as an intermediary in the message exchange will read the message and possibly prevent it from being exchanged, but will not attempt to modify it. Because of this assumption, we can use a static embedding technique (one that only uses information statically available). Therefore, one possible method for selecting the nops is simply to replace them in the order that they appear in the executable. However, in some applications, for example, where the present invention is used for watermarking purposes code modification attacks are a concern. Hence, in such applications a dynamic embedding technique may be preferred. One dynamic embedding technique that may be employed is to replace those nop instructions which reside on a particular execution path through the program instead of in the order that they appear in the executable. In this case, the program would be executed using a particular input sequence prior to embedding the secret message. As the program executes, the path through the program is recorded. Then, instead of selecting instruction as they appear in the static executable, we select instructions along the identified path through the program. To extract the watermark, the receiver will use the same input sequence to identify the path through the program. Then the message will be extracted from the instructions along that path. Since the embedded instructions are now linked to program execution it is more difficult to rearrange them. One of the keys to dynamic watermarking is that the input sequence used should remain secret; it basically serves the same purpose as a secret key in cryptography. Only the sender and the receiver should know the secret input sequence. FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a message extraction system 400 in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The executable code 402 with the secret encoded message embedded therein is received by a message extractor 402. Executable code 402 may comprise the executable code 214 with the embedded message shown in FIG. 2. Message locator module 406 will determine the location of the instructions containing the secret message. For example, message locator module 406 may do this by using information from a previously provided code book (not shown). The codebook may contain a list of all instructions used to encode part of the secret message and the value the instruction represents. For example, it could be comprised of (1) add eax, 0 represents 0 and (2) mul eax, 1 represents 1. Then each time the receiver saw one of these instructions in the executable he would check to see if it represented a stall, if so then he found a bit of the message. Without the codebook the receiver would not know which instructions could be part of the code or what value the instruction represented. Extraction module 408 will next extract the message elements contained in each instruction found by the message locator module and assemble them into an encoded message. A message decoder 410 will then decode the message and generate the original message 412, which may be, in machine-readable or human-readable form. The message decoder 410 may use a conventional decryption technique that corresponds to the encryption technique used by the encoder 210 shown in FIG. 2. The executable code 414 has not been functionally altered by the message extraction system 400, so it may continue to be used for its original purpose, or may be used again to encode another secret message in accordance with the above-described techniques. It may be noted that with information hiding techniques, it is harder to get the information out then it is to put it in. To extract the message the message locator 406 may simply scan the message looking for instructions which are known to represent bits of the message. This knowledge may come from the previously provided code book. However, it is possible that this technique could result in extraneous bits. To provide a more accurate message recovery, some embodiments of the invention may perform some data dependency analysis. That is, the message locator 406 may check to see if the removal of an identified instruction would result in a pipeline stall. If so, then the message extraction system 400 will decode the instruction to its corresponding bit, otherwise it will ignore the instruction. An important parameter associated with code steganography techniques relates to the potential data rate. The resulting data rate achieved by the present invention will be determined by the number of stalls in the pipeline. Hence, it will be useful to analyze the executable code to determine the number of stalls available to receive parts of the secret message. In some cases this may be done by counting the number of nops and using this information to calculate a potential data rate. FIG. 5 shows a flow chart of a process 500 for extracting a message in executable code in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. In step 502 the executable code containing the embedded secret encoded message is received, for example, by the message extractor 404. In step 504 the first and subsequent instructions are selected one at a time. Step 506 determines if the selected instruction is an instruction that represents bits of the secret message. This may be done for example, by determining if the instruction corresponds to information given in the code book. If it is not, the process returns to step 504 and the next instruction is selected. If step 506 determines that the instruction represents bits of the secret message, the process may optionally moves to step 508, which may perform data dependency analysis. For example this step may involve a check to determine if the removal of an identified instruction would result in a pipeline stall. If removal would result in pipeline stall there is a greater degree of certainty that the instruction contains parts of the secret message. In some embodiments, step 508 may be skipped; however, there is a greater chance of extraneous bits being included with the secret message. In step 510 the instruction is added to the secret message. Step 512 then determines if the last instruction has been analyzed. If not, the process returns to step 504 and the next instruction is selected. Once all the instructions have been processed then step 514 decodes the message using information from the code book. The decided message is then output for reading in step 516. In addition to using the present invention for secret communication or for watermarking/fingerprinting, the present invention can also be used for encoding a digital signature of executable code. This can be done by computing the signature with the nop instruction in place and encoding the signature in the executable. One way to verify the signature is to extract the signature from the code, replace the message contributing instructions with nop instructions, compute the signature for the executable, and verify. For fixed length instruction sets this has the advantage of digital signature protection without an increase in executable size. In accordance with the present invention, we have disclosed systems and methods for encoding information in an instruction processing pipeline. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the teachings contained herein can be implemented in many applications in addition to those discussed above where there is a need for secret communication, watermarking, fingerprinting and digital signatures. References in the claims to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the above-described exemplary embodiment that are currently known or later come to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. No clam element herein is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. section 112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for” or “step for.” While the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, it will be understood that modifications and adaptations to the embodiments shown may occur to one of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the following claims. Thus, the scope of this invention is to be construed according to the appended claims and not limited by the specific details disclosed in the exemplary embodiments.
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G
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21
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00
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11841611
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US20090055583A1-20090226
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STORING REDUNDANT SEGMENTS AND PARITY INFORMATION FOR SEGMENTED LOGICAL VOLUMES
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ACCEPTED
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20090212
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20090226
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[]
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G06F1216
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["G06F1216", "G06F1200", "G06F1300"]
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7877544
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20070820
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20110125
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711
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114000
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68066.0
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DAVIDSON
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CHAD
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kishi", "inventor_name_first": "Gregory Tad", "inventor_city": "Oro Valley", "inventor_state": "AZ", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data.
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1. A method, comprising: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 6. A system, comprising: a memory; and a processor coupled to the memory, wherein the processor performs operations, the operations comprising: (i) maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; (ii) maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; (iii) receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and (iv) using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 7. The system of claim 6, the operations further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 8. The system of claim 7, the operations further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 9. The system of claim 6, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 10. The system of claim 6, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 11. An article of manufacture including code, wherein the code when executed by a machine causes operations to be performed, the operations comprising: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 12. The article of manufacture of claim 11, the operations further comprising: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 13. The article of manufacture of claim 12, the operations further comprising: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 14. The article of manufacture of claim 11, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 15. The article of manufacture of claim 11, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. 16. A method for deploying computing infrastructure, comprising integrating computer-readable code into a first computational device, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is capable of performing: maintaining, by a storage manager application implemented in the first computational device a virtual logical volume having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application; maintaining at least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage; receiving a request for data, at the first computational device, from a second computational device; and using at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy to respond to the received request for data. 17. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is further capable of performing: maintaining parity information in association with the plurality of segments; using the parity information, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. 18. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 17, wherein the code in combination with the first computational device is further capable of performing: storing the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. 19. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. 20. The method for deploying computing infrastructure of claim 16, wherein the first computational device is a virtual tape server; wherein the second computational device is a host; wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device; wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device; and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field The disclosure relates to a method, system, and article of manufacture for storing redundant segments and parity information for segmented logical volumes. 2. Background In certain virtual tape storage systems, hard disk drive storage may be used to emulate tape drives and tape cartridges. For instance, host systems may perform input/output (I/O) operations with respect to a tape library by performing I/O operations with respect to a set of hard disk drives that emulate the tape library. In certain virtual tape storage systems at least one virtual tape server (VTS) is coupled to a tape library comprising numerous tape drives and tape cartridges. The VTS is also coupled to a direct access storage device (DASD), comprised of numerous interconnected hard disk drives. The DASD functions as a cache to volumes in the tape library. In VTS operations, the VTS processes the host's requests to access a volume in the tape library and returns data for such requests, if possible, from the cache. If the volume is not in the cache, then the VTS recalls the volume from the tape library to the cache, i.e., the VTS transfers data from the tape library to the cache. The VTS can respond to host requests for volumes that are present in the cache substantially faster than requests for volumes that have to be recalled from the tape library to the cache. However, since the capacity of the cache is relatively small when compared to the capacity of the tape library, not all volumes can be kept in the cache. Hence, the VTS may migrate volumes from the cache to the tape library, i.e., the VTS may transfer data from the cache to the tape cartridges in the tape library.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS <EOH>Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in association with the plurality of segments. The parity information is used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. In yet further embodiments, the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments is stored in a separate segment. In additional embodiments, recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. In yet additional embodiments, the first computational device is a virtual tape server and the second computational device is a host, wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device, wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device, and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device.
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BACKGROUND 1. Field The disclosure relates to a method, system, and article of manufacture for storing redundant segments and parity information for segmented logical volumes. 2. Background In certain virtual tape storage systems, hard disk drive storage may be used to emulate tape drives and tape cartridges. For instance, host systems may perform input/output (I/O) operations with respect to a tape library by performing I/O operations with respect to a set of hard disk drives that emulate the tape library. In certain virtual tape storage systems at least one virtual tape server (VTS) is coupled to a tape library comprising numerous tape drives and tape cartridges. The VTS is also coupled to a direct access storage device (DASD), comprised of numerous interconnected hard disk drives. The DASD functions as a cache to volumes in the tape library. In VTS operations, the VTS processes the host's requests to access a volume in the tape library and returns data for such requests, if possible, from the cache. If the volume is not in the cache, then the VTS recalls the volume from the tape library to the cache, i.e., the VTS transfers data from the tape library to the cache. The VTS can respond to host requests for volumes that are present in the cache substantially faster than requests for volumes that have to be recalled from the tape library to the cache. However, since the capacity of the cache is relatively small when compared to the capacity of the tape library, not all volumes can be kept in the cache. Hence, the VTS may migrate volumes from the cache to the tape library, i.e., the VTS may transfer data from the cache to the tape cartridges in the tape library. SUMMARY OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Provided are a method, system, and article of manufacture, wherein a storage manager application implemented in a first computational device maintains a virtual logical volume that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application. At least one additional copy of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium of a secondary storage. A request for data is received, at the first computational device, from a second computational device. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in association with the plurality of segments. The parity information is used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy, to respond to the request for data. In yet further embodiments, the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments is stored in a separate segment. In additional embodiments, recall efficiency for the data is increased by maintaining the at least one additional copy of the at least one of the plurality of segments in the at least one linear storage medium of the secondary storage. In yet additional embodiments, the first computational device is a virtual tape server and the second computational device is a host, wherein a cache storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a disk device, wherein a secondary storage coupled to the virtual tape server is implemented in a tape device, and wherein the linear storage medium is a tape in the tape device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring now to the drawings in which like reference numbers represent corresponding parts throughout: FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a computing environment, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of representations of a virtual logical volume in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram that shows a first exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram that shows a second exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram that shows a third exemplary mapping of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to exemplary tapes of a secondary storage, in accordance with certain embodiments; FIG. 6 illustrates operations implemented in the computing environment, in accordance with certain embodiments; and FIG. 7 illustrates a block diagram of a computer architecture in which certain described aspects of the embodiments are implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof and which illustrate several embodiments. It is understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural and operational changes may be made. Handling Logical Volumes a Single Entity In certain VTS systems, logical volumes are handled as a single entity. However, when the size of physical volumes corresponding to logical volumes becomes very large, such as in Linear Tape Open (LTO) drives, all data included in logical volumes may not be accommodated at the same time in the cache storage. Additionally, transfer operations of large logical volumes from the secondary storage to the cache storage may take a significantly greater amount of time in comparison to small logical volumes. The recall times for data may become excessively large in situations where logical volumes are handled as a single entity for transfer to the cache storage from the secondary storage in a VTS environment. Exemplary Embodiments Certain embodiments provide for the segmentation of virtual logical volumes in a VTS environment comprising a VTS that is coupled to a cache storage and a secondary storage, wherein the segmented virtual logical volumes are used to respond to data requests from a host. In certain embodiments the segments corresponding to the virtual logical volume are distributed among a plurality of tapes, wherein redundant segments are also stored in at least one or more of the plurality of tapes for recall efficiency, and wherein parity segments may also be stored in at least one or more of the plurality of tapes for further data redundancy. If a recall of a segmented virtual logical volume fails because of bad data on a certain tape, then the redundant and/or parity segments stored in one or more other tapes may be used for data recovery. It should be noted that by distributing segments corresponding to the virtual logical volume in a plurality of tapes, by storing additional copies of segments, and by storing parity data, both recall efficiency and data redundancy may be achieved. In certain embodiments fully redundant write of data segments onto tape is not performed. In such embodiments, parity provides the data protection redundancy, whereas the redundant segments provide recall efficiency by permitting fewer tapes to be mounted for responding to a request for data. FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a computing environment 100, in accordance with certain embodiments. The computing environment 100 includes a VTS 102. Additional VTSs can be deployed, but for purposes of illustration, a single VTS 102 is shown. In certain exemplary embodiments the VTS 102 may comprise a server computational device and may include any operating system known in the art. However, in alternative embodiments the VTS 102 may comprise any suitable computational device, such as a personal computer, a workstation, mainframe, a hand held computer, a palm top computer, a telephony device, network appliance, etc. The VTS 102 may be referred to as a first computational device 102. The computing environment 100 also includes a host 104 that is coupled to the VTS 102. Additional hosts may be deployed, but for purposes of illustration, a single host 104 is shown. The host 104 may be may coupled to the VTS 102 through a host data interface channel or any other direct connection or switching mechanism, known in the art (e.g., fibre channel, Storage Area Network (SAN) interconnections, etc.). The host 104 may be any suitable computational device known in the art, such as a personal computer, a workstation, a server, a mainframe, a hand held computer, a palm top computer, a telephony device, network appliance, etc. The VTS 102 includes at least one application, such as a storage manager application 106 that manages storage. The storage manager application 106 may be implemented either as a standalone application or as a part of one or more other applications. The storage manager application 106 manages a cache storage 108, such as a disk based storage system, and a secondary storage 110 comprising a plurality of linear storage media 112a, 112b, . . . , 112n, wherein in certain embodiments the linear storage media may comprise tapes. The cache storage 108 and the secondary storage 110 are coupled to the VTS 102 via a direct connection or via a network connection. The cache storage 108 improves performance by allowing host I/O requests from the hosts 104 to the secondary storage 110 to be serviced from the faster access cache storage 108 as opposed to the slower access secondary storage 110. The disks in the cache storage 108 may be arranged as a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD), Just a Bunch of Disks (JBOD), Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID), etc. The storage manager application 106 may perform or manage the data movement operations between the host 104, the cache storage 108, and the secondary storage 110. The storage manager application 106 generates virtual logical volumes 114, wherein virtual logical volumes 114 are logical representations of data stored in cache storage 108 and the secondary storage 110. The storage manager application 106 maps the data stored in the cache storage 108 and secondary storage 110 to a plurality of virtual logical volumes 114. The hosts 104 perform I/O operations by using the virtual logical volumes 114 via the VTS 102. The storage manager application 106 maps the virtual logical volumes 114 to the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n of the secondary storage 110. In certain embodiments, the storage manager application 106 maps segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume to corresponding segments 116a, 116b, . . . 116n in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n, and also creates additional segments 118a, 118b, . . . 118n and parity segments 120a,120b, . . . 120n in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n. An additional segment stored on a linear storage medium may comprise a copy of a segment stored on another linear storage medium. For example, an additional segment 118a stored on linear storage medium 112a may in certain embodiments comprise a copy of one of the segments 116b stored in the linear storage medium 112b. A parity segment stores the parity corresponding to a plurality of segments. For example, in certain embodiments the parity segment 120a may store the parity data generated from segment 116b and 116n. While FIG. 1 shows additional segments and parity segments on each of the linear storage media 112a, 112b, 112n, in alternative embodiments one or more of the linear storage media may lack additional segments or parity segments. In certain embodiments the storage manager application 106 implemented in the first computational device 102 maintains a virtual logical volume 114 that has a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application 106. At least one additional copy 118a of at least one of the plurality of segments is maintained in at least one linear storage medium 112a of a secondary storage 110. A request for data is received, at the first computational device 102, from a second computational device 104. At least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 11 8a are used to respond to the received request for data. In further embodiments, parity information is maintained in parity segments associated with the plurality of segments in the secondary storage 110. The parity information stored in a parity segment, such as parity segment 120b, may be used, in addition to the at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 118a, to respond to the request for data. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary representation of a virtual logical volume in accordance with certain embodiments that may be implemented in the computing environment 100. One representation 200 of the virtual logical volume 114 of FIG. 1 may comprise a plurality of segments 202a, 202b, 202c, . . . 202n, wherein a segment is a unit of data storage. A greater or a fewer number of segments than shown in FIG. 2 may be implemented in certain embodiments. In certain embodiments, the segments 202a, 202b, 202c, . . . , 202n of the virtual logical volumes 114 are stored in the linear storage media 112a . . . 112n of the secondary storage 110, along with the additional segments 118a . . . 118n and the parity segments 120a . . . 120n. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram that shows a first exemplary mapping 300 of the segments of an exemplary virtual logical volume 302 to exemplary tapes of an exemplary secondary storage 304, in accordance with certain embodiments. The first exemplary mapping 300 is shown for illustrative purposes only and other exemplary mappings including those that are described elsewhere in this disclosure may be used in alternative embodiments. In FIG. 3, the exemplary virtual logical volume 302 is comprised of three segments referred to as segment A 306, segment B 308, and segment C 310. In an exemplary embodiment, the three segments 306, 308, 310 are stored by the storage manager application 106 in an exemplary first tape 312, an exemplary second tape 314 and an exemplary third tape 316 as shown. The storage manager application 106 stores in the exemplary first tape 312 the segment A 306, a copy 318 of segment B 308, and a parity segment 320 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. The storage manager application 106 further stores in the exemplary second tape 314 the segment B 308, a copy 322 of segment C 310, and a parity segment 324 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. The storage manager application 106 also stores in the exemplary third tape 316 the segment C 310, a copy 326 of segment A 306, and a parity segment 328 that may comprise parity data computed from some or all of the plurality of segments 306, 308, 310. In certain embodiments one or more the exemplary tapes 312, 314, 316 may be mounted for recalling data stored in the segments 306, 308, 310 of the virtual logical volume 302. By storing additional copies 318, 322, 326 recall efficiency is increased in comparison to embodiments where additional copies are not stored in the tapes. For example, in FIG. 3, mounting any two of the three tapes 312, 314, 316 is adequate for recalling all segments 306, 308, 310 of the virtual logical volume 302 even when no parity segments are stored. Also, all segments 306, 308, 310 may be recalled by mounting the exemplary first tape 312 and the exemplary third tape 316 even when no parity segments are stored. In certain embodiments where a tape is defective, the parity segments stored in the tapes that are not defective may be used to recover data. In FIG. 2, recall efficiency of the virtual logical volume 302 is increased by storing the copies 318, 322, 324. As a result of storing the copies 318, 322, 324, two tapes (instead of three) are adequate to recall all the segments 306, 308, 310. Additionally, even if a tape is defective, the data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 302 can be recalled from the other two tapes. The parity data provides further data protection in case of loss of a tape. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram that shows a second exemplary mapping 400 of the segments “ABCDEF” 402a of an exemplary virtual logical volume 402 to exemplary tapes 404a, 404b, 404c, 404d of an exemplary secondary storage 404, in accordance with certain embodiments. In the second exemplary mapping 400, duplicative segments (i.e. copies of segments) are not present in the tapes. The storage manager application 106 stores segments and parity on the tapes 404a, 404b, 404c, 404d as follows: (1) First Tape (reference numeral 404a) stores segment A (reference numeral 406) and segment D (reference numeral 408); (2) Second tape (reference numeral 404b) stores segment B (reference numeral 410) and segment E (reference numeral 412); (3) Third tape (reference numeral 404c) stores segment C (reference numeral 414) and segment F (reference numeral 416); and (4) Fourth tape (reference numeral 404d) stores parity segment P(ABC) (reference numeral 418) and parity segment P(DEF) (reference numeral 420), wherein P(ABC) (reference numeral 418) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments A, B,C, and P(DEF) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments D, E, F. The storage manager application 106 may need to mount the first tape 404a, second tape 404b, and third tape 404c to recall data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 404. The fourth tape 404d may be mounted if one of the first, second, and third tape 404a, 404b, 404c is defective. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram that shows a third exemplary mapping 500 of the segments “ABCDEF” 502a of an exemplary virtual logical volume 502 to exemplary tapes 504a, 504b, 504c, 504d of an exemplary secondary storage 504, in accordance with certain embodiments. In the second exemplary mapping 500, duplicative segments (i.e. copies of segments) are present in the tapes. The storage manager application 106 stores segments and parity information on the tapes 504a, 504b, 504c, 504d as follows: (1) First Tape (reference numeral 504a) stores segment A (reference numeral 506), segment D (reference numeral 508), and segment C (reference numeral 510); (2) Second tape (reference numeral 504b) stores segment B (reference numeral 512), segment E (reference numeral 514), and segment F (reference numeral 516); (3) Third tape (reference numeral 504c) stores segment C (reference numeral 518) and segment F (reference numeral 520); and (4) Fourth tape (reference numeral 504d) stores parity segment P(ABC) (reference numeral 522) and parity segment P(DEF) (reference numeral 524), wherein P(ABC) (reference numeral 522) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments A, B, C, and P(DEF) (reference numeral 524) is a parity segment that stores the parity data corresponding to segments D, E, F. In FIG. 5, the storage manager application 106 may need to mount the first tape 504a and the second tape 504b to recall data corresponding to the virtual logical volume 404. One or more of the other tapes 504c, 504d may have to be mounted if either the first tape 504a or the second tape 504b is defective. In the embodiment described in FIG. 5, by storing the segments of the virtual logical volume redundantly, e.g., by storing segment C is both the first tape 504a and the third tape 504c, recall efficiency is increased in comparison to the embodiment described in FIG. 4 where the segments of the virtual logical volume are not stored redundantly. FIG. 6 illustrates operations implemented in the computing environment 100, in accordance with certain embodiments. In certain embodiments, the operations may be performed by the storage manager application 106 implemented in the first computational device 102. Control starts at block 600, where the storage manager application 106, implemented in the first computational device 102 maintains a virtual logical volume 114 having a plurality of segments created by the storage manager application 106. The storage manager application 106 maintains (at block 602) at least one additional copy 118a of at least one of the plurality of segments in at least one linear storage medium 112a of a secondary storage 110. In certain embodiments, the storage manager application 106 also maintains (at block 604) parity information in association with the plurality of segments, and in certain additional embodiments the storage manager application 106 stores the parity information of a group of segments of the plurality of segments in a separate segment. Control proceeds to block 606, where the storage manager application 106 receives a request for data corresponding to a virtual logical volume 114, at the first computational device 102. The request may have arrived at the first computational device 102 from a second computational device 104. The storage manager application 106 uses (at block 608) at least one of the plurality of segments and the at least one additional copy 11 8a and optionally the parity information to respond to the received request for data. Therefore, FIG. 6 illustrates certain embodiments wherein segments corresponding to a virtual logical volume are redundantly distributed among a plurality of linear storage media. Parity information corresponding to the segments may also be stored on one or more of linear storage media. The redundantly distributed segments provide recall efficiency because fewer linear storage media may have to be mounted to recall data. The distribution of the segments among a plurality of linear storage media and the storage of the parity information may also provide protection against loss of data on one or more linear storage media. In certain embodiments the distribution of segments may provide partial redundancy whereas in other embodiments the distribution of segments may provide complete redundancy. The parity information provides additional redundancy protection beyond that provided by the redundant distribution of segments in the plurality of linear storage media. Additional Embodiment Details The described techniques may be implemented as a method, apparatus or article of manufacture involving software, firmware, micro-code, hardware and/or any combination thereof. The term “article of manufacture” as used herein refers to code or logic implemented in a medium, where such medium may comprise hardware logic [e.g., an integrated circuit chip, Programmable Gate Array (PGA), Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), etc.] or a computer readable storage medium, such as magnetic storage medium (e.g., hard disk drives, floppy disks, tape, etc.), optical storage (CD-ROMs, optical disks, etc.), volatile and non-volatile memory devices [e.g., Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM), Random Access Memory (RAM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), Static Random Access Memory (SRAM), flash, firmware, programmable logic, etc.]. Code in the computer readable storage medium is accessed and executed by a processor. The medium in which the code or logic is encoded may also comprise transmission signals propagating through space or a transmission media, such as an optical fiber, copper wire, etc. The transmission signal in which the code or logic is encoded may further comprise a wireless signal, satellite transmission, radio waves, infrared signals, Bluetooth, etc. The transmission signal in which the code or logic is encoded is capable of being transmitted by a transmitting station and received by a receiving station, where the code or logic encoded in the transmission signal may be decoded and stored in hardware or a computer readable medium at the receiving and transmitting stations or devices. Additionally, the “article of manufacture” may comprise a combination of hardware and software components in which the code is embodied, processed, and executed. Of course, those skilled in the art will recognize that many modifications may be made without departing from the scope of embodiments, and that the article of manufacture may comprise any information bearing medium. For example, the article of manufacture comprises a storage medium having stored therein instructions that when executed by a machine results in operations being performed. Certain embodiments can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, certain embodiments can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer usable or computer readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk - read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk—read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. The terms “certain embodiments”, “an embodiment”, “embodiment”, “embodiments”, “the embodiment”, “the embodiments”, “one or more embodiments”, “some embodiments”, and “one embodiment” mean one or more (but not all) embodiments unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms “including”, “comprising”, “having” and variations thereof mean “including but not limited to”, unless expressly specified otherwise. The enumerated listing of items does not imply that any or all of the items are mutually exclusive, unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms “a”, “an” and “the” mean “one or more”, unless expressly specified otherwise. [0047] Devices that are in communication with each other need not be in continuous communication with each other, unless expressly specified otherwise. In addition, devices that are in communication with each other may communicate directly or indirectly through one or more intermediaries. Additionally, a description of an embodiment with several components in communication with each other does not imply that all such components are required. On the contrary a variety of optional components are described to illustrate the wide variety of possible embodiments. Further, although process steps, method steps, algorithms or the like may be described in a sequential order, such processes, methods and algorithms may be configured to work in alternate orders. In other words, any sequence or order of steps that may be described does not necessarily indicate a requirement that the steps be performed in that order. The steps of processes described herein may be performed in any order practical. Further, some steps may be performed simultaneously, in parallel, or concurrently. When a single device or article is described herein, it will be apparent that more than one device/article (whether or not they cooperate) may be used in place of a single device/article. Similarly, where more than one device or article is described herein (whether or not they cooperate), it will be apparent that a single device/article may be used in place of the more than one device or article. The functionality and/or the features of a device may be alternatively embodied by one or more other devices which are not explicitly described as having such functionality/features. Thus, other embodiments need not include the device itself. FIG. 7 illustrates the architecture of computing system 700, wherein in certain embodiments the VTS 102 and the hosts 104 of the computing environments 100 of FIG. 1 may be implemented in accordance with the architecture of the computing system 700. The computing system 700 may also be referred to as a system, and may include a circuitry 702 that may in certain embodiments include a processor 704. The system 700 may also include a memory 706 (e.g., a volatile memory device), and storage 708. The storage 708 may include a non-volatile memory device (e.g., EEPROM, ROM, PROM, RAM, DRAM, SRAM, flash, firmware, programmable logic, etc.), magnetic disk drive, optical disk drive, tape drive, etc. The storage 708 may comprise an internal storage device, an attached storage device and/or a network accessible storage device. The system 700 may include a program logic 710 including code 712 that may be loaded into the memory 706 and executed by the processor 704 or circuitry 702. In certain embodiments, the program logic 710 including code 712 may be stored in the storage 708. In certain other embodiments, the program logic 710 may be implemented in the circuitry 702. Therefore, while FIG. 7 shows the program logic 710 separately from the other elements, the program logic 710 may be implemented in the memory 706 and/or the circuitry 702. Certain embodiments may be directed to a method for deploying computing instruction by a person or automated processing integrating computer-readable code into a computing system, wherein the code in combination with the computing system is enabled to perform the operations of the described embodiments. At least certain of the operations illustrated in FIGS. 1-7 may be performed in parallel as well as sequentially. In alternative embodiments, certain of the operations may be performed in a different order, modified or removed. Furthermore, many of the software and hardware components have been described in separate modules for purposes of illustration. Such components may be integrated into a fewer number of components or divided into a larger number of components. Additionally, certain operations described as performed by a specific component may be performed by other components. The data structures and components shown or referred to in FIGS. 1-7 are described as having specific types of information. In alternative embodiments, the data structures and components may be structured differently and have fewer, more or different fields or different functions than those shown or referred to in the figures. Therefore, the foregoing description of the embodiments has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the embodiments to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching.
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G
| 60G06
| 161G06F
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12
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16
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10573043
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US20070173999A1-20070726
|
Controllers for heavy duty industrial vehicle
|
ACCEPTED
|
20070712
|
20070726
|
[]
|
G06F1900
|
["G06F1900"]
|
7885744
|
20070223
|
20110208
|
701
|
050000
|
67987.0
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BEAULIEU
|
YONEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Shinozaki", "inventor_name_first": "Akiko", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Suzuki", "inventor_name_first": "Hiroyuki", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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Hardware of each of controllers (11, 12, 13) for controlling a plurality of instruments to be controlled, which are provided in a reach stacker as a heavy duty industrial vehicle, for example, a vehicle body (3), a spreader (9), and a cabin (10), is rendered common. The configuration of driver software for performing basic control is also rendered common. Only the configuration of minimum required application software is constructed to be suitable for the instrument to be controlled. Because of these features, the software of the controllers (11, 12, 13) can be easily changed. Regardless of the instrument to be controlled, as a subject of control, the controllers can be easily used for any instruments to be controlled.
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1. Controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, which are a plurality of controllers provided in said heavy duty industrial vehicle equipped with a working machine for performing predetermined work, said plurality of controllers being adapted to control, independently of each other, a plurality of instruments to be controlled, including said working machine, said instruments being provided in said heavy duty industrial vehicle, and characterized in that a configuration of hardware of said plurality of controllers is entirely common. 2. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 1, characterized in that said plurality of controllers are interconnected by a network. 3. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 1, characterized in that software for controlling each of said instruments to be controlled is of a hierarchical structure, driver software at a lower level for directly controlling each of said instruments to be controlled is common, and only application software at an upper level utilizing said driver software is different according to a function of each of said instruments to be controlled. 4. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 3, characterized in that rewriting means is provided for making only said application software rewritable. 5. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 1, characterized in that limited operation means is provided for enabling an operation by other said controller so that at least said heavy duty industrial vehicle can be run, even if said controller for controlling said working machine fails or is not connected to said network. 6. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 2, characterized in that software for controlling each of said instruments to be controlled is of a hierarchical structure, driver software at a lower level for directly controlling each of said instruments to be controlled is common, and only application software at an upper level utilizing said driver software is different according to a function of each of said instruments to be controlled. 7. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 2, characterized in that limited operation means is provided for enabling an operation by other said controller so that at least said heavy duty industrial vehicle can be run, even if said controller for controlling said working machine fails or is not connected to said network. 8. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 3, characterized in that limited operation means is provided for enabling an operation by other said controller so that at least said heavy duty industrial vehicle can be run, even if said controller for controlling said working machine fails or is not connected to said network. 9. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 4, characterized in that limited operation means is provided for enabling an operation by other said controller so that at least said heavy duty industrial vehicle can be run, even if said controller for controlling said working machine fails or is not connected to said network.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>A heavy duty industrial vehicle not only has a vehicle moving by itself, but also has a working machine unique to the vehicle. Thus, this type of industrial vehicle is adapted to be capable of performing a predetermined working action with the use of the working machine. Some of such heavy duty industrial vehicles use one controller to control not only the moving action of the vehicle, but also the working action of the working machine, thus controlling the entire vehicle. Some other heavy duty industrial vehicles have separate controllers, such as a controller for the moving action of the vehicle, and a controller for the working action of the working machine, and connect these controllers by a network to control the entire vehicle. Patent Document 1: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-165422
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a view showing a configuration example in which controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention are used. FIG. 2 is a table showing a constitution example of input/output signals of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is a view showing an example of the logic configuration of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a procedure in the event of a failure in the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating another procedure in the event of a failure in the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to controllers which are used for heavy duty industrial vehicles, for example, a reach stacker as a cargo handling vehicle, and a motor grader as a road surface maintenance vehicle. BACKGROUND ART A heavy duty industrial vehicle not only has a vehicle moving by itself, but also has a working machine unique to the vehicle. Thus, this type of industrial vehicle is adapted to be capable of performing a predetermined working action with the use of the working machine. Some of such heavy duty industrial vehicles use one controller to control not only the moving action of the vehicle, but also the working action of the working machine, thus controlling the entire vehicle. Some other heavy duty industrial vehicles have separate controllers, such as a controller for the moving action of the vehicle, and a controller for the working action of the working machine, and connect these controllers by a network to control the entire vehicle. Patent Document 1: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-165422 DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION Problems to be Solved by the Invention With a configuration in which the entire vehicle is controlled by use of a single controller, control signals to a plurality of instruments to be controlled can be concentrated on the single controller. Thus, software can be constructed in a simple configuration, even when the instruments to be controlled are caused to cooperate. However, a malfunction in one controller would bring the actions of the entire vehicle to a halt. In the heavy duty industrial vehicle, moreover, wirings for control signals from the controller to the instruments to be controlled extend over long distances, and the number of the wirings is large, thus increasing the complexity of the steps for designing and assemblage. Moreover, the parts to be operated are many. Consequently, possibilities are high for malfunctions due to poor contact of the wiring when in use, a break in the wire, and so on. In recent years, use has been made of a method in which a dedicated controller is provided for each of the instruments to be controlled, and the respective controllers are connected by a network to control the actions of the entire vehicle. According to this method, however, the controller composed of dedicated hardware is used for each of the instruments to be controlled. Thus, software needs to be designed individually, and the design of the software is itself complicated. Furthermore, some of the capabilities of the controller, for example, the communication capability, may be rendered common among the controllers. However, the instrument to be controlled by one controller is limited to a particular instrument, or the position of installation of the controller is limited to a predetermined position, and only the particular instrument to be controlled, which is suitable for the particular position of installation, is controlled. Thus, commonality of hardware is insufficient. Besides, software itself needs to be constructed beforehand individually for each of the controllers, and maintainability at the time of failure remains unchanged from that of the controller having the dedicated hardware. That is, the conventional controller has not achieved complete commonality of hardware itself, and has required individual construction of software adapted for the instrument to be controlled as a subject of control. Hence, none of the conventional controllers have been easily divertible to use on any instruments to be controlled. The aforementioned heavy duty industrial vehicles, in particular, are used under harsh service conditions, and if a partial failure stops the action of the entire vehicle, work may be markedly impeded. Thus, it has been desired that in the event of a partial failure, minimum function could be performed so as not to impede work, and a repair operation could also be promptly carried out. The present invention has been accomplished in light of the above-mentioned problems. An object of the present invention is to provide controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, which have many input/output functions, which are highly versatile, and whose software is easy to change. Means for Solving the Problems Controllers for a heavy duly industrial vehicle according to claim 1 of the present invention, for solving the above problems, are a plurality of controllers which are provided in the heavy duty industrial vehicle equipped with a working machine for performing predetermined work; which control, independently of each other, a plurality of instruments to be controlled, including the working machine, the instruments being provided in the heavy duty industrial vehicle; and which are characterized in that the configuration of hardware of the plurality of controllers is entirely common. Concretely, not only the configuration of the hardware inside each of the controllers is rendered common, but also the positions of disposition, and the numbers, etc., of connectors serving as interfaces with input and output signals (for example, serial signals, analog signals, and digital signals) to and from external instruments to be controlled are rendered common. Depending on the instruments to be controlled, the types, capacities (e.g., voltage), and numbers of the input and output signals required are different. However, the maximum required types, capacities and numbers are provided in common. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 2, which solve the above problems, are the above controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, characterized in that the plurality of controllers are interconnected by a network. As the network, CAN (controller area network) bus, which is used mainly in automobiles, connects the controllers together. Particularly, high speed CANbus with several Mbps or more is desirable. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 3, which solve the above problems, are the above controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, characterized in that software for controlling each of the instruments to be controlled is of a hierarchical structure, driver software at a lower level for directly controlling each of the instruments to be controlled is common, and only application software at an upper level utilizing the driver software is different according to the function of each of the instruments to be controlled. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 4, which solve the above problems, are the above controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, characterized in that rewriting means is provided for making only the application software rewritable. The controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to claim 5, which solve the above problems, are the above controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle, characterized in that limited operation means is provided for enabling an operation by other controller so that at least the heavy duty industrial vehicle can be run, even if the controller for controlling the working machine fails or is not connected to the network. That is, limited operation means, called a degradation mode, is set, whereby even if one of the plurality of controllers fails or is not connected to the network, a limited operation can be performed, permitting the vehicle to run. The subject of the limited operation is not limited to a vehicle run. For example, in order to ensure safety, the action of the working machine may be limited to a minimum required one, which may be operated. Effects of the Invention According to the present invention, the hardware of each of the plural controllers for controlling the instruments to be controlled is rendered common. Thus, by changing only the software installed, the subject of control can be switched, and the controller with the changed software can be diverted to use on the selected instrument. As a result, the types of the parts used in the heavy duty industrial vehicle can be reduced. Moreover, the commonality of the hardware can achieve a unit price reduction due to the economies of mass production. According to the present invention, the plurality of controllers are interconnected by the network (CANbus). Thus, the control function can be distributed among the plural controllers, and the degree of freedom of the locations of arrangement can be improved. That is, the positions of installation of the controllers can be flexibly selected according to the design of the vehicle body of the heavy duty industrial vehicle. The distributed arrangement of the controllers can markedly decrease in-vehicle wirings for operational inputs and outputs for hydraulic selector valves and many signal connections, in comparison with conventional heavy duty industrial vehicles. Also, the effect of cutting down on the wiring cost and the assembly cost is obtained. There is also produced the effect of preventing troubles, such as a break in or poor contact of sensor signal wires of the working machine or the cabin having a slide mechanism. According to the present invention, commonality is achieved of hardware of each controller, and of the lower-level driver software for directly controlling the instruments to be controlled, in the software having the hierarchical structure. Thus, by changing only the upper-level application software utilizing the driver software, the controller with the thus changed application software can be used as a controller for controlling the different instrument to be controlled. Hence, in the event of a damage to one controller, only the application software is rewritten by use of rewriting means such as a maintenance tool. The controller used for other instrument to be controlled, if subjected to such rewriting, can be used as an alternative component for the controller which controls the desired instrument to be controlled. Thus, a step and time, which have been required for emergency saving, can be shortened. According to the present invention, even if one controller, for example, the controller for controlling the working machine, such as the spreader, fails or is not connected to the network, other controller enables vehicle body control and cabin operation of the heavy duty industrial vehicle, thereby permitting a limited operation such as a run operation (degradation mode). Thus, a run of the vehicle becomes possible even during detachment of the working machine at the time of transportation, assemblage, or maintenance. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view showing a configuration example in which controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention are used. FIG. 2 is a table showing a constitution example of input/output signals of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is a view showing an example of the logic configuration of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a procedure in the event of a failure in the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating another procedure in the event of a failure in the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE REFERENCE NUMERALS 1 front wheel, 2 rear wheel, 3 vehicle body, 4 stand, 5 boom cylinder, 6 boom, 7 arm, 8 lock pin, 9 spreader, 10 cabin BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention control a plurality of instruments to be controlled, which are provided in the heavy duty industrial vehicle. Hardware of each of these controllers is rendered common, the basic features of software are also rendered common, and only the minimum required features of the software are constructed to be suitable for the instruments to be controlled. Thus, the software of the controller can be easily changed. Regardless of the instrument to be controlled, as a subject of control, the controllers can be easily diverted to use on any instruments to be controlled. Even if a malfunction happens in other of the controllers, the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention enter a degradation mode by a predetermined procedure, thereby enabling only a limited action, for example, a running action, to be performed. Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 is a view showing a configuration example in which controllers for a heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention are used. In the present invention, the heady duty industrial vehicle is explained, with a reach stacker being taken as an example. However, the present invention is not limited to the reach stacker, but can be applied to other heavy duty industrial vehicles, such as a heavy duty fork lift and a motor grader. The reach stacker, if explained briefly, is a heavy duty, cargo-handling vehicle used for loading and unloading or movement of containers in a port, etc. The reach stacker is low in cost, corners easily, has no limitations on the distance over which it moves the container. The reach stacker can access not only the container placed at the front, but the container located at the back, and is thus a cargo handling vehicle very convenient in transshipping and moving containers. As shown in FIG. 1, the reach stacker has a vehicle body 3 mounted with two front wheels 1 and two rear wheels 2; a boom 6 disposed above the vehicle body 3 so as to be tiltable about a stand 4 by boom cylinders 5; an arm 7 provided within the boom 6 so as to be extensible and contractible, and extended and contracted by a telescopic cylinder (not shown) provided within the boom 6; and a spreader 9 provided at a front end portion of the arm 7, adapted to be capable of making an extending and contracting motion, a rotating motion, an inclining motion, and a paralleling motion, and holding a container by four lock pins 8. A cabin 10 is disposed on the upper surface of the vehicle body 3 and below the boom 6, at a position where visibility during work is satisfactory. An operator can perform a moving action for the reach stacker itself, or a holding action or an installing action for the container, with the use of an operating panel within the cabin 10. In the heavy duty industrial vehicle, the working machine is configured so as to be capable of performing a predetermined working procedure. In the reach stacker, for example, the spreader 9 serves as the working machine. As the controllers, the reach stacker has a controller 11 for controlling the spreader 9, a controller 13 for controlling the vehicle so as to move it, and a controller 12 for controlling an operation performed by the operator. These controllers control, independently of each other, the spreader 9, the vehicle body 3 and the cabin 10, respectively, which are instruments to be controlled. In addition, the reach stacker has a display and J/S (joystick) 14 for indicating information to the operator, and indicating operator guidance from the operator. These controllers are interconnected by a high speed CANbus network (hereinafter referred to simply as CAN) 15. Each controller exchanges necessary control information with one another in real time, and performs a control action for each instrument to be controlled. The controller 13, as a main controller, monitors the other controllers 11 and 12, and controls the entire vehicle in an integrated manner. That is, these three controllers, which are interconnected by the CAN 15, constitute a so-called distributed network having capabilities or functions distributed among them. The above controllers are each composed of CPU (processing circuit), a storage region (having ROM containing control software and data, and RAM serving as an arithmetic work area), and an I/F (interface) circuit which is a processing circuit for input and output signals. Since the plurality of controllers are constituted as the distributed network, the controllers can be arranged in proximity to the instruments to be controlled, as compared with the conventional controller which, singly, controls all the instruments to be controlled. Thus, the wirings between the controllers and the instruments to be controlled can be markedly reduced. Since control signals can be exchanged through a single cable for CAN, moreover, the structures between the instruments are simplified. Thus, the number of man-hours required for assembly can be markedly decreased, and the wirings themselves can be cut down on, so that the rate of failures due to a wire break, etc. can be reduced. Furthermore, a quick response at the time of failure becomes possible. In the reach stacker shown in FIG. 1, the controller 11 for controlling the spreader, the controller for the cabin I/O, and the controller 13 for vehicle body control have an exactly common hardware configuration, and use exactly common driver software for setting the actions of the hardware, and for directly actuating control instruments. However, application software for controlling, by use of the driver software, the instruments to be controlled is the only tool that is different among the different controllers. For example, the controller 11 for controlling the actions of the spreader has spreader control software as the application soft ware, the controller 12 for controlling operations from the operator has cabin I/O software as the application software, and the controller 13 for controlling the actions of the vehicle body has vehicle body control software as the application software. Details for these features will be offered later. In the above features, the controller 11, for controlling the actions of the spreader 9, sends control signals to the respective control instruments for the spreader via a working machine I/F 16 to drive motors, and acquires detection signals from sensors to detect the acting state of the spreader, for example, the positions of the lock pins, the inclination angle of the spreader, and so forth. Moreover, the controller 11 lights a warning lamp for indicating that the operation is in progress. The controller 11 also uses working machine electromagnetic control 17 to exercise action control over an electromagnetic valve, thereby controlling the actions of hydraulic cylinders for effecting an extending and contracting action and an inclining action of the spreader 9. The controller 12 acquires input signals from the cabin 10, such as an accelerator pedal and a brake pedal, via an operator I/F 18, and transmits control information to the controllers 11 and 13 via the CAN 15 to control the action of the vehicle 3 and the spreader 9. The controller 13 takes charge of the integrated control of the vehicle by vehicle integrated control 19, and also controls the vehicle body 3 with the use of vehicle body I/F 19. In addition, the controller 13 uses boom servo valve control 20 to exercise action control over the boom 6, uses T/M (transmission) electromagnetic valve control 21 to exercise action control over T/M, and uses engine control 22 to exercise action control over the engine, concretely, control of the oil pressure of the engine and control over a battery. The display and J/S 14 may be those in a configuration comparable to that of any of the above-described controllers. However, the display and J/S 14, unlike the other controllers, are not required to involve many types of input and output signals, but need to give output signals for indication on the display. Thus, they use a dedicated controller to issue signals to the display and acquire signals from the J/S. Even in this case, they have a common communication capability, and can exchange control signals and vehicle information via the CAN 15, independently of the controllers 11, 12, 13. Concretely, information such as a vehicle posture or an error code during the operation of the spreader is indicated on the display 14 with the use of vehicle information acquired from the controller 11 and the controller 13. Also, an operator guidance from the operator, which has been inputted from the J/S 14, is acquired by the dedicated controller, which transmits such operational information to the controllers 11 and 13 via the CAN 15 to control the action of the spreader 9 and the action of the vehicle 3. In the reach stacker of the above configuration, while referring to the work situation (assembled form of cargo, posture of the vehicle, weight of the container, angle of the boom, extension or contraction of the arm, etc.) and the vehicle situation (rotational speed of the engine, speed of the vehicle, etc.) indicated in colors on the display 14, the operator within the cabin 10 operates the J/S 14 on the operating panel of the cabin 10 to perform a moving action of the vehicle body 3, an inclining action of the boom 6, an extending and contracting action of the arm 7, and an extending or contracting action, a rotating action, and a holding action of the spreader 9. For example, in a run with the container being held, control is exercised such that the vehicle body 3 can run, while the spreader 9 is held in a stable posture which enables the run. The stable state of the vehicle is indicated on the display 14. If there is a possibility that the stable posture of the vehicle will be destroyed by an up-slope or the like, for example, control is exercised such that a warning is issued at once to keep a stable posture automatically or manually. FIG. 2 shows a constitution example of input/output signals of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. For comparisons, the table in this drawing also shows the constitution of input/output signals required by the controllers which are used in a general reach stacker, a heavy duty F/L (fork lift), and M/G (motor grader). The controllers for a heady duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention, concretely, have 4 connections for pulse input signals from the instruments to be controlled, 1 connection each for serial signals for synchronous mode, asynchronous mode, and CAN, 5 connections for output signals to the servo valve, 12 connections for outputs to the electromagnetic valve, 12 connections for analog input signals, 2 connections for analog outputs, 24 connections for contact inputs (24V) and 8 connections for contact inputs (5V), and 13 connections for contact outputs (24V) and 5 connections for contact outputs (5V). These are the maximum numbers of connections for inputs and outputs required of the instruments to be controlled, and they are common to these controllers. The capacities of the inputs to and outputs from the contacts (e.g., voltage, etc.) are also the maximum required capacities, and they are common to the controllers. These values correspond to specifications satisfying the requirements for the general reach stacker that are listed in the column on the right of the common controller in FIG. 2. These values also sufficiently fulfill the specifications for the heavy duty F/L and M/G listed at the same time, and can be applied to other heavy duty industrial vehicles as well as the reach stacker. That is, for the commonality of hardware among the controllers, not only the hardware configuration within the controllers, but also the connectors for input and output signals are rendered common, and their positions of arrangement are also rendered exactly identical. Moreover, each of the controllers is entirely boxed to improve dust-proof properties, and when the controller is to be replaced, it suffices to replace its connectors, thereby enabling a predetermined action. FIG. 3 shows an example of the logic configuration of the controllers for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates a logic configuration example of the controller for performing vehicle control. However, the controllers for spreader control and cabin control have exactly the same configuration, except for a vehicle control module portion corresponding to application software. In the logic configuration of the controller for the heavy duty industrial vehicle according to the present invention, concretely, the structures of the CPU and I/F circuit corresponding to hardware are exactly common. Not only the portion corresponding to a physical configuration (i.e., hardware), but also the configuration of portions corresponding to the setting of hardware inside the controller, concretely, settings for a clock, an action mode, CPU terminal function, a pulse counter, PWM (pulse width modulator) function, and an A/D conversion mode, are exactly common, and a so-called microcomputer layer is used as a common platform. Furthermore, the zone of the application layer constituting the software is constructed in a hierarchical structure, and the lower level of the application layer, namely, a driver module having driver software for directly receiving and outputting control signals from and to the instruments to be controlled, is constructed in a completely common configuration. Concretely, a general I/O, a servo valve current control PWM output, pulse conversion, and A/D conversion are used as a common configuration. The driver module and the microcomputer layer are of exactly the same configuration among the controllers. On the other hand, a control module, which is the upper level of the application layer and utilizes the driver software, for example, if it is a vehicle control module, has application software for vehicle control. Depending on which of the instruments to be controlled the vehicle control module controls, the configuration of the vehicle control module becomes different. Concretely, the vehicle control module has software for effecting vehicle speed calculation, transmission control, engine control, switch/lamp control, and cargo handling/working machine control. That is, this portion of the control module is installed with application software for a spreader control module in the case of the spreader, or application software for a cabin control module in the case of the cabin. Furthermore, only this control module portion is replaced according to the instrument to be controlled, whereby the control module portion can function as any of the controllers, and its diverted use is facilitated. The common driver module (drive software) is held in the ROM (read only memory) inside the controller. The control module at the level upward of the driver module utilizes this driver module to control the action of the instrument to be controlled. The control module (application software) is rewritable according to a predetermined procedure, and is held in a rewritable ROM (e.g., flash ROM). Next, the procedure in the event of a failure in the controller will be described with reference to flow charts shown in FIG. 4 and FIG. 5. For example, the procedure for a degradation mode in the case of a failure in the controller for spreader control is shown in the flow chart of FIG. 4. (Step S1) A failure detection error code on the display 14 within the cabin 10 is verified. At this time, this code is confirmed to be an error code showing a malfunction in the controller for the spreader. (Step S2) An interlock release key SW on the operating panel within the cabin 10 is turned on. (Step S3) It is confirmed that the failure detection error code is not indicated on the display 14 within the cabin 10. If there is a malfunction in the spreader controller, the interlock release key SW transiently releases interlock in disregard of an error in the spreader controller, instead of disabling an operation of the spreader 9 itself. On this occasion, an indication of the failure detection error code on the display 14 is also transiently stopped. (Step S4) An operation is performed, with the interlock release key SW remaining ON. That is, the operation of the spreader 9 is disabled, and other operation, for example, only an operation for running of the vehicle, is enabled. This is the degradation mode (limited operation means), which enables a limited operation even in a state where one of the three controllers is not connected, or there is no operating machine such as the spreader 9. In the reach stacker, according to the degradation mode, the vehicle is rendered capable of running, with the spreader 9 being located at a safe position. (Step S5) The power source for the vehicle is turned off. (Step S6) After a repair or replacement of the spreader controller is completed, the interlock release key SW is turned off (the key is removed). Then, it is confirmed that the failure detection error code is not indicated on the display 14 within the cabin 10. The procedure for the degradation mode in the case of a failure in the controller for controlling other member than the spreader 9 is shown in the flow chart of FIG. 5. (Step S11) A failure detection error code on the display 14 of the cabin 10 is verified. At this time, this code is confirmed to be an error code showing a malfunction in the controller for other member than the spreader, for example, the vehicle body controller. (Step S12) The power source for the vehicle is turned off. (Step S13) The spreader controller and the failed vehicle body controller are both detached, and the spreader controller is attached as a vehicle body controller for serving as a new vehicle body controller. (Step S14) A mode SW of the new vehicle body controller is switched to a software installation mode (rewriting means). (Step S15) The power source for the vehicle is turned on. (Step S16) An installation cable and PC (computer) are connected to the new vehicle body controller to install application software for the vehicle body controller. (Step S17) The power source for the vehicle is turned off. (Step S18) The mode SW of the new vehicle body controller is switched to a RUN mode (usual state). (Step S19) The power source for the vehicle is turned on. Then, the procedure starting with Step S2 in the flow chart shown in FIG. 4 is performed (point A in FIG. 4). INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention is not limited to the reach stacker, but can be applied to other heavy duty industrial vehicles, including a heavy duty fork lift and a motor grader.
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G
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19
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00
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11802015
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US20080288677A1-20081120
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KVM switch system with a simplified external controller
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ACCEPTED
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20081105
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20081120
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[]
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G06F1312
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["G06F1312"]
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7730243
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20070518
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20100601
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710
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062000
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84674.0
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CHEN
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ALAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kirshtein", "inventor_name_first": "Philip M.", "inventor_city": "New Market", "inventor_state": "AL", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A KVM switch system with external control functionality is described. A KVM switch is able to be controlled from an external device. The external device can either include a single button dedicated to controlling the desktop KVM switch or indicate a state of the KVM switch. The external device can be connected to the desktop KVM switch through a plurality of communication media. The external device can be small in size and attached to an object on a user's desktop.
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1. An external controller for use with a peripheral switch coupling user peripheral devices to a plurality of target devices, the external controller comprising: a communications interface for coupling the external controller to the peripheral switch; a selector switch for requesting that the external controller change which of the plurality of target devices is connected to the user peripheral devices; control circuitry for commanding, via the communications interface, the peripheral switch to couple the user peripheral devices to at least one of the plurality of target devices; and a display adapted to indicate which of the plurality of target devices is coupled to the user station hub, wherein the external controller does not include an interface for receiving video signals from the plurality of target devices. 2. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said communications interface is an RJ45 interface. 3. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said communications interface is a wireless interface. 4. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said display comprises a series of LEDs. 5. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said display comprises an LCD display. 6. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said external controller is integrated into a mouse pad. 7. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said selector switch and said display encompass substantially all of one face of the external controller. 8. The external controller of claim 1, wherein said control circuitry commands the peripheral switch to couple the user peripheral devices to at least one of the plurality of target devices by converting an actuation of said selector switch into a keystroke sequence receivable by said peripheral switch for causing the KVM switch to change which of plural target devices the KVM switch connects the user peripheral devices to. 9. A micro-receiver comprising: an input interface adapted to couple a computer peripheral to said micro-receiver; an output interface adapted to couple said micro-receiver to a computer peripheral port of a KVM switch; a command interface, separate from the input interface, for receiving commands from an external controller; and a converter for converting commands received from the external controller to commands that can be received by a KVM switch and applying the converted commands to the output interface. 10. The micro-receiver of claim 9, wherein the command interface comprises a wireless interface. 11. The micro-receiver of claim 9, wherein said converter is reprogrammable such that the converter can convert commands received from the external controller into commands that can be received by a particular KVM switch of a plurality of possible KVM switches. 12. The micro-receiver of claim 9, wherein said converter converts commands received by an external controller into a keystroke sequence receivable by a KVM switch for causing the KVM switch to change which of plural target devices the KVM switch connects the user peripheral devices to. 13. A peripheral switch system comprising: a peripheral switch coupling user peripheral devices to a plurality of target devices; an external controller for use with the peripheral switch coupling user peripheral devices to a plurality of target devices, the external controller comprising: a communications interface for coupling the external controller to the peripheral switch; a selector switch for requesting that the external controller change which of the plurality of target devices is connected to the user peripheral devices; control circuitry for commanding, via the communications interface, the peripheral switch to couple the user peripheral devices to at least one of the plurality of target devices; and a display adapted to indicate which of the plurality of target devices is coupled to the user station hub, wherein the external controller does not include an interface for receiving video signals from the plurality of target devices.
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<SOH> FIELD OF DISCLOSURE <EOH>This disclosure relates to a simplified external controller for controlling a KVM (Keyboard, Video, Mouse) switch.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The following description, given with respect to the attached drawings, may be better understood with reference to the non-limiting examples of the drawing, wherein the drawings show: FIG. 1 : a prior art single user desktop KVM switch with an onboard selection mechanism; FIG. 2 : a prior art single user desktop KVM switch system that supports multiple keyboards; FIG. 3 : a prior art single user desktop KVM switch system that supports an external keypad; FIG. 4 : a prior art desktop KVM switch system with an external selection mechanism where the external selection mechanism interfaces all of the user's KVM devices; FIG. 5 : a prior art KVM switch system where multiple users' KVM devices are connected directly to the KVM switch; FIG. 6 : a prior art KVM switch system where multiple users are connected to the KVM switch through user stations; FIG. 7 : a prior art KVM switch system where a remote terminal can access the switch through a network; FIG. 8 : an exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with an external controller; FIG. 9 : an exemplary external controller; FIG. 10 : an exemplary block diagram of an exemplary external controller; FIG. 11 : an exemplary external controller built-into a mouse pad; FIG. 12 : an alternative exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with an external controller; FIG. 13 a : a KVM switch system incorporating an alternative exemplary external controller; FIG. 13 b : a KVM switch system incorporating an alternative exemplary external controller; FIG. 13 c : an exemplary block diagram of an exemplary external controller; FIG. 14 : an exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with external controllers; FIG. 15 : an exemplary KVM switch system incorporating an external controller and a micro-receiver; FIG. 16 : an exemplary external controller with a micro-receiver; FIG. 17 : a block diagram of an exemplary micro-receiver; FIG. 18 : a diagram illustrating various ways to configure a KVM switch system with an external controller and a micro-receiver; and FIG. 19 : an exemplary KVM switch system incorporating an external controller and a micro-receiver. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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FIELD OF DISCLOSURE This disclosure relates to a simplified external controller for controlling a KVM (Keyboard, Video, Mouse) switch. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following description, given with respect to the attached drawings, may be better understood with reference to the non-limiting examples of the drawing, wherein the drawings show: FIG. 1: a prior art single user desktop KVM switch with an onboard selection mechanism; FIG. 2: a prior art single user desktop KVM switch system that supports multiple keyboards; FIG. 3: a prior art single user desktop KVM switch system that supports an external keypad; FIG. 4: a prior art desktop KVM switch system with an external selection mechanism where the external selection mechanism interfaces all of the user's KVM devices; FIG. 5: a prior art KVM switch system where multiple users' KVM devices are connected directly to the KVM switch; FIG. 6: a prior art KVM switch system where multiple users are connected to the KVM switch through user stations; FIG. 7: a prior art KVM switch system where a remote terminal can access the switch through a network; FIG. 8: an exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with an external controller; FIG. 9: an exemplary external controller; FIG. 10: an exemplary block diagram of an exemplary external controller; FIG. 11: an exemplary external controller built-into a mouse pad; FIG. 12: an alternative exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with an external controller; FIG. 13a: a KVM switch system incorporating an alternative exemplary external controller; FIG. 13b: a KVM switch system incorporating an alternative exemplary external controller; FIG. 13c: an exemplary block diagram of an exemplary external controller; FIG. 14: an exemplary embodiment of a KVM switch system with external controllers; FIG. 15: an exemplary KVM switch system incorporating an external controller and a micro-receiver; FIG. 16: an exemplary external controller with a micro-receiver; FIG. 17: a block diagram of an exemplary micro-receiver; FIG. 18: a diagram illustrating various ways to configure a KVM switch system with an external controller and a micro-receiver; and FIG. 19: an exemplary KVM switch system incorporating an external controller and a micro-receiver. INTRODUCTION Desktop KVM (Keyboard, Video, and Mouse) switches are designed to allow a single user control of multiple PCs (targets) using a single keyboard, monitor, and mouse. Desktop KVM switches can be designed to interface with either PS/2 or USB type control devices and can be designed to allow a user control of any number of targets through such connections. Desktop KVM switches control a target by simply providing a connection between the target's KVM ports and a user's respective keyboard, monitor, and mouse. Examples of such KVM switches are Avocent KVM switches sold under the trademark SWITCHVIEW. SwitchView KVM switches are described in submitted document entitled “SwitchView Desktop KVM Switches,” published by Avocent 2005, Document No. 1105-SV-BRO, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 1 shows a prior art 4-port desktop KVM switch 100 capable of controlling four targets. Switch 100 receives video signals from respective targets (not shown) at video ports 104 and accesses keyboard and mouse ports from respective targets at ports 106. Switch 100 allows a user to control a designated target by coupling the communication path from a selected target interfaced at 104 and 106 to user KVM port 102. KVM port 102 includes a video connection, a keyboard connection, and a mouse connection. Such switches include an onboard control interface 108 which typically includes a display 108a. Typically displays, as shown for display 108a, consist of an LED for each target device KVM port, where an illuminated LED indicates that the corresponding KVM port is being coupled to port 102 and as such a corresponding target is being controlled by the user. Such switches are typically designed to be placed within reach of the user (e.g. on a desktop) so that a user can switch which target is being controlled using an onboard control mechanism 108b. Control mechanism 108b is typically a select button that when pressed cycles through KVM ports corresponding to the targets. U.S. Pat. No. 6,073,188 to Fleming, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, discloses a KVM switch with an onboard control interface for controlling which target is coupled to the user and a display indicating which target device is coupled to the user. Other KVM switch boxes with on-board displays have also been manufactured and sold in prior art switches of Avocent Corporation of Huntsville, Ala. and its predecessors Apex Computer Products of Redmond, Wash. and Cybex Corporation products of Huntsville, Ala. In addition to using the control mechanism 108b to switch between targets, some prior art desktop KVM switches enable the user to switch between targets at the user station with the user's keyboard by using hotkey commands. For example, a user may switch to a target by pressing the ScrLk Key twice and then pressing a number (1-4) corresponding to the set of KVM ports a target is connected to. U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,842 to Beasley, which is commonly owned by the assignee of the present application, Avocent Corporation of Huntsville, Ala., and is incorporated by reference in its entirety, describes a KVM switch that can be controlled at a user station by using hotkey commands in combination with a graphical user interface that is displayed on the user's monitor. Beasley describes that the user can switch which target device is coupled to the user's KVM port by using a keystroke (Print Screen key) to activate an onscreen menu and selecting a command from the onscreen menu. Hotkey commands have the drawback of requiring a user to memorize a sequence of keystrokes or have access to a reference which specifies which keystrokes correspond to which functions. Hotkeys also suffer from the drawback that the user may inadvertently activate a hotkey command through keystrokes that occur within the normal course of controlling a target. Further, when the switch 100 is not within the user's view, the user is unable to use the display 108a to confirm which target is coupled to the KVM port 102, which could cause a user to inadvertently control the wrong target. Although hotkey commands incorporating a graphical user interface displayed on the user's monitor have been highly successful and commercially advantageous, especially in medium and large scale installations, when the graphical user interface is displayed it must be overlayed on the image being displayed on the user's monitor and as such might obscure important information. For small installations (such as 1×2 and 1×4), using a graphical user interface to switch which target is being controlled is not as simple as using an onboard control interface since a user must enter keystrokes and then select a target from a menu as opposed to just manipulating a physical access mechanism. Further, hotkey commands incorporating a graphical user interface require some type of video output generating circuit to create the graphical user interface which adds significant cost to the switch system, especially where USB peripheral devices are supported. The following paragraphs and accompanying FIGS. 2-7 describe additional prior art KVM switch systems and the ways that such systems allow for a user to be connected to a target. FIG. 2 shows a prior art single user KVM switch 200 with a plurality of keyboard and mouse connections where each of a plurality of targets 112 is connected to switch 200 via respective KVM connections 114a, 114b, 114c, and 114d. KVM switch 200 is similar to KVM switch 100 described in accordance with FIG. 1 and is designed for a single user. Switch 200 does not provide multiple monitor connections, but provides multiple sets of keyboard and mouse connections—typically a set of PS/2 ports and a USB port to allow a user to connect either type of keyboard/mouse devices. Since switch 200 has two sets of ports, a user can connect multiple keyboards to switch 200 simultaneously. Although KVM switch 200 allows a user to have multiple keyboards connected to KVM switch 200 simultaneously (with one keyboard controlling a target and the other switching which target is being controlled), KVM switch 200 does not solve the drawbacks of hotkey commands and has the additional drawback that two keyboards may clutter the user's workspace 110. Further, standard keyboards will not provide the user with an indication as to which target is being controlled. An example of such a switch is the Avocent SWITCHVIEW MM1/MM2 switches which are described in submitted document entitled “SwitchView Desktop KVM Switches” published by Avocent Corporation in 2005, Document No. 1105-SV-BRO, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 3 shows a prior art single user KVM switch 300 with a plurality of keyboard and mouse connections where each of a plurality of targets 112 is connected to switch 300 via respective KVM connections 114a, 114b, 114c, and 114d. KVM switch 300 includes an auxiliary port (not shown) for connecting external keypad 308. Auxiliary port of KVM switch 300 is an RJ-45 port. External keypad 308 allows the user to switch which target device is being controlled without using the keyboard. Keypad 308 does not include a display indicating which of the targets 112 the user is controlling. Examples of such KVM switches are KVM switches that were sold under the under the name Apex Outlook. Apex Outlook KVM switches are described in submitted document entitled “Outlook User Guide” Fourth Edition, August 1998, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. U.S. Pat. No. 5,499,377 to Lee, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, describes a desktop KVM switch where a user can switch which target is being controlled by using a control mechanism that is similar to the onboard control interface 108 described in accordance with FIG. 1. That control mechanism is on a selector device that is external to the KVM switch. The selector device described in Lee is located intermediate to the user and the KVM switch and interfaces all of the user's KVM devices and the switch. The selector device in Lee includes circuitry that allows a user to adjust the color intensity of the video signal. FIG. 4 shows an exemplary prior art switch where selector 408 comprises a rocker switch 408b that allows the user to control the switch 400 and a display 408a that displays which target is coupled to the user's workspace 110. Selector 408 is connected to switch 400 via cable 416 which comprises KVM cables and a data cable for control signals. Selector 408 is also connected directly to all of the user's KVM devices. Selector 408 includes circuitry for adjusting the intensity level of the received video signals. Intensity levels are adjusted with color dials 408c. Such a configuration is disadvantageous because it limits where selector 408 can be placed and requires selector 408 to have ports and circuitry for respective KVM cables which adds costs to the selector 408. FIG. 5 shows a KVM switch 500 that supports two local users, with one user using workspace 110a and the other user using workspace 110b. Switch 500 allows each user to switch which target is being controlled by using hotkey commands and an accompanying graphical user interface as described in accordance with FIG. 1. In addition, switch 500 provides the additional functionality of allowing a user to view which target the other user is connected to and to disconnect the other user from the target using the graphical user interface. Examples of such KVM switches are Avocent KVM switches sold under the trademark AUTOVIEW. AutoView KVM switches are described in submitted document entitled “AutoView 2020/2030 Installer/User Guide” published by Avocent Corporation in 2005, Document No. 590-495-501A, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 6 shows a KVM switch 600 that is similar to KVM switch 500 in that switch 600 supports multiple users. KVM switch 600 differs from switch 500 in that users are connected to switch 600 through user stations 620a and 620b. Through the user stations a user can either connect or disconnect another user from a target by entering a command specifying the user and the target. An example of such KVM switches are Avocent KVM switches sold under the AMX trademark. AMX KVM switches are described in submitted document entitled “AMX Switch Series Installer/User Guide” published by Avocent Corporation in 2006, Document No. 590-222-501K, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 7 shows an example of a KVM switch 700 that has a network interface 700a which allows switch 700 to be accessed by a remote terminal 730 via network 720. Remote terminal 730 uses a graphical user interface to change which target the user workspace 110 is connected to. Since multiple switches 700 can be connected to network 720, when remote terminal 730 accesses KVM switch 700 via network 720 control information sent from remote terminal 730 must be logically addressed to KVM switch 700. To send and receive logically addressed information the system requires the appropriate hardware/software which adds cost to the system. In addition to the KVM switches described above some KVM switches that allow remote access include a setup port for allowing a local terminal to configure a KVM switch. Known setup ports provide only limited control of the KVM switch such as initial network settings and the like and do not control which targets are coupled to a user device. Examples of such KVM switches are Avocent KVM switches sold under the DSR trademark. The setup port of a DSR switch is described in chapter three of submitted document entitled “DSR Switch Installer/User Guide” published by Avocent Corporation in 2005, Document No. 590-419-501B, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Although the KVM switches described above offer many alternative ways for a user to be connected to a target device without using an onboard control mechanism, none provide the user with a low cost mechanism to switch between targets or otherwise control a KVM switch when the switch is not within reach that is simple to use, not prone to inadvertent switching, easily placed within a user's workspace, and provides confirmation as to which target is being controlled. Thus, it is desirable to provide a user with a low cost mechanism that allows switching between targets or provides other control functions to a desktop KVM switch when the switch is not within reach that is: simple to use, not prone to inadvertent switching, easily placed within a user's workspace, and provides confirmation as to which target is being controlled. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENTLY PREFERRED EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS FIG. 8 shows KVM switch 800 that is similar to KVM switch 100 where switch 800 receives video signals from respective targets (not shown) at video ports 104 and accesses keyboard and mouse ports from respective targets at ports 106 and allows a user to control a designated target by coupling the communication path from a selected target interfaced at 104 and 106 to user KVM port 102. It should be noted that although user's video, keyboard, and mouse ports are shown as a VGA port, a USB port, and a USB port respectively, this is not intended to be limiting and similar types of ports could be used as would be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, e.g. keyboard ports and mouse port could be PS/2 ports. It should also be noted that keyboard and mouse can be bundled so that switch 800 has a single port for a keyboard and mouse of a respective target (e.g. combining keyboard and mouse into a single USB connection) and that video, keyboard, and mouse can be bundled so that switch 800 has a single port for each target device. KVM switch 800 differs from KVM switch 100 in that KVM switch 800 does not include an onboard control interface. Instead KVM switch 800 includes an external control interface 840 that allows external controller 850 to communicate with KVM switch 800 via communication medium 860. KVM communication interface 840 is typically a USB port and the communication medium 860 is typically a USB cable, but alternative types could be used. For example, interface 840 could be any type of interface that allows external controller 850 to communicate with switch 800 including but not limited to: a CAT5 connection, twisted pair connection, a single wire connection, a coax cable connection, an optical connection, an IR connection or any other type of wireless connection. Moreover, communication medium 860 could be any medium compatible with the chosen interface i.e. the appropriate cabling or, in the event of wireless communication, simply air. It should be noted that communication medium 860 may also provide power to external controller 850 from KVM switch 800, when the type of communication medium 860 (e.g. USB cable) is capable of providing power. In the event that communication medium 860 cannot provide power to external controller 850 from KVM switch 800, external controller 850 must receive its power from another source. In this instance, external controller 850 would typically receive power from batteries within the external controller 850, from another device, or from an alternative power supply such as a transformer. As shown in FIG. 8, external controller 850 includes exemplary control mechanism 850b (similar to control mechanism 108b) and a select button that allows the user to cycle through the targets. Likewise, exemplary display 850a (similar to display 108a) includes an illuminated LED corresponding to a target indicating that the target is coupled to the user. It should be noted that although control mechanism 850b of external controller 850 is shown with a single button that cycles through targets, this is for exemplary purposes only. Control mechanism 850b of external controller 850 can include alternative configurations that provide the same or additional functionality. For example, external controller 850 could have rocker or accordion switches, each corresponding to a KVM port where, when a switch is depressed the corresponding KVM port is coupled to the port 102. As an alternative, the external controller 850 could have buttons in addition to the select button that provide control functions to the switch 800. Any combination of known KVM switch commands (e.g. reset, autoscan, etc.) can be incorporated into external controller 850. It should also be noted that exemplary display 850a is shown as a set of LEDs for exemplary purposes only. Display 850a is not limited to a set of LEDs and could be any appropriate display mechanism. Display 850a could be a seven segment LED display where a number representing which target is coupled to the user is displayed or a small LCD display that graphically represents which target is coupled to the user. Further, display 850a could be configured to display more information than simply which target is coupled to the user e.g. whether switch 800 is scanning or the status of other switch functions. Display 850a could also incorporate control mechanism 850b e.g. providing both functions through a touch screen. External controller 850 also includes communication interface 850c that is similar to communication interface 840 in that it interfaces external controller 850 to communication medium 860. Communication interface 850c can be any type of communication interface compatible with communication medium 860. It should be noted that communication interface 840 and communication interface 850c need not be the same type. For example, a wireless transmitter can be built into external controller 850 and communication interface 840 can be a USB port that interfaces communications medium 860 with a USB receiver. This is similar to a wireless mouse communicating with a PC via the PC's USB port where the wireless mouse transmits signals to a receiver docked to the PC's USB port. It should be noted that external controller 850 is typically designed to communicate only with KVM switch 800 and as such, information sent from the external controller 850 to switch 800 need not be logically addressed. FIG. 9 shows an alternative exemplary embodiment of an external controller 850. In FIG. 9, display 850a is a display that uses a GUI to indicate which targets are connected to the user station. In FIG. 9, control mechanism 850b is shown as a navigation pad that allows a user to select commands displayed on display 850a. It should be noted that external controllers used to control switch 800 can incorporate any combination of the displays and access mechanisms described in accordance with FIGS. 8 and 9. FIG. 10 shows an exemplary block diagram of external controller 850. In addition to elements of external controller 850 previously described, FIG. 10 shows microprocessor 850d and display controller 850d. Microprocessor 850d processes commands received from user, communicates with interface, and sends display information to display controller 850e. Display controller 850e allows display 850a to be updated as would be appreciated be one of ordinary skill in the art. External controller 850 is typically designed to be smaller than KVM switch 800 while still being large enough so that a user can manipulate it. External controller 850 is typically small enough to comfortably fit within one's pocket. External controller 850 can also include an adhesive (not shown) on a side which is not the side with display 850a so that external controller 750 can be adhered to an object within the user's workspace (e.g. a display or a keyboard while still allowing the user to view the display). The adhesive can be designed to provide permanent attachment (e.g. glue) or temporary/removable attachment (e.g. a Velcro strip, a magnet, a suction cup, a clip, or any other suitable mechanical or chemical means). When external controller 850 is designed to adhere to an object on a user's desktop (e.g. a user's display), external controller 850 should be small enough as to be discreet. Further, external controller 850 can be built into objects that are placed within a user's workspace. FIG. 11 shows an external controller 850 built into a mouse pad. FIG. 12 shows an alternative embodiment of a KVM switch that, like KVM switch 100, includes: (1) video ports 104 that receive target video signals, (2) ports 106 that receive keyboard and mouse signals, (3) a user KVM port 102, and (4) an onboard control interface 108. KVM switch 900 also incorporates the external control functionality of KVM switch 800. That is, KVM switch 900 comprises a communication interface 840, communication medium 860, and an external controller 850. Thus, KVM switch 900 provides all the functionality of KVM switch 100 but can also be controlled remotely, like KVM switch 800, if a user desires. It should be noted that although onboard control interface 108 and external controller 850 are both shown as having a set of LEDs and a select button, this is for exemplary purposes only and not intended to be limiting. Display 108a and/or control mechanism 108b of onboard control interface 108 do not need to be the same as display 850a and control mechanism 850b of external controller 850. Display 108a, control mechanism 108b, display 850a, and control mechanism 850b can be any combination of types of displays and control mechanisms described above. For example, display 108a may be a seven segment display and display 850a may be a set of LEDs where both control mechanisms include a select button. It should be noted that KVM switch 900, like any of the KVM switch embodiments described above, does not need to include hotkey control, but can optionally include hotkey control. FIG. 13a shows a KVM switch system with an alternative external controller 950. External controller 950 is designed to interface a user's keyboard or be built into a user's keyboard. External controller 950 includes display 850a, selection mechanism 850b, and interface 850c which are similar to respective parts described in accordance with external controller 850. External controller 950 also includes interface 850f which allows controller 950 to interface a user's keyboard. By being directly coupled to or built into a user's keyboard, external controller 950 is within a user's reach but does not have the drawbacks of hotkey commands and provides the additional benefit of indicating which target a user is connected to. Further, by only interfacing a user's keyboard and not a user's monitor or mouse, controller 950 can be more easily placed at various locations on a user's desktop. It should also be noted that external controller 950 can be interfaced or be built into a user's mouse as an alternative to being interfaced or built into the user's keyboard. FIG. 13c shows a block diagram of external controller 950. FIG. 13b shows a KVM switch system that is similar to the KVM switch system described in accordance with FIG. 13a where external controller 950 interfaces user's keyboard and mouse. The KVM switch system shown in FIG. 13b is particularly advantageous when keyboard and mouse come from a common connection as is the case with USB type devices. It should be noted that although the exemplary embodiments have been described in accordance with a 4-to-1 desktop KVM switch (4 targets, 1 user) such a description is for exemplary purposes only. It should be appreciated that a desktop KVM switch with any number of targets and number of users could be used. Where the desktop KVM switch incorporates multiple users, each user could be provided an external controller. FIG. 14 shows an exemplary embodiment where multiple users are connected to a KVM switch and each user has an external controller within their respective workspace. The KVM devices of each workspace 110a, 110b, and 110c are connected to KVM switch 1000 through standard connections as described in accordance with FIG. 1. Each workspace is shown including respective external controllers 850, 850, and 950. It should be noted that any combination of types of external controllers could be used with switch 1000. When external controllers are used in a multi-user KVM switch the external controllers can be configured to allow users to control only which target their respective KVM devices are connected to or the controllers can be configured to control which target any of the other users are connected to. It is also recognized that it would be useful to use external controllers 850 and 950 with prior art KVM switches. FIGS. 15-18 describe exemplary embodiments where an external controller 850 is used with a prior art KVM switch. FIG. 15 shows where external controller 850 can control prior art KVM switch 100 by passing supported switch commands through micro-receiver 1050. FIG. 16 shows a more detailed view of an exemplary micro-receiver 1050. Micro-receiver 1050 interfaces a user peripheral (e.g. a user keyboard) through a peripheral interface 1050b (e.g. USB or PS/2 port). Micro-receiver 1050 also interfaces a KVM switch at KVM interface 1050a (e.g. USB or PS/2 connector). Interfaces 1050a and 1050b transparently pass communications between a user peripheral and a KVM passed through the micro receiver 1050. That is, the user peripheral and the KVM switch operate as if they were directly connected. Micro-receiver 1050 also communicates with external controller 850 through communication medium 860, described above. The KVM switch is able to be controlled by external controller 850 by the micro-receiver 1050 receiving commands from external controller 850 and passing those commands to the KVM switch in an appropriate format. FIG. 17 shows an exemplary block diagram of an exemplary micro-receiver 1050 that illustrates how commands from an external controller 850 can be received by a KVM switch. Commands are received from external controller 850 at the communication interface 1050c. Communication interface 1050c is similar to control interface 840 described above and for the sake of brevity will not be described herein. The received commands are passed from communication interface 1050c to translator 1050d. Translator 1050d translates the commands into an appropriate form so they can be processed by the KVM switch. An example of the translation process is as follows: assuming a prior art KVM switch supports hotkey commands, a command received at the communication interface 1050c can be translated by translator 1050d into the hotkey command corresponding to the received command and passed to the KVM switch at KVM switch interface 1050a. In the example described above, the micro-receiver 1050 spoofs the KVM switch that all received commands (including hotkey commands) are generated from a keyboard that is directly connected to the KVM switch. For an external controller 850 to command a prior art KVM switch, the KVM switch must be capable of accepting such a command through a peripheral port and micro-receiver 1050 must be able to transfer commands from external controller 850 in a compatible format for the specific prior art KVM switch. Thus, reconfiguration of micro-receiver 1050 and/or KVM switch is required. For example, if a KVM switch can execute commands through hotkeys sequences, the micro-receiver 1050 must be programmed to use these sequences, This requires reconfiguration as different KVM switches may have different hotkey sequences for the same function. FIG. 18 shows a diagram illustrating various ways to configure a KVM switch system with an external controller and a micro-receiver. FIG. 18 shows four alternative methods. Methods 1, 2, and 3 show configuration of micro-receiver 1050. Thus, methods 1, 2, and 3 only require configuration of micro-receiver 1050. In method 1, a user is able to configure micro-receiver through a PC. An example of how this can occur is as follows: micro-receiver 1050 is coupled to a PC using KVM interface 1050a (e.g. plugging micro-receiver into USB port of a PC) and the user programs the micro-receiver 1050 using software on the PC. For example, the software can allow the user to specify the model number of a KVM switch and the PC will program the micro-receiver 1050 accordingly. In method 2, the user configures the micro-receiver 1050 using external controller 850. An example of this method is the user manipulating the control interface of the external controller 850 as to indicate the model of the KVM switch. After the model is indicated micro-receiver 1050 is configured in a manner similar to that of method 1. Once micro-receiver 1050 is configured, it may not be necessary to configure the KVM switch, for example, when KVM switch supports all necessary commands through hotkeys sequences or the like. In method 3, the user configures the micro-receiver 1050 using a keyboard connected to the micro-receiver 1050. This can be achieved by using a hotkey sequence to specify a particular KVM switch or by using hotkey sequences to program individual commands of the micro-receiver 1050. Methods 4 and 5 show configuration of a KVM switch. In method 4, a firmware update of the KVM switch allows KVM switch to process commands from micro-receiver 1050. This process is similar to updating keyboard and mouse drivers in a KVM switch so a KVM switch is compatible with a new device. In method 5, micro-receiver 1050 is automatically programmed when it is inserted into the KVM switch. That is, micro-receiver 1050 polls KVM switch for identification information and KVM switch responses to the poll with its identification information. After identification information is indicated micro-receiver 1050 is configured in a manner similar to that of method 1. After the model is indicated micro-receiver 1050 is configured in a manner similar to that of method 1. Once KVM switch is configured, it may not be necessary to configure micro-receiver 1050, for example, when micro-receiver 1050 issues commands to a KVM switch in a generic format. Any of the methods described above can be used in any number of combinations. For example, before method 4 can be implemented it may be required to update the firmware of the KVM switch as described in method 3 (e.g. micro-receiver does not need to be configured or already is configured). FIG. 19 shows an alternative embodiment of a micro-receiver 1060. Micro-receiver 1060 interfaces a user monitor (not shown) and the video port of a prior art KVM switch 100. It should be noted that micro-receiver 1060 can interface a user monitor and KVM switch 100 by being connected at either end of a video cable, either near KVM switch 100 or near the monitor. Micro-receiver 1060 responds to wireless commands received from external control 850 via communications medium 860 (e.g., wirelessly) to temporarily or permanently superimpose via the monitor an indication of the status of the KVM switch (e.g. which target the user is connected to and/or whether the KVM switch is in scanning mode). While the invention has been described in connection with what is presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiment, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.
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G
| 60G06
| 161G06F
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13
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12
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11840450
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US20090049129A1-20090219
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REAL TIME COLLABORATION FILE FORMAT FOR UNIFIED COMMUNICATION
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ACCEPTED
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20090205
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20090219
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[]
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G06F1516
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["G06F1516"]
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8583733
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20070817
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20131112
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709
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204000
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71704.0
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GOLDBERG
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ANDREW
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Faisal", "inventor_name_first": "Adil", "inventor_city": "Redmond", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sethi", "inventor_name_first": "Aaron", "inventor_city": "Bellevue", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wolfe", "inventor_name_first": "Ken", "inventor_city": "Redmond", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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The claimed subject matter provides a system and/or a method that facilitates enhancing real time unified communications. An interface can receive a portion of data associated with at least one of a client application or an environment that hosts a client application. A real time collaboration (RTC) component can employ an RTC file package to seamlessly initiate a real time collaboration session with the client application, wherein the RTC file package can include a portion of data that relates to at least one of the client application, the host environment, or a modality of the client application.
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1. A system that facilitates enhancing real time unified communications, comprising: an interface that receives a portion of data associated with at least one of a client application or an environment that hosts a client application; and a real time collaboration (RTC) component that employs an extensible RTC file package to seamlessly initiate a real time collaboration session with the client application, the RTC file package incorporates the portion of data that relates to at least one of the client application, the host environment, or a modality of the client application. 2. The system of claim 1, the client application invokes the real time collaboration session with at least one of the following modalities: an audio communication, a video communication, a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) communication, an instant messaging communication, a desktop sharing communication, a modality of collaboration, or a file sharing communication. 3. The system of claim 1, further comprising two or more clients participating in the real time collaboration session independent of each version of client application. 4. The system of claim 3, the RTC file package is specifically tailored for each client and client environment participating in the real time collaboration session. 5. The system of claim 1, further comprising an evaluation component that collects a portion of data to build the RTC file package, wherein the portion of data is associated with at least one of a client, the client application, a client application versioning, a client application availability, the host environment, and/or an input parameter associated with the client application. 6. The system of claim 5, the portion of data is at least one of an existing client application associated with a client, an environment associated with a client, an operating system, a computer, an input device, a display device, a graphic card, a portion of memory, a processor, a client preference, an available client application listing, a security preference, a digital signature detail, a real time communication setting, a real time collaboration preference, an optimal setting, a versioning associated with a client application, a hardware/software configuration, or an input parameter associated with a particular client application. 7. The system of claim 5, further comprising a build component that generates the RTC file package for a client based at least in part upon the portion of data collected by the evaluation component. 8. The system of claim 1, the RTC component implements the RTC file package to initiate the client application utilizing multipurpose Internet mail Extension (MIME) association, the RTC file package is a browser, communication modality, platform and vendor agnostic file format to implement initiation of real time communication. 9. The system of claim 1, further comprising a signature component that can incorporate a security mechanism into the RTC file package. 10. The system of claim 9, the security mechanism is a signature that authenticates an origin of the RTC file package, the signature ensures the RTC file package correlates to a client. 11. The system of claim 1, further comprising a server that utilizes the RTC file package to implement the real time collaboration session. 12. The system of claim 1, further comprising a browser that utilizes the RTC file package to implement the real time collaboration session. 13. The system of claim 1, further comprising a router that utilizes the RTC file package to route to an appropriate client application for the intended real time collaboration session. 14. The system of claim 1, the RTC file package defines at least one of a password, a ticket, a user name, an AiccSid, a lobby location, a role, a meeting start time, a meeting end time, a meeting identification, a meeting password, a meeting subject, a recording agreement, a uniform resource indicator (URI), a portion of company data, a user name, a user email, or a token to identify at least one of the intended server entity or the intended user entity (client) for the collaboration session. 15. The system of claim 1, the RTC file package includes a version, the version is at least one of an XML version, an RTC version, a server version, a server authentication ticket, or a modality version. 16. A computer-implemented method that facilitates employing a real time data communication, comprising: receiving a portion of data related to at least one of a client, a client application, or a client environment; creating an RTC file package based at least in part upon a portion of received data; and employing a real time collaboration with the RTC file package, the RTC file package identifies the client application for real time communication and a modality utilized for real time communication. 17. The method of claim 16, the modality for the real time communication is at least one of an audio communication, a video communication, a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) communication, an instant messaging communication, a desktop sharing communication, or a file sharing communication with a disparate modality of collaboration. 18. The method of claim 16, further comprising: evaluating at least one of a client, a client application or a client environment; building the RTC file package specifically for the client based upon the evaluation; enabling seamless real time communication between two or more clients utilizing the RTC file package; and utilizing an extensible, XML based format for the RTC file package that accommodates support for a future modality of collaboration. 19. The method of claim 16, further comprising enabling at least one of a server, a router or a browser to utilize the RTC file package to employ the real time communication. 20. A computer-implemented system that facilitates seamlessly initiating a real time data communication between two or more clients, comprising: means for receiving a portion of data associated with at least one of a client application or an environment that hosts a client application; means for incorporating the portion of data into an RTC file package; and means for employing the RTC file package to seamlessly initiate a real time collaboration session with the client application.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>As computing and network technologies have evolved and have become more robust, secure and reliable, more consumers, wholesalers, retailers, entrepreneurs, educational institutions, and the like have and are shifting business paradigms and are employing the Internet to perform business rather than utilizing traditional means. For example, today consumers can access their bank accounts on-line (e.g., via the Internet) and can perform an ever growing number of banking transactions such as balance inquiries, fund transfers, bill payments, and the like. With the tightening of browser and operating system security, it has become increasingly more difficult to detect and launch client applications from browsers with minimal user intervention. To exacerbate matters users can encounter significantly disparate experiences depending on operating system and/or browser security settings. Conventionally, the detection and launch of client applications has involved a combination of nonstandard approaches, such as browser plug-ins, ActiveX, signed Java Applets, etc. to obtain users consent to run client applications on their machines. While such nonstandard approaches may have achieved their ends, such approaches elicited a multitude of additional security dialogs generated by the operating system and/or browser making a user's experience extremely unpleasant, tedious, and daunting. Additionally, conventional means of detecting and launching client applications can significantly compromise computer, operating system, and/or browsers security (e.g., installing ActiveX control, even from trust sources, can open up possibilities for malicious sites to exploit any security holes that might exist in the ActiveX control).
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The following presents a simplified summary of the innovation in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects described herein. This summary is not an extensive overview of the claimed subject matter. It is intended to neither identify key or critical elements of the claimed subject matter nor delineate the scope of the subject innovation. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts of the claimed subject matter in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. The subject innovation relates to systems and/or methods that facilitate employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. A real time collaboration (RTC) component can receive and/or collect a portion of data related to a client application for real time communication and/or a host environment for the client application, wherein the portion of data can be incorporated into an RTC file package to seamlessly enable real time communications between two or more clients or a client and a server. The RTC file package can include data that defines which client application to utilize for real time communication, a modality for the real time communication, and/or at least one input parameter utilized by the client application for real time communication. With the implementation of the RTC file package, the RTC component can initiate a real time collaborative session between two or more clients (or a client and a server) independent of versioning conflicts, host environment disparities, and/or input parameter requirements. Thus, the RTC file package can include streamlined data necessary for a real time collaboration to be executed. The RTC component can utilize a signature component that can incorporate a signature and/or security mechanism into the RTC file package. Such signature and/or security mechanism can be utilized to authenticate and/or verify an origin for the RTC file package. Thus, an RTC file package associated with a user and/or a session can be validated prior to utilizing the RTC file package to initiate the real time collaboration. Moreover, the RTC file package can be an agnostic flexible file format that can invoke a family of applications utilized for real time communications. In other aspects of the claimed subject matter, methods are provided that facilitate creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. The following description and the annexed drawings set forth in detail certain illustrative aspects of the claimed subject matter. These aspects are indicative, however, of but a few of the various ways in which the principles of the innovation may be employed and the claimed subject matter is intended to include all such aspects and their equivalents. Other advantages and novel features of the claimed subject matter will become apparent from the following detailed description of the innovation when considered in conjunction with the drawings.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application relates to U.S. Application Ser. No. 11/081806, entitled, “Method and System for Installing Applications via a Display Page,” filed Mar. 15, 2005. BACKGROUND As computing and network technologies have evolved and have become more robust, secure and reliable, more consumers, wholesalers, retailers, entrepreneurs, educational institutions, and the like have and are shifting business paradigms and are employing the Internet to perform business rather than utilizing traditional means. For example, today consumers can access their bank accounts on-line (e.g., via the Internet) and can perform an ever growing number of banking transactions such as balance inquiries, fund transfers, bill payments, and the like. With the tightening of browser and operating system security, it has become increasingly more difficult to detect and launch client applications from browsers with minimal user intervention. To exacerbate matters users can encounter significantly disparate experiences depending on operating system and/or browser security settings. Conventionally, the detection and launch of client applications has involved a combination of nonstandard approaches, such as browser plug-ins, ActiveX, signed Java Applets, etc. to obtain users consent to run client applications on their machines. While such nonstandard approaches may have achieved their ends, such approaches elicited a multitude of additional security dialogs generated by the operating system and/or browser making a user's experience extremely unpleasant, tedious, and daunting. Additionally, conventional means of detecting and launching client applications can significantly compromise computer, operating system, and/or browsers security (e.g., installing ActiveX control, even from trust sources, can open up possibilities for malicious sites to exploit any security holes that might exist in the ActiveX control). SUMMARY The following presents a simplified summary of the innovation in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects described herein. This summary is not an extensive overview of the claimed subject matter. It is intended to neither identify key or critical elements of the claimed subject matter nor delineate the scope of the subject innovation. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts of the claimed subject matter in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. The subject innovation relates to systems and/or methods that facilitate employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. A real time collaboration (RTC) component can receive and/or collect a portion of data related to a client application for real time communication and/or a host environment for the client application, wherein the portion of data can be incorporated into an RTC file package to seamlessly enable real time communications between two or more clients or a client and a server. The RTC file package can include data that defines which client application to utilize for real time communication, a modality for the real time communication, and/or at least one input parameter utilized by the client application for real time communication. With the implementation of the RTC file package, the RTC component can initiate a real time collaborative session between two or more clients (or a client and a server) independent of versioning conflicts, host environment disparities, and/or input parameter requirements. Thus, the RTC file package can include streamlined data necessary for a real time collaboration to be executed. The RTC component can utilize a signature component that can incorporate a signature and/or security mechanism into the RTC file package. Such signature and/or security mechanism can be utilized to authenticate and/or verify an origin for the RTC file package. Thus, an RTC file package associated with a user and/or a session can be validated prior to utilizing the RTC file package to initiate the real time collaboration. Moreover, the RTC file package can be an agnostic flexible file format that can invoke a family of applications utilized for real time communications. In other aspects of the claimed subject matter, methods are provided that facilitate creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. The following description and the annexed drawings set forth in detail certain illustrative aspects of the claimed subject matter. These aspects are indicative, however, of but a few of the various ways in which the principles of the innovation may be employed and the claimed subject matter is intended to include all such aspects and their equivalents. Other advantages and novel features of the claimed subject matter will become apparent from the following detailed description of the innovation when considered in conjunction with the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary system that facilitates employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary system that facilitates creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary system that facilitates employing an RTC file package to seamlessly communicate with a server for real time collaboration session. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary system that facilitates implementing an RTC file package to seamlessly communicate with a server for real time collaboration session via a browser. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of exemplary system that facilitates providing real time communications between two or more users independent of varying client application versions. FIG. 6 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary system that facilitates employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary methodology for creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary methodology that facilitates providing real time communications between two or more users independent of varying client application versions. FIG. 9 illustrates an exemplary networking environment, wherein the novel aspects of the claimed subject matter can be employed. FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary operating environment that can be employed in accordance with the claimed subject matter. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As utilized herein, terms “component,” “package,” “interface,” “server,” “data store,” “browser,” and the like are intended to refer to a computer-related entity, either hardware, software (e.g., in execution), and/or firmware. For example, a component can be a process running on a processor, a processor, an object, an executable, a program, a function, a library, a subroutine, and/or a computer or a combination of software and hardware. By way of illustration, both an application running on a server and the server can be a component. One or more components can reside within a process and a component can be localized on one computer and/or distributed between two or more computers. Now turning to the figures, FIG. 1 illustrates a system 100 that facilitates employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. The system 100 can utilize an agnostic file format and/or file package, such as an RTC file package 104, in order to initiate and employ a real time collaboration session between at least two or more clients independent of versions for client application(s). The system 100 can include a real time collaboration (RTC) component 102 that can receive a portion of data via an interface component 106 (discussed below) in order to create the RTC file package 104. In particular, the portion of data received by the RTC component 102 can relate to a client application, an environment that hosts the client application, and/or any other suitable data related to a client application. Such portion of data received can be incorporated into the RTC file package 104, wherein the RTC file package 104 can be utilized to seamlessly enable a real time collaboration session. In general, the RTC component 102 can create the RTC file package 104 to facilitate implementing a real time collaboration session with a client application between two or more clients independent of versioning issues between such client applications. Thus, the RTC component 102 can employ real time collaborations with disparate versions of client applications in a seamless manner by utilizing the RTC file package 104. For example, various client applications with differing versions can be utilized for real time collaboration sessions. Thus, difficulties can arise with implementing real time collaboration between a first client having a first version of a client application and a second client with a second version of the similar client application. For instance, a video conferencing application can include numerous versions and/or firmware upgrades with respective compatibility issues. Furthermore, each client can include specific environments and/or operating systems. Generally, the RTC component 102 can employ real time collaboration sessions across varying/disparate host environments (e.g., machines, computers, operating systems, hardware, etc.) and/or client application versions. Thus, by utilizing the RTC file package 104 seamless real time collaboration sessions between various versions and/or environments can be allowed. The RTC component 102 can be utilized with a plurality of client applications, wherein the client applications can be any suitable application or software related to real time communications for collaboration between two or more clients. As discussed, the client applications can include numerous versions and can be hosted by a plurality of host environments (e.g., machines, computers, local locations, remote locations, operating environments, operating systems, etc.). Furthermore, the client application(s) can receive various types of input parameters, wherein such input parameters can be further included in the RTC file package 104. It is to be appreciated that the client application can be any suitable client application that can employ real time communications and/or collaborations via the Internet between two or more clients. For example, the client application can provide real time collaboration sessions for various modalities such as, but not limited to, audio communications, video communications, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) communications, instant messaging communications, desktop sharing communications, file sharing communications, etc. In one example, the system 100 can utilize the RTC file package 104 to invoke any suitable client application through multipurpose Internet mail Extension (MIME) association and remain true to a vision of unified communication (e.g., by employing the RTC file package 104 as an agnostic file format to implement for real time communication). The RTC component 102 can utilize the RTC file package 104 to invoke a corresponding client application with a correct behavior/modality based on the specifics of thereof. Moreover, the RTC file package 104 can include any suitable input parameters associated with the client application. For example, the RTC file package 104 can specify the modality of the communication based on defining the client application for real time collaboration, wherein such modality can be at least one of launch chat application for chat, launch video conferring application for video meeting, launch application sharing software for application sharing, etc. In addition, the system 100 can include any suitable and/or necessary interface component 106 (herein referred to as “interface 106”), which provides various adapters, connectors, channels, communication paths, etc. to integrate the RTC component 102 into virtually any operating and/or database system(s) and/or with one another. In addition, the interface 106 can provide various adapters, connectors, channels, communication paths, etc., that provide for interaction with the RTC component 102, RTC file package 104 and any other device and/or component associated with the system 100. FIG. 2 illustrates a system 200 that facilitates creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. The system 200 can include the RTC component 102 that can employ the RTC file package 104 that specifies definitions and/or signatures related to client applications and/or environments to facilitate seamless real time collaborating. The RTC file package 104 can define at least one of a client application, a client application version, an environment related to a client application, a modality associated with a client application, at least one input parameter related to the client application, and/or any other suitable data that can be utilized to implement the client application. In general, the RTC file package 104 can be an application agnostic flexible portion of collected data that can invoke a family of real time collaboration applications (e.g., client applications). The RTC file package 104 can further facilitate routing of inputs. In particular, the RTC component 102 can utilize MIME association with the RTC file package 104 to enable application agnostic routing. The RTC file package 104 can further include data to identify a client application to launch and to perform an intended purpose (e.g., initiate a chat, utilize a video conference, etc.). The RTC component 102 can utilize an evaluation component 202 that can collect client specific data to create the RTC file package 104. For example, the evaluation component 202 can evaluate existing client applications associated with a client, an environment associated with a client (e.g., an operating system, a computer, input devices, display devices, graphic cards, memory, processor, etc.), a client preference (e.g., available client application listing, security preference, digital signature details, communication settings, collaboration preferences, optimal and/or default settings, etc.), a versioning associated with a client application, a hardware/software configuration, input parameters associated with a particular client application, and/or any other data related to the system 200. For instance, the evaluation component 202 can identify and/or collect data to enable the RTC file package 104 to a) invoke a particular application from a family of client applications related to real time collaboration and/or b) automatic routing of the data associated with the client application. The gathered information from the evaluation component 202 can be utilized by a build component 204 to generate the RTC file package 104 accordingly. In other words, the build component 204 can create the RTC file package 104 based at least in part upon the specific details collected from the evaluation component 202. Therefore, each client with particular client applications, client application versions, hosting environments, etc. can include client-specific RTC file packages in order to facilitate seamless employment of real time collaboration sessions. The build component 204 can create the RTC file package 104 to include information that identifies which client application to launch and/or utilize for a real time collaboration session. Moreover, the build component 204 can compose the RTC file package 104 with information for the identified application to perform a desired purpose and/or functionality. For example, the build component 204 can create the RTC file package 104 to include information that defines a particular client application to employ, and any additional information necessary for the client application to perform and/or be utilized (e.g., input parameters, settings configurations, client information, invitee information, etc.). The RTC component 102 can also utilize a signature component 206 that can include a signature for the RTC file package 104 in order to validate its origin. The signature component 206 can incorporate a security mechanism such as a signature for the RTC file package 104 in order to ensure integrity and/or origin which defer possible malicious input attempts. The signature component 206 can provide verifiability of RTC file package 104 origin. For example, a first RTC file package can be created based upon evaluating client A's environment and/or client applications. The signature component 206 can incorporate a signature for the first RTC file package in order to ensure integrity and origin of such real time collaboration definition data (e.g., the RTC file package). In particular, the signature component 206 can incorporate information for a router (not shown) to validate its origin prior to passing the package to a target application. In another example, the signature of the RTC file package can be validated by a server (not shown), the RTC component 102, a browser (not shown), and/or any other suitable component and/or device that can validate the origin of data. The system 200 can further include a data store 208 that can include any suitable data related to the RTC component 102, RTC file package 104, the interface 106, the evaluation component 202, the build component 204, the signature component 206, etc. For example, the data store 208 can include, but not limited to including, client applications, client application versioning data, client settings, client preferences, client application listings, real time collaboration preferences, client environments, host environments, server settings, browser settings, a portion of the RTC file package 104, a plurality of RTC file packages, data collected and/or gathered from the evaluation component 202, RTC file package build data, signature data, origin data, and/or any other suitable data related to the generation of the RTC file package 104 and/or employment of a real time collaboration session. It is to be appreciated that the data store 208 can be, for example, either volatile memory or nonvolatile memory, or can include both volatile and nonvolatile memory. By way of illustration, and not limitation, nonvolatile memory can include read only memory (ROM), programmable ROM (PROM), electrically programmable ROM (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM), or flash memory. Volatile memory can include random access memory (RAM), which acts as external cache memory. By way of illustration and not limitation, RAM is available in many forms such as static RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM), synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), enhanced SDRAM (ESDRAM), Synchlink DRAM (SLDRAM), Rambus direct RAM (RDRAM), direct Rambus dynamic RAM (DRDRAM), and Rambus dynamic RAM (RDRAM). The data store 208 of the subject systems and methods is intended to comprise, without being limited to, these and any other suitable types of memory. In addition, it is to be appreciated that the data store 208 can be a server, a database, a hard drive, a pen drive, an external hard drive, a portable hard drive, and the like. FIG. 3 illustrates a system 300 that facilitates employing an RTC file package to seamlessly communicate with a server for real time collaboration session. The system 300 can include the RTC component 102 that can enable seamless implementation of real time collaboration between two or more clients utilizing the RTC file package 104. As discussed, the RTC component 102 can create the RTC file package 104 which can define a client application to employ for real time collaboration, a type of modality and/or functionality to employ for the real time collaboration (e.g., based upon the client application defined, audio, video, instant messaging, etc.), and various versioning information related to the client application and/or environment. The RTC file package 104 can be utilized by a server 302 to initiate a real time collaboration session 304. In particular, the server 302 can receive the RTC file package 104 to identify at least one of a client application to utilize for the real time collaboration session, a versioning associated with the client application, an input parameter associated with the client application identified, and/or a particular modality to utilize for the real time collaboration. By utilizing the RTC file package 104, the server 302 can enable a seamless interaction between numerous clients within the real time collaboration session 304 utilizing each client's respective RTC file package of data. For example, user A can initiate a real time collaboration with user B, wherein each user can include corresponding RTC file package data that can be utilized by the server 302 for compatibility and seamless employment of the real time collaboration session 304. In other words, the RTC file package for each participant within the real time collaboration session 304 can provide any suitable data (e.g., client application type, modality of collaboration, input parameters for the collaboration, invitee information, validity of RTC file package origin, etc.) regardless of disparate versions, environments, locations, etc. of participants. For example the RTC file package 104 can be utilized by a client application that enables live conferencing with real time audio, video, instant messaging, etc. The RTC file package 104 can include at least a portion of the following data in order to employ a real time collaboration: <Param authPasword =“” /> <Param authTicket =“” /> <Param authUserName =“” /> <Param customAiccSid =“” /> <Param customExtra1 =“” /> <Param customExtra2 =“” /> <Param customExtra3 =“” /> <Param customSource =“” /> <Param isLobby = “”/> <Param role = “”/> <Param meetingEndTime =“” /> <Param meetingID =“” /> <Param meetingPassword =“” /> <Param meetingStartTime =“” /> <Param meetingSubject =“” /> <Param recordingAgreement =“” /> <Param startURI =“” /> <Param userCompany =“” /> <Param userDisplayName =“” /> <Param userEmail =“” /> Moreover, it is to be appreciated that there can be various versions of the RTC file package 104 included within itself in order to universally applicable for real time collaborations. For instance, the RTC file package 104 can include an extensible markup language (XML) version as a cue for an XML parser (not shown) used by a router and/or an application. The RTC file package 104 can further include a version as a cure for supportability for a router. In another example, the RTC file package 104 can include a server version as a cure for a router to pick up a target application in case of multiple versions of the application residing side-by-side. Additionally, the RTC file package 104 can include a server authentication ticket as a technique to allow a router to “call home” and verify the integrity of the originating server. Furthermore, the RTC file package 104 can include a modality as a cue for a router to pick up and/or launch an application that can handle a desired real time communication mode (e.g., audio, video, chat, instant messaging, etc.). FIG. 4 illustrates a system 400 that facilitates implementing an RTC file package to seamlessly communicate with a server for real time collaboration session via a browser. The system 400 mitigates complications associated with employing a real time communication and/or collaboration between clients with differing versions of real time collaboration client applications. The system 400 can include the RTC component 102 that can receive data via the interface 106 in order to generate the RTC file package 104 which includes client application identifying data, client application versioning data, environment specifying data, input parameters data, modality defining data, and/or any other suitable data that can be utilized to implement a real time collaboration. In general, it is to be appreciated that the RTC file package 104 can enhance online collaboration between clients by providing an agnostic file package that is flexible with sufficient data to employ real time communications. The RTC file package 104 can be utilized by a browser 402 to employ the real time collaboration session 304 via the server 302. For example, the browser 402 can be any suitable browsing application and/or software that can enable interaction and/or display of text, images, and/or other information located on a website, the Internet, the World Wide Web, and/or a local area network. The browser 402 can utilize the RTC file package 104 in order to identify a client application to launch for real time communications, a modality associated with the real time communication, input parameters for the real time communication, and/or a signature and/or verification of the RTC file package 104 origin. With the agnostic and flexible RTC file package 104, the real time collaboration session 304 can be utilized independent of file format, application versioning, and/or environment characteristics for each client. The browser 402 can further utilize the server 302 to initiate the real time collaboration session 304. FIG. 5 illustrates a system 500 that facilities providing real time communications between two or more users independent of varying client application versions. The system 500 illustrates an exemplary scenario involving at least one client utilizing a real time collaboration application for real time communications. It is to be appreciated that the system 500 can include the RTC component (not shown), the interface (not shown) as described in previous figures. In general, the system 500 can enable at least two clients to seamlessly participate in a real time collaboration with a particular client application regardless of the client application versions, environments, and/or various input parameters. It is to be appreciated that the system 500 is just one example of implementing the subject innovation and that there can be various nuances and/or subtleties which are intended to be included under the scope of the claimed subject matter. For example, the RTC file package can be utilized by a server (as illustrated), a browser, and/or any suitable combination thereof. A client 502 can desire to initiate a real time communication such as a real time collaboration utilizing a client application. An RTC file package can be specifically tailored and created for the client 502. For example, the RTC file package can include data related to any available RTC client applications, input parameters for the client applications, environments hosting a client application, modalities associated with the client application for real time communication, and/or a signature validating origin and/or integrity. The client 502 can request and/or initiate a real time collaboration utilizing the RTC file package to a server 506. The RTC file package can be communicated to an intended participant such as a client 504. In response to the real time collaboration request from client 502, the client 504 can employ his/her respective RTC file package to a server 508. It is to be appreciated that the system 500 is described with client 502 and client 504 being on disparate networks. However, it is to be appreciated that if client 502 and client 504 were on a similar network, there would be a single server receiving respective RTC file package data. The server 506 and the server 508 can communicate and/or utilize the RTC file package data via the Internet 510 in order to employ a real time collaboration session 512. FIG. 6 illustrates a system 600 that employs intelligence to facilitate employing a real time collaboration session utilizing an RTC file package. Accordingly, as illustrated, system 600 can include an intelligent component 602 that can be utilized, for example, to infer RTC file package data, environment settings/characteristics, client application, client application settings, versioning with client application, real time collaboration settings/options, input parameters associated with a client application for real time collaboration, modality associated with client application, client application to launch, etc. The intelligent component 6002 can employ a probabilistic based or statistical based approach, for example, in connection with making determinations or inferences. Inferences can be based in part upon explicit training of classifiers (not shown) before employing system 600, or implicit training based at least in part upon system feedback and/or users previous actions, commands, instructions, and the like during use of the system. The intelligent component 602 can employ any suitable scheme (e.g., neural networks, expert systems, Bayesian belief networks, support vector machines (SVMs), Hidden Markov Models (HMMs), fuzzy logic, data fusion, etc.) in accordance with implementing various automated aspects described herein. Intelligent component 602 can factor historical data, extrinsic data, context, data content, state of the user, and can compute cost of making an incorrect determination or inference versus benefit of making a correct determination or inference. Accordingly, a utility-based analysis can be employed with providing such information to other components or taking automated action. Ranking and confidence measures can also be calculated and employed in connection with such analysis. The RTC component 102 can further utilize a presentation component 604 that provides various types of user interfaces to facilitate interaction between a user and any component coupled to the RTC component 102. As depicted, the presentation component 604 is a separate entity that can be utilized with the RTC component 102. However, it is to be appreciated that the presentation component 604 and/or similar view components can be incorporated into the RTC component 102 and/or a stand-alone unit. The presentation component 604 can provide one or more graphical user interfaces (GUIs), command line interfaces, and the like. For example, a GUI can be rendered that provides a user with a region or means to load, import, read, etc., data, and can include a region to present the results of such. These regions can comprise known text and/or graphic regions comprising dialogue boxes, static controls, drop-down-menus, list boxes, pop-up menus, as edit controls, combo boxes, radio buttons, check boxes, push buttons, and graphic boxes. In addition, utilities to facilitate the presentation such as vertical and/or horizontal scroll bars for navigation and toolbar buttons to determine whether a region will be viewable can be employed. For example, the user can interact with one or more of the components coupled and/or incorporated into the RTC component 102. The user can also interact with the regions to select and provide information via various devices such as a mouse, a roller ball, a keypad, a keyboard, a pen and/or voice activation, for example. Typically, a mechanism such as a push button or the enter key on the keyboard can be employed subsequent entering the information in order to initiate the search. However, it is to be appreciated that the claimed subject matter is not so limited. For example, merely highlighting a check box can initiate information conveyance. In another example, a command line interface can be employed. For example, the command line interface can prompt (e.g., via a text message on a display and an audio tone) the user for information via providing a text message. The user can then provide suitable information, such as alpha-numeric input corresponding to an option provided in the interface prompt or an answer to a question posed in the prompt. It is to be appreciated that the command line interface can be employed in connection with a GUI and/or API. In addition, the command line interface can be employed in connection with hardware (e.g., video cards) and/or displays (e.g., black and white, and EGA) with limited graphic support, and/or low bandwidth communication channels. FIGS. 7-8 illustrate methodologies and/or flow diagrams in accordance with the claimed subject matter. For simplicity of explanation, the methodologies are depicted and described as a series of acts. It is to be understood and appreciated that the subject innovation is not limited by the acts illustrated and/or by the order of acts. For example acts can occur in various orders and/or concurrently, and with other acts not presented and described herein. Furthermore, not all illustrated acts may be required to implement the methodologies in accordance with the claimed subject matter. In addition, those skilled in the art will understand and appreciate that the methodologies could alternatively be represented as a series of interrelated states via a state diagram or events. Additionally, it should be further appreciated that the methodologies disclosed hereinafter and throughout this specification are capable of being stored on an article of manufacture to facilitate transporting and transferring such methodologies to computers. The term article of manufacture, as used herein, is intended to encompass a computer program accessible from any computer-readable device, carrier, or media. FIG. 7 illustrates a method 700 that facilitates creating an RTC file package associated with at least one client application and respective environment. In general, the methodology 700 can create an RTC file package that can enable real time collaboration based upon its agnostic and flexible characteristics. At reference numeral 702, a portion of data related to at least one of a client, a client application, or a client environment can be received. It is to be appreciated that the client applications can be any suitable application or software related to real time communications for collaboration between two or more clients. Thus, the client application can be any suitable client application that can employ real time communications and/or collaborations via the Internet between two or more clients. For example, the client application can provide real time collaboration sessions for various modalities such as, but not limited to, audio communications, video communications, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) communications, instant messaging communications, desktop sharing communications, file sharing communications, etc. At reference numeral 704, an RTC file package can be created based at least in part upon the received portions of data. The RTC file package can include data corresponding to client application, client application versioning, client application modality, client environment, input parameters associated with the client application, client application identification to launch for a real time collaboration, etc. For example, the RTC file package can be created to include information that defines a particular client application to employ, and any additional information necessary for the client application to perform and/or be utilized (e.g., input parameters, settings configurations, client information, invitee information, etc.). At reference numeral 706, a real time collaboration can be employed with the RTC file package, wherein the RTC file package identifies the client application and modality for the real time communication. In other words, the RTC file package can include sufficient data in order to seamlessly initiate a real time collaboration utilizing a client application. For example, the RTC file package can define data such as, a client application to utilize for real time collaboration, a client application version, an environment related to a client application, a modality associated with a client application, at least one input parameter related to the client application, and/or any other suitable data that can be utilized to implement the client application for real time communication. In general, the RTC file package can be an application agnostic flexible portion of collected data that can invoke a family of real time collaboration applications (e.g., client applications). FIG. 8 illustrates a method 800 for utilizing real time communications between two or more users independent of varying client application versions. At reference numeral 802, an RTC file package can be built for a client. For example, a client and respective client applications and/or environment can be evaluated in order to build a client-specific RTC file package. Therefore, each client with particular client applications, client application versions, hosting environments, etc. can include client-specific RTC file packages in order to facilitate seamless employment of real time collaboration sessions. For example, the following can be defined within the RTC file package: existing client applications associated with a client; an environment associated with a client (e.g., an operating system, a computer, input devices, display devices, graphic cards, memory, processor, etc.); a client preference (e.g., available client application listing, security preference, digital signature details, communication settings, collaboration preferences, optimal and/or default settings, etc.); a versioning associated with a client application; a hardware/software configuration; and/or input parameters associated with a particular client application. At reference numeral 804, a signature can be incorporated into the RTC file package for origin authentication. The RTC file package can include the signature in order to validate origin and authenticity of the source of the RTC file package, wherein such signature ensures a particular RTC file package accurately correlates to a specific client. Therefore, prior to exposing a client to a real time communication, the RTC file package can provide a security mechanism that protects data and/or system integrity. At reference numeral 806, the RTC file package can be utilized to enable seamless real time collaboration between two or more clients. The RTC file package can be cracked open to expose data specific to a particular real time collaboration utilizing a client application, wherein such data exposed can provide at least a portion of the following: identification of a client application to utilize for real time collaboration; an input parameter required for real time collaboration utilizing the client application; a modality suggested and/or desired for the real time collaboration; a client application to utilize based on a desired modality; and/or verification of origin utilizing a signature. At reference numeral 808, the at least one of a server, a router, or a browser can be enabled to implement the RTC file package for the real time collaboration. In order to provide additional context for implementing various aspects of the claimed subject matter, FIGS. 9-10 and the following discussion is intended to provide a brief, general description of a suitable computing environment in which the various aspects of the subject innovation may be implemented. For example, an RTC component that facilitates employing a real time collaboration application with an RTC file package, as described in the previous figures, can be implemented in such suitable computing environment. While the claimed subject matter has been described above in the general context of computer-executable instructions of a computer program that runs on a local computer and/or remote computer, those skilled in the art will recognize that the subject innovation also may be implemented in combination with other program modules. Generally, program modules include routines, programs, components, data structures, etc., that perform particular tasks and/or implement particular abstract data types. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the inventive methods may be practiced with other computer system configurations, including single-processor or multi-processor computer systems, minicomputers, mainframe computers, as well as personal computers, hand-held computing devices, microprocessor-based and/or programmable consumer electronics, and the like, each of which may operatively communicate with one or more associated devices. The illustrated aspects of the claimed subject matter may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where certain tasks are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. However, some, if not all, aspects of the subject innovation may be practiced on stand-alone computers. In a distributed computing environment, program modules may be located in local and/or remote memory storage devices. Referring to FIG. 9, there is illustrated a schematic block diagram of an exemplary computing environment 900 for processing the disclosed architecture in accordance with another aspect. The system 900 includes one or more client(s) 9 10. The client(s) 910 can be hardware and/or software (e.g., threads, processes, computing devices). The client(s) 910 can house cookie(s) and/or associated contextual information by employing the claimed subject matter, for example. The system 900 also includes one or more server(s) 920. The server(s) 920 can also be hardware and/or software (e.g., threads, processes, computing devices). The servers 920 can house threads to perform transformations by employing the claimed subject matter, for example. One possible communication between a client 910 and a server 920 can be in the form of a data packet adapted to be transmitted between two or more computer processes. The data packet may include a cookie and/or associated contextual information, for example. The system 900 includes a communication framework 940 (e.g., a global communication network such as the Internet) that can be employed to facilitate communications between the client(s) 910 and the server(s) 920. Communications can be facilitated via a wired (including optical fiber) and/or wireless technology. The client(s) 910 are operatively connected to one or more client data store(s) 950 that can be employed to store information local to the client(s) 910 (e.g., cookie(s) and/or associated contextual information). Similarly, the server(s) 920 are operatively connected to one or more server data store(s) 930 that can be employed to store information local to the servers 920. With reference to FIG. 10, an exemplary environment 1000 for implementing various aspects disclosed herein includes a computer 1012 (e.g., desktop, laptop, server, hand held, programmable consumer or industrial electronics . . . ). The computer 1012 includes a processing unit 1014, a system memory 1016, and a system bus 1018. The system bus 1018 couples system components including, but not limited to, the system memory 1016 to the processing unit 1014. The processing unit 1014 can be any of various available microprocessors. It is to be appreciated that dual microprocessors, multi-core and other multiprocessor architectures can be employed as the processing unit 1014. The system memory 1016 includes volatile and nonvolatile memory. The basic input/output system (BIOS), containing the basic routines to transfer information between elements within the computer 1012, such as during start-up, is stored in nonvolatile memory. By way of illustration, and not limitation, nonvolatile memory can include read only memory (ROM). Volatile memory includes random access memory (RAM), which can act as external cache memory to facilitate processing. Computer 1012 also includes removable/non-removable, volatile/non-volatile computer storage media. FIG. 10 illustrates, for example, mass storage 1020. Mass storage 1020 includes, but is not limited to, devices like a magnetic or optical disk drive, floppy disk drive, flash memory or memory stick. In addition, mass storage 1020 can include storage media separately or in combination with other storage media. FIG. 10 provides software application(s) 1022 that act as an intermediary between users and/or other computers and the basic computer resources described in suitable operating environment 1000. Such software application(s) 1022 include one or both of system and application software. System software can include an operating system, which can be stored on mass storage 1020, that acts to control and allocate resources of the computer system 1012. Application software takes advantage of the management of resources by system software through program modules and data stored on either or both of system memory 1016 and mass storage 1020. The computer 1012 also includes one or more interface components 1024 that are communicatively coupled to the bus 1018 and facilitate interaction with the computer 1012. By way of example, the interface component 1024 can be a port (e.g., serial, parallel, PCMCIA, USB, FireWire . . . ) or an interface card (e.g., sound, video, network . . . ) or the like. The interface component 1024 can receive input and provide output (wired or wirelessly). For instance, input can be received from devices including but not limited to, a pointing device such as a mouse, trackball, stylus, touch pad, keyboard, microphone, joystick, game pad, satellite dish, scanner, camera, other computer and the like. Output can also be supplied by the computer 1012 to output device(s) via interface component 1024. Output devices can include displays (e.g., CRT, LCD, plasma . . . ), speakers, printers and other computers, among other things. What has been described above includes examples of the subject innovation. It is, of course, not possible to describe every conceivable combination of components or methodologies for purposes of describing the claimed subject matter, but one of ordinary skill in the art may recognize that many further combinations and permutations of the subject innovation are possible. Accordingly, the claimed subject matter is intended to embrace all such alterations, modifications, and variations that fall within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. In particular and in regard to the various functions performed by the above described components, devices, circuits, systems and the like, the terms (including a reference to a “means”) used to describe such components are intended to correspond, unless otherwise indicated, to any component which performs the specified function of the described component (e.g., a functional equivalent), even though not structurally equivalent to the disclosed structure, which performs the function in the herein illustrated exemplary aspects of the claimed subject matter. In this regard, it will also be recognized that the innovation includes a system as well as a computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions for performing the acts and/or events of the various methods of the claimed subject matter. There are multiple ways of implementing the present innovation, e.g., an appropriate API, tool kit, driver code, operating system, control, standalone or downloadable software object, etc. which enables applications and services to use the advertising techniques of the invention. The claimed subject matter contemplates the use from the standpoint of an API (or other software object), as well as from a software or hardware object that operates according to the advertising techniques in accordance with the invention. Thus, various implementations of the innovation described herein may have aspects that are wholly in hardware, partly in hardware and partly in software, as well as in software. The aforementioned systems have been described with respect to interaction between several components. It can be appreciated that such systems and components can include those components or specified sub-components, some of the specified components or sub-components, and/or additional components, and according to various permutations and combinations of the foregoing. Sub-components can also be implemented as components communicatively coupled to other components rather than included within parent components (hierarchical). Additionally, it should be noted that one or more components may be combined into a single component providing aggregate functionality or divided into several separate sub-components, and any one or more middle layers, such as a management layer, may be provided to communicatively couple to such sub-components in order to provide integrated functionality. Any components described herein may also interact with one or more other components not specifically described herein but generally known by those of skill in the art. In addition, while a particular feature of the subject innovation may have been disclosed with respect to only one of several implementations, such feature may be combined with one or more other features of the other implementations as may be desired and advantageous for any given or particular application. Furthermore, to the extent that the terms “includes,” “including,” “has,” “contains,” variants thereof, and other similar words are used in either the detailed description or the claims, these terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising” as an open transition word without precluding any additional or other elements.
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G
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15
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16
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11833018
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US20080126318A1-20080529
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Method and Apparatus for Remotely Monitoring a Social Website
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ACCEPTED
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20080514
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20080529
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[]
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G06F15173
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["G06F15173", "G06F1730"]
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9858341
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20070802
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20180102
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707
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010000
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66381.0
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MITIKU
|
BERHANU
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Frankovitz", "inventor_name_first": "Jason", "inventor_city": "Los Angeles", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A computer method, apparatus, system and computer program product for remotely monitoring a social website includes monitoring user activity (events) and producing user activity data. The resulting data may be processed separately from the social website. The processed user activity data may be stored and information indicative of the data may be reported. Monitoring user activity may be in response to a call from a social website. Thus, a plurality of websites may be monitored and data from these websites may be normalized. Remotely monitoring a plurality of social websites allows the invention system to identify activity/data trends, such as individual or group user trends, or larger societal trends identifiable across the plurality of websites. The invention may monitor user activity in a substantially real-time manner or alternatively may store indicative user activity data for later processing. User activity data may also be encrypted/decrypted and/or authenticated to ensure data integrity.
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1. A method to remotely monitor a social website, comprising: monitoring user activity on a remote social website, resulting in user activity data; processing the user activity data separate from the social website; storing the processed user activity data; and reporting information indicative of the processed user activity data. 2. The method according to claim 1 wherein monitoring user activity is in response to a call from the social website triggered by user activity at the social website. 3. The method according to claim 2 wherein the call is an API call. 4. The method according to claim 1 wherein monitoring includes polling a monitoring service installed on the remote social website periodically, aperiodically, or on an event driven basis. 5. The method according to claim 1 wherein the step of monitoring effectively logs or records user activity. 6. The method according to claim 5 wherein user activity data is represented in the form of a uniform resource locator (URL). 7. The method according to claim 1 wherein processing includes parsing the user activity data from at least one social website and normalizing the parsed user activity data. 8. The method according to claim 1 wherein storing includes storing the processed results in a centralized, searchable data store. 9. The method according to claim 1 wherein processing includes performing on-the-fly analysis of the user activity data. 10. The method according to claim 1 further including querying a classification service (CS) prior to displaying a requested web page at the social website, wherein the CS determines user target information. 11. The method according to claim 1 wherein reporting includes communicating the stored processed user activity data to a third-party location. 12. The method according to claim 1 wherein monitoring includes locally tracking and accumulating user activity at the social website and communicating the resulting user activity data to a classification service (CS), wherein the CS determines user target information periodically, aperiodically, or on an event-driven basis. 13. The method according to claim 1 wherein reporting includes reporting user activity data represented by metadata. 14. The method according to claim 1 wherein reporting includes generating a targeted advertisement based on user activity data. 15. The method according to claim 1 wherein reporting includes communicating data representative of user activity to an advertisement server. 16. The method according to claim 1 wherein processing includes processing user activity data in a substantially real-time manner. 17. The method of claim 1 wherein the method remotely monitors a plurality of social websites. 18. The method of claim 1 wherein the social website is a website allowing use of tagging or bookmarking associated with website content. 19. An apparatus to remotely monitor a social website, comprising: a monitoring unit configured to monitor user activity on a remote social website, resulting in user activity data; a processing unit configured to process the user activity data separate from the social website; a storage unit configured to store the processed user activity data; and a reporting unit configured to report information indicative of the processed user activity data. 20. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the monitoring unit is configured to monitor user activity in response to a call from the social website triggered by user activity at the social website. 21. The apparatus according to claim 20 wherein the call is an Application Programming Interface (API) call. 22. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the monitoring unit configured to poll a monitor service installed on the remote social website on a periodic, aperiodic, or event-driven basis. 23. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein monitoring unit configured to effectively log or record user activity. 24. The apparatus according to claim 23 wherein user activity data is represented in the form of a uniform resource locator (URL). 25. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the processing unit is configured to parse the user activity data from at least one social website and normalize the parsed user activity data. 26. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the storage unit is configured to store the processed results in a centralized, searchable data store. 27. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the processing unit is configured to perform on-the-fly analysis of the user activity data. 28. The apparatus according to claim 19 further including a querying unit configured to query a classification service (CS) prior to displaying a requested web page at the social website, wherein the CS determines user target information. 29. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the reporting unit is configured to communicate the stored processed user activity data to a third-party location. 30. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the monitoring unit is configured locally track and accumulate user activity at the social website and communicate the user activity data to a classification service (CS), wherein the CS determines user target information on a periodic, aperiodic, or event-driven basis. 31. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the reporting unit is configured to report user activity data represented by metadata. 32. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the reporting unit is configured to generate a targeted advertisement based on user activity data. 33. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the reporting unit is configured to report data representative of user activity to an advertisement server. 34. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the processing unit is configured to process user activity data in a substantially real-time manner. 35. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the apparatus is configured to remotely monitor a plurality of social websites. 36. The apparatus according to claim 19 wherein the social website is a website where users associate a tag or bookmark with website content. 37. A computer program product for remotely monitoring a social website, the computer program product comprising a computer readable medium having computer readable instructions stored thereon, which, when loaded and executed by a processor, causes the processor to: monitor user activity on a remote social website, resulting in user activity data; process the user activity data separate from the social website; store the processed user activity data; and report information indicative of the processed user activity data. 38. A system to remotely monitor a social website, comprising: means for monitoring user activity on a remote social website, resulting in user activity data; means for processing the user activity data separate from the social web site; means for storing the processed user activity data; and means for reporting information indicative of the processed user activity data.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The amount of time that consumers spend on the Internet has steadily increased, as has the variety of web content, such that the Internet is often the first place many people turn to when searching for information, news, or entertainment. Consumers use a variety of methods to search for desired information on the Internet such as entering terms in a search engine. When a site of interest is found, users often times will bookmark the site to facilitate return visits. Over time, a user may develop a list of relevant sites based on a number of different topics. However, the constantly increasing number of websites has increased the time and effort it takes to weed through relevant websites. Social networks provide another method for consumers to more quickly locate websites of interest. One example of social websites are social bookmark sites where users share their bookmarks with other users. The user will save bookmarks or tags associated with a web page of interest at the bookmark website. Users may also “tag” a website by associating a term or label with the website allowing the categorization of different sites based on the tag. Thus, rather than using a search engine where software alone searches for a website based on content, social bookmark sites effectively use human beings (i.e., the users themselves) to rate and sort websites. Consequently, because a user found a webpage relevant enough to bookmark or tag, websites based on a particular topic are likely to be more relevant than software generated searches. Users may search other users' bookmarks based on the topic they are interested in to quickly locate relevant web sites. In addition, the very nature of a user's bookmarking and tagging behavior inherently identifies a user's interest in particular topics—much more than current methods which rely on page content, often, a simple “keyword presence” or in some cases, a more sophisticated linguistic processing of the page the user is viewing. Furthermore, while the user may arrive at a page of interest, most techniques do little to “know” the actual intentions of the user. While there are some techniques that try to deduce actual intention by performing tracking on a user's past behavior, they do so on the basis of identifying which pages have already been browsed by the user, thereby assuming that viewing a page indicates significant personal interest in the topics on that page where no such significant interest may actually exist.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention addresses the foregoing problems in the prior art. In particular, the invention provides a method and apparatus for remotely monitoring a social website for the purpose of centrally aggregating activity. In a preferred embodiment, the inventive computer implemented method and system for remotely monitoring a social website comprises (a) monitoring user activity on a remote social website that results in user activity data, (b) processing the user activity data separately from the social website that is being monitored, and (c) storing the processed user activity data. Information indicative of the processed user activity data may be reported. In accordance with an example embodiment of the invention, monitoring user activity may be a response to a call from the social website triggered by user activity at the social website, for example, an application programming interface (API) call. Alternatively, the system may monitor user activity by polling a monitoring service installed on the remote social website on a periodic, aperiodic, or event driven basis. Monitoring may effectively log or record user activity, and may be further represented in the form of a uniform resource locator (URL). In accordance with another example embodiment, the invention may parse user activity data from a plurality of social websites and then “normalize” or “standardize” the parsed user activity data. The processed results may be stored in, for example, a searchable data store such as a database. The results from the plurality of websites may also be centralized in a common database. Processing user activity data may include performing on-the-fly analysis of the data or the data may be stored and analyzed at a later time. In another embodiment, a classification system (CS) may be queried prior to displaying a requested web page at the social website. The classification system determines user target information as a part of the invention processing user activity data. A report may be communicated to a remote third-party or back to the social website, and may communicate the stored processed user activity data. In accordance with yet another example embodiment, user activity may be monitored by locally tracking and accumulating user activity at the social website. The accumulated activity may be communicated to a classification service (CS), and may be performed in a substantially real-time manner, or in a periodic, aperiodic, or event driven basis. The classification system determines user target information as a part of the invention processing user activity data. The reported user activity data may be in the form of metadata, and may take the form of, for example, user ID, timestamp information, IP address, etc. According to one example embodiment of the invention the report may include communicating data representative of other user activity to a third party, such as an advertisement server. According to another embodiment, communicated information may be encrypted prior to communicating or transmitting the data, and may similarly be decrypted at a receiving location. In addition, or alternatively, data may also be authenticated in order to, for example, circumvent requests from unauthorized third parties. In another embodiment, user activity data may be processed in a substantially real-time manner. The invention may remotely monitor a plurality of social websites, where, for example, tagging all bookmarking website content by the user is allowed.
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RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/835,257, filed on Aug. 2, 2006. The entire teachings of the above application(s) are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The amount of time that consumers spend on the Internet has steadily increased, as has the variety of web content, such that the Internet is often the first place many people turn to when searching for information, news, or entertainment. Consumers use a variety of methods to search for desired information on the Internet such as entering terms in a search engine. When a site of interest is found, users often times will bookmark the site to facilitate return visits. Over time, a user may develop a list of relevant sites based on a number of different topics. However, the constantly increasing number of websites has increased the time and effort it takes to weed through relevant websites. Social networks provide another method for consumers to more quickly locate websites of interest. One example of social websites are social bookmark sites where users share their bookmarks with other users. The user will save bookmarks or tags associated with a web page of interest at the bookmark website. Users may also “tag” a website by associating a term or label with the website allowing the categorization of different sites based on the tag. Thus, rather than using a search engine where software alone searches for a website based on content, social bookmark sites effectively use human beings (i.e., the users themselves) to rate and sort websites. Consequently, because a user found a webpage relevant enough to bookmark or tag, websites based on a particular topic are likely to be more relevant than software generated searches. Users may search other users' bookmarks based on the topic they are interested in to quickly locate relevant web sites. In addition, the very nature of a user's bookmarking and tagging behavior inherently identifies a user's interest in particular topics—much more than current methods which rely on page content, often, a simple “keyword presence” or in some cases, a more sophisticated linguistic processing of the page the user is viewing. Furthermore, while the user may arrive at a page of interest, most techniques do little to “know” the actual intentions of the user. While there are some techniques that try to deduce actual intention by performing tracking on a user's past behavior, they do so on the basis of identifying which pages have already been browsed by the user, thereby assuming that viewing a page indicates significant personal interest in the topics on that page where no such significant interest may actually exist. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses the foregoing problems in the prior art. In particular, the invention provides a method and apparatus for remotely monitoring a social website for the purpose of centrally aggregating activity. In a preferred embodiment, the inventive computer implemented method and system for remotely monitoring a social website comprises (a) monitoring user activity on a remote social website that results in user activity data, (b) processing the user activity data separately from the social website that is being monitored, and (c) storing the processed user activity data. Information indicative of the processed user activity data may be reported. In accordance with an example embodiment of the invention, monitoring user activity may be a response to a call from the social website triggered by user activity at the social website, for example, an application programming interface (API) call. Alternatively, the system may monitor user activity by polling a monitoring service installed on the remote social website on a periodic, aperiodic, or event driven basis. Monitoring may effectively log or record user activity, and may be further represented in the form of a uniform resource locator (URL). In accordance with another example embodiment, the invention may parse user activity data from a plurality of social websites and then “normalize” or “standardize” the parsed user activity data. The processed results may be stored in, for example, a searchable data store such as a database. The results from the plurality of websites may also be centralized in a common database. Processing user activity data may include performing on-the-fly analysis of the data or the data may be stored and analyzed at a later time. In another embodiment, a classification system (CS) may be queried prior to displaying a requested web page at the social website. The classification system determines user target information as a part of the invention processing user activity data. A report may be communicated to a remote third-party or back to the social website, and may communicate the stored processed user activity data. In accordance with yet another example embodiment, user activity may be monitored by locally tracking and accumulating user activity at the social website. The accumulated activity may be communicated to a classification service (CS), and may be performed in a substantially real-time manner, or in a periodic, aperiodic, or event driven basis. The classification system determines user target information as a part of the invention processing user activity data. The reported user activity data may be in the form of metadata, and may take the form of, for example, user ID, timestamp information, IP address, etc. According to one example embodiment of the invention the report may include communicating data representative of other user activity to a third party, such as an advertisement server. According to another embodiment, communicated information may be encrypted prior to communicating or transmitting the data, and may similarly be decrypted at a receiving location. In addition, or alternatively, data may also be authenticated in order to, for example, circumvent requests from unauthorized third parties. In another embodiment, user activity data may be processed in a substantially real-time manner. The invention may remotely monitor a plurality of social websites, where, for example, tagging all bookmarking website content by the user is allowed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing will be apparent from the following more particular description of example embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating embodiments of the invention. FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of an alternative example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of another alternative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating different components of a remote monitor system embodying the present invention. FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration depicting dataflow according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration depicting dataflow according to an alternative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a computer network environment in which the principles of the invention may be implemented. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of the internal structure of a computer from the FIG. 7 computer network environment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A description of example embodiments of the invention follows. The popularity of social networks and social bookmarking websites has grown dramatically such that they now number in the hundreds. The higher the number and variety of users a social bookmark site attracts, the more likely relevant websites will be found. However, recent analysis of a number of social websites has revealed that large number of bookmarks and tags are from a disproportionately small number of highly active users, thus, potentially skewing a particular website's effectiveness across the general public. To make better use of social networks, it would be useful to remotely monitor and centrally aggregate social websites to provide a larger number and variety of user bookmarks and tags from which to derive and analyze user activity thereby improving trend identification and targeting advertisements. A user's bookmark and tag information may be valuable as market research data. For example, a user who has bookmarked or tagged digital photography sites would be of interest to photographic equipment suppliers. Furthermore, as discussed above, aggregating user activity data across the large number of social websites would facilitate the identification of user and societal trends. For example, if webpages associated with the term “water parks” are bookmarked/tagged at a high frequency, ads displayed to users with those bookmarks could command an additional cost premium. The current invention provides a technique for remotely monitoring one or more social websites 410 (FIG. 4) where the resulting user activity data is processed and stored remotely, i.e., separately from the social website 410. To monitor user activity data or “events” on a remote social website 410, the technique may install a small amount of software code into the social website's operating code. The code generates a specially-formed “Observer” uniform resource locator (URL) that is sent to a remote monitor 415 when an event occurs. The parameters in the Observer URL describe the event that a user 405 performs on the social website 410. The monitoring process tracks multiple kinds of bookmark and tag events, so the code may be installed in the subject social website's code where those events actually happen and may be invoked using, for example, UNIX's “curl”, “lynx”, or “wget” programs, or any compatible application that can reliably generate a standards-compliant HTTP GET query. The format of the Observer URL may be as follows: http://obl.seethroo.us:8000/event/lg?user=a&bookmark=b&title=c&tag-d&eve nt=e&ipnum-f×tamp=g&sting=h&site=i&adtag=j Each parameter of the Observer URL holds a different piece of information about the event being monitored. The letters ‘a’ through ‘j’ in the example Observer URL above will be replaced with actual values when installing it on the social website's server, such as the following: In user=a, the “a” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) user ID of the person performing the event. For example, if the user is “jsmith”, the parameter would be “user=jsmith”. The monitoring process does not require an actual user name any unique identifier that is consistently associated with the same user on the social website is permitted. For example, if the user is “jsmith” and a unique ID for jsmith is 05b7f505fb63e9737ddcfce86d8ca2a97d21654f, the parameter would be “user=05b7f505fb63e9737dd1fce86d8ca2a97d21654f”. In bookmark=b, the “b” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) URL of the bookmark involved in the event, if any. If the event is exclusively tag-related (see below) and there is no bookmark involved, the parameter is left blank in one embodiment. For example: if the bookmark is “http://www.cnn.com/health”, the parameter would be “bookmark=http%3A//www.cnn.com/health” In title=c, the “c” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) title of the bookmark involved in the event. If the event is exclusively tag-related (see below) and there is no bookmark title involved, the parameter is left blank in one embodiment. For example, if the title is “CNN.com—Health”, the parameter would be “title=CNN.com%20-%20Health”. In tag=d, the “d” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) tag (or comma-separated list of tags) involved in the event. If the event is exclusively bookmark-related (see below) and there is no tag involved, the parameter is left blank in one embodiment. If there is only one tag, the trailing comma may be omitted. For example, if there are three tags named “news, health, exercise”, the parameter would be “tag=news %2Chealth%2Cexercise”. If there is one tag named “microsoft”, the parameter would be “tag=microsoft”. In event=e, the “e” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) text describing what the event is and may include a variety of event-specific tokens, such as these examples: add_bkmk (used when a new bookmark is added to the user's account) click_bkmk (used when the user clicks on one of their bookmarks) del_bkmk (used when the user erases a bookmark) add_tag (used when the user first adds a tag onto a bookmarks), or to their account in general) view_tag (used when the user views bookmarks assigned with the same tag) del_tag (used when the user erases a tag from a bookmark or their account) search (used when a search is performed, either of the user's own bookmarks/tags or across the entire social website) import (used when the user uploads or imports their bookmarks) For example, if the user is adding a bookmark to his account, the parameter would be “event=add_bkmk.” Users may also import large files containing several bookmarks. In ipnum=f, the “f” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) IP number of the remote host using the social website. For example, if the user's remote computer has an IP number of “207.69.101.5”, the parameter would be “ipnum=207.69.101.5”. In timestamp=g, the “g” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) timestamp of when the event occurred, using any suitable format, such as the ISO8601 format. The timestamp “Sat Sep 02 2006 00:21:13 GMT-0400 (EDT)” would be “2006-09-02T00:21:13-04:00” in ISO8601 format, for example. Thus, if the event has a timestamp of “Sat Sep 02 2006 00:21:13 GMT-0400 (EDT)” the parameter would be “timestamp=2006-09-02T00%3A21%3A13-04%3A00. In string-h, the “h” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) text the user performed a search on. For example, if the event is “search” and the user performed a search for “electronic arts bond”, the parameter would be “string=electronic%20arts%20bond”. If the event parameter does not indicate a search, then this parameter may be left blank. In site=i, the “i” may be replaced with the escaped (Web-safe) id of the social website. For example, if the website is “Connectedy.com”, the parameter would be “site=connectedy.” As in the user parameter (above), the monitoring process does not require the actual name of the social website—any unique identifier that is consistently associated with the same social website is permitted. In adtag=j, the “j” may be replaced with any value, including “y” or “n”, indicating that a targeted ad should be sent back to the social website after the Observer URL has been processed by the monitoring server. Thus, using the above examples, the complete TJRL could look like the following: http://obl.seethroo.us:8000/event/lg?user=05b7f505fb63e9737dd1fce86d8ca2a97d21654f&bookmark=http%3A//www.cnn.com/health&title=CNN.com%20-%20Health&tag=news%2Chealth%2Cexercise&event=add_bkmk&ipnum=207.6 9.101.5×tamp=2006-09-02T0003A21%3A13-04%3A00&string=&site-connectedy&adtag=y In this manner, the event of “adding a new bookmark” on the social website may be monitored by performing the following sequence of actions: 1. A developer locates the specific commands in the social website's 410 program code that are invoked when a user 405 adds a new bookmark to his account. 2. Immediately preceding or following these commands, the developer edits the program to insert an additional command. This additional command, when executed, sends the Observer URL to the remote monitor 415. The exact command used to send the Observer URL is dependent on the programming language and web serving environment used by the social website 410. 3. The developer associates each parameter in the Observer URL with whatever specific variables are used by the social website 410 to describe the event. For example, the parameter in the Observer URL that holds the name of the bookmark is called “title”. If the subject social website's code normally uses “$bookmark_name” to represent this, the developer would edit the Observer URL to say “title=$bookmark_name”. Note that the specifics of this will also vary, depending on the programming language and web serving environment used by the social website 410. 4. The developer repeats this process, adding the Observer URL to each place in the program code that performs each of the events that the remote monitor tracks, and adding the correct names of variables used by the social website 410 that match the Observer URL's parameters. 5. Once the command that sends the Observer URL to the remote monitor 415 has been installed into the correct places in the social website's code, the remote monitor 415 can begin receiving events in real-time from the social website 410. 6. When a user 405 of the social website 410 adds a bookmark to his account, the social website 410 performs the task as normal. At virtually the same moment (either immediately preceding or following), the Observer URL is sent via a global computer network 70 (e.g., the Internet) to the remote monitor 415. The parameters in the Observer URL contain all the details describing the event, such as the name of the bookmark, the encrypted ID of the person who is adding the bookmark, the bookmark's URL, any tags used with the bookmark, the time the bookmark is being added, the IP number of the person's computer, and whatever other metadata have been included in the Observer URL. 7. The remote monitor 415 continually waits for Observer URLs to be sent. When the remote monitor 415 receives a request containing the Observer URL, it accepts the URL as input and the monitoring program 455, 470 runs. 8. The monitoring program 455, 470 accepts the request and parses the text of the URL to assign each parameter into a dedicated field in a local database 480. The UKL's parameters are separated, decoded/unescaped and used to construct a new data record in memory 480. 9. Once the data record is assembled and stored in memory, the record is written into the storage unit (e.g., database) 480. At this point the original event at the social website 410 has been effectively duplicated and recorded by the remote monitor 415. 10. Once the record has been saved in, for example, a storage unit (e.g., database) 480, the remote monitor 415 may or may not reply. If the “adtag” parameter in the Observer URL has a value of ‘n’, the monitoring server 415 may close the network connection without any reply to the social website 410. This is to ensure that the social website 410 will continue performing its normal tasks as quickly as possible, without waiting for a monitoring response that may not arrive, perhaps due to a network error, programming bug, or some other problem. Alternately, if the “adtag” parameter in the Observer URL has a value of ‘y’, then the remote monitor 415 will use the information from the Observer URL to choose an advertisement that is a suitable match. 11. The selection of the ad can be done either locally, by accessing a store of ads to be sent to the social website 410 in reply to the monitored event, or remotely, by sending a descriptive token or keyword to a third-party ad server 420, which then selects an ad and returns it to be displayed on the social website 410. Referring now to FIG. 1, a flow diagram illustrating an example embodiment of the invention is depicted. The process 100 begins 105 and monitors user activity on a social website at step 110. The monitoring step/process results in user activity data such as that described above. The resulting user activity data is processed separately or remotely from the social website that step 115. After processing step 115, the invention process 100 may store (step 120) processed user activity data in, for example, a searchable data store. Information indicative of the processed user activity data may be reported at step 125. The process 100 may then end 130. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating an alternative example embodiment of the invention. The invention process 200 begins 205 with a user accessing a social website 210 whereby a variety of events are generated (step 210). For example, users 405 of a social bookmarking site 410 may access their bookmarks thereby generating events involving bookmark links and tags, such as “add bookmark,” “click bookmark,” and “add tag.” These events may be sent to a social website (step 215) via a computer or other communication network, such as the Internet, as requests to the social bookmarking server. The social website 410 may act on the events (step 220). For example, a social bookmarking site 410 may receive the bookmarking and/or tag events and the server may perform actions to process the request. The social bookmarking site 410 records the request (or otherwise acts on it, executing whatever code is programmed). The social bookmarking site 410 may also parse the details of the request and construct a representation of user activity (step 225), such as a GET-style URL (such as that discussed above) to describe the event that was just recorded. Next, the social website 410 sends the representation of user activity (e.g., the GET URL) to a classification service (CS) 460 (in FIG. 4) at step 230 in FIG. 2. The classification service 460 receives the representation of user data and parses it to extract generated events (step 235), such as parameters describing the event that was just recorded, or the URL can remain unparsed and recorded unchanged, for later processing. The classification service 460 then acts on the events (step 240), such as recording the request (or executing whatever code is programmed). The process 200 then ends 245. FIG. 3 is a more detailed flow diagram illustrating an example embodiment of the present invention. The process 300 begins 305 with a user 405 at a social website 410 requesting content (step 310) via a web browser, for example, a page containing the user's bookmarks. The social website 410 then calls a classification service 460 to get targeting information for the user (step 315). To ensure integrity of the received data, the social website 410 may authenticate the information at step 320. The process 300 continues and at step 325 the social website 410 sends either a signed token describing the user 405 and request to the classification service 460, or at step 330 sends an unauthenticated version of the information describing the user 405 and request to the classification service 460. The classification service 460 determines target information at step 335′ such as appropriate keywords and may also record the event. The classification system 460 then sends target information to the social website at step 345, or may optionally authenticate the information at step 340 and send a digitally signed token describing the target information to the social website at step 350. The social website 410 then constructs a webpage combining its own content, the target information and advertisement server code and delivers it to the user at step 355. The user's browser interprets the returned page's content and executes the advertisement server's code to request an ad from the advertisement server 420. Next, the advertisement server 420 selects a targeted ad based on the targeted information or token and then sends the ad back to the user's browser at step 365. After receiving the targeted ad, the users browser renders the content, for example, the combined requested bookmark page and the targeted ad at step 370. The process 300 then ends 375. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a remote monitoring system 400 according to an example embodiment of the invention. The remote monitoring system 400 may contain a remote monitor 415 which includes a monitoring unit 455, classification service (CS) 460, reporting unit 465, processing unit 470, storage unit 480, encryption/decryption unit 485, and digital signature unit 490. The system 400 may remotely monitor user 405 activity on at least one remote social website 410. The social website 410 may include an encryption/decryption unit 425, digital signature unit 430, storage unit 435, querying unit 440, monitor service 445, and calling unit 450. A monitoring service unit 445 may be configured to monitor user activity 405 on a remote social website 410, resulting in user activity data. The processing unit 470 is configured to process the results user activity data separately from the social website 410, in a substantially real-time manner, or processed at a later time. The user activity data may be stored in the storage unit 480. The reporting unit 465 may be configured to report information indicative of the processed user activity data. The monitoring unit 455 may be configured to monitor user 405 activity in response to a call from the social website's 410 calling unit 450 that may be triggered by the user's activity at the social website. The call may be an application programming interface (API) call, or similar call known in the art. Alternatively the monitoring unit 455 may be configured to poll the monitor service 445 that is installed on the remote social website 410 on a periodic, aperiodic, or event-driven basis. In either case, the monitoring unit 455 effectively logs or records the user's activity. In one embodiment the user activity data may be represented in the form of a uniform resource locator (URL). And in another example embodiment, a monitoring unit 455 may be configured to locally track and accumulate user activity at the remote social website 410, and may communicate the user activity data to the CS 460 where the CS determines user target information on a periodic, aperiodic, or event-driven basis. The processing unit 470, through use of a parsing unit 472 may parse the user activity data results from the remotely monitored social websites(s) 410. The normalizing unit 474 may “normalize” or “standardize” the parsed user activity data. That is, social websites 410 may store particular data fields using slightly different identifiers. For example, one social website 410 may store the user's identity in a field labeled “user” and another social website 410 may store the same information in a field “userID” and still another social website may use the label “username.” Thus, the invention normalizing unit 474 effectively standardizes non-standardized field names from a variety of social websites 410 using a common label or identifier allowing the aggregation of user activity data from virtually every social website, Advantageously, the invention aggregates data from a plurality of social websites 410 allowing the identification of trends not currently identifiable, such as trends across a large number of users or more broadly such as societal trends. To facilitate this analysis, the storage unit 480 may be configured to store the processed results in a centralized, searchable data store such as a database where the normalizing unit 474 has standardized the results data. Alternatively this information may be distributed across multiple storage units 480 to provide data redundancy, increased search speeds, and other benefits known in the art. The processing unit 470 may also be configured to perform on-the-fly analysis of the user activity data, or alternatively, may store the user activity data for analysis at a later time. The querying unit 440 of the social website 410 may also be configured to query the CS 460 before the social website displays the user requested page where the CS 460 determines user target information. In an example embodiment, the reporting unit 465 may be further configured to communicate and transmit the stored process user activity data to a third party, such as an advertisement server 420. The reporting unit 465 may also be configured to report user activity data represented in the form of metadata or other data or file formats known in the art. Alternatively, or in addition, the reporting unit 465 may also be configured to generate a targeted advertisement based on user activity data and may communicate that advertisement to a third-party 420 or to the social website 410 for display in the user's 405 browser. The user activity data may be protected using a variety of data protection techniques known to those skilled in the art. For example, the encryption/decryption unit 485 of remote monitor 415 may encrypt data prior to transmitting the data to the social website 410 where in turn the encryption/decryption unit 425 of the social website 410 will then decrypt the information. It should be understood that in order to provide effective data protection the encryption/decryption process may occur throughout the entire chain of data transmission, including but not limited to, from the social website 410 to the remote monitor 415, from the remote monitor 415 to the third-party server 420, from the third-party server 420 to the remote monitor 415, and from the remote monitor 415 to the social website 410. Alternatively, or in addition, the digital signature unit 490 may be used to authenticate data according to data authentication techniques known in the art. This may be useful in circumventing fraudulent requests (e.g., metadata, spam, etc.) from unauthorized third parties, for example, preventing a third-party from writing bogus data to the remote monitoring unit 415. The social website 410 may be a website where users are allowed to associate a tag or bookmark to the social website's content. Social websites have proliferated at an increasingly rapid rate such that there are now hundreds of social websites currently in operation. The invention 400 may also be used in conjunction with other social web sites 410, such as blogs or any other website that allows the use of tags to be added and/or associated with content. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram representing data flow in an example embodiment 500 of the invention. The remote monitoring system 500 may comprise a classification system (CS) 515 implemented using, for example, a processor (not shown). A user 505 may request a bookmark page from a social website 510 (step 1). The social website 510 then calls the CS 515 in order to obtain user targeting information (step 2). As mentioned above this communication may be encrypted, and digitally signed or otherwise made secure. The CS 515 may record the event in a storage unit 530, such as a searchable database. The CS 515 may also analyze previous and/or current activity data for the user 505 as previously recorded in storage unit 530 in order to determine an appropriate keyword or multiple keywords (step 3). In this embodiment, the CS 515 is guaranteed to record the event before the CS performs its ad selecting analysis. The CS 515 then returns the determined keyword(s) either as it is, or encrypted, or as a digitally signed token back to the social website 510 (step 4). The social website 510 then combines its page with the CS keyword/token and advertisement server code (step 5). Alternatively, the CS can return both the keyword(s) and the advertisement server code together. Next, in response the user's browser interprets the received combined page and executes the advertisement server code (step 6). The advertisement server code may then request an ad using the received keyword/token (step 7). The advertisement server 520 may determine the best ad based on the subject keyword/token (step 8). The advertisement server 520 then delivers the determined ad to the user's browser (step 9) where the user's browser then renders the user's requested page (step 10). FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram representing data flow in and alternative example embodiment 600 of the invention. This embodiment similarly begins with the user 605 requesting, for example, a bookmark page from a social website 610 (step 1). Here, however, the social website 610 constructs a webpage and returns the page to the user 605 with additional scripting code (step 2). The users browser 605 executes the scripting code while preparing the requested webpage for display (step 3). Next, the scripting code may use a forked process to request the advertisement server 620 to display in the ad where the request includes a representation indicating a specific user (step 4A) and may also send a message to the CS 615 recording the action just performed by the user (step 4B). Because this embodiment 600 uses a forked process, the CS 615 is not guaranteed to record the event before the CS performs its ad selecting analysis. Next, the advertisement server 620 receives a request from the user's web browser 605 (step 5) and then calls the CS 615 for targeted information for that specific user (step 6). The CS 615 responsively analyzes the request and determines an appropriate keyword (step 7). The CS 615 then returns a keyword or digitally signed token to the advertisement server 620 (step 8). If the data was authenticated the advertisement server 620 confirms the token's authenticity using CS's public key or other authentication techniques known to one skilled in the art. Next, the advertisement service 620 selects a targeted ad based on the received token/keyword (step 9) and returns the determined ad to the user's browser 605 (step 10). Then the page returned by the social website 610 (step 2) is combined with the targeted ad and sent to the user's browser 605 for rendering (step 11). As mentioned previously, various communications may be made secured digitally signed encrypted/decrypted between the various modules (405, 410, 415, 420, 505, 510, 515, 520, 605, 610, 615, 620) in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6. The block diagrams of FIGS. 4, 5, and 6 are merely representative and that more or fewer units may be used, and operations may not necessary be divided up as described herein. Also, a processor executing software may operate to execute operations performed by the units, where various units, separately or in combination may represent a processor, field programmable gate array (FPGA), application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or the like. It should be understood that the block diagrams may, in practice, be implemented in hardware, firmware, or software. If implemented in software, the software may be any form capable of performing operations described herein, stored on any form of computer readable-medium, such as RAM, ROM, CD-ROM, and loaded and executed by a general purpose or application specific processor capable of performing operations described herein. FIG. 7 illustrates a generalized computer network 700 or similar digital processing environment in which the invention may be implemented. Client computer(s)/devices 50 and server computer(s) 60 provide processing, storage, and input/output devices executing application programs and the like. Client computer(s)/devices 50 can also be linked through communications network 70 to other computing devices, including other client devices/processes 50 and server computer(s) 60. Communications network 70 can be part of a remote access network, a global network (e.g., the Internet), a worldwide collection of computers, Local area or Wide area networks, and gateways that currently use respective protocols (TCP/IP, Bluetooth, etc.) to communicate with one another. Other electronic device/computer network architectures are suitable. FIG. 8 is a diagram of the internal structure of a computer 50, 60 (e.g., client processor/device 50 or server computers 60) in the computer system of FIG. 7. Each computer 50, 60 contains system bus 79, where a bus is a set of hardware lines used for data transfer among the components of a computer or processing system. Bus 79 is essentially a shared conduit that connects different elements of a computer system (e.g., processor, disk storage, memory, input/output ports, network ports, etc.) that enables the transfer of information between the elements. Attached to system bus 79 is I/O device interface 82 for connecting various input and output devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, displays, printers, speakers, etc.) to the computer 50, 60. Network interface 86 allows the computer to connect to various other devices attached to a network (e.g., network 70 of FIG. 7). Memory 90 provides volatile storage for computer software instructions 92 and data 94 used to implement an embodiment of the present invention (e.g., remote monitoring, processing, storing and reporting code 63 detailed above). Disk storage 95 provides non-volatile storage for computer software instructions 92 and data 94 used to implement an embodiment of the present invention. Central processor unit 84 is also attached to system bus 79 and provides for the execution of computer instructions. In one embodiment, the processor routines 92 and data 94 are a computer program product (generally referenced 92), including a computer readable medium (e.g., a removable storage medium such as one or more DVD-ROM's, CD-ROM's, diskettes, tapes, etc.) that provides at least a portion of the software instructions for the invention system. Computer program product 92 can be installed by any suitable software installation procedure, as is well known in the art. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the software instructions may also be downloaded over a cable, communication and/or wireless connection. In other embodiments, the invention programs are a computer program propagated signal product 107 embodied on a propagated signal on a propagation medium (e.g., a radio wave, an infrared wave, a laser wave, a sound wave, or an electrical wave propagated over a global network such as the Internet, or other network(s)). Such carrier medium or signals provide at least a portion of the software instructions for the present invention routines/program 92. In alternate embodiments, the propagated signal is an analog carrier wave or digital signal carried on the propagated medium. For example, the propagated signal may be a digitized signal propagated over a global network (e.g., the Internet), a telecommunications network, or other network. In one embodiment, the propagated signal is a signal that is transmitted over the propagation medium over a period of time, such as the instructions for a software application sent in packets over a network over a period of milliseconds, seconds, minutes, or longer. In another embodiment, the computer readable medium of computer program product 92 is a propagation medium that the computer system 50 may receive and read, such as by receiving the propagation medium and identifying a propagated signal embodied in the propagation medium, as described above for computer program propagated signal product. Generally speaking, the term “carrier medium” or transient carrier encompasses the foregoing transient signals, propagated signals, propagated medium, storage medium and the like. In some embodiments computer system 40 employs a Windows™ (Microsoft) operating system, in other embodiments a Linux operating system, and in other embodiments a UNIX™ operating system. Other operating systems and system configurations are suitable. Applicant claims trademark rights to the terms “Seethroo”, “Seethroo Observer”, and “Observer URL.” While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims. For example, the present invention may be implemented in a variety of computer architectures. The computer network of FIGS. 7 and 8 are for purposes of illustration and not limitation of the present invention.
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G
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151
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73
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11839714
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US20090048700A1-20090219
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METHOD FOR REPORTING THE STATUS OF A CONTROL APPLICATION IN AN AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT
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ACCEPTED
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20090205
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20090219
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[]
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G06F1900
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["G06F1900"]
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7493236
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20070816
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20090217
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702
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185000
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97661.0
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WACHSMAN
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HAL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Mock", "inventor_name_first": "Michael W.", "inventor_city": "St. George", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Moore", "inventor_name_first": "Gray R.", "inventor_city": "Milton", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wong", "inventor_name_first": "Justin W.", "inventor_city": "South Burlington", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Disclosed are embodiments that provide near real-time monitoring of a control application in a manufacturing environment to detect and determine the root cause of faults within the control application. The embodiments monitor the flow of data within the control application during events (i.e., transactions, stages, process steps, etc.). By comparing a dataflow path for a near real-time event with historical dataflow path records, dataflow interruptions (i.e., fails) within the control application can be detected. By determining the location of such a dataflow interruption, the root cause of the control application fail can be determined. Additionally, the invention can generate summary reports indicating the status of the control application. These summary reports can further be generated with drill downs to provide a user with direct access to the records upon which the reports were based.
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1. A method for monitoring a control application, said method comprising: accessing a plurality of data sources for said control application; retrieving, from said data sources, data regarding events occurring in a manufacturing environment monitored by said control application; compiling said data to generate, for said events, records of dataflow paths within said control application, each of said records of said dataflow paths corresponding to a specific event, indicating a type of said specific event and further indicating at least one specific data source to which a data posting was made during said specific event; storing said records of said dataflow paths in a data storage device; and performing an analysis of said records to detect a dataflow interruption within said control application, said analysis comprising comparing a current dataflow path record to historical dataflow path records for same type events to identify differences in data postings indicative of said dataflow interruption. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising notifying a user of said dataflow interruption. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising generating a summary report indicating a status of said control application based on said analysis, wherein said summary report quantifies at least one of performance and effectiveness of said control application. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein said generating of said summary report comprises quantifying said performance of said control application by indicating in said summary report at least a percentage of said events for which said control application should have collected said data and failed out of a total number of said events. 5. The method of claim 3, wherein said generating of said summary report comprises quantifying said effectiveness of said control application by indicating in said summary report at least a percentage of said events for which said control application had inhibit ability out of a total number of said events. 6. (canceled) 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said performing of said analysis further comprises analyzing said records to determine a location within said control application of said dataflow interruption and, based on said location, determining a root cause of a failure in said control application. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said performing of said analysis further comprises analyzing said records in response to at least one of a specific query and a continual query. 9. A method for monitoring a fault detection and classification (FDC) application, said method comprising: accessing a plurality of data sources for said fault detection and classification (FDC) application; retrieving, from said data sources, data regarding wafer-chamber passes in an integrated circuit manufacturing environment monitored by said fault detection and classification (FDC) application; compiling said data to generate, for said wafer-chamber passes, records of dataflow paths within said fault detection and classification (FDC) application, each of said records of said dataflow paths corresponding to a specific wafer-chamber pass and indicating at least one specific data source to which a data posting was made during said specific wafer-chamber pass; storing said records in a data storage device records; and performing an analysis of said records to detect a dataflow interruption within said fault detection and classification (FDC) application, said analysis comprising comparing a current dataflow path record for a given wafer-chamber pass to historical dataflow path records for the same wafer-chamber pass to identify differences in data postings indicative of said dataflow interruption. 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising notifying a user of said dataflow interruption. 11. The method of claim 9, further comprising generating a summary report indicating a status of said fault detection and classification application based on said analysis, wherein said summary report quantifies at least one of performance and effectiveness of said fault detection and classification (FDC) application. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein said summary report quantifies said at least one of said performance and said effectiveness of said fault detection and classification (FDC) application by at least one of tool type, technology, and technology center. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein said generating of said summary report further comprises quantifying said performance of said fault detection and classification (FDC) application by indicating in said summary report at least a percentage of said wafer-chamber passes for which said fault detection and classification (FDC) application should have collected said data and failed out of a total number of said wafer-chamber passes. 14. The method of claim 11, wherein said generating of said summary report further comprises quantifying said effectiveness of said fault detection and classification (FDC) application by indicating in said summary report at least a percentage of said wafer-chamber passes for which said fault detection and classification (FDC) application had inhibit ability out of a total number of said wafer-chamber passes. 15. (canceled) 16. The method of claim 9, wherein said performing of said analysis further comprises analyzing said records to determine a location within said fault detection and classification (FDC) application of said dataflow interruption and, based on said location, determining a root cause of a failure in said fault detection and classification (FDC) application. 17. The method of claim 9, wherein said performing of said analysis further comprises analyzing said records in response to at least one of a specific query and a continual query. 18. A program storage device readable by computer and tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by said computer to perform a method of monitoring a control application, said method comprising: accessing a plurality of data sources for said control application and retrieving, from said data sources, data regarding events occurring in a manufacturing environment monitored by said control application; compiling said data to generate, for said events, records of dataflow paths within said control application, each of said records of said dataflow paths corresponding to a specific event, indicating a type of said specific event and further indicating at least one specific data source to which a data posting was made during said specific event; storing said records of said dataflow paths in a data storage device; and performing an analysis of said records to detect a dataflow interruption within said control application, said analysis comprising comparing a current dataflow path record to historical dataflow path records for same type events to identify differences in data postings indicative of said dataflow interruption; and at least one of notifying a user of said dataflow interruption and generating a summary report indicating a status of said control application based on said analysis, wherein said summary report quantifies at least one of performance and effectiveness of said control application. 19. The program storage device of claim 18, wherein said performing of said analysis further comprises analyzing said records to determine a location within said control application of said dataflow interruptions and, based on said location, determining a root cause of a failure in said control application. 20. A service for monitoring a control application, said service comprising: accessing a plurality of data sources for said control application; retrieving, from said data sources, data regarding events occurring in a manufacturing environment monitored by said control application, each of said records of said dataflow paths corresponding to a specific event, indicating a type of said specific event and further indicating at least one specific data source to which a data posting was made during said specific event; compiling said data to generate, for said events, records of dataflow paths within said control application; storing said records of said dataflow paths in a data storage device; performing an analysis of said records to detect a dataflow interruption within said control application, said analysis comprising comparing a current dataflow path record to historical dataflow path records for same type events to identify differences in data postings indicative of said dataflow interruption; and at least one of notifying a user of said dataflow interruption and generating a summary report indicating a status of said control application based on said analysis, wherein said summary report quantifies at least one of performance and effectiveness of said control application.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The embodiments of the invention generally relate to control applications and, more particularly, to a system and method for monitoring and reporting the status of a control application, such as a fault detection and classification application, in an automated manufacturing environment. 2. Description of the Related Art Advanced process control (APC) applications are increasingly used in conjunction with manufacturing technology to improve metrics, such as yield, costs, mean time between failures, etc. For example, fault detection and classification (FDC) applications use models to collect and monitor data regarding tool and/or process parameters in order to provide an early warning of tool and/or process faults and, thereby, to avoid having to scrap wafers or entire lots of wafers. However, it is often difficult to identify when a control application has failed or what the root cause of such a control application failure might be. Specifically, it is often difficult to monitor and quantify the effectiveness and performance of a control application in real-time.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In view of the foregoing, disclosed herein are embodiments of a system, method, and service that provide near real-time monitoring of a control application in a manufacturing environment in order to detect and determine the root cause of faults within the control application. The embodiments monitor the flow of data within a control application during certain events (i.e., certain transactions, stages, process steps, etc.). By comparing a dataflow path for a near real-time event with historical dataflow path records, dataflow interruptions (i.e., fails) within the control application can be detected. By determining the location of such a dataflow interruption, the root cause of the control application fail can be determined. Additionally, the invention can generate summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time). These summary reports can, for example, quantify the performance of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of events during a given period of time for which the control application should have collected data and failed) and/or quantify the effectiveness of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of the events during a given period of time for which the control application had inhibit ability). Additionally, these summary reports can be generated with drill downs to provide a user with direct access to the records upon which the reports were based. More specifically, disclosed herein is an embodiment of a system for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application (e.g., an fault detection and classification (FDC) application). The system embodiment can comprise a data retriever adapted to access a plurality of identified data sources (e.g., data logs and databases) for the control application. The data retriever can further be adapted to retrieve, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., regarding selected transactions, stages or process steps, such as selected wafer-chamber passes). That is, each time a selected event (e.g., a selected wafer-chamber pass) occurs on a new item (e.g., a wafer) being manufactured, the data retriever will collect data that is associated with that selected event and that is stored in the data sources of the control application. The system embodiment can further comprise a data compiler adapted to compile this data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored by the data compiler on a data storage device. The system embodiment can further comprise a records analyzer adapted to perform an analysis of the records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application. Specifically, a comparison between a dataflow path record for a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records (i.e., dataflow path records of prior events of the same type) can be performed by the analyzer to detect a dataflow interruption. The analyzer can further be adapted to determine the locations of each of the detected dataflow interruptions. Based on the location of a dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. The system embodiment can further comprise a summary report generator and a graphical user interface (GUI). This summary report generator can be adapted to generate a summary report indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the records. More particularly, the summary report can be generated based on the above-described analysis of the records. The GUI can be used to display the report. For example, the summary report generator can be adapted to generate a summary report that quantifies the performance of the control application (i.e., How well did the control application perform its functions?) and/or the effectiveness of the control application (What is the effective coverage of the control application?). In order to quantify the performance of the control application, the summary report can comprise the following entries: an entry that specifies the total number of events, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by a control application model, an entry that specifies the number of broken arrows, an entry that specifies the percentage of broken arrows, etc. In order to quantify the effectiveness of the control application, the summary report can comprise the following entries: an entry that specifies the total number of events, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models, an entry that specifies the best-case percentage of control application coverage, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models where the control application had inhibit ability, an entry that specifies the current percentage of coverage by control application models, etc. Quantification of performance and/or effectiveness of the control application can be based on some user-specified or default grouping (e.g., in wafer processing the grouping can be by tool type, by technology, by technology center, by chamber, by recipe, etc.) Additionally, the summary report generator can be adapted to generate the summary report with drill down functions. Such drill down functions can be used to allow a user to link via the GUI to the records upon which the different line items in the summary report are based. Also disclosed herein are embodiments of a method and an associated service for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application, such as a fault detection and classification (FDC) application. Generally, the method embodiments can comprise identifying and accessing a plurality of data sources (e.g., data logs and databases) for the control application. The method can further comprise retrieving, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., data regarding selected transactions, stages, process steps or the like within the manufacturing environment, such as wafer-chamber passes). That is, each time a selected event occurs (e.g., each time a selected wafer-chamber pass is performed on a new wafer) all relevant data that is associated with the selected event and that is stored by the control application in its data sources will be collected. The method can further comprise compiling this data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored on a data storage device. The method can further comprise performing an analysis of the dataflow path records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application. Specifically, the process of analyzing the records can comprise performing a comparison between a dataflow path record of a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records (i.e., the dataflow path records of prior events of the same type) to detect a dataflow interruption. The process of analyzing the records can further comprise analyzing the dataflow path records to determine the location of each dataflow interruption. Based on the location of the dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. Notification (e.g., reports, alarms, etc.) can be provided to users of such control application failures and their root causes. In addition to detecting control application failures and determining the root causes of those failures, the method can comprise generating summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records, and outputting or displaying (e.g., on a graphical user interface (GUI)) the summary reports. For example, each summary report can quantify the performance and/or the effectiveness of the control application over a given time period, as discussed above. Also, as discussed above, the summary report can be generated according to some grouping (e.g., in wafer processing the grouping can be by tool type, by technology, by technology center, etc.). Furthermore, each summary report can be generated with drill down functions allowing a user to link directly to the dataflow path records, upon which the report was based, using the GUI. Finally, also disclosed are embodiments of a program storage device readable by computer and tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the computer to perform the above-described method of monitoring a control application. These and other aspects of the embodiments of the invention will be better appreciated and understood when considered in conjunction with the following description and the accompanying drawings. It should be understood, however, that the following descriptions, while indicating embodiments of the invention and numerous specific details thereof, are given by way of illustration and not of limitation. Many changes and modifications may be made within the scope of the embodiments of the invention without departing from the spirit thereof, and the embodiments of the invention include all such modifications.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to the following co-pending applications filed concurrently herewith by the same Applicants and assigned to the same Assignee, namely, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM Corporation): “A TOOL FOR REPORTING THE STATUS OF A CONTROL APPLICATION IN AN AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT”, Attorney Docket No. BUR920070078US1; “A METHOD FOR REPORTING THE STATUS AND DRILL-DOWN OF A CONTROL APPLICATION IN AN AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT”, Attorney Docket No. BUR920070147US2; and “A TOOL FOR REPORTING THE STATUS AND DRILL-DOWN OF A CONTROL APPLICATION IN AN AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT”, Attorney Docket No. BUR920070147US1. The complete disclosures of these related co-pending applications are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The embodiments of the invention generally relate to control applications and, more particularly, to a system and method for monitoring and reporting the status of a control application, such as a fault detection and classification application, in an automated manufacturing environment. 2. Description of the Related Art Advanced process control (APC) applications are increasingly used in conjunction with manufacturing technology to improve metrics, such as yield, costs, mean time between failures, etc. For example, fault detection and classification (FDC) applications use models to collect and monitor data regarding tool and/or process parameters in order to provide an early warning of tool and/or process faults and, thereby, to avoid having to scrap wafers or entire lots of wafers. However, it is often difficult to identify when a control application has failed or what the root cause of such a control application failure might be. Specifically, it is often difficult to monitor and quantify the effectiveness and performance of a control application in real-time. SUMMARY In view of the foregoing, disclosed herein are embodiments of a system, method, and service that provide near real-time monitoring of a control application in a manufacturing environment in order to detect and determine the root cause of faults within the control application. The embodiments monitor the flow of data within a control application during certain events (i.e., certain transactions, stages, process steps, etc.). By comparing a dataflow path for a near real-time event with historical dataflow path records, dataflow interruptions (i.e., fails) within the control application can be detected. By determining the location of such a dataflow interruption, the root cause of the control application fail can be determined. Additionally, the invention can generate summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time). These summary reports can, for example, quantify the performance of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of events during a given period of time for which the control application should have collected data and failed) and/or quantify the effectiveness of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of the events during a given period of time for which the control application had inhibit ability). Additionally, these summary reports can be generated with drill downs to provide a user with direct access to the records upon which the reports were based. More specifically, disclosed herein is an embodiment of a system for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application (e.g., an fault detection and classification (FDC) application). The system embodiment can comprise a data retriever adapted to access a plurality of identified data sources (e.g., data logs and databases) for the control application. The data retriever can further be adapted to retrieve, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., regarding selected transactions, stages or process steps, such as selected wafer-chamber passes). That is, each time a selected event (e.g., a selected wafer-chamber pass) occurs on a new item (e.g., a wafer) being manufactured, the data retriever will collect data that is associated with that selected event and that is stored in the data sources of the control application. The system embodiment can further comprise a data compiler adapted to compile this data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored by the data compiler on a data storage device. The system embodiment can further comprise a records analyzer adapted to perform an analysis of the records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application. Specifically, a comparison between a dataflow path record for a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records (i.e., dataflow path records of prior events of the same type) can be performed by the analyzer to detect a dataflow interruption. The analyzer can further be adapted to determine the locations of each of the detected dataflow interruptions. Based on the location of a dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. The system embodiment can further comprise a summary report generator and a graphical user interface (GUI). This summary report generator can be adapted to generate a summary report indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the records. More particularly, the summary report can be generated based on the above-described analysis of the records. The GUI can be used to display the report. For example, the summary report generator can be adapted to generate a summary report that quantifies the performance of the control application (i.e., How well did the control application perform its functions?) and/or the effectiveness of the control application (What is the effective coverage of the control application?). In order to quantify the performance of the control application, the summary report can comprise the following entries: an entry that specifies the total number of events, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by a control application model, an entry that specifies the number of broken arrows, an entry that specifies the percentage of broken arrows, etc. In order to quantify the effectiveness of the control application, the summary report can comprise the following entries: an entry that specifies the total number of events, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models, an entry that specifies the best-case percentage of control application coverage, an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models where the control application had inhibit ability, an entry that specifies the current percentage of coverage by control application models, etc. Quantification of performance and/or effectiveness of the control application can be based on some user-specified or default grouping (e.g., in wafer processing the grouping can be by tool type, by technology, by technology center, by chamber, by recipe, etc.) Additionally, the summary report generator can be adapted to generate the summary report with drill down functions. Such drill down functions can be used to allow a user to link via the GUI to the records upon which the different line items in the summary report are based. Also disclosed herein are embodiments of a method and an associated service for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application, such as a fault detection and classification (FDC) application. Generally, the method embodiments can comprise identifying and accessing a plurality of data sources (e.g., data logs and databases) for the control application. The method can further comprise retrieving, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., data regarding selected transactions, stages, process steps or the like within the manufacturing environment, such as wafer-chamber passes). That is, each time a selected event occurs (e.g., each time a selected wafer-chamber pass is performed on a new wafer) all relevant data that is associated with the selected event and that is stored by the control application in its data sources will be collected. The method can further comprise compiling this data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored on a data storage device. The method can further comprise performing an analysis of the dataflow path records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application. Specifically, the process of analyzing the records can comprise performing a comparison between a dataflow path record of a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records (i.e., the dataflow path records of prior events of the same type) to detect a dataflow interruption. The process of analyzing the records can further comprise analyzing the dataflow path records to determine the location of each dataflow interruption. Based on the location of the dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. Notification (e.g., reports, alarms, etc.) can be provided to users of such control application failures and their root causes. In addition to detecting control application failures and determining the root causes of those failures, the method can comprise generating summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records, and outputting or displaying (e.g., on a graphical user interface (GUI)) the summary reports. For example, each summary report can quantify the performance and/or the effectiveness of the control application over a given time period, as discussed above. Also, as discussed above, the summary report can be generated according to some grouping (e.g., in wafer processing the grouping can be by tool type, by technology, by technology center, etc.). Furthermore, each summary report can be generated with drill down functions allowing a user to link directly to the dataflow path records, upon which the report was based, using the GUI. Finally, also disclosed are embodiments of a program storage device readable by computer and tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the computer to perform the above-described method of monitoring a control application. These and other aspects of the embodiments of the invention will be better appreciated and understood when considered in conjunction with the following description and the accompanying drawings. It should be understood, however, that the following descriptions, while indicating embodiments of the invention and numerous specific details thereof, are given by way of illustration and not of limitation. Many changes and modifications may be made within the scope of the embodiments of the invention without departing from the spirit thereof, and the embodiments of the invention include all such modifications. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The embodiments of the invention will be better understood from the following detailed description with reference to the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating and embodiment of the system of the invention; FIG. 2 is a table illustrating an exemplary technology summary report; FIG. 3 is a table illustrating another exemplary tool type summary report; FIG. 4 is a table illustrating yet another exemplary technology center summary report; FIG. 5 is a table illustrating an exemplary drill down from a tool type summary report; FIG. 6 is a table illustrating an exemplary drill down from the table of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a table illustrating an exemplary drill down from the table of FIG. 6; FIG. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating an embodiment of the method of the invention; FIG. 9 is a flow diagram illustrating another embodiment of the method of the invention; and FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary hardware structure that may be used to implement the system and method of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The embodiments of the invention and the various features and advantageous details thereof are explained more fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments that are illustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. It should be noted that the features illustrated in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. Descriptions of well-known components and processing techniques are omitted so as to not unnecessarily obscure the embodiments of the invention. The examples used herein are intended merely to facilitate an understanding of ways in which the embodiments of the invention may be practiced and to further enable those of skill in the art to practice the embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, the examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of the embodiments of the invention. In view of the foregoing, disclosed herein are embodiments of a system, method, and service that provide near real-time monitoring of a control application in a manufacturing environment in order to detect and determine the root cause of faults within the control application. Specifically, the embodiments monitor dataflow within a control application during certain events (i.e., certain transactions, stages, process steps, etc.) occurring in the manufacturing environment. A comparison of the dataflow path for a current event with the historical dataflow path records can be used to detect dataflow interruptions (i.e., fails) within the control application. The location of such a dataflow interruption can in turn be used to determine the root cause of the control application fail. Additionally, the system and method can generate summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records. These summary reports can, for example, quantify the performance of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of events during a given period of time for which the control application should have collected data and failed) and/or quantify the effectiveness of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of the events during a given period of time for which the control application had inhibit). These summary reports can further be generated with drill downs providing a user with direct access to the records upon which the reports were based. More specifically, referring to FIG. 1, disclosed herein is an embodiment of a system 100 for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application (e.g., a fault detection and classification (FDC) application, a run-to-run (R2R) application, a model predictive control (MPC) application, sensor control and feedback application, etc.). Such APC applications generally collect data in a manufacturing environment and act (e.g., generate reports, provide warnings, etc.) based on that data in order to improve metrics, such as yield, costs, mean time between failures, etc. Thus, associated with each control application are data sources containing both raw and summary data. For example, the system embodiment 100 can monitor a fault detection and classification (FDC) application that uses sensors and models to collect and monitor tool and/or process parameter data in an integrated circuit manufacturing environment in order to provide summary reports and early warnings of tool and/or process faults and, thereby, to avoid having to scrap wafers or entire lots of wafers. The system embodiment 100 can comprise a data retriever 102 in communication with and adapted to access a plurality of previously identified data sources 10 associated with the control application. The data sources 10 can comprise, for example, data logs and/or database containing data (e.g., logistic data, raw data, summary data, etc.) acquired by the control application during the manufacturing process. The data logs and/or databases can be stored within storage devices of the various components of the control application and/or within a central data warehouse (e.g., a distributed manufacturing information warehouse (DMIW)). Data sources 10 associated with the control application can include, but are not limited to, the following: data sources 11 containing information from the machines supervisory program (MSP) which provides a code interface between the tools and the manufacturing execution system (MES); data sources 12 containing information about the various tools used during events (i.e., transactions, stages, process steps, etc.) occurring in the manufacturing environment; data sources 13 containing information about the various recipes used in the manufacturing environment; data sources 14 containing information about the control application models used in the manufacturing environment; and data sources 15 containing stored output (e.g., sensor records, statistical process and control (SPC) charts, etc.) of the control application in response to the different events that occur within the manufacturing environment and that are covered by control application models. For example, if the manufacturing process is an integrated circuit manufacturing process and if the control application is a fault detection and classification (FDC) application which uses statistical process control (SPC) techniques, the output data 15 of the FDC application can be entries on SPC charts, in which sensor data from the various manufacturing tools is recorded during a given wafer-chamber pass. A wafer-chamber pass (i.e., a recipe-wafer-chamber pass) refers to each time a single wafer is placed in a chamber and processed within that chamber by one or more tools according to one or more recipe-specific steps. The data retriever 102 can further be adapted to retrieve, from those data sources 10, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., regarding selected transactions, stages or process steps that occur during the manufacturing process, e.g., selected wafer-chamber passes that occur during wafer processing). That is, each time a selected event (e.g., a selected wafer-chamber pass) occurs on a new item (e.g., a wafer) being manufactured, the data retriever 102 will collect data that is associated with that selected event and that is stored in the various data sources 10 of the control application. The system embodiment 100 can further comprise a data compiler 104 in communication with the data retriever 102 and adapted to compile this data in order to generate records 105 of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events. For example, the dataflow path records can show that every time a specific event occurs (e.g., each time a given wafer-chamber pass is performed on a new wafer), the same postings are made to the same data sources. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored by the data compiler 104 in a data storage device 106. The system embodiment 100 can further comprise a records analyzer 108 in communication with the storage device 106 and adapted to access the records 105. The analyzer 108 is further adapted to perform an analysis of the records 105 (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application. Specifically, a comparison between a dataflow path record for a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records for prior events of the same type previously stored in the in storage 106 can be performed by the analyzer 108 to detect a dataflow interruption. That is, such a comparison can be used to detect an interruption in the known dataflow path for that event type, as established based on the historical records stored in the data storage device. For example, if the current event is a specific wafer-chamber pass known to have control application model coverage and if, in the past, this same wafer-chamber pass resulted in the posting of certain data to a data source (e.g., a SPC chart), then no such posting indicates that a dataflow interruption has occurred and, thus, an control application failure has occurred. The analyzer 108 can further be adapted to determine the location within the control application of each dataflow interruption. Based on the location of the dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. That is, a determination can be made by the analyzer 108 as to the root cause of the failure (e.g., a recipe error, model error, missing control chart, etc.). For example, in a given control application the dataflow path may be linear with data posting at different data sources sequentially (i.e., with data posting at one data source, then the next, and so on in succession). For example, in an exemplary FDC application the dataflow path may be from a machine supervisory program (MSP) to a process station for data acquisition (PSDA) to a multivariate analysis engine (e.g., MAE) to a disperser, to an SPC chart, etc. Since the flow of data is linear, failure of the data to post at a given data source will indicate that the failure has occurred upstream as opposed to downstream. While the control application dataflow path, discussed above is linear, non-linear (i.e., branching) control application dataflow paths are also anticipated and those skilled in the art will recognize that various logic applications can similarly be developed to determine the location of the dataflow interruption in such non-linear paths. The system embodiment 100 can further a means by which a user can be automatically notified of a detected control application failure and, optionally, its location. For example, the system can be adapted to send automatically generated emails, sound alarms, etc., in order to notify a user of a detected control application failure. The system embodiment 100 can further comprise a graphical user interface (GUI) 112 as well as a summary report generator 110 in communication with the analyzer 108, the data storage device 106 and the GUI 112. This summary report generator 110 can be adapted to tally up various numbers within the records 105 in order to generate summary reports 111 indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records. Such summary reports 111 can be stored in the data storage 106. The GUI 112 can be used to display the summary reports 111 automatically or in response to user queries. Specifically, the summary report generator 110 can, for example, be adapted to generate a summary report 111 that quantifies, for a given time period, the performance of the control application (i.e., How well did the control application perform its functions?) and/or the effectiveness of the control application (What is the effective coverage of the control application?). Quantification of performance and/or effectiveness of the control application can be for a specified period of time and based on some user-specified or default grouping (e.g., by technology type, by tool type, by technology center, by chamber, by model, by recipe, etc.) as specified in a user query. For example, in integrated circuit manufacturing, one such grouping can be by technology type. Technology type can be defined as an aggregate of processes that define the manufacturing process (e.g., in integrated circuit manufacturing, 300 mm technology refers to processing of 300 mm wafers, 90 nm technology refers to wafer processing during which the minimum gate width is 90 nm, etc.). FIG. 2 provides a table illustrating an exemplary summary report 200 by technology type 210 (300 mm technology) over a given time period 215 (06/02/2007-06/08/2007), where column 220 specifies different technologies within the 300 mm technology type (e.g., 130 nm Logic, 90 nm Logic, 45 nm Logic, etc.). Another grouping in integrated circuit manufacturing can be by tool type. Tool type can be defined as a collection of tools that perform a similar process, for example, reactive ion etch (RIE) tools contain both plasma etch and plasma strip tools. FIG. 3 provides a table illustrating an exemplary summary report 300 by tool type 310 over a given time period 315 (06/02/2007-06/08/2007), where column 320 specifies the different tools by tool identification number (ID) and where each of the identified tools, in this case, is within a given back end of the line reactive ion etch (BEOL_RIE) tool type (i.e., a tool type that performs back end of the line (BEOL) reactive ion etch (RIE) processes). Yet another grouping in integrated circuit manufacturing can be by technology center. Technology center can be defined as a collection of process type (e.g., rapid thermal processing (RTP), ion implantation (ION), chemical mechanical polishing (CMP), metal film deposition (MTL), insulator deposition (INS), wet clean processing (WET), plating (PLT), reactive ion etching (RIE), furnace (FRN), etc. FIG. 4 provides a table illustrating an exemplary summary report 400 by technology center 410 over a given time period 415 (06/02/2007-06/08/2007), where column 420 specifies different processes used. In order to quantify the performance of the control application, the summary report can comprise, for example, the following entries, for each row beginning with a technology, tool or technology center entry in the first column (see columns 220 of FIG. 2, 320 of FIG. 3, and 420 of FIG. 4): (1) an entry that specifies the total number of events performed in that technology, by that tool, with that process, during the given period of time (see columns 225 of FIG. 2, 325 of FIG. 3, and 425 of FIG. 4); (2) an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models (see columns 230 of FIG. 2, 330 of FIG. 3, and 430 of FIG. 4); (3) an entry that specifies the number of broken arrows (i.e., the number of events performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given time period, for which the control application should have collected data and failed); and/or (4) an entry that specifies the percentage of broken arrows (i.e., the percentage of events performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given period of time, for which the control application should have collected data and failed over the total number of events that occurred during that same time period, see columns 250 of FIG. 2, 350 of FIG. 3, and 450 of FIG. 4), etc. In order to quantify the effectiveness of the control application, the summary report can comprise, for example, the following entries, for each row beginning with a technology, tool or technology center entry in the first column (see columns 220 of FIG. 2, 320 of FIG. 3, and 420 of FIG. 4): (1) an entry that specifies the total number of events performed in technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given period of time (see columns 225 of FIG. 2, 325 of FIG. 3, and 425 of FIG. 4); (2) an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models (see columns 230 of FIG. 2, 330 of FIG. 3, and 430 of FIG. 4); (3) an entry that specifies the best-case percentage of control application coverage (i.e., an entry that specifies the percentage of events covered by control application models out of the total number of events, see columns 235 of FIG. 2, 335 of FIG. 3, and 435 of FIG. 4); (4) an entry that specifies the number of events covered by control application models where the control application had inhibit ability (see columns 240 of FIG. 2, 340 of FIG. 3, and 440 of FIG. 4),; and/or (5) an entry that specifies the current percentage of coverage by control application models (i.e., the percentage of events during a given period of time for which the control application had inhibit ability out of the total number of events, see columns 255 of FIG. 2, 355 of FIG. 3, and 455 of FIG. 4), etc. Inhibit ability refers to the control applications ability to stop (i.e., inhibit) the process if a fail is detected (i.e., if a determination is made by an FDC application that a given tool or process is outside set parameters). Additionally, the summary report generator 110 can be adapted to generate summary reports with drill down functions. Such drill down functions can be multi-tiered and can be used to allow a user to link via the graphical user interface to the records upon which the different line items in each summary report are based. That is, referring to FIGS. 2-4, the various entries may be selected providing additional details regarding, status, errors, performance and coverage. For example, from a tool type summary report a user may select a specific Tool ID (e.g., JJ05) in order to pull up the table of FIG. 5. The table of FIG. 5 breaks down the total number of wafer chamber passes performed by tool ID JJ05, according to different recipe-tool-chamber combinations. That is, each row identifies the number of wafer-chamber passes performed by tool ID JJ05, using the same recipe-tool-chamber combination. The first row of FIG. 5 illustrates a recipe-tool-chamber combination in which the recipe is new such that there is no comparison data for broken arrow identification. However, the third row of FIG. 5 illustrates a recipe-tool-chamber combination resulting in a broken arrow (i.e., an error). From the table of FIG. 5, a user may select the specific recipe-tool-chamber that resulted in an error (i.e., row 3) in order to pull up the table of FIG. 6. The table of FIG. 6 breaks down each of the wafer-chamber passes that were performed using the error producing recipe-tool-chamber combination of row 3 of FIG. 5 by wafers. From the table of FIG. 6, a user may select an individual wafer (e.g., 90K0IF3PKOF2) in order to pull up the table of FIG. 7. The table of FIG. 7 provides the root cause details of the error relative to that individual wafer. Referring to FIG. 8, also disclosed herein are embodiments of a method for monitoring an advanced process control (APC) application (e.g., a fault detection and classification (FDC) application, a run-to-run (R2R) application, a model predictive control (MPC) application, sensor control and feedback application, etc.) that collects data in a manufacturing environment and acts based on that data in order to improve metrics, such as yield, costs, mean time between failures, etc. Specifically, a broad embodiment of the method can comprise identifying and accessing a plurality of data sources for the control application (802). The data sources can comprise, for example, data logs and/or databases containing data (e.g., logistic data, raw data, summary data, etc.) acquired by the control application during the manufacturing process. These data logs and/or databases can be stored within storage devices of the various components of the control application and/or within a central data warehouse (e.g., a distributed manufacturing information warehouse (DMIW)). The data sources associated with the control application can include, but are not limited to, the following: data sources containing information from a machines supervisory program (MSP) which provides a code interface between the manufacturing tools and the manufacturing execution system (MES) (803); data sources containing information about the various tools used during events (i.e., transactions, stages, process steps, etc.) occurring in the manufacturing environment) (804); data sources containing information about the various recipes used in the manufacturing environment (805); data sources containing information about the control application models used in the manufacturing environment (806); and data sources containing stored outputs of the control application (e.g., sensor records, statistical process and control (SPC) charts, etc.) following events that occurs within the manufacturing environment and that are covered by control application models (807). The method can further comprise retrieving, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected events (i.e., data regarding selected transactions, stages, process steps or the like within the manufacturing environment, such as wafer-chamber passes) (808). That is, each time a selected event occurs (i.e., each time the transaction is performed on a new item, such as a wafer, being manufactured) data that is associated with the selected event and that is stored by the control application in its data sources will be collected. The method can further comprise compiling this data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the control application for specific events (810). These dataflow path records can show that every time a specific event occurs, the same postings are made to the same data sources. Event dataflow path records can be time-stamped and stored on a data storage device. (812) The method can further comprise performing an analysis of the dataflow path records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect any dataflow interruptions within the control application (814). Specifically, the process of analyzing the records can comprise performing a comparison between a dataflow path record of a current event (i.e., a near real-time event) and historical dataflow path records (i.e., the dataflow path records of prior events of the same type) to detect a dataflow interruption. That is, such a comparison can be used to detect any interruption in the known dataflow path for that event type, as established based on the historical records stored in the data storage device. For example, if a given event is known to have control application coverage and if, in the past, this same event resulted in the posting of certain data to the data sources, then no such posting indicates that a dataflow interruption has occurred and, thus, indicates that a control application failure has occurred. The process of analyzing the records can further comprise analyzing the dataflow path records to determine the location of each dataflow interruption. Based on the location of the dataflow interruption, the control application failure can be classified. That is, a determination can be made as to the root cause of the failure (e.g., a recipe error, model error, missing control chart, etc.). Notification (e.g., reports, alarms, etc.) can be provided to users of such control application failures and their root causes (816). In addition to detecting control application failures and determining the root causes of those failures, the method can comprise generating a summary report indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records, and outputting or displaying (e.g., on a graphical user interface (GUI)) the summary report (818). This summary report can, for example, quantify the performance (819) and/or the effectiveness (820) of the control application. As discussed in detail above and illustrated in the exemplary summary reports of FIGS. 2-4, the process of generating the summary report can comprise quantifying the performance of the control application by providing in the report one or more entries that reflect how well the control application performed its functions and/or quantifying the effectiveness of the control application by providing in the report one or more entries that reflect the coverage of the control application. Also as discussed in detail above and illustrated in FIGS. 2-4, the summary report can be generated according to some grouping (e.g., by tool type, by technology, by technology center, etc.) (821). Furthermore, the summary report can be generated with drill down functions allowing a user to link directly to the dataflow path records, upon which the report is based, using a graphical user interface (GUI) (822-823). Referring to FIG. 9, a more narrow embodiment of the method can specifically monitor a fault detection and classification (FDC) application that uses models to collect and monitor tool and/or process parameter data in an integrated circuit manufacturing environment in order to provide an early warning of tool and/or process faults and, thereby, to avoid having to scrap wafers or entire lots of wafers. This embodiment can similarly comprise identifying and accessing a plurality of data sources for the FDC application (902). The data sources can comprise, for example, data logs and/or databases containing data (e.g., logistic data, raw data, summary data, etc.) acquired by the FDC application during wafer processing. The data logs and/or databases can be stored within storage devices of the various components of the FDC application and/or within a central database (e.g., a distributed manufacturing information warehouse (DMIW)). The data sources associated with the FDC application can include, but are not limited to, the following: data sources containing information from a machines supervisory program (MSP) which provides a code interface between the manufacturing tools and the manufacturing execution system (MES) (903); data sources containing information about the various tools used during wafer-chamber passes (904); data sources containing information about the various recipes used during wafer-chamber passes (905); data sources containing information about the FDC models (906); and data sources containing stored output of the FDC application (907). Specifically, if the FDC application uses statistical process control (SPC) techniques, the output of the FDC application can be SPC charts, in which sensor data from manufacturing tools used during a given wafer-chamber pass is recorded. As mentioned above, a wafer-chamber pass (i.e., a recipe-wafer-chamber pass) refers to each time a single wafer is placed in a chamber and processed within that chamber by one or more tools according to one or more recipe-specific steps. This embodiment can further comprise retrieving, from those data sources, all relevant data regarding selected wafer-chamber passes (908). That is, each time a selected wafer-chamber pass is performed on a new wafer, data that is associated with the selected event and that is stored will be collected from the data sources of the FDC application. This embodiment can further comprise compiling the collected data in order to generate records of dataflow paths within the FDC application for specific wafer-chamber passes (910). These dataflow path records can show that every time a specific wafer-chamber pass is performed on a new wafer, the same postings are made to the same SPC chart. Event dataflow path records can be stored on a data storage device. This embodiment can further comprise performing an analysis of the dataflow path records (e.g., in response to a specific query and/or automatically in response to a continual query) in order to detect a dataflow interruption within the FDC application (914). Specifically, the process of analyzing the records can comprise performing a comparison between a dataflow path record of a current wafer-chamber pass (i.e., a near real-time wafer-chamber pass) and historical dataflow path records for the same wafer-chamber pass to detect a dataflow interruption. That is, such a comparison can be used to detect an interruption in the known dataflow path for that specific wafer-chamber pass, as established based on the records stored in the data storage device. More specifically, if a specific wafer-chamber pass is known to have FDC model coverage and if, in the past, that same wafer-chamber pass resulted in the posting of certain data to a SPC chart, then no such posting indicates that a dataflow interruption has occurred and, thus, indicates that an FDC application failure has occurred. The process of analyzing the records can further comprise analyzing the dataflow path records to determine the location of the FDC application failure. Based on the location of the dataflow interruption, the FDC failure can be classified. That is, a determination can be made as to the root cause of the FDC failure (e.g., a recipe error, model error, missing control chart, etc.). Notification (e.g., reports, alarms, etc.) can be provided to users of such FDC application failures and their root causes (916). In addition to detecting FDC application failures and determining the root causes of those failures, the method can comprise generating a summary report indicating the status of the fault detection and classification application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records, and outputting or displaying (e.g., on a graphical user interface (GUI)) the summary report (918). This summary report can, for example, quantify the performance and/or the effectiveness of the FDC application (919-920). As discussed in detail above and illustrated in the exemplary summary reports of FIGS. 2-4, the process of generating the summary report can comprise quantifying the performance of the FDC application by providing in the report one or more entries that reflect how well the control application performed its functions (919). In order to quantify the performance of the FDC application the summary report can contain the following: (1) an entry that specifies the total number of wafer-chamber passes performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given period of time (see columns 225 of FIG. 2, 325 of FIG. 3, and 425 of FIG. 4); (2) an entry that specifies the number of wafer-chamber passes covered by FDC application models (see columns 230 of FIG. 2, 330 of FIG. 3, and 430 of FIG. 4); (3) an entry that specifies the number of broken arrows (i.e., the number of wafer-chamber passes performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given time period, for which the FDC application should have collected data and failed); and/or (4) an entry that specifies the percentage of broken arrows (i.e., the percentage of wafer-chamber passes performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given period of time, for which the FDC application should have collected data and failed over the total number of wafer-chamber passes that occurred during that same time period, see columns 250 of FIG. 2, 350 of FIG. 3, and 450 of FIG. 4), etc. Also, as discussed in detail above and illustrated in the exemplary summary reports of FIGS. 2-4, the process of generating the summary report can comprise quantifying the effectiveness of the FDC application by providing in the report one or more entries that reflect the coverage of the FDC application (920). In order to quantify the effectiveness of the FDC application, the summary report can contain the following: (1) an entry that specifies the total number of wafer-chamber passes performed in that technology, by that tool or with that process, during the given period of time (see columns 225 of FIG. 2, 325 of FIG. 3, and 425 of FIG. 4); (2) an entry that specifies the number of wafer-chamber passes covered by FDC application models (see columns 230 of FIG. 2, 330 of FIG. 3, and 430 of FIG. 4); (3) an entry that specifies the best-case percentage of FDC application coverage (i.e., an entry that specifies the percentage of wafer-chamber passes covered by FDC application models out of the total number of wafer-chamber passes, see columns 235 of FIG. 2, 335 of FIG. 3, and 435 of FIG. 4); (4) an entry that specifies the number of wafer-chamber passes covered by control application models where the control application had inhibit ability (see columns 240 of FIG. 2, 340 of FIG. 3, and 440 of FIG. 4); and/or (5) an entry that specifies the current percentage of coverage by FDC application models (i.e., the percentage of wafer-chamber passes during a given period of time for which the FDC application had inhibit ability out of the total number of wafer-chamber passes, see columns 255 of FIG. 2, 355 of FIG. 3, and 455 of FIG. 4), etc. Inhibit ability refers to the control applications ability to stop (i.e., inhibit) the process if a fail is detected (i.e., if a determination is made by an FDC application that a given tool or process is outside set parameters). Also as discussed in detail above and illustrated in FIGS. 2-4, the summary report can be generated according to some grouping (e.g., by tool type, by technology, by technology center, etc.) (921). Furthermore, the summary report can be generated with drill down functions allowing a user to link directly to the dataflow path records, upon which the report is based, using a graphical user interface (GUI) (see FIGS. 5-7 and discussion above, 922-923). In addition to the method embodiments, described above, also disclosed herein are associated service embodiments in which the method of the invention is specifically performed for another, for example, performed by a computer service provider for a manufacturing customer, usually for a fee. The embodiments of the invention can further take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment including both hardware and software elements. In an embodiment, the invention is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, the embodiments of the invention can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-usable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can comprise, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk—read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk—read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. Input/output (I/O) devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modem and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. A representative hardware environment for practicing the embodiments of the invention is depicted in FIG. 10. This schematic drawing illustrates a hardware configuration of an information handling/computer system in accordance with the embodiments of the invention. The system comprises at least one processor or central processing unit (CPU) 10. The CPUs 10 are interconnected via system bus 12 to various devices such as a random access memory (RAM) 14, read-only memory (ROM) 16, and an input/output (I/O) adapter 18. The I/O adapter 18 can connect to peripheral devices, such as disk units 11 and tape drives 13, or other program storage devices that are readable by the system. The system can read the inventive instructions on the program storage devices and follow these instructions to execute the methodology of the embodiments of the invention. The system further includes a user interface adapter 19 that connects a keyboard 15, mouse 17, speaker 24, microphone 22, and/or other user interface devices such as a touch screen device (not shown) to the bus 12 to gather user input. Additionally, a communication adapter 20 connects the bus 12 to a data processing network 25, and a display adapter 21 connects the bus 12 to a display device 23 which may be embodied as an output device such as a monitor, printer, or transmitter, for example. Therefore, disclosed above are embodiments of the invention that provide near real-time monitoring of a control application in a manufacturing environment in order to detect and determine the root cause of faults within the control application. The embodiments monitor the flow of data within a control application during certain events (i.e., certain transactions, stages, process steps, etc.). By comparing a dataflow path for a near real-time event with historical dataflow path records, dataflow interruptions (i.e., fails) within the control application can be detected. By determining the location of such a dataflow interruption, the root cause of the control application fail can be determined. Additionally, the invention can generate summary reports indicating the status of the control application (e.g., over a given period of time), based on the analysis of the records. For example, the summary reports can quantify the performance of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of events during a given period of time for which the control application should have collected data and failed) and/or can quantify the effectiveness of the control application (e.g., by indicating a percentage of the events during a given period of time for which the control application had inhibit ability). These summary reports can further be generated with drill downs to provide a user with direct access to the records upon which the reports were based. The information made available to users by the disclosed embodiments (i.e., control application failure notices, root cause of failure notices, summary reports and drill downs) will allow users to act in order to ultimately improve yield and enhance productivity. For example, this information may precipitate rerouting of products to different tool types or technology centers with control application coverage. Identification of tools with control application coverage and maximizing use of such tools will minimizes scrap events. The information will allow users to act in order to optimize equipment utilization. That is, the information may be used to track tool performance and availability statistics for production control and management and further to make production decisions, such as fab loading decisions. In an indirect way, the information may be used to monitor equipment availability (i.e., equipment up-time). Finally, the information may be used to identify problem areas within the control application and to prioritize repairs. The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily modify and/or adapt for various applications such specific embodiments without departing from the generic concept, and, therefore, such adaptations and modifications should and are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalents of the disclosed embodiments. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology employed herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation. Therefore, while the embodiments of the invention have been described in terms of embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the embodiments of the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.
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11619549
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US20080163164A1-20080703
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SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MODEL-DRIVEN DASHBOARD FOR BUSINESS PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
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ACCEPTED
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20080619
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20080703
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[]
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G06F944
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["G06F944"]
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8843883
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20070103
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20140923
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717
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104000
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75570.0
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WEI
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ZHENG
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Chowdhary", "inventor_name_first": "Pawan Raghunath", "inventor_city": "Montrose", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Pinel", "inventor_name_first": "Florian Alexandre", "inventor_city": "New York", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Palpanas", "inventor_name_first": "Themistoklis", "inventor_city": "Trento", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IT"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Shyh-Kwei", "inventor_city": "Chappaqua", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A system, method, and framework resulting therefrom, for a model-driven dashboard for business performance management, which includes capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level by providing at least one user-customizable model for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using the at least one user-customizable model, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application.
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1. A method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, the method comprising: providing at least one user-customizable model for capturing functionality of a deployable dashboard. 2. A method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, the method comprising: providing at least one user-customizable model for capturing functionality of a dashboard; and after said user defines the functionality of the dashboard using said at least one user-customizable model, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the generated code defines at least one of: management of data to be displayed by the dashboard, wherein said management includes creating databases and access to said databases; design of views of the data by the dashboard; navigation among said views of the dashboard; and assignment of access privileges to users of the dashboard, wherein each of said users can only access respective data and views that are relevant to said each of said users. 4. The method according to claim 2, wherein said models define at least one of: data to be displayed by said dashboard, users of said dashboard, roles and access privileges of said users, content of each dashboard page view, and navigation among dashboard page views. 5. The method according to claim 2, wherein said models define at least one of a definition of metrics and related context information to be displayed on the dashboard, organization of dashboard information into pages, and definition of navigation paths among said pages, and assignment of access control privileges to the dashboard information, based on user roles. 6. The method according to claim 2, wherein said at least one user-customizable model includes at least one of a model for modeling data, a model for modeling users and the user's data access privileges, and a model for modeling navigation among data views. 7. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: capturing artifacts of at least one of the user-customizable models from a storage unit; transforming the at least one user-customizable model into a meta-model; and automatically generating said code for said deployable dashboard application based on said meta-model. 8. The method according to claim 2, wherein said dashboard comprises: a business performance management (BPM) dashboard. 9. The method according to claim 2, wherein the deployable dashboard application includes a software component for transformation of at least one of: models to meta models; and meta models to a deployable component. 10. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: grouping artifacts as metagroups of said at least one user-customizable model. 11. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: defining at least one of report templates and page navigation of said at least one user-customizable model. 12. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: defining users' roles and said users' access in said at least one user-customizable model as at least one of: User Role to Metric Group; and User Role to Page Template and Navigation. 13. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: capturing a User Role to Fine grained Data Access of said at least one user-customizable model. 14. A tool for capturing said business dashboard model requirements at said business model level and automatically generating said code for said deployable dashboard application, according to claim 2, wherein said tool comprises a Rational Software Architect (RSA) Modeler. 15. An Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema for capturing said business model requirements at said business model level and automatically generating said code for said deployable dashboard application, according to claim 2, wherein said Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema defines an Information Technology (IT) Meta Model for capturing said at least one user-customizable model. 16. A system for model-driven dashboard design, said system comprising: at least one user-customizable model that captures functionality of a dashboard; and a dashboard code generator that automatically generates code for a deployable dashboard application after a user defines the functionality of the dashboard using said at least one user-customizable model. 17. The system according to claim 16, further comprising: a dashboard model editor for editing said at least one user-customizable model to include a dashboard report requirement based on artifacts of the at least one user-customizable model retrieved from a storage unit; and a dashboard meta-model translator that transforms the at least one user-customizable model into a meta-model, wherein said dashboard code generator automatically generates said dashboard code for creating said deployable application based on said meta-model. 18. A dashboard framework for capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, said dashboard framework comprising: a dashboard model editor that edits a formal model that represents a dashboard report requirement based on artifacts of the formal model retrieved from a storage unit; a dashboard meta-model translator that transforms the formal model into a meta-model; and a dashboard code generator that automatically generates dashboard code for creating said deployable application. 19. A computer-readable medium tangibly embodying a program of recordable, machine-readable instructions executable by a digital processing apparatus to perform the method according to claim 2. 20. A method of deploying computing infrastructure in which computer-readable code is integrated into a computing system, and combines with said computing system to perform the method according to claim 2.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to a system and method of generating code for a model-driven dashboard for business performance management and dashboard resulting therefrom, and more particularly, to a system and method of capturing business model requirements at a business model level, including providing at least one user-customizable model (or a plurality thereof) for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using the at least one user-customizable model, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. 2. Description of the Conventional Art Enterprises are leveraging information technology solutions in order to increase their productivity and their business value in the marketplace. As they adopt the paradigm of describing and monitoring their business operations in a systematic manner, the need for visually representing such processes in a model becomes critical. Nowadays, many vendors provide sophisticated tools to represent business process models and business activity monitoring models. In modern businesses, several of those processes and activities correspond to procedures that monitor and measure the performance of the business. Business Performance Management (BPM) generally includes a suite of components that are used to monitor the health of the business. BPM delivers significant benefits to the businesses, by offering them the ability to react promptly to changes in their environment. BPM is enabled by the level of automation and systems integration that is currently in place in the majority of businesses. The integration of various systems in the business allows for continuous monitoring of business performance, using carefully selected metrics, also known as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). For purposes of this disclosure, Key Performance Indicators (KPI) generally mean indicators that help organizations achieve organizational goals through the definition and measurement of progress. The KPIs generally are displayed to the analyst through a dashboard. For purposes of this disclosure, a dashboard generally means a user interface that organizes and presents information in a way that is easy to read and interpret. Dashboards can be essential elements in the day-to-day operation of modern enterprises, as they provide to the analysts the view of all the critical business metrics that reflect the performance of the business. In contrast to the usefulness, and ease of use, that dashboards represent, the amount of effort that is required for their development can sometimes be daunting. User interface development in general, and dashboard development too, can require a considerable investment of time, and can often take as much as 65-80% of the overall development time in a model-driven business transformation project.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present inventors have recognized that business process and business performance modeling are becoming increasingly important as modern enterprises seek ways to exploit high level design and reasoning, as well as some degree of automation in the code generation process. For example, the present inventors have recognized that the development of software using business and Information Technology (IT) models are gaining market share. Model-driven Business Performance Management (BPM) is one such example. The present inventors also have recognized that BPM Dashboards are a critical component of business process and business performance modeling. However, conventional dashboards are custom designed with large development cycles and are not connected to Business Models. The present inventors have recognized that a higher cost is needed to build and maintain such a dashboard if developed with conventional techniques. The present inventors have recognized a lack of business and IT dashboard models for representing business requirements. Also, it is difficult to translate such conventional dashboard models (if existing) into actual dashboard reports due to a lack of Meta Models. The present inventors also have recognized that the problem of defining dashboard report templates as the structure of input data is unknown, and has not been addressed, in the conventional systems and methods. The inventors have recognized that, while there may be a significant research effort towards these directions, the conventional systems and methods, to date, have focused on the problem of how to effectively model a business process, but have not addressed the problem of modeling the entire business performance monitoring process, from the source data to the dashboard (i.e., the user interface for the monitored metrics). In view of the foregoing and other exemplary problems, drawbacks, and disadvantages of the conventional art methods and structures, an exemplary feature of the present invention is to provide an efficient and effective model-driven dashboard design system, method, and dashboard resulting therefrom, and more particularly, to capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, including providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. The present invention extends the business performance modeling framework by providing a number of new models that enable the process of dashboard design. The model-driven approach, according to the present invention, can render the dashboard design and deployment process less time-consuming and less cumbersome. The present invention can provide automated code generation, and allow fast and easy integration of the dashboard with the final solution. The inventors of the present invention will describe the novel designing and deploying of a dashboard for a real-world business, as well as the results of such experiments, thereby demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of the present invention. The present invention can provide a significant reduction in terms of required development time when compared to a conventional dashboard deployment process. In an exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide Business Dashboard Models (Unified Modeling Language 2 (UML2)) and IT level Meta Models. In another exemplary aspect, the present invention can extend existing BPM Models (UML2 Profiles) to, for example: Model User Roles to Metric Access. Model User Roles to Data Access (via dimension). Model User Roles to Report Template Access. Model Metrics to the Report Templates. Model Navigation and Access. The present invention can define Meta Models (Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema) to capture the modeling and dashboard report elements. In another exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide software components for automatic transformation of the Models to the Actual Reports. In yet another exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide Pre-defined static Data Templates and Plug-in components for defining Report Template. The exemplary aspects of the present invention provide important advantages, such as, the capability of modeling very small set of data elements (facts, dimension, hierarchies, levels). Thus, the structure of the data can be limited to few predefined sets (Data Templates). The data access and filtering logic are deterministic in nature. The exemplary aspects of the present invention can provide a mechanism to provide coarse and fine grain access to the data by roles. The context data to KPI's can be stored as dimensions. The exemplary model can allow roles to dimension level access (coarse grain access). At pre-runtime, the present invention can provide the ability to provide user to actual content access (via an administrator). The present invention can provide a software component, can transform the model into meta models, and finally, into deployable reports. The software component can be provided as a tag library (plug-in) (or equivalent software component) for Report templates, for example, for auto generation of one of the predefined data sets, providing filtering functionality, etc. The present invention can provide assistance to a Report template (user defined), for example, by selecting one of the data structure sets for the template, using provided tag library and Application Programming Interfaces (API's) to access the data, etc. The conventional systems and methods generally deal with the dashboard at the data level, not at the modeling level. One exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, which includes automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application based on providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing the functionality of a the deployable dashboard. Another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, which includes providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. Yet another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a tool for capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, wherein the tool includes a Rational Software Architect (RSA) Modeler. A further exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to an Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema for capturing business model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, wherein the Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema defines an Information Technology (IT) Meta Model for capturing the user-customizable models. Yet another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed a system for model-driven dashboard design, which includes at least one user-customizable model for capturing functionality of a dashboard, a dashboard code generator for automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application after a user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models. Still another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a dashboard framework for capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, which includes a dashboard model editor that edits a formal model that represents a dashboard report requirement based on artifacts of the formal model retrieved from a storage unit, a dashboard meta-model translator that transforms the formal model into a meta-model, and a dashboard code generator that automatically generates dashboard code for creating the deployable application. Another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a computer-readable medium tangibly embodying a program of recordable, machine-readable instructions executable by a digital processing apparatus to perform the exemplary method according to the present invention. Still another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of deploying computing infrastructure in which computer-readable code is integrated into a computing system, and combines with the computing system to perform the method according to the present invention.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to a system and method of generating code for a model-driven dashboard for business performance management and dashboard resulting therefrom, and more particularly, to a system and method of capturing business model requirements at a business model level, including providing at least one user-customizable model (or a plurality thereof) for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using the at least one user-customizable model, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. 2. Description of the Conventional Art Enterprises are leveraging information technology solutions in order to increase their productivity and their business value in the marketplace. As they adopt the paradigm of describing and monitoring their business operations in a systematic manner, the need for visually representing such processes in a model becomes critical. Nowadays, many vendors provide sophisticated tools to represent business process models and business activity monitoring models. In modern businesses, several of those processes and activities correspond to procedures that monitor and measure the performance of the business. Business Performance Management (BPM) generally includes a suite of components that are used to monitor the health of the business. BPM delivers significant benefits to the businesses, by offering them the ability to react promptly to changes in their environment. BPM is enabled by the level of automation and systems integration that is currently in place in the majority of businesses. The integration of various systems in the business allows for continuous monitoring of business performance, using carefully selected metrics, also known as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). For purposes of this disclosure, Key Performance Indicators (KPI) generally mean indicators that help organizations achieve organizational goals through the definition and measurement of progress. The KPIs generally are displayed to the analyst through a dashboard. For purposes of this disclosure, a dashboard generally means a user interface that organizes and presents information in a way that is easy to read and interpret. Dashboards can be essential elements in the day-to-day operation of modern enterprises, as they provide to the analysts the view of all the critical business metrics that reflect the performance of the business. In contrast to the usefulness, and ease of use, that dashboards represent, the amount of effort that is required for their development can sometimes be daunting. User interface development in general, and dashboard development too, can require a considerable investment of time, and can often take as much as 65-80% of the overall development time in a model-driven business transformation project. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present inventors have recognized that business process and business performance modeling are becoming increasingly important as modern enterprises seek ways to exploit high level design and reasoning, as well as some degree of automation in the code generation process. For example, the present inventors have recognized that the development of software using business and Information Technology (IT) models are gaining market share. Model-driven Business Performance Management (BPM) is one such example. The present inventors also have recognized that BPM Dashboards are a critical component of business process and business performance modeling. However, conventional dashboards are custom designed with large development cycles and are not connected to Business Models. The present inventors have recognized that a higher cost is needed to build and maintain such a dashboard if developed with conventional techniques. The present inventors have recognized a lack of business and IT dashboard models for representing business requirements. Also, it is difficult to translate such conventional dashboard models (if existing) into actual dashboard reports due to a lack of Meta Models. The present inventors also have recognized that the problem of defining dashboard report templates as the structure of input data is unknown, and has not been addressed, in the conventional systems and methods. The inventors have recognized that, while there may be a significant research effort towards these directions, the conventional systems and methods, to date, have focused on the problem of how to effectively model a business process, but have not addressed the problem of modeling the entire business performance monitoring process, from the source data to the dashboard (i.e., the user interface for the monitored metrics). In view of the foregoing and other exemplary problems, drawbacks, and disadvantages of the conventional art methods and structures, an exemplary feature of the present invention is to provide an efficient and effective model-driven dashboard design system, method, and dashboard resulting therefrom, and more particularly, to capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, including providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. The present invention extends the business performance modeling framework by providing a number of new models that enable the process of dashboard design. The model-driven approach, according to the present invention, can render the dashboard design and deployment process less time-consuming and less cumbersome. The present invention can provide automated code generation, and allow fast and easy integration of the dashboard with the final solution. The inventors of the present invention will describe the novel designing and deploying of a dashboard for a real-world business, as well as the results of such experiments, thereby demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of the present invention. The present invention can provide a significant reduction in terms of required development time when compared to a conventional dashboard deployment process. In an exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide Business Dashboard Models (Unified Modeling Language 2 (UML2)) and IT level Meta Models. In another exemplary aspect, the present invention can extend existing BPM Models (UML2 Profiles) to, for example: Model User Roles to Metric Access. Model User Roles to Data Access (via dimension). Model User Roles to Report Template Access. Model Metrics to the Report Templates. Model Navigation and Access. The present invention can define Meta Models (Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema) to capture the modeling and dashboard report elements. In another exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide software components for automatic transformation of the Models to the Actual Reports. In yet another exemplary aspect, the present invention can provide Pre-defined static Data Templates and Plug-in components for defining Report Template. The exemplary aspects of the present invention provide important advantages, such as, the capability of modeling very small set of data elements (facts, dimension, hierarchies, levels). Thus, the structure of the data can be limited to few predefined sets (Data Templates). The data access and filtering logic are deterministic in nature. The exemplary aspects of the present invention can provide a mechanism to provide coarse and fine grain access to the data by roles. The context data to KPI's can be stored as dimensions. The exemplary model can allow roles to dimension level access (coarse grain access). At pre-runtime, the present invention can provide the ability to provide user to actual content access (via an administrator). The present invention can provide a software component, can transform the model into meta models, and finally, into deployable reports. The software component can be provided as a tag library (plug-in) (or equivalent software component) for Report templates, for example, for auto generation of one of the predefined data sets, providing filtering functionality, etc. The present invention can provide assistance to a Report template (user defined), for example, by selecting one of the data structure sets for the template, using provided tag library and Application Programming Interfaces (API's) to access the data, etc. The conventional systems and methods generally deal with the dashboard at the data level, not at the modeling level. One exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, which includes automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application based on providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing the functionality of a the deployable dashboard. Another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level, which includes providing a plurality of user-customizable models for capturing functionality of a dashboard, and after the user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models, automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application. Yet another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a tool for capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, wherein the tool includes a Rational Software Architect (RSA) Modeler. A further exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to an Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema for capturing business model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, wherein the Extensible Markup Language (XML) Schema defines an Information Technology (IT) Meta Model for capturing the user-customizable models. Yet another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed a system for model-driven dashboard design, which includes at least one user-customizable model for capturing functionality of a dashboard, a dashboard code generator for automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application after a user defines the functionality of the dashboard using at least one of the plurality of user-customizable models. Still another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a dashboard framework for capturing business dashboard model requirements at a business model level and automatically generating code for a deployable dashboard application, which includes a dashboard model editor that edits a formal model that represents a dashboard report requirement based on artifacts of the formal model retrieved from a storage unit, a dashboard meta-model translator that transforms the formal model into a meta-model, and a dashboard code generator that automatically generates dashboard code for creating the deployable application. Another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a computer-readable medium tangibly embodying a program of recordable, machine-readable instructions executable by a digital processing apparatus to perform the exemplary method according to the present invention. Still another exemplary aspect of the invention is directed to a method of deploying computing infrastructure in which computer-readable code is integrated into a computing system, and combines with the computing system to perform the method according to the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other exemplary purposes, aspects and advantages will be better understood from the following detailed description of an exemplary aspects of the invention with reference to the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary high level architecture 100 of model-driven dashboard framework 155, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary Business Performance Management (BPM) dashboard meta-model (XML schema) 200, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary high-level end-to-end dashboard component flow diagram 300, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary dashboard metric (KPI) group model artifact definition 400, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary dashboard navigation model artifact definition 500, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary dashboard report template model artifact definition 600, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary user role to metric and dimension model artifact definition 700, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary user role to report template model artifact definition 800, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates an exemplary user role to navigation tree model artifact definition 900, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary pre-modeling activity diagram 1000, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary modeling activity flow chart 1100, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary report template execution scenario 1200, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary post-modeling activity diagram 1300, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary metric groups definition model 1400, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 15 illustrates an exemplary data model 1500, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 16 illustrates an exemplary report template model 1600, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 17 illustrates an exemplary navigation tree model 1700, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary role to data access mapping model 1800, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 19 illustrates an exemplary role to navigation tree access mapping model 1900, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 20 illustrates an exemplary role to report template access mapping model 2000, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary generated dashboard page 2100, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention; FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary hardware/information handling system 2200 for incorporating the present invention therein; and FIG. 23 illustrates a computer-readable medium (e.g., storage medium 2300) for storing/recording steps of a program of a method according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY ASPECTS OF THE INVENTION Referring now to the drawings, and more particularly to FIGS. 1-23, there are shown exemplary aspects of the method and structures according to the present invention. The present invention generally relates to a system and method of business performance modeling and model-driven business transformation. For example, FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary high level architecture 100 of model-driven dashboard framework 155, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention. The present invention can provide business models 105, such as business performance management (BPM) models 115, as well as other models 110, which would be known and understood by the ordinarily skilled artisan. The present invention also can provide a template store 120 and a model store 125. The model-driven dashboard framework 155 can include, for example, a dashboard model editor 130 which can be used to capture a representation of the dashboard models. The dashboard meta-model translator 145 can then be used to transform the dashboard model from the dashboard model editor 130 into a meta-model representation. The meta-model representation can be fed into the dashboard code generator 150, which can automatically generate a deployable dashboard application 160. Moreover, the exemplary aspects of FIGS. 1 also can replace the BPM Observation Model (OM) with other business modeling approaches, without affecting the dashboard model, as exemplarily illustrated by the external modeling 140. FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary Business Performance Management (BPM) dashboard meta-model (extensible markup language (XML) schema) 200, according to the present invention. The present invention can use a Unified Modeling Language (UML) representation, or for example, an extensible markup language (XML). FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary high-level end-to-end dashboard component flow diagram 300, according to the present invention. The exemplary dashboard modeling methodology, according to the present invention, can be divided in the following three main activities: 1. Pre-modeling activity (e.g., see also FIG. 10); 2. Modeling activity (e.g., see also FIG. 11); and 3. Post-modeling activity (e.g., see also FIGS. 12 and 13), each of which will be described below. As exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 3, the present invention provides the user with the ability to define report templates 320, based on existing templates, or newly created templates (e.g., including a predetermined number, type, etc. of tables, charts, etc.). That is, the user can select predefined templates 305 or a plug-in component for report templates 310, from the template store 315. Referring to the exemplary pre-modeling activity diagram 1000, which is illustrated in more detail in FIG. 10, the predefined data templates 1010 (e.g., summary, detail, etc.) can include sets of fixed data structures. The view component 1020 (e.g., which can be embedded in the report templates), can include a JavaServer Pages (JSP) tag library software component, which can include, for example, an Application Programming Interface (API) to register the data template, an API to register the user and user role, an API to register the filter information, an API to register Data warehouse related information, a function to form Structured Query Language (SQL) for data extraction by role and filter, and a function to return either the Query or Data template instance to Report, etc. The predefined sample report templates 1030 can includes sets of readily available report templates incorporating framework components. The user interface (UI) designer/modeler defined report templates 1040 can include application specific custom report templates, which can be defined by an appropriate role player (e.g., administrator). The user can chose the data template and embed view components to use the framework. Turning again to the exemplary high-level end-to-end dashboard component flow diagram 300, as illustrated in FIG. 3, the present invention can provide an observation model data warehouse model 325, a dashboard model 330, a dashboard meta-model 335, and a deployment code 340. With reference to the exemplary modeling activity flow chart 1100 in FIG. 11, the observation model data warehouse model 1110 can include, for example, existing models. The dashboard model (UML) 1120 can include stereotypes to create dashboard models, such as Model User Roles to Metric Access, Model User Roles to Data Access (via dimension), Model User Roles to Report Template Access, Model Metrics to the Report Templates, Model Navigation and Access, etc. The dashboard models can be transformed into dashboard meta model (XML) 1130 (e.g., an intermediate dashboard model representation (XML instance)). The dashboard meta-model (XML) 1130 can be transformed into deployable components, such as dashboard databases tables (Data Definition Language (DDL)) 1140, dashboard application 1150 (e.g., EAR file *.ear), etc. Turning again to the exemplary high-level end-to-end dashboard component flow diagram 300, as illustrated in FIG. 3, the present invention can provide deployable dashboard components 345, users to data mapping 350 (e.g., to define access control). The deployable dashboard components 345 can capture data from the data warehouse 360 to generate view dashboard reports 370. FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary report template execution scenario 1200, according to the present invention. As illustrated in FIG. 12, the present invention can provide a report instance including a view report plug-in (framework) 1220, a rendering component 1215, and a register component 1210, which can register the data template and user role (e.g., 1212). The view report plug-in can query 1235 the data warehouse 1230, which can provide a data template instance 1225 to the view report plug-in 1220. FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary post-modeling activity diagram 1300, according to the present invention. As shown in FIG. 13, the dashboard (DDL) 1310 can deploy the dashboard model related data schemas at the business performance management (BPM) data warehouse. The dashboard application 1320 can deploy the application onto an appropriate platform, such as WebSphere Portal Server, WebSphere, etc. The fine grained access control 1330 (e.g., which can define actual user to content mapping) can be used by an administrator of the system to further map an actual user, or a plurality of actual users, to the content. An administrative website can be provided to perform such mapping. According to the present invention, the view component can take care of filtering the data, as per the user access. The above exemplary features of the present invention are described in more detail below. The inventors have recognized that, while there is a significant research effort towards these directions, the conventional systems and methods, to date, have focused on the problem of how to effectively model a business process, but have not addresses the problem of modeling the entire business performance monitoring process, from the source data to the dashboard (i.e., the user interface for the monitored metrics). The present invention provides an approach for dashboard development that is model-driven and can be integrated with the business performance models. The present invention adopts the business performance modeling framework, and extends it in order to capture the reporting aspects of the business operation. The present invention can provide models that can effectively represent all the elements necessary for the business performance reporting process, and the interactions among them. The present invention can demonstrate how all these models can be combined and automatically generate the final solution. The present invention can provide dashboard development that can be fast and easy, while maintaining flexibility in the design, and without sacrificing versatility or performance. The framework for dashboard design that is model-driven. The framework, according to the present invention, can include a number of user-customizable models that can effectively capture the functionality of a dashboard. The present invention can provide different models for modeling the data, the users and their data access privileges, and the navigation among the various data views. Once the user has designed the dashboard with the desired functionality using the provided models, the exemplary framework, according to the present invention, can automatically generate code for the deployment of the dashboard, leaving only minor customization issues for the developer. The generated code can cover all the aspects of the dashboard, such as: Management of the data to be displayed, involving the creation of relevant databases and access to them. Design of different views of the data, and of the navigation among those views. Assignment of access privileges to the users of the dashboard, so that each user can only access the data and views that are relevant. The present invention can permit the developer to focus on the dashboard functionality, and can relieve the developer from the burden of the user interface development experience. The benefits of such a model-driven dashboard development, according to the present invention, can include the graphical representation and easy manipulation of the solution, the error free code generation, and the ability to capture the business reporting requirement quickly and cost effectively. The conventional systems and methods have not recognized such an approach for model-driven dashboard design. Thus, the present invention can describe a framework for model-driven dashboard design. The models employed by the present invention can cover the many facets of this process, such as the data to be displayed, the users of the system, the roles and access privileges of each user, the content of each dashboard page view, and the navigation among those views. The method, according to the present invention, is complementary to business process and business performance modeling, and leverages from such models. The present invention describes how such a novel approach can interact with a specific business performance modeling approach, namely, BPM. Nevertheless, the ordinarily skilled artisan would recognize that the present invention is not customized for BPM, and can operate in conjunction with any other business process model as well. The framework, according to the present invention, can enable the automated generation of all the code necessary for the deployment of the dashboard. Therefore, the burden of tedious programming from the dashboard development team can be reduced or eliminated, and the time required for delivering the solution can be greatly reduced. The approach of the present invention can be validated using real-world scenarios. The application of the proposed method to a real problem, and demonstration of the benefits of the present invention with regards to development time and flexibility of the solution, will be described below. As described above, there is a growing trend in using model-driven methodologies for developing large system software, due to their high level abstraction and code re-use (or regeneration). They have been widely applied in related areas, such as software reuse, reverse engineering, and user interface design. The benefits of adopting model-driven design include reduced software development time, enhanced code quality, and improved code maintenance. There are also numerous related works about business processes. Widely considered as an extension of a workflow management system, business process management enables the management and analysis of operational business processes. Recent work has focused on modeling business processes, consistency checking for model integration, and composing Web services and business processes via the model-driven approach. Business processes can be implemented, for example, using a workflow or a state machine model. The workflow model is a natural representation for a business process model, modeling the sequence of tasks corresponding to the business operation. There can also be control logic and data transformations between tasks. Business Process Execution Language (BPEL) defines a program understandable language to represent such a process for web service environments. Yet, BPEL can only orchestrate the flow execution; business data are still not synchronized, correlated, or linked together for the auditing and analysis purposes. An approach that tries to overcome the above shortcomings is the Model-Driven Business Transformation (MDBT). MDBT models business operations from the point of view of a business analyst, without regard to existing or planned information technology solutions. In other words, an MDBT operation model is a truly Computation Independent Model as described by Object Management Group (OMG). The first step in creating an operation model is to identify the primary business artifacts that an enterprise must create and process to conduct its business. The operations can then be described by the set of tasks that must be performed to process those artifacts, and the roles assigned to the tasks. In our experience, such operation models combine artifact lifecycles and data in a way that is more meaningful to business analysts. As described below, MDBT can include a path to implementation of the operation model. There is also much interest around the concept of dashboards, with several conventional solutions. For example, conventional dashboard applications have been specifically designed for doing some analytics and for visualizing data. Nevertheless, these conventional approaches do not integrate with the business process and business performance models. Therefore, the conventional approaches require much effort to develop and maintain. In contrast, the present invention provides a novel method for dashboard design that is model-driven. The high-level models defined by the present invention can be integrated seamlessly with business performance models, leveraging the common parts of the design, and enabling an end-to-end design process. In addition to espousing a business artifact-centric approach to operation modeling, MDBT offers a model-driven development toolkit and technique. The tools automatically transform an operation model into a platform-independent solution composition model in UML2. In this stage of modeling, the solution architect can fill in much of the IT detail that is outside the domain of the business analyst. These details can include integration with external services, as well as role players. At each stage in the lifecycle of the business artifacts, now represented as a state machine, the architect specifies what portion of the data associated with the artifact will be available to the relevant role players and services. Following the completion of the solution composition model, MDBT code generation tools can automatically create Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition (J2EE) components that manage the process and provide a simple user interface by which users can interact with the solution. The automated transformations and code generation can enable rapid prototyping, greatly accelerating the development cycle, and allowing for a fast turnaround iterative development regimen. The solution composition model also can provide a platform on which an observation model can be constructed. The elements of the observation model (e.g., events) can be linked to those of the solution composition model (e.g. states and transitions) so as to define how the performance metrics will be gathered. Business Performance Management (BPM) can be an effective means of monitoring business processes. Model-based BPM normally includes an observation model that conforms to a pre-defined meta-model, such as the one provided by MDBT, which we discussed above. Entities such as input events, metrics, outbound events, situation detectors, and actions can be monitored and scheduled through the observation model. Using BPM, the present invention can detect bottlenecks of business operations in real-time or analyze them at a pre-determined schedule, and identify anomalies by correlating event sequences. Based on the observation model, actions triggered by the above situations can involve sending out email alerts or displaying statistics and aggregated information onto a dashboard. The present inventors implemented a BPM solution based on the model-driven development methodology. There are two exemplary approaches that were adopted for representing a BPM solution. The first approach utilizes the Unified Modeling Language (UML) with UML2 profile extension. With a convenient graphic user interface (GUI) tool, BPM entities and relationships can be defined using UML models. The second approach utilizes XML schemas for defining BPM entities and the relationships between the entities. Both approaches can be implemented as plug-ins on Rational Software Architecture (RSA). Although the exemplary aspects of the present invention are described under the general framework of MDBT and BPM, the ordinarily skilled artisan would know and understand that the present invention is not limited to this framework. As described in more detail below, an XML interface, for example, can be used to allow the present invention to operate with any other business process modeling frameworks. Referring now to the drawings, and more particularly to FIGS. 1-23, there are shown exemplary aspects of the method and structures according to the present invention. Model-driven Dashboard Framework With reference to FIG. 1, an exemplary high-level architecture 100 for a model-driven dashboard framework 155 will be described below. Model-driven dashboards aim at automating the reporting capabilities related to business monitoring. Therefore, they have the potential to bridge the gap between BPM models that specify the elements of a dashboard, and dashboard development, which is conventionally a manual effort (i.e., manually performed). FIG. 1 exemplary illustrates a high level architecture 100 of the proposed dashboard framework 155. As mentioned earlier, the framework 155 extends the existing BPM model in order to support the dashboard reporting needs. Specifically, the present invention extends the BPM Observation Model (OM), one of the Unified Modeling Language (UML) Models of MDBT Toolkit that captures the monitoring and alerting requirements of an enterprise. In order to visually represent these requirements as models, the OM makes use of the UML2 profiles to extend the base UML elements. The Dashboard Model employs similar techniques to represent its modeling elements, so that the solution designer can work with consistent models for the entire, end-to-end solution design. The exemplary models can capture aspects of the BPM Dashboard. For example, the model can capture a definition of metrics and related context information to be displayed on the dashboard, organization of information into pages, and definition of navigation paths among these pages, and assignment of access control privileges to the dashboard information, depending on the user roles. The ordinarily skilled artisan would know and understand that the present invention is not limited to representing the dashboard modeling artifacts using UML 2, and that the present invention can represent the dashboard modeling artifacts using other tools and techniques other than UML 2. The present invention can use popular modeling tools, such as Rational Software Architect (RSA), for capturing the UML representation of the dashboard models. The ordinarily skilled artisan would know and understand that RSA can be interchanged with any other editor supporting the UML 2 notations, within the spirit and scope of the present invention. Turning again to FIG. 1, the exemplary dashboard framework 155 can include a dashboard model editor 130, which can receive inputs from a report template storage unit 120 and a model storage unit 125. Business models 105, such as business performance management BPM 115, as well as other business models 110, can be input into the dashboard model editor 130. For illustrative purposes, the present invention uses UML for all the modeling requirements in the exemplary framework. However, the present invention also can provide an equivalent XML representation, which serves as the exemplary meta-model. In fact, the representation that the exemplary approach uses internally is the XML representation. FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary Business Performance Management (BPM) dashboard meta-model (XML schema) definition 200, according to an exemplary, non-limiting aspect of the present invention. The transformation between the UML and the XML representations is lossless, in the sense that all the modeling elements and the relationships among them are preserved. By providing the Dashboard XML Meta-Model as an additional level of abstraction, the present invention can decouple the dashboard modeling process from the modeling of the rest of the business processes. Therefore, changes in the OM can be prevented from affecting the Dashboard Framework 155. Moreover, the present invention can replace the OM with any other business modeling approach (e.g., 110), without affecting the dashboard model (e.g., external modeling 140). When the dashboard model (e.g., 130) has been transformed into the dashboard meta-model representation (e.g., 145), the present invention can feed this representation to the dashboard code generator 150, which subsequently can produce the deployable dashboard application 160. The generated application can consist of the dashboard Application, which is the set of files that contain the actual code for the application, and the dashboard DDL, which is the set of files that generate the auxiliary structures needed by the application, such as database tables. These tables can be created in the BPM data warehouse. The dashboard application can be readily deployed on a J2EE application server. The particular choice of the application server is orthogonal to the solution of the present invention. It is noted that the exemplary code generator 150, according to the present invention, can be modified to generate deployable components for any application server. FIG. 3 exemplarily illustrates an overview of a high-level end-to-end dashboard-design process 300, according to the present invention. For example, the present invention can begin by defining custom reports (e.g., 320) to be used by the dashboard, or by simply selecting some of the predefined reports from the template data store 305. The present invention can define plug-in components for report templates 310. Atemplate store 315 can be provided. As will be discussed below, the role of these report templates 305 is to retrieve the appropriate data and handle the presentation of these data on the screen. Then, the solution designer can model the dashboard elements using the Model Editor 130, transform the result into the Dashboard Meta-Model representation 145, and invoke the Code Generator 150 to generate the deployable software components (e.g., 160). Once deployed, the Dashboard can be accessed using a web browser. The aspects of exemplary Dashboard Model elements are discussed below. Dashboard Model Artifacts The dashboard model artifacts, according to the present invention, can be classified, for example, into three categories. A first category can be related to modeling the data that are necessary for the dashboard and can include data and metric models. A second category can correspond to an abstract presentation layer, including navigation and report template models. Finally, a third category can be related to user roles and data access privileges, and can include models that define the dashboard access control, by relating user roles to data elements, as well as elements in the presentation layer. Dashboard Model Definition As discussed above, the present invention exemplarily uses UML for the entire dashboard modeling requirements because it is widely accepted in the industry, and also because it provides to the solution developer a consistent platform to work with, across the various MDBT models. The ordinarily skilled artisan would know and understand that the present invention is not limited to representing the dashboard modeling requirements using UML, and that the present invention can represent the dashboard modeling requirements using other tools and techniques other than UML. The present invention can extend the UML meta-classes and relationships by introducing new stereotypes using UML 2 profiles to model the dashboard elements. These stereotypes can then be stored as part of an existing BPM model profile. When modeling an actual solution using a modeling editor, these profiles can be applied in order to take advantage of the BPM Dashboard Model elements. Dashboard Data Model With reference again to FIG. 3, in an exemplary aspect of the present invention, it can be assumed that all the necessary data can be stored in a data warehouse 360, using a star schema. Therefore, the present invention can use the metric group model artifact definition 400, as exemplary illustrated in FIG. 4, where each data element is marked as either a dimension, or a metric. Even though the data model supported by the present invention is simple, its semantics are rich enough to be able to model many real-life scenarios. This is because it is usual for real world data-modeling problems (especially the ones that are being targeted by the present invention) to have a natural star-like representation. An example scenario may be product sale information, where the metrics can include number of units sold and revenue, and the dimensions can include geographies and time. In FIG. 4, the present invention introduces a Metric Group modeling element, which can be used for grouping of relevant metrics. Such a grouping may be useful when modeling relationships to other artifacts, where all the members of the Metric Group participate. FIG. 4 exemplarily illustrates the Metric Group UML class that connects to the Metric class in an aggregation relationship. Dashboard Navigation Model In FIG. 5, the present invention illustrates exemplary GUI modeling Elements (stereotypes), such as, a Navigation Tree, Page, and Menu classes. These three classes can form the Dashboard Navigation Model. In a typical scenario, the analyst can start by defining some pages, and then associating these pages with menus. In a last step, the analyst can introduce a Navigation Tree element, in order to capture the navigation paths among the pages, which eventually form the Dashboard reports. Dashboard Report Template Model Dashboard report templates can be used to define the information content of individual pages. For example, FIG. 6 illustrates that a Report Template can be associated with a page, and may refer to several Metric Groups. When the page is displayed on the dashboard, the information about all the metrics corresponding to the templates can be rendered on the screen. It is noted that each page can be associated with one or more Report Templates. The Report Templates also can define the details for the visual presentation of the data they contain. By creating a report template, the user can choose to display a set of metric data as a table, as a chart, or using both display modes. Dashboard Access Control Model A dashboard access control model can define all the access control properties relevant to the dashboard. Using the various modeling elements, the present invention can specify for each user role the access privileges to different parts of the data, as well to different pages of the dashboard. Thus, the dashboard users, according to their assigned roles, may only have access to a subset of the dashboard reports. FIG. 7 exemplarily illustrates how the present invention can model the above requirements in the framework. The business analyst can model the access privileges to the reporting data according to User Role (such as manager, data administrator, etc.), and by Metric Group and Dimension. The relationships between user roles and metrics, and user roles and dimensions will be exemplarily described below. According to the present invention, a “UserRole-MetricGroup” relationship specifies the access privileges of User Role to Metric Group. When the analyst creates an aggregation link between the above two modeling elements, all the users assigned to User Role gain access to all the metrics described by Metric Group. his lets the model capture the role based access to metrics. At runtime, based on this model, the system can determine what metrics to show on the dashboard based on the User Role (i.e., only those metrics for which the user has access are displayed on the dashboard). According to the present invention, a “UserRole-DimensionScope” relationship can define the User Role access privileges to various dimensions, as well as to the dimension levels in each dimension. This lets the business analyst define fine grained access control at the metric context. When the dashboard has been deployed and is ready for use, the administrator can have the ability to further refine the data access control by the specific data values, as will be described below. An “Access by Report Template” can be another aspect of dashboard-report access-control modeling. A User Role may have access to one or more Report Templates, and the business analyst may select a set of (already defined) templates and associate them to the User Role elements. This lets the dashboard framework filter the templates that are shown to the user of the dashboard. FIG. 8 exemplarily illustrates a “User Role to Report Template” relationship. The framework, according to the present invention, can permit the business analyst to define access control based on Navigation Trees, as exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 9. It is noted that a single Dashboard Model can involve several Navigation Trees. In this exemplary case, the business analyst may wish to provide different access privileges to each one of the navigation trees, according to User Role. The foregoing access control models provide a powerful and flexible toolset. Indeed, not only do the foregoing access control models provide coarse- and fine-grain access control to data, but they also allow the business analyst to design a small set of pages, which at run-time, will display different information, according to the access privileges of the user accessing the dashboard. Dashboard Model Solution Methodology An exemplary dashboard model solution methodology will now be described. Even though the model-driven approach brings efficiency to BPM solutions development, it can be beneficial to understand and follow a specific methodology that can lead to a successful and efficient solution. The exemplary dashboard modeling methodology, according to the present invention, can be divided in the following three main activities: 1. Pre-modeling activity; 2. Modeling activity; and 3. Post-modeling activity, each of which will be described below. Pre-Modeling Activity Before starting to sketch models in order to capture the dashboard requirements, the business analyst is required to understand the predefined components and templates that are included in the Dashboard Framework tool. These components can aid in quickly and efficiently designing the solution. FIG. 10 exemplarily illustrates a diagram of components 1000 which may be relevant to this activity. One of the important aspects of the exemplary framework is the predefined data templates (data structures) 1010. Since the data model generally is only comprised of a well-defined, limited set of data elements (that is, metrics and dimensions), the framework can publish predefined sets of data structures as part of the tool. Then, each report template can choose the data structures that are suitable for its reporting purposes. The framework can provide another software component, e.g., the view component 1020, which is responsible for connecting the data layer with the presentation layer of the dashboard. The view component 1020 can use the data structure and User Role elements to connect to the data sources, and can generate an instance of the data structure, which during runtime is passed to the Report Template instance (discussed below) that finally renders the visual widgets. In order to achieve seamless integration, the view components 1020 may need to be embedded in the Report Templates. In the implementation according to an exemplary aspect of the present invention, the view components can be included as JavaServer Pages (JSP) tag libraries. The present invention also can provide a set of predefined Report Templates 1030. For example, a table and a chart component can be provided. As exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 10, the framework also can support user-defined Report Templates 1040. A restriction (e.g., the only restriction) may be that the new template supports the data templates in its input. FIG. 11 exemplarily illustrates the above process of a Report Template execution scenario, according to the present invention. The view component 1020 can expose the appropriate Application Programming Interfaces (API's) to capture the data template id, user id, user role, data filters, data sources, etc. Modeling Activity After the custom Report Templates have been defined, the next step can be to model the reporting requirements. During this exemplary step, the user may need to perform the following tasks. First, the user can identify the metrics that will become part of the dashboard views, and create Metric Groups by grouping together similar metrics. Second, the user can create report templates for all the different types of information that are to be displayed on the dashboard. Third, the user can create page elements, and associate them to one or more of the report templates defined earlier. Fourth, the user can create the menu elements for the dashboard portal, and link the menu items with the corresponding pages. Finally, the user can introduce navigation tree elements in order to define the navigation flow of the portal. The different user roles that need access to the dashboard portal also can be defined. Individual users can be assigned a role by the portal administrator during the portal configuration time. Each user role can be associated with Metric Groups, Dimensions, Report Templates, and Navigation-Trees, so as to specify the access control privileges. Once the Dashboard Model is ready, it can be automatically transformed into an intermediate XML meta-model representation, according to the present invention, which can be independent of the tool used to build the Dashboard Model. Subsequently, this model can be processed by the Code Generator that produces all the required deployable software components. Post-Modeling Activity FIG. 13 exemplarily illustrates artifacts related to the post-modeling phase. The Code Generator can produce two deployable software components, for example, the Dashboard DDL 1310 and the Dashboard Application 1320. The Dashboard DDL 1310 can contain the definitions for all the tables that need to be created in the BPM Data Warehouse (e.g., 1230). The Dashboard DDL 1310 also can contain necessary SQL scripts for reading data from and inserting data in those tables. The Dashboard Application 1320 can be a J2EE application that needs to be deployed on a J2EE Application Server. The Dashboard Application 1320 can contain the web module that consists of the chosen report templates along with other supporting software components provided by the framework. As another step in the dashboard deployment procedure, the user can define fine-grain data access control 1330, according to specific data values of the warehouse (e.g., 1230). In describing the access control in the dashboard model above, it was described that the model allows access privileges to be defined based on the data dimensions. For example, the present invention can permit a particular user role to roll-up and drilldown on the geography dimension. Even though the above kind of access control can be very useful, in some cases it may not be enough. For example, consider the situation where two different managers are responsible for the Europe and America geographies. In this case, it may be desirable to restrict the access of each manager to the geography for which she is responsible. In order to achieve this fine-level access control, the present invention can augment the User Role to Dimension model with special annotations that specify the levels of each dimension that can be accessed by the User Role. Note that the present invention generally does not perform this step of access control during the modeling phase, because it depends on the specific data of the application, which are only available in the warehouse after the application has been deployed. Exemplary Case Study In order to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of the present invention, the inventors applied exemplary aspects of the present invention to real-world problems. In an exemplary case, the objective was to develop a dashboard to support the business operation of the TeleSale Representatives (TSRs) that are responsible for the sales of the entire range of a particular product across the globe. The TSRs are responsible for the entire life-cycle of a sale. Initially, a customer expresses an interest to buy, to which the TSR responds with a quote. If the customer decides to close the deal, then the quote is turned into an order. In their day-to-day operations, the TSRs need to have a concise view of their business, so as to plan their actions accordingly. The dashboard, according to the present invention, can be used to display information on both, the quotes and the orders, capturing various metrics related to these activities, such as number of quotes and orders, order channel, revenue, and others. These metrics can be organized according to several dimensions, such as time, geography, product type, customer type, and others. Furthermore, access restrictions can be in place, which limit the views of the data offered to the TSRs and the region managers. The steps of the exemplary solution development process, using the Dashboard Framework, will be described below. Dashboard Solution Model The present invention can be started by presenting the models that were created for the dashboard. Note that for brevity, in all the following diagrams, only part of the models that form the complete solution are depicted. As mentioned above, the first step can be to identify the Report Templates that are needed. If the existing, predefined templates are not suitable, then custom Report Templates can be defined. For this case study, pre-defined summary templates (e.g., OrderSummaryTemplate), as well as some custom-made templates (e.g., OrderDetailTemplate) were used. Subsequently, similar metrics were identified and grouped together as MetricGroups. As exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 14, revenue and average revenue for orders can be grouped into OrderMetricGroup, while average number of quotes and average quote value can be grouped into QuoteMetricGroup. The relationships among metrics and dimensions can be captured by a data model, as exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 15. This diagram can contain relationships that connect dimensions to metrics, as well as metric groups. The latter case can be translated as a relationship between the dimension and each one of the metrics under the Metric Group. A link between a metric and a dimension generally means that the metric can be aggregated along this dimension. In order to organize the information into different views (or pages), the present invention can use the Report Template model. FIG. 16 exemplarily shows this model for a summary view, which can display data relevant to orders and quotes. More specifically, this summary page can contain data for orders revenue and average revenue (represented by OrderMetricGroup), and average number and value of quotes (represented by QuoteMetricGroup). Once all of the pages and menus that are going to be used in the dashboard are defined, the present invention can proceed to model the Navigation Trees. The Navigation Trees can represent the paths that the dashboard user can follow when navigating from page to page. As FIG. 17 exemplarily illustrates, the present invention can define several Navigation Trees, and each page can belong to more than one Navigation Tree. Subsequently, the present invention can define all the data access privileges for the dashboard. FIG. 18 can depict the assigned privileges for the Telesales and Manager user roles, with respect to metrics and dimensions. The model that is created can allow Telesales users to access quote metrics and aggregate them along the brand dimension. In addition to the above, Manager users can also access order metrics and aggregate these metrics along the geography dimension. FIG. 18 also illustrates how the present invention can model fine-grain data access control using the dimension levels. In this example, the present invention can limit the access on the Brand and Geography data. In this example, a Telesales user can only be able to aggregate data up to the sub brand level (i.e., level 2) in the Brand dimension hierarchy. (The “own member” annotation only instructs the tool that fine-grain access control is required to be applied.) FIG. 19 and FIG. 20 exemplarily illustrate the User Role access privileges in terms of Navigation Trees and Report Templates, respectively. For the exemplary dashboard, it can be specified that Telesales and Manager users access different Navigation Trees, which translates to a different experience, both visually and content-wise. It also can be specified that Manager users can access the summary templates for the orders and the quotes, while Telesales users only have access to the quote summary template. When the modeling phase is completed, the present invention can initiate the deployment of the different software components, as described below. Dashboard Deployment There can be, for example, two deployable components generated as a result of the modeling activity. The Dashboard DDL component can be the data warehouse schema script that supports the dashboard functionality. This schema can store and manage all of the information relating to metrics, and maintain the fine grained access control to this information by user role. The Dashboard Application component can be an Enterprise Application that can be deployed on a J2EE application server, and can subsequently be accessed using a web browser. In the exemplary implementation according to the present invention, the generated application can be deployed on WebSphere Portal Server, and can use conventional commercial data visualization tools for rendering the reports (the framework provides a tag-library or equivalent software component that allows the report template to connect to various commercial data visualization tools. In FIG. 21, a screen-capture from the deployed dashboard application, according to the present invention, is exemplarily illustrated. This example illustrates a page that uses tables to display two different types of data regarding quotes (left side of the picture), and a graph to visualize these data (right side of the picture). According to the exemplary aspects of the present invention, the model-driven approach for dashboard development can provide significant savings in terms of time and cost. For example, a project that may normally require more than three months, may be completed, for example, in just three weeks using the proposed framework, according to the present invention. In addition, the dashboard developers do not need to have any in-depth knowledge of databases and data warehouses, or access control mechanisms. All these aspects of the dashboard generally can be completely hidden from the developer, and managed by the proposed framework. FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary hardware/information handling system 2200 for incorporating the present invention therein, and FIG. 23 illustrates a computer-readable medium 2300 (e.g., signal-bearing medium, storage medium, etc.) for storing steps of a program of a method according to the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates a typical hardware configuration of an information handling/computer system for use with the invention and which preferably has at least one processor or central processing unit (CPU) 2211. The CPUs 2211 are interconnected via a system bus 2212 to a random access memory (RAM) 2214, read-only memory (ROM) 2216, input/output (I/O) adapter 2218 (for connecting peripheral devices such as disk units 2221 and tape drives 2240 to the bus 2212), user interface adapter 2222 (for connecting a keyboard 2224, mouse 2226, speaker 2228, microphone 2232, and/or other user interface device to the bus 2212), a communication adapter 2234 for connecting an information handling system to a data processing network, the Internet, an Intranet, a personal area network (PAN), etc., and a display adapter 2236 for connecting the bus 2212 to a display device 2238 and/or printer 2239. In addition to the hardware/software environment described above, a different aspect of the invention includes a computer-implemented method for performing the above method. As an example, this method may be implemented in the particular environment discussed above. Such a method may be implemented, for example, by operating a computer, as embodied by a digital data processing apparatus, to execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions. These instructions may reside in various types of signal-bearing media. This computer-readable media or signal-bearing media may include, for example, a RAM contained within the CPU 2211, as represented by the fast-access storage for example. Alternatively, the instructions may be contained in another computer-readable media or signal-bearing media, such as a data storage disk/diskette 2300 (FIG. 23), directly or indirectly accessible by the CPU 2211. Whether contained in the disk/diskette 2300, the computer/CPU 2211, or elsewhere, the instructions may be stored on a variety of machine-readable data storage media, such as DASD storage (e.g., a conventional “hard drive” or a RAID array), magnetic tape, electronic read-only memory (e.g., ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM), an optical storage device (e.g. CD-ROM, WORM, DVD, digital optical tape, etc.), paper “punch” cards, or other suitable computer-readable media or signal-bearing media including transmission media such as digital and analog and communication links and wireless. In an illustrative embodiment of the invention, the machine-readable instructions may comprise software object code, compiled from a language such as “C”, etc. While the invention has been described in terms of several exemplary aspects, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. Further, it is noted that, Applicants' intent is to encompass equivalents of all claim elements, even if amended later during prosecution.
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G
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9
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44
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11777180
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US20080141017A1-20080612
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GAMING MACHINE HAVING A SECURE BOOT CHAIN AND METHOD OF USE
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ACCEPTED
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20080530
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20080612
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[]
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G06F2100
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["G06F2100", "G06F15177", "H04L900", "G06F1130"]
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7827397
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20070712
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20101102
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713
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002000
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97901.0
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REHMAN
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MOHAMMED
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[{"inventor_name_last": "McCoull", "inventor_name_first": "James Ross", "inventor_city": "St Peters", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Muir", "inventor_name_first": "Robert Linley", "inventor_city": "Artarmon", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}]
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An electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprises a memory storing boot program code comprising first code; a central processing unit (CPU) arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the first code from the memory; and a monitoring device having or with access to validation code and arranged to take at least one protective action if the first code does not match the validation code.
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1. An electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a memory storing boot program code comprising first code; a central processing unit (CPU) arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the first code from the memory; and a monitoring device having or with access to validation code and arranged to take at least one protective action if the first code does not match the validation code. 2. An EGM as claimed in claim 1, wherein the EGM is arranged to monitor reading of the first code by the CPU. 3. An EGM as claimed in claim 1 wherein the monitoring device is arranged to access the memory prior to the memory being accessed by the EGM. 4. An EGM as claimed in claim 1 wherein the monitoring device stores the validation code. 5. An EGM as claimed in claim 1 wherein the protective action is that the monitoring device causes the EGM to terminate or fail booting. 6. An EGM as claimed in claim 1 wherein the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a hash algorithm and a pre-calculated hash of the second code, the first code being arranged such that when the CPU executes the first code, the CPU calculates a hash of the second code and compares it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeds if the hashes match. 7. An EGM as claimed in claim 6 wherein execution halts if the hashes do not match. 8. An EGM as claimed in claim 1 wherein the memory storing the boot program code is read only. 9. An EGM as claimed in claim 5 wherein the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, and the second code comprises a master public key and a decryption algorithm, the second code being arranged such that when executed by the CPU, the CPU calculates a hash of the third code, decrypts the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, compares the two hashes and proceeds if the hashes match. 10. An EGM as claimed in claim 9 further comprising a further memory comprising a signature of one or more external BIOS hashes, and the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies each external BIOS hash before transferring control to any of the one or more external BIOSes. 11. An EGM as claimed in claim 9 wherein the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies the active boot partition on the active boot device by generating a hash of the boot partition and comparing it to a hash stored on the active boot device before transferring control to the master boot record of the active boot partition. 12. A method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code comprising first code in a memory; and monitoring initiation of a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the first code from the memory by comparing the first code read by the CPU to validation code; and taking at least one protective action if the read first code does not match the validation code. 13. A method as claimed in claim 12, comprising comparing the first code read by the CPU to the validation code. 14. A method as claimed in claim 12 comprising comparing the first code to the validation code prior to the first code being read by the CPU. 15. A method as claimed in claim 12 wherein the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a pre-calculated hash of the second code, and the method comprises calculating a hash of the second code and comparing it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeding if the hashes match. 16. A method as claimed in claim 12 wherein, the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, the second code comprises a master public key (MPK), and the method comprises calculating a hash of the third code, decrypting the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, comparing the two hashes and proceeding if the hashes match. 17. An electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a central processing unit (CPU); a memory storing boot program code; and a removable memory device in data communication with the CPU and storing authentication data comprising a public key, the CPU arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory device. 18. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the authentication data is a public key. 19. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the authentication data is a certificate comprising the public key and identity data. 20. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the at least one set of code comprises the code stored in a disk partition. 21. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the at least one set of code comprises operating system code. 22. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the at least one set of code comprises code of a program. 23. An EGM as claimed in claim 17 wherein the CPU authenticates the at least one set of code by employing the authentication data to authenticate intermediate authentication data and employing the intermediate authentication data to authenticate the at least one set of code. 24. An EGM as claimed in claim 17, further arranged to authenticate the removable memory device prior to employing the authentication data. 25. An EGM as claimed in claim 17, wherein the EGM further employs a 15 monitoring device to authenticate the removable memory device. 26. A method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code in a memory; storing authentication data in a removable memory; and initiating a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory. 27. A method as claimed in claim 26 wherein the authentication data is a public key. 28. A method as claimed in claim 26 wherein the authentication data is a certificate comprising the public key and identity data. 29. A method as claimed in claim 26 wherein the at least one set of code comprises the code stored in a disk partition. 30. A method as claimed in claim 26 wherein the at least one set of code comprises operating system code. 31. A method as claimed in claim 26 wherein the at least one set of code comprises code of a program. 32. A method as claimed in claim 26 comprising authenticating the at least one set of code by employing the authentication data to authenticate intermediate authentication data and employing the intermediate authentication data to authenticate the at least one set of code. 33. A method as claimed in claim 24, comprising authenticating the removable memory prior to employing the authentication data.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>The development of an electronic gaming machine and program code to be run on gaming machines requires a great deal of effort. Further, given the nature of gambling regulations, there is a need for a high degree of confidence in the security of an electronic gaming machine. Accordingly, there is a need for electronic gaming machines that have a higher degree of security.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In a first aspect, the invention provides an electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a memory storing boot program code comprising first code; a central processing unit (CPU) arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the first code from the memory; and a monitoring device having or with access to validation code and arranged to take at least one protective action if the first code does not match the validation code. In an embodiment the EGM is arranged to monitor reading of the first code by the CPU. In an embodiment wherein the monitoring device is arranged to access the memory prior to the memory being accessed by the EGM. In an embodiment, the monitoring device stores the validation code. In an embodiment, the monitoring device is a field programmable gate array (FPGA). In an embodiment, the protective action is that monitoring device causes the EGM to terminate or fail booting. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a hash algorithm and a pre-calculated hash of the second code, the first code being arranged such that when the CPU executes the first code, the CPU calculates a hash of the second code and compares it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeds if the hashes match. In an embodiment, execution halts if the hashes do not match. In an embodiment, execution proceeds with execution of the second code if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the memory storing the boot program code is read only. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, and the second code comprises a master public key (MPK) and a decryption algorithm, the second code being arranged such that when executed by the CPU, the CPU calculates a hash of the third code, decrypts the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, compares the two hashes and proceeds if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the gaming machine comprises a further memory comprising a signature of one or more external BIOS hashes, and the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies each external BIOS hash before transferring control to any of the one or more external BIOSes. In an embodiment, the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies the active boot partition on the active boot device by generating a hash of the boot partition and comparing it to a hash stored on the active boot device before transferring control to the master boot record of the active boot partition. In a second aspect, the invention provides a method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code comprising first code in a memory; and monitoring initiation of a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the first code from the memory by comparing the first code read by the CPU to validation code; and taking at least one protective action if the read first code does not match the validation code. In an embodiment the method comprises comparing the first code read by the CPU to the validation code. In an embodiment the method comprises comparing the first code to the validation code prior to the first code being read by the CPU. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a pre-calculated hash of the second code, and the method comprises calculating a hash of the second code and comparing it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeding if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, the second code comprises a master public key (MPK), and the method comprises calculating a hash of the third code, decrypting the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, comparing the two hashes and proceeding if the hashes match. In a third aspect, the invention provides an electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a central processing unit (CPU); a memory storing boot program code; and a removable memory device in data communication with the CPU and storing authentication data comprising a public key, the CPU arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory device. In an embodiment, the authentication data is a public key. In another embodiment, the authentication data is a certificate comprising the public key and identity data. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises the code stored in a disk partition. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises operating system code. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises code of a program. In an embodiment, the CPU authenticates the at least one set of code by employing the authentication data to authenticate intermediate authentication data and employing the intermediate authentication data to authenticate the at least one set of code. In an embodiment, the EGM is arranged to authenticate the removable storage device prior to employing the authentication data. Persons skilled in the art will also appreciate that the first and third aspects may be combined. In an embodiment, the monitoring device may be employed to authenticate the removable storage device. In a fourth aspect, the invention provides a method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code in a memory; storing authentication data in a removable memory; and initiating a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory device. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the first and second aspects of the invention may be combined with the third and fourth aspects.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application relates to, and claims priority from, U.S. application Ser. No. 10/089,759, which claims priority as a national phase application of PCT/AU00/01192, which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. The present application also relates to, and claims priority from, Australian Patent Application No. 2006903776, filed Jul. 13, 2006, Australian Patent Application No. 2006907047, filed Dec. 18, 2006, and Australian Patent Application No. 2007903196, filed Jun. 14, 2007, which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. FIELD The present invention relates to a gaming machine and a method of protecting an electronic gaming machine. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION The development of an electronic gaming machine and program code to be run on gaming machines requires a great deal of effort. Further, given the nature of gambling regulations, there is a need for a high degree of confidence in the security of an electronic gaming machine. Accordingly, there is a need for electronic gaming machines that have a higher degree of security. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a first aspect, the invention provides an electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a memory storing boot program code comprising first code; a central processing unit (CPU) arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the first code from the memory; and a monitoring device having or with access to validation code and arranged to take at least one protective action if the first code does not match the validation code. In an embodiment the EGM is arranged to monitor reading of the first code by the CPU. In an embodiment wherein the monitoring device is arranged to access the memory prior to the memory being accessed by the EGM. In an embodiment, the monitoring device stores the validation code. In an embodiment, the monitoring device is a field programmable gate array (FPGA). In an embodiment, the protective action is that monitoring device causes the EGM to terminate or fail booting. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a hash algorithm and a pre-calculated hash of the second code, the first code being arranged such that when the CPU executes the first code, the CPU calculates a hash of the second code and compares it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeds if the hashes match. In an embodiment, execution halts if the hashes do not match. In an embodiment, execution proceeds with execution of the second code if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the memory storing the boot program code is read only. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, and the second code comprises a master public key (MPK) and a decryption algorithm, the second code being arranged such that when executed by the CPU, the CPU calculates a hash of the third code, decrypts the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, compares the two hashes and proceeds if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the gaming machine comprises a further memory comprising a signature of one or more external BIOS hashes, and the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies each external BIOS hash before transferring control to any of the one or more external BIOSes. In an embodiment, the third code is arranged such that the CPU verifies the active boot partition on the active boot device by generating a hash of the boot partition and comparing it to a hash stored on the active boot device before transferring control to the master boot record of the active boot partition. In a second aspect, the invention provides a method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code comprising first code in a memory; and monitoring initiation of a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the first code from the memory by comparing the first code read by the CPU to validation code; and taking at least one protective action if the read first code does not match the validation code. In an embodiment the method comprises comparing the first code read by the CPU to the validation code. In an embodiment the method comprises comparing the first code to the validation code prior to the first code being read by the CPU. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises second code and the first code comprises a pre-calculated hash of the second code, and the method comprises calculating a hash of the second code and comparing it to the pre-calculated hash and proceeding if the hashes match. In an embodiment, the boot program code comprises third code comprising a master private key signature of a pre-calculated hash of the third code, the second code comprises a master public key (MPK), and the method comprises calculating a hash of the third code, decrypting the signature to obtain the pre-calculated hash, comparing the two hashes and proceeding if the hashes match. In a third aspect, the invention provides an electronic gaming machine (EGM) comprising: a central processing unit (CPU); a memory storing boot program code; and a removable memory device in data communication with the CPU and storing authentication data comprising a public key, the CPU arranged to access the memory and initiate a boot process by reading the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory device. In an embodiment, the authentication data is a public key. In another embodiment, the authentication data is a certificate comprising the public key and identity data. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises the code stored in a disk partition. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises operating system code. In an embodiment, the at least one set of code comprises code of a program. In an embodiment, the CPU authenticates the at least one set of code by employing the authentication data to authenticate intermediate authentication data and employing the intermediate authentication data to authenticate the at least one set of code. In an embodiment, the EGM is arranged to authenticate the removable storage device prior to employing the authentication data. Persons skilled in the art will also appreciate that the first and third aspects may be combined. In an embodiment, the monitoring device may be employed to authenticate the removable storage device. In a fourth aspect, the invention provides a method of protecting an electronic gaming machine comprising: storing boot program code in a memory; storing authentication data in a removable memory; and initiating a boot process in which a central processing unit reads the boot program code from the memory, the boot process including authenticating at least one set of code to be executed by the EGM by retrieving and employing the authentication data from the removable memory device. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the first and second aspects of the invention may be combined with the third and fourth aspects. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the invention will now be described in relation to the following drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a gaming machine; FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of the main components of the gaming machine of a first embodiment that relate to implementation of a secure boot chain; FIGS. 3A and 3B show a flow chart of the secure boot chain in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the main components of a gaming machine of a second embodiment; FIG. 5 is a flow chart of a method of a second embodiment; FIG. 6 is a further schematic diagram of a gaming machine; and FIG. 7 is a memory diagram. The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of certain embodiments of the present invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, certain embodiments are shown in the drawings. It should be understood, however, that the present invention is not limited to the arrangements and instrumentality shown in the attached drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION First Embodiment Referring to the drawings, there is shown in FIGS. 1 to 3, a first embodiment of an electronic gaming machine arranged to implement a secure boot chain during which a series of code portions are validated. A gaming machine 10 is illustrated in FIG. 1. The gaming machine 10 includes a console 12 having a display 14 on which is displayed representations of a game 16 that can be played by a player. A mid-trim 20 of the gaming machine 10 houses a bank of buttons 22 for enabling a player to interact with the gaming machine, in particular during game play. The mid-trim 20 also houses a credit input mechanism 24 which in this example includes a coin input chute 24A and a bill collector 24B. Other credit input mechanisms may also be employed, for example, a card reader for reading a smart card, debit card or credit card. A reading device may also be provided for the purpose of reading a player tracking device, for example as part of a loyalty program. The player tracking device may be in the form of a card, flash drive or any other portable storage medium capable of being read by the reading device. A top box 26 may carry artwork 28, including for example pay tables and details of bonus awards and other information or images relating to the game. Further artwork and/or information may be provided on a front panel 29 of the console 12. A coin tray 30 is mounted beneath the front panel 29 for dispensing cash payouts from the gaming machine 10. The display 14 shown in FIG. 2 is in the form of a video display unit, particularly a cathode ray tube screen device. Alternatively, the display 14 may be a liquid crystal display, plasma screen, any other suitable video display unit, or the visible portion of an electromechanical device. The top box 26 may also include a display, for example a video display unit, which may be of the same type as the display 14, or of a different type. As illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, the electronic gaming machine has a central processing unit (CPU) 210. Boot program code forms a BIOS and is stored in a read only memory 220. Logically the boot program code consists of first, second and third code referred to hereafter as a pre-boot-loader, a boot-loader and a BIOS-control-program. The different portion of code contains components for different security features. Specifically: the pre-boot-loader contains a SHA 1 hash of the boot-loader; the boot loader contains a DSA master public key; and the BIOS control program contains a DSA signature of the BIOS control program SHA 1 hash that is signed by the DSA master private key corresponding to the DSA master public key. As illustrated in respective FIG. 3, when the electronic gaming machine is reset, the CPU 210 of electronic gaming machine begins executing the first instruction of the pre-boot-loader stored in the BIOS 220. The monitoring device 230 snoops every read access to the pre-boot-loader to thereby monitor reading of the pre-boot-loader by the CPU 305. The monitoring device is implemented by a field programmable gateway and contains a duplicate copy of the pre-boot-loader monitors access to the BIOS 220 that provides validation code that can be used to determine that the pre-boot-loader is valid. The monitoring device verifies that the pre-boot-loader read out by the CPU matches 310 the validation copy of the pre-boot-loader stored in the monitoring device. If it does not match, the monitoring device halts operation in such a manner that this will ultimately cause the electronic gaming machine to fail booting 315. Thus, this ensures that the electronic gaming machine is running a valid, unmodified copy of the pre-boot-loader and hence that the code to check the validity of the boot-loader (as described in further detail below) is still present and will be executed by CPU 210. The pre-boot-loader then copies the boot loader to random access memory 270. The pre-boot-loader calculates a SHA 1 hash of the boot-loader copy that is held in RAM. The pre-boot-loader verifies that the calculated hash matches the pre-calculated hash that is stored in the pre-boot-loader is described above. If following calculation of the hash the boot-loader 320 it is determined at step 325 that there is no match 325, the boot sequence fails 330. If there is a match, execution is transferred to the boot loader copy in RAM. These set of steps ensure that the electronic gaming machine is running an unmodified copy of the boot-loader and that the code to check the validity of the BIOS-control-program is still present and will be executed. The boot-loader runs from RAM to eliminate the risk of removing the boot program stored in the BIOS socketed device between verification and execution. At step 335 the boot-loader calculates a hash of the BIOS control program and copies the BIOS control program to RAM. The boot-loader then retrieves a DSA signature from the BIOS-control-program and retrieves the DSA master public key from the boot-loader. The boot-loader decrypts the signature of the BIOS-control-program hash 340 and determines 345 whether the hashes match. If the hashes fail to match booting is failed 350. Otherwise the verification is successful and execution is transferred to the BIOS-control-program now stored in RAM. The BIOS-control-program then seeks to verify any external BIOS 240 by reference to a signed table of external BIOS hashes 250. The CPU 220 calculates a hash of each external BIOS 360. It decrypts the signed table of external BIOS hashes 250 using DSA and the DSA master public key contained in the boot-loader. Each external bios 240 is hashed and compared to the now decrypted stored hash 365. Any external BIOSES not matched are ignored at step 370. Otherwise control is transferred to the external BIOSes. These steps ensure the electronic gaming machine is running a BIOS control program that has been signed by a master private key. Next before the BIOS-control-program transfers control to the master boot record of the active boot partition on the active boot device 260 it verifies the active boot partition 375 by calculating a hash at the active boot partition and verifying the hash against the DSA signature stored on the active boot device using the DSA master key and DSA. If it does not match at step 380 the boot is failed at 385. Otherwise the process proceeds to load and execute the operating system at step 390. These steps ensure the electronic gaming machine is running an operating system and system software that had previously signed by the DSA master key. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the exact sequence of step may vary with a particular BIOS implementation but will in force that code passes a DSA signature verification step before it is executed. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that there maybe variations on the above boot sequence. For example, while the above embodiment employs SHA 1 hashes and DSA signatures, other crypto graphic hashes and signatures maybe employed. For example SHA 1-HMAC or RSA or a mixture of techniques. Further, while we have described the use of RAM to avoid hot swapping cache memory could be used instead. There may also be some additional steps carried out before software is executed. For example, the signature of system and game software components may be checked by checking the entire disk partitions, directories or individual files. Such checks may be performed on demand, that is immediately prior to a component being loaded or in advance, that is prior to any components being accessed. Further in some instances it may be appropriate to check components with multiple signatures. This allows the loading of a component to be prevented if it has not be signed by all required parties which may include the manufacture of the gaming machine, a regulatory body or a third party developer. Further, certificates rooted in the master public key may be stored with the software components than the public keys. Herein the term “authentication data” is used to refer collectively to a public key, a certificate rooted in the public key, or other authentication data including a public key. Second Embodiment FIG. 4 shows a second embodiment where the boot loader acquires a public key from a removable storage device 410 such as an authenticated smart card. In the remainder of FIG. 4 the same numbering is used as in the first embodiment. As discussed above, the boot loader can be used to verify a signature of system and game software either individually or by verifying the partitions on which they are stored. Accordingly, the key (or alternatively a certificate rooted in the public key) is retrieved from the smart card and employed to verify the signatures of the programs or partitions. This allows the approximation of revocation of previously signed program by not producing any smart cards with the relevant matching public key. This can be used in order to revoke incorrectly signed software before it is released. Further, it allows control of the number of software images in active use. A person skilled in the art will appreciate that while it has been described above that the key stored on the smart card is used to verify signatures of programs/partitions it can equally be used to verify certificates of public keys that are in turn used to verify signatures of programs/partitions. In an embodiment, the credentials of the smart card are as established as earlier as possible in the boot sequence. For example by employing the monitoring device to determine whether the smart card is valid in a similar manner in relation to which the first code is processed above. Further, rather than relying on keys being encoded within the BIOS, in some implementations it may be desirable to retrieve a key or keys stored on the smart card to use in an earlier part of the boot sequence for example, to verify the external BIOSes. The process 500 is summarised in FIG. 5. Boot code is stored in memory 510 and authentication data is stored in a removable memory 520. The boot process is initiated 530 and authentication data is retrieved 540 from the removable storage device. The method then involves authenticating 550 at least one set of code with the authentication data. The key from the smart card is then trusted until the next boot. A person skilled in the art will appreciate that the removable storage device should be readily removable such as a smart card, USB token, or the like. Third Embodiment In a third embodiment an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is used instead of the FPGA of the first embodiment as the monitoring device. As in the first embodiment, a boot memory contains the software that is first executed by the CPU when it exits the reset state. Monitored memory (or hash checked memory) may also be used to store those parts of the software that access critical security functions. For example the ASIC may contain logic which can enable or disable access to cash payment mechanisms or auditing information. By putting the enabling switch in monitored memory it becomes possible to check the security and authentication of the machine software before enabling or disabling these features. The boot program is checked by monitoring the CPU address and data buses 611, as shown in FIG. 6. The ASIC 612, which monitors the buses 611 contains a copy (in internal ROM) of the data in a portion 614 of the boot EPROM 613. When each word of data is fetched from EPROM 613 by the CPU a compare function 616 of the ASIC 612 first checks the address to see if it is within that area duplicated in the internal ROM 617, and if it is it then checks the data word that the CPU 615 is reading from the EPROM 613 against the appropriate word in the internal ROM 617. If the data is the same then the CPU 615 is using the correct data from EPROM 613, but if it is different then there is either an accidental error or deliberate tampering. In this event the ASIC 612 takes appropriate action which may include resetting the board and/or stopping other operations of the ASIC 612 internally. In the an embodiment, the CPU address and data bus 611 are multiplexed together to reduce the number of pins used. Non-multiplexed buses may also be used. The ASIC 612 may also contain logic to ensure that all memory locations in the monitored memory are checked. If all locations within the monitored area are not checked when an inappropriate access is made outside the monitored area the check fails and the board locks up. An inappropriate access is an instruction fetch or write cycle. Read cycles are allowed, to enable the software in the monitored region to check other parts of memory. Two implementations of this are: 1. The address bus 611 is monitored and a register is used to store a scanned address value location. Whenever the address from the CPU matches the value in this register the register is incremented. The memory check is complete when the address register reaches the end of the monitored memory. 2. A signature of address accesses may be implemented. Each address is combined in some form with the previous addresses to generate a fixed pattern. If the sequence of addresses is not the same as the original stored pattern then the check fails. For example each address may be combined using a CRC algorithm with the previous address's although preferably a more secure algorithm would be used. Other implementations of monitored memory are possible: 1. Instead of checking the program as it is executed, the ASIC disables the EPROM and substitutes data to the CPU from its internal ROM. The ASIC thus acts as a memory device. 2. The ASIC reads the contents of the monitored EPROM area before the CPU exits the reset state and generates a cryptographic hash of the data. Only if this hash matches a predefined value is the test passed. 3. Instead of checking the data as it is read from EPROM the ASIC reads the EPROM contents and verifies it before allowing the CPU out of the reset state. 4. In a variation of the above two implementations, the ASIC allows the CPU to fetch the first word of a program after exiting reset, but inserts into this read cycle the verification reads from EPROM. It is more difficult to tamper with this method as the cycles are not separated clearly. To provide further protection the monitored boot area may be read and monitored at a later time after the test has passed and game software is running. This provides protection against some forms of tampering where tampered memory is substituted for the original memory after the test passes. This scheme is most effective with as much functionality of the board as possible implemented in the ASIC. One method of tampering is to replace the entire ASIC, but if significant other functionality is included it becomes a serious technical problem to redesign the ASIC. Additionally the more critical the ASIC is to the functioning of the board then the more difficult it is to get the board working again if the monitoring circuit disables the operation of the ASIC internally. If the monitored memory test fails, the board and ASIC are typically reset to protect the gaming machine. Alternately program execution is allowed to continue but certain features of the ASIC are disabled, preventing the board from being used in its full capacity. This allows the software to display appropriate errors messages (especially in the case of accidental memory errors), but effectively stops tampering having any real consequence. In the case of gaming machines, certain critical functions will also be inhibited such as software access to hardware meters 641, and inhibiting input and output of credit or the like, such as by way of the credit card reader 642 or ticket reader/writer 643. The internal ROM of the ASIC is expected to be small compared to the size of the boot EPROM to reduce cost, although it could be the same size. Alternately, and as described above, the cryptographic hash check may be embedded in the ASIC. The size of the EPROM to be securely checked can be increased to the total size of the memory in the system without increasing the size of the ASIC internal ROM by embedding a checking program in the area of EPROM that is checked by the ASIC. The checking program generates a cryptographic hash over the entire memory area to be checked (which may include the area monitored by the ASIC) and compares it to a pre-computed value. If it matches then the entire region is assumed to be unmodified. The method relies on it being difficult to tamper with the data which is included in the hashed area while retaining the same hash value and that the ASIC monitors the program which generates and checks the hash. An advantage of this method is that the hash checking program is relatively small, and can be expected to be smaller than a comparable signature checking program. Therefore the size of the ROM in the ASIC may be reduced in size with this method. A non-cryptographic checking algorithm may be used instead of the hash function, but algorithms such as checksum or CRC are relatively easy to tamper with and are not preferred. The data to be checked, either directly by the ASIC or included in the hash-checked region, may include program or data. The data may include text messages such as “(© Aristocrat Leisure Industries” or “This software is authorized by Aristocrat Leisure Industries”. Once the initial part of the boot memory has been authorized it can then securely check the rest of the memory in the system. The monitored memory area may use a hash mechanism to check more memory as described in the previous section or it may implement a digital signature check. The advantage with a digital signature check is in minimizing the amount of boot code that can never be changed without changing the ASIC. The advantage of a hash check is that a hash is simpler and therefore requires less program space for monitored memory than digital signature software. Digital signatures are also used to authorize all other modules of software and data in the system, including system software and games. Each authorized EPROM or file has an associated digital signature which is checked. If invalid signatures are found the data will not be used and appropriate action will be taken, such as the machine locking up and displaying a message. FIG. 7 shows a schematic of a memory map in which a first section of the memory space 721 is checked by the ASIC 612, a second part of the memory space 722 is checked by a hashed code and a third part of the memory space 623 is checked by digital signature. The memory space checked by the checking software may include or exclude the area in which the checking software resides. In the example illustrated in FIG. 7 the signature checked memory space 723 does not encompass the memory space 721 containing the checking software (i.e. the space monitored by the ASIC) but the hash checked memory space 722 does encompass the memory space 721. In an embodiment, continuous monitoring of the authenticity of software provides extra security. The memory contents are periodically rechecked to ensure that changes have not occurred. Continuous monitoring requires a method of getting the CPU to start executing software within the monitored (or alternately hash checked, although this is not as secure) memory area. Once the CPU starts executing software within this secure area it can again perform authorization checks of the system as required. A watchdog type monitor is implemented in the ASIC which must be accessed periodically from software executing within the secured memory area otherwise the ASIC will force the system to shutdown. This transfer to secure area may be simply by software jumping to an address periodically or caused by an interrupt from the ASIC. The ASIC is able to detect that software is executing from the monitored area. The method used depends on the processor implementation. For processors which support identification of external bus cycles an instruction fetch from a predefined address is used. For processors without identification of bus cycles and also without internal cache memory a sequence of memory accesses is detected that may only be generated by software executing within the monitored area. For CPU without bus cycle identification and also with cache it may not be possible to guarantee detection of monitored area software execution. Tampering could take place by execution of software within the cache so that external cycles appeared to be the correct software accesses. An alternate method of guaranteeing execution within monitored memory is to periodically reset the CPU. In this implementation the CPU is able to be reset separately from the rest of the system. Prior to being reset, the CPU saves it's operational state in memory for restoration after the authentication checks have been completed. After the ASIC has reset the CPU then the CPU must be executing from monitored memory. A flag in the ASIC indicates the cause of the reset so the CPU knows whether to execute cold start reset code or continuous monitoring code. While the CPU is in the reset state the ASIC checks the state of the relevant pins to ensure that the CPU actually has been reset. In the preferred implementation the ASIC contains a timer which is initialized after each reset and which locks up the board when it reaches a predefined count. The timer would require that the CPU be reset every five minutes for example. Periodically and at least less than every 5 minutes the system software saves the system state and instructs the ASIC to reset the CPU and also timer. The system software can choose a point in it's operation where a slight delay while the CPU resets is not noticeable. Alternately the ASIC generates an interrupt periodically which the system software responds to by saving the CPU state and then the CPU resets. These authentication checks are as described in the rest of the document. The authentication check can be divided into a number of these execution periods to divide the CPU loading over time. In this case the check software may need to store information between the periods (such as the last memory location checked). Although this data may be stored in RAM, it is accessible by any software running on the machine and could be tampered with. Preferably the ASIC implements some RAM that is only accessible by software running within the monitored memory area. One possible method of tampering is to find start execution code within the monitored area, which was not intended as a start address for the routine and which has side effects unintended by the system programmers. This side effect would access the flag in the ASIC without running the security check. One method of preventing this is to implement an address signature check as described for “ASIC Monitored Memory”. A significant section of code must be executed correctly for the signature to be correct and it must be from the correct address. Many other methods are possible. One method of tampering with the system is to allow the correct boot code to be executed after reset and during authentication, then at an appropriate point map into the program memory a new section of code (e.g. in hardware swap EPROMS with a multiplexer circuit). This memory may be automatically mapped in an out of memory space depending on where program execution is being performed. The authentication check reads the original data and passes, but when control is passed elsewhere a different program is executed. To prevent this attack, at a random time the ASIC reads from the CPU data bus the instruction fetched from memory, and stores it in a register together with the address from which it was read. When the periodic authentication check is performed it reads these registers and compares them with the data it reads from the same location. If the data is different then tampering has taken place. This test will eventually, at a random time, detect tampering. To speed up this test more than one data location may be sampled. Because it may take some time before tampering is detected it is preferable that when tampering is detected this information is stored so that the machine cannot be used until this condition is acknowledged by the operator and fixed. It should be stored in non-volatile memory, and preferably non-erasable memory. True random number generation is not usually feasible in an ASIC and instead pseudo-random numbers are typically used instead. The pseudo-random number may be randomized further by combining it with some external information, such as the contents of the data or address bus. An alternate method is to use DMA or bus mastering by the ASIC to automatically read the contents of memory and verify the data. This method is most suitable for the boot code, as the complexity of the design for more equivalent functionality to that easily achieved in secure software to very high—although it is possible. These methods allow the verification of programs and data in boot memory and which is not possible to tamper with by simply changing the program memory. An advantage of these security systems is that non-volatile re-writable memory can be used to hold the boot program. Even if tampered code were somehow loaded into memory the security mechanisms would prevent it being executed. An advantage of Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) monitored memory and hash checked memory security mechanisms is that relatively simple logic is required in the ASIC and the rest of the security mechanism is in software. If the entire mechanism were placed in the ASIC it would be far more complex, costly, less flexible and take longer to design. Fourth Embodiment The above methods may also be supplemented by a further method that involves embedding into the authorized software a message which makes a legal statement about that software and it's ownership or authorization. Such a statement might include a text message such as “This Software Is Authorized By Aristocrat Leisure Industries” or “C Aristocrat Leisure Industries”. The authentication hardware or software expects that the message be embedded in the program/data it is authenticating. If the message is not present in the appropriate place the authentication test fails and the data/program is not used. Unlike digital signatures this method is technically easy to cheat, by embedding the message, but provides legal recourse to the manufacturer if it is detected. Digital signatures are technically difficult but potentially legally weak. The two methods may be combined to provide both legal and technical security. Referring to FIG. 6, components of a gaming machine are shown. After the secure boot routines held in the EPROM 613 have been verified as discussed below, these routines can be used to load programs from a mass storage system 631 such as a hard disk drive 633 and controller/interface 632. Other mass storage systems can also be used such as a CD or DVD ROM drive, a floppy disk drive or ZIP™ drive. The mass storage system 631 may be local to the CPU and read via the buses 611, or may be remote and data sent to a writable memory local to the CPU over a network. The program will be loaded from the mass storage device into RAM by a loader program, which is preferably held in EPROM 613, but could also be held in a ROM associated with a logic circuit such as the ROM 617 of the Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) 612. In alternative embodiments, the ASIC 612 may be replaced by a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). As the program is read from the mass storage device 631, the loaded code is scanned for a predetermined text string embedded in the code such as “© Aristocrat Leisure Industries”. The scanning may either be performed in software by a routine in the loader program, or alternatively the ASIC 612 may be programmed to scan the data flowing over the buses 611 and locate the text string. In another embodiment, a hard wired scanning circuit can be connected to the busses 611 to scan for the string. This method of verification may be used instead of a hash code or encrypted signature, but in the preferred embodiment is used as well as an encrypted signature or hash code verification method. Once the loaded program has been verified, the embedded text string will be displayed on a display device 634 such as the video display screen of a gaming machine on which the program is running, such that visual confirmation of the validation is provided. This display function is performed by the loaded program thereby also enabling detection of fraudulent use of software on other manufacturers hardware. The loaded program also performs internal consistency checks to prevent alteration or deletion of the text string. Fifth Embodiment The Multigame authorization system allows games to be used only on the system for which they are authorized. The System program confirms the authorization of the game before it is allowed to be used. Preferably game authorization comprises one or more of the following steps: The header section of the game memory is checked to confirm that it is an appropriate game (e.g. not another system EPROM incorrectly used, has valid version numbers, etc). The game header is checked for the legal authorization message. The game header checksum or CRC is checked to ensure memory integrity. If the games are digitally signed, then the digital signature(s) are validated. The authorization of the game to run on this particular gaming machine is checked. If the authorization fails the gaming machine may either continue without allowing that game to be used, stop and ask the operator to remove the game from the machine, or run that game only in demonstration mode. Preferably each gaming machine contains a unique identification number which the CPU can read and use as part of the authorization code. This can be implemented using a Dallas Semiconductor serial identification chip (e.g. DS2401). If the authorization fails games may run in a limited mode and display an appropriate message on the screen. The limited mode may prevent the machine accepting or paying out money or updating critical auditing information. Sixth Embodiment An EPROM authorization message is created by applying a digital signature to a message composed of the unique Game Identifier, a unique Gaming Machine identifier and any usage restrictions that may be required (e.g. date restriction on game operation). The signature is generated in a secure environment and sent to the gaming machine where it is stored in non-volatile memory for later use. The secure environment may be: Within a smartcard. A service technician or operator may authorize the game to run on the machine by connecting the smartcard to the machine where the game is installed. To limit accidental or deliberate fraud the smartcard preferably contains a limit on the number of games that can be authorized. The smartcard may be inserted into a special purpose interface on the gaming machine, a general purpose interface such as is used for player marketing cards or via a PC and communication interface (e.g. RS232 or Ethernet) with a smartcard reader. The gaming machine supplier may generate the authorization key and supply it to the service technician/operator for entry into the gaming machine. The authorizations may be encoded into a removable EEPROM chip which is supplied to the operator with the new games. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that various of the above embodiments may be combined with other embodiments or modified to incorporate features of other embodiments. These and other variations will be apparent to persons skilled in the art and should be considered as falling within the invention described herein.
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21
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00
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11882514
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US20090037973A1-20090205
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Policy-enabled aggregation of IM User communities
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ACCEPTED
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20090122
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20090205
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[]
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G06F2100
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["G06F2100"]
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8266671
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20070802
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20120911
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726
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001000
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81891.0
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ARMOUCHE
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HADI
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Gustave", "inventor_name_first": "Christophe", "inventor_city": "Ottawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}, {"inventor_name_last": "McFarlane", "inventor_name_first": "Brad", "inventor_city": "Ottawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chow", "inventor_name_first": "Stanley TaiHai", "inventor_city": "Ottawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CA"}]
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A method of automatically aggregating an online user community, and graphical user interface for same, the method including one or more of the following: a user creating the online community; the user defining an aggregation policy for the online user community; a service provider retrieving the aggregation policy; the service provider applying the aggregation policy to an other user; determining whether the other user fits the aggregation policy; adding the other user to the online user community; the user defining an anti-aggregation policy; the service provider retrieving the anti-aggregation policy; determining whether the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy; and removing the other user from the online user community when the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy.
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1. A method of automatically aggregating an online user community, comprising: a user creating the online community; the user defining an aggregation policy for the online user community; a service provider retrieving the aggregation policy; the service provider applying the aggregation policy to an other user; determining whether the other user fits the aggregation policy; adding the other user to the online user community; the user defining an anti-aggregation policy; the service provider retrieving the anti-aggregation policy; determining whether the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy; and removing the other user from the online user community when the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy. 2. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising the user triggering aggregation for the online user community. 3. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising the service provider sending an add request to the other user. 4. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 3, further comprising the other user accepting the add request. 5. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising determining that an additional other user exists and repeating the service provider applying the aggregation policy to the additional other user. 6. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, wherein defining the aggregation policy includes defining a criteria selected from the list consisting of one or more interests of the user, a physical location of the user, a gender of the user, and an age of the user. 7. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising the user creating a plurality of online communities, wherein the user has a unified view of all of the plurality of online communities. 8. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising the user creating a plurality of online communities, and the service provider providing the user and automated view of the plurality of online communities. 9. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, wherein a membership of the online community is determined transparently from a peer perspective. 10. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, wherein private information about the user is not available to the other user and private information about the other user is not available to the user. 11. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising communicating through a communication network. 12. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 11, wherein the communication network is the Internet. 13. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 11, wherein the communication network is an instant messaging network. 14. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, wherein an identity of the user and an identity of the other user correspond to an e-mail address of the user and an e-mail address of the other user. 15. The method of automatically aggregating an online user community, according to claim 1, further comprising determining whether a pre-determined maximum capacity of the online community has been reached. 16. A graphical user interface for an online user community, comprising: a list of a user's online user communities, wherein each of the user's online user communities lists other users that are members of each of the user's online user communities; and a list of an other user's other communities consisting of the user's online user communities. 17. The graphical user interface, according to claim 16, wherein a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities whose aggregation policy no longer matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. 18. The graphical user interface, according to claim 16, wherein a service provider initiates an add request to communities having an aggregation policy that matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. 19. The graphical user interface, according to claim 16, wherein a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the list of the user's online communities when a profile of the user is deleted. 20. The graphical user interface, according to claim 16, wherein a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities when a profile of the user is deleted.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to policy enabled aggregation of user communities. 2. Description of Related Art Communication service providers enable communication between pluralities of users in many different ways. An example of communications enabled between the plurality of users by a service provider is instant messaging (IM). Often, the users of communication services desire to be aggregated into communities. The desire of users to be aggregated in communities exists for many reasons. Thus, there is a need for a social networking service with a robust approach to the formation of user communities. The foregoing objects and advantages of the invention are illustrative of those that can be achieved by the various exemplary embodiments and are not intended to be exhaustive or limiting of the possible advantages which can be realized. Thus, these and other objects and advantages of the various exemplary embodiments will be apparent from the description herein or can be learned from practicing the various exemplary embodiments, both as embodied herein or as modified in view of any variation which may be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the present invention resides in the novel methods, arrangements, combinations and improvements herein shown and described in various exemplary embodiments.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In light of the present need for policy enabled aggregation of user communities, a brief summary of various exemplary embodiments is presented. Some simplifications and omission may be made in the following summary, which is intended to highlight and introduce some aspects of the various exemplary embodiments, but not to limit its scope. Detailed descriptions of a preferred exemplary embodiment adequate to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention concepts will follow in later sections. Various exemplary embodiments are a method of automatically aggregating an online user community, including one or more of the following: a user creating the online community; the user defining an aggregation policy for the online user community; a service provider retrieving the aggregation policy; the service provider applying the aggregation policy to an other user; determining whether the other user fits the aggregation policy; adding the other user to the online user community; the user defining an anti-aggregation policy; the service provider retrieving the anti-aggregation policy; determining whether the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy; and removing the other user from the online user community when the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy. Various exemplary embodiments include one or more of the following: the user triggering aggregation for the online user community; the service provider sending an add request to the other user; the other user accepting the add request; determining that an additional other user exists and repeating the service provider applying the aggregation policy to the additional other user; defining the aggregation policy includes defining a criteria selected from the list consisting of one or more interests of the user, a physical location of the user, a gender of the user, and an age of the user; the user creating a plurality of online communities, wherein the user has a unified view of all of the plurality of online communities; the user creating a plurality of online communities, and the service provider providing the user and automated view of the plurality of online communities; a membership of the online community is determined transparently from a peer perspective; private information about the user is not available to the other user and private information about the other user is not available to the user; communicating through a communication network, such as, for example, the Internet, including, for example, an instant messaging network; an identity of the user and an identity of the other user correspond to an e-mail address of the user and an e-mail address of the other user; and determining whether a pre-determined maximum capacity of the online community has been reached. Various exemplary embodiments are a graphical user interface for an online user community, including a list of a user's online user communities, wherein each of the user's online user communities lists other users that are members of each of the user's online user communities, and a list of an other user's other communities consisting of the user's online user communities. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities whose aggregation policy no longer matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates an add request to communities having an aggregation policy that matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the list of the user's online communities when a profile of the user is deleted. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities when a profile of the user is deleted.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to policy enabled aggregation of user communities. 2. Description of Related Art Communication service providers enable communication between pluralities of users in many different ways. An example of communications enabled between the plurality of users by a service provider is instant messaging (IM). Often, the users of communication services desire to be aggregated into communities. The desire of users to be aggregated in communities exists for many reasons. Thus, there is a need for a social networking service with a robust approach to the formation of user communities. The foregoing objects and advantages of the invention are illustrative of those that can be achieved by the various exemplary embodiments and are not intended to be exhaustive or limiting of the possible advantages which can be realized. Thus, these and other objects and advantages of the various exemplary embodiments will be apparent from the description herein or can be learned from practicing the various exemplary embodiments, both as embodied herein or as modified in view of any variation which may be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the present invention resides in the novel methods, arrangements, combinations and improvements herein shown and described in various exemplary embodiments. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In light of the present need for policy enabled aggregation of user communities, a brief summary of various exemplary embodiments is presented. Some simplifications and omission may be made in the following summary, which is intended to highlight and introduce some aspects of the various exemplary embodiments, but not to limit its scope. Detailed descriptions of a preferred exemplary embodiment adequate to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention concepts will follow in later sections. Various exemplary embodiments are a method of automatically aggregating an online user community, including one or more of the following: a user creating the online community; the user defining an aggregation policy for the online user community; a service provider retrieving the aggregation policy; the service provider applying the aggregation policy to an other user; determining whether the other user fits the aggregation policy; adding the other user to the online user community; the user defining an anti-aggregation policy; the service provider retrieving the anti-aggregation policy; determining whether the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy; and removing the other user from the online user community when the other user fits the anti-aggregation policy. Various exemplary embodiments include one or more of the following: the user triggering aggregation for the online user community; the service provider sending an add request to the other user; the other user accepting the add request; determining that an additional other user exists and repeating the service provider applying the aggregation policy to the additional other user; defining the aggregation policy includes defining a criteria selected from the list consisting of one or more interests of the user, a physical location of the user, a gender of the user, and an age of the user; the user creating a plurality of online communities, wherein the user has a unified view of all of the plurality of online communities; the user creating a plurality of online communities, and the service provider providing the user and automated view of the plurality of online communities; a membership of the online community is determined transparently from a peer perspective; private information about the user is not available to the other user and private information about the other user is not available to the user; communicating through a communication network, such as, for example, the Internet, including, for example, an instant messaging network; an identity of the user and an identity of the other user correspond to an e-mail address of the user and an e-mail address of the other user; and determining whether a pre-determined maximum capacity of the online community has been reached. Various exemplary embodiments are a graphical user interface for an online user community, including a list of a user's online user communities, wherein each of the user's online user communities lists other users that are members of each of the user's online user communities, and a list of an other user's other communities consisting of the user's online user communities. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities whose aggregation policy no longer matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates an add request to communities having an aggregation policy that matches a profile of the user when the user modifies the profile. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the list of the user's online communities when a profile of the user is deleted. In various exemplary embodiments, a service provider initiates a delete request to users in the other communities when a profile of the user is deleted. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order to better understand various exemplary embodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary system for policy enabled aggregation of user communities; FIG. 2 is a flowchart of an exemplary embodiment of a method for policy enabled aggregation of user communities; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a first exemplary embodiment of a graphical user interface for policy enabled aggregation of user communities; and FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a second exemplary embodiment of a graphical user interface for policy enabled aggregation of user communities. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION On a networking website, a user may expand a social network by adding to his “buddies list” other subscribed users with whom the particular user has one or more common interests. When a user successfully adds another user into his buddies list, his social network expands to the buddies list of the added user. In a reciprocal fashion, the buddies list of the added user also expands to include buddies on the list of the initial user. However, in order to have access to communities, such as the communities described above, specific to a web service, a user often must create an account. Likewise, each time a user wants to have access, often the user must login via a web browser to an established account. Often, this requires abiding by the specifics of applicable web portal rules. Further, in various exemplary embodiments, a user manually searches based on the users own criteria, and manually adds new users to his buddies list matching the user's interest. According to the embodiments described above, subscribing and subsequentially accessing a plethora of social networks is cumbersome for a user. This is particularly true if the user desires to have access on a regularly basis to the plurality of communities. A problem with such embodiments is that the compartmentalization into various web portals fails to permit a user to have a unified view of all of his communities. Some instant messaging tools provide a means to build contact lists by selecting a user that is already known from the user's address book or by answering directly a user's IM handle through the IM graphical user interface (GUI). Unfortunately, in such embodiments, it is not possible for users to have an automated access to other users based on shared common interests or more generally based upon a specific user-defined user attribute. In other embodiments directed to provide an automated means for users to be matched with one another for a general network application, the existing base of user profiles and the ubiquity of client applications are not taken advantage of to provide an automated and unified view of user-defined communities. Other embodiments are related to providing a trust mechanism for peer-to-peer entities. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, trust is determined based on a peers group interest. In this manner, social interaction of a network of peers is tied to trust. In other words, various exemplary embodiments pertain to determining peer interest for building community of users into IM application space, for building a network of trust, or both. Various exemplary embodiments pertain to a method, in a peer-to-peer environment, to associate peer entities with groups, providing peer group creation binding and discovery capabilities. Such embodiments include a process to determine whether a peer entity is qualified to be a member of a peer group. However, it is believed to be advantageous for groups to be owned by peer entities and for membership to be determined automatically and transparently from a peer perspective. Thus, various exemplary embodiments incorporate this capability. Various exemplary embodiments make use of a social website where a user browses among a set of users based on specific attributes. Some embodiments subsequentially enable a seamless integration of matched users into the buddies list of the user making a search. Unfortunately, such embodiments fail to overcome a requirement that a user manually search and an additional and unrelated requirement that limit the list of users from which to select to the users known to a specific social networking website. Thus, there is a need for embodiments that overcome these disadvantages. Various exemplary embodiments enable an IM user to determine an affinity level associated with another user part of users already known from his contact list. However, such embodiments fail to permit an automatic federation of otherwise unknown IM users into a particular user's contact list on a per-interest or aggregation policy basis for the given user. Thus, various exemplary embodiments provide the foregoing advantages. In view of the foregoing, a need exist for online users to share access to communities of users in a unified and automated manner. Likewise, a need exist for a simple and consistent interface that enables users to build their own user communities of interest without giving away a level of privacy required for the user. Accordingly, various exemplary embodiments enable a unified and automated access and management of online communities of users through IM systems. Referring now to the drawings, in which like numerals refer to like components or steps, there are disclosed broad aspects of various exemplary embodiments. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary system 100 for policy enabled aggregation of user communities. The system 100 includes the service provider 102, a communications network 104, a user 106 and other users 108, 109, 110, 111. In various exemplary embodiments, the service provider 102 is an IM service provider that enables IM communications between the user 106 and the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 through the communications network 104. Various exemplary embodiments provide a means for automatically selecting a set of IM users and aggregating the set of IM users into a community of users that share one or more common characteristics. In various exemplary embodiments, the shared common characteristics are defined by a policy that can be customized such as an aggregation policy specified by the user 106. This will be discussed in greater detail below. Various exemplary embodiments are intended to satisfy a need of the users 106, 108, 109, 110, 111 to more easily share and access online communities of users. The popularity of social networking sites indicates that a growing number of users 106, 108, 109, 110, 111 desire to access diversified groups or communities of online users 106, 108, 109, 110, 111. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, the communication network 104 is the Internet. Accordingly, various exemplary embodiments leverage an established based of IM infrastructures to enable a unified way for a user to build, and subsequentially seamlessly access, one or more online communities of users. Various exemplary embodiments may be implemented in connection with any existing, or later known, IM or other service provider 102. In various exemplary embodiments, the subject matter described herein is implemented in a unified IM service gateway. Accordingly, in various exemplary embodiments, the subject matter described herein is available to any IM subscriber federated by a unified IM service gateway. In various exemplary embodiments, communities of users 106, 108, 109, 110, 111 are built and automatically updated based on specific characteristics defined by each user. In various exemplary embodiments, the privacy associated with a user is administered according to a user-defined policy. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, a user's access is restricted to only users matching specific characteristics defined by the user. In various exemplary embodiments, a profile is associated with each user 106, 108, 109, 110, 111. In various exemplary embodiments, the profile associated with each user records information such as the user's interests, physical location and demographic information such as gender, age and so on. In various exemplary embodiments, when a user desires to create a new community of users, the user specifies an aggregation policy that defines one or more characteristics of other users to be added to the group of users being created. Examples of characteristics used to define an aggregation policy include, but are not limited to, physical location of the user, interests of the user, basic profile information of the user, and so on. Similarly, in various exemplary embodiments, an aggregation policy is defined using one or more sets of characteristics previously defined by the user, or one or more sets of characteristics provided to the user 106 by the service provider 102. In various exemplary embodiments, policy checking is performed through a regular expression pattern matching that is applied to corresponding fields into a respective user profile. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, a threshold value specifies a maximum number of users to be added to a community. Such embodiments define a limit on the number of users that can be aggregated in a community. In other exemplary embodiments profiles are evaluated in different ways. Accordingly, various exemplary embodiments assign “point” values for one or more criteria and matching/inclusion is based on cumulative point counts and thresholds and/or ranges. In various exemplary embodiments, the subject matter described herein is implemented by the service provider 102 as a global policy mechanism restricting a number of aggregated entities for a given group. Thus, various exemplary embodiments prevent an excessive workload for a server of the service provider 102. This prevents the service provider 102 from being required to handle more attempts by users 106, 108, 109, 110, 111 to create or add to a community at a particular time. In various exemplary embodiments, a policy allows the user 106 to specify whether the user 106 needs to explicitly approve each request by one or more of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 to add the user 106 to one or more communities of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111. In various exemplary embodiments, the user 106 has the option to disable subject matter described herein according to other exemplary embodiments. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, the user 106 is able to preserve his privacy fully and completely such that the user 106 is not impacted by mechanisms enabling aggregation of communities of users according to other exemplary embodiments described herein. Still further, various exemplary embodiments enable the user 106 to define specific anti-aggregation policies that enable the user 106 to specify which other users 108, 109, 110, 111 are permitted, or are not permitted, to aggregate the user 106 into their respective community groups. Likewise, various exemplary embodiments enable the user 106 to specify whether the user 106 needs to explicitly approve add requests in order to be added into a community of one or more of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111. In various exemplary embodiments, an anti-aggregation policy of the user 106 is specified in the same manner as the user 106 specifies an aggregation policy. In various exemplary embodiments, policy checking is performed by way of a pattern matching expression that is applied to one or more specific fields associated with a profile of the user 106 when the user 106 initiates a request to add an aggregation of other users 108, 109, 110, 111. The following is an example of a policy aggregation associated with a user-defined community according to one exemplary embodiment. The user 106 specifies an aggregation of other users 108, 109, 110, 111 that are located in Ottawa or Paris, are interested in soccer, and work for Alcatel. Such an aggregation request gathers other users 108, 109, 110, 111 who share an employer in common with the user 106, an interest in common with the user 106, and one of two geographical locations. FIG. 2 is a flowchart of an exemplary embodiment of a method 200 for policy enabled aggregation of user communities. The method 200 begins in step 202 and then continues to step 204. In step 204, the user 106 creates a community. Next, in step 206, the user 106 defines an aggregation policy for the community. In step 207, the user 106 defines an anti-aggregation policy. This is discussed in greater detail both above and below. Various exemplary embodiments do not include step 207. In various exemplary embodiments, step 208 is included wherein the user 106 triggers aggregation for the community. In other exemplary embodiments, aggregation for the community is automatically triggered by the service provider 102. In step 210, the service provider 102 retrieves the aggregation policy defined by the user 106 in step 206. Then, in step 212, the service provider 102 applies the aggregation policy to one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111. The method 200 then proceeds to step 214 where a determination is made whether one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 fits the aggregation policy applied by the service provider 102 in step 212. If a determination is made in step 214 that one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 does fit the aggregation policy applied by the service provider 102 in step 212, then the method 200 proceeds to step 216. In step 216, an add request is sent to one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 by the service provider 102. The method 200 then proceeds to step 218 where a determination is made whether the one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 accepts the add request sent in step 216. When a determination is made in step 218 that the one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 accepts the add request, then the method 200 proceeds to step 220 where the one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 is added to the community created by the user 106 in step 204. In various exemplary embodiments, the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 define that they will accept all add requests automatically. Similarly, in various exemplary embodiments, the service provider 102 structures the method 200 such that the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 are automatically added to the community in step 220 after a determination is made in step 214 that the other user fits the aggregation policy defined by the user 106 in step 206. In other words, various exemplary embodiments omit both step 216 and step 218. Following step 220, the method 200 proceeds to step 222. In step 222, an anti-aggregation policy of the user 106, if any, is retrieved. Obviously, if the user 106 has not defined an anti-aggregation policy, then the method 200 does not include step 222. After retrieving an anti-aggregation policy in step 222, the method 200 proceeds to step 224. In step 224, a determination is made whether the other user 108, 109, 110, 111 added to the community in step 222 fits the anti-aggregation policy of the user 106. If a determination is made in step 224 that the other user 108, 109, 110, 111 does fit an anti-aggregation policy of the user 106, then the method 200 proceeds to step 226 where the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 is removed from the community of the user 106. The method 200 then proceeds to step 228 where a determination is made whether any additional ones of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 exists for which steps 212 through 226 have not yet been applied. Likewise, if a determination is made in step 224 that the other user 108, 109, 110, 111 does not fit an anti-aggregation policy defined by the user 106, then the method 200 proceeds to step 228. Similarly, if a determination is made in step 218 that the other user 108, 109, 110, 111 does not accept an add request, then the method 200 proceeds to step 228. Also, when a determination is made in step 214 that the other user 108, 109, 110, 111 does not fit the aggregation policy applied by the service provider 102 in step 212, then the method 200 proceeds to step 228. If a determination is made in step 228 that additional ones of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111 exist for which steps 212 through 226 have not been performed, then the method 200 returns to step 212. Alternatively, when a determination is made in step 228 that all other users 108, 109, 110, 111 have been evaluated by steps 212 through 226, then the method 200 proceeds to step 230 where the method 200 ends. According to the foregoing, various exemplary embodiments eliminate a requirement that the user 106 manually create a community of users, such as by subscribing to one or more networking websites, selecting users from a user base of a networking website, and adding the selected users to the new community. The subject matter described above in connection with FIG. 2 is associated with the aggregation of a community of users from the perspective of the service provider 102. In various exemplary embodiments, the service provider 102 notifies the user 106 of a progression of the creation of a specific community of users requested by the user 106. Accordingly, various exemplary embodiments indicate a current number of users that have not yet replied to add requests sent in step 216. In various exemplary embodiments, the service provider 102 maintains a record of associations between the user 106 and communities defined by the user 106. Thus, in various exemplary embodiments, when processing add requests between two users already known to each other, the service provider 102 silently adds the users into the new community without including steps 216 or 218 in the method 200. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a first exemplary embodiment of a graphical user interface (GUI) 300 for policy enabled aggregation of user communities. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a second exemplary embodiment of a graphical user interface (GUI) 400 for policy enabled aggregation of user communities. The GUI 300 corresponds to a community list for the user 106. The GUI 400 corresponds to a community lists for one of the other users 108, 109, 110, 111. Thus, GUI 300 and GUI 400 collectively show an example of contact lists that result from an association between user 106 and one of the other users 108, 109, 110 and 111 based on an application of the method 200. As depicted, upon successfully adding the other user 308 into Community A 304 the user 106 creates another Community B 306 associating an aggregation policy matching the profile of the other user 308. As depicted, Community A 304 also includes User C 310 and User D 312. Likewise, as depicted, Community B 306 also includes User E 316. As depicted, the bundle named My Communities 302 is a list grouping all of the communities belonging to the user 106. Similarly, the bundle named Other Communities 402 groups all of the users owning a community of which the particular user 106 is a part of. Thus, the Other Communities 402 includes Community A 304 and Community B 306. In various exemplary embodiments, upon a change of a subscriber base for the service provider 102, including a modification, creation or deletion of a user profile, the service provider 102 notifies users impacted by the change of potential changes in their communities. Accordingly, in various exemplary embodiments, changes to a user community are performed in a silent mode with no user intervention based on the user's settings. Alternatively, in various exemplary embodiments, changes to a user community are performed by prompting the user if the user wants to accept the change or let the community remain untouched. Again, in various exemplary embodiments this is determined based on settings defined by the user. There are a variety of combinations where a user creates a profile, modifies an existing profile or deletes an existing profile. Each of these three possibilities has a different impact on My Communities 302, Other Communities 402, and even external communities. External communities refer to existing communities in the system 100 that the user 106 is not associated with. Each of these possibilities will be discussed in turn. In various exemplary embodiments, when the user 106 modifies his profile, the impact on My Communities 302 is as follows. The service provider 102 initiates a delete request to each user 308, 310, 312, 316 in My Communities 302 whose anti-aggregation policy matches the new profile of the user 106. In various exemplary embodiments, when the user 106 modifies his profile, the impact on Other Communities 402 is as follows. The service provider 102 initiates a delete request to users in Other Communities 402 whose aggregation policy no longer matches the new profile of the user 106. In various exemplary embodiments, when the user 106 modifies his profile, the impact on external communities is as follows. The service provider 102 initiates add request to communities whose aggregation policy now matches the new profile of the user 106. When a new profile of a user 106 is created, the impact on My Communities 302 and Other Communities 402 is not applicable because My Communities 302 and Other Communities 402 have not yet been created for the newly created user. However, in various exemplary embodiments, when a new user profile is created, the service provider 102 initiates add requests to communities whose aggregation policy matches the new user profile. When a user profile is deleted, the impact on external communities is not applicable. However, in various exemplary embodiments, the impact on My Communities 302 when a user profile is deleted is as follows. The service provider 102 initiates a delete request to users 308, 310, 312, 316 in My Communities 302. In various exemplary embodiments, when a user profile is deleted, the impact on Other Communities 402 is as follows. The service provider 102 initiates a delete request to users in Other Communities 402. In various exemplary embodiments, the user 106 is enabled to delete a community such as Community A 304 or Community B 306. Correspondingly, in various exemplary embodiments, when the user 106 deletes Community A 304 or Community B 306 the user 106 is removed from the Other Communities 402 list of users belonging to Community A 304 or Community B 306. According to the foregoing, various exemplary embodiments overcome current limitations on IM tools. Likewise, various exemplary embodiments solve problems associated with the federation of communities of online users. Various exemplary embodiments enable providers of IM technology to seamlessly provide a policy-based social networking service. Various exemplary embodiments enable users of social networking services to have easy and time-effective access to a wide range of user communities according to customized criteria. In addition to embodiments implemented in IM systems, other exemplary embodiments are implemented using e-mail addresses. Although the various exemplary embodiments have been described in detail with particular reference to certain exemplary aspects thereof, it should be understood that the invention is capable of other different embodiments, and its details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects. As is readily apparent to those skilled in the art, variations and modifications can be affected while remaining within the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the foregoing disclosure, description, and figures are for illustrative purposes only, and do not in any way limit the invention, which is defined only by the claims.
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21
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00
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11623893
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US20080169848A1-20080717
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High-Speed Leaf Clock Frequency-Divider/Splitter
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ACCEPTED
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20080701
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20080717
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[]
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G06F110
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["G06F110", "H03K2100", "H03K515"]
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7915929
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20070117
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20110329
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375
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354000
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94225.0
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LE
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DINH
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Douskey", "inventor_name_first": "Steven Michael", "inventor_city": "Rochester", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ellavsky", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew Roger", "inventor_city": "Rochester", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A novel clock splitter that has a local internal clock frequency-divider is presented. The clock splitter comprises an oscillator clock splitter, wherein the oscillator clock splitter splits an oscillator clock signal into a B clock and a C clock; a clock frequency-divider, wherein the clock frequency-divider selectively suppresses clock pulses in the C clock to generate a slower C clock signal that is slower than the oscillator clock; and a B/C clock order logic, wherein the B/C clock order logic phase shifts the C clock relative to a B clock. The clock frequency-divider may selectively suppress pulses in the B clock to generate a slower B clock signal. The slower B and C clock signals may have a same or different frequency. In one embodiment, the clock splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree.
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1. A clock splitter comprising: an oscillator clock splitter, wherein the oscillator clock splitter splits an oscillator clock signal into a B clock and a C clock; a clock frequency-divider, wherein the clock frequency-divider selectively suppresses clock pulses in the C clock to generate a slower C clock signal that has a lower frequency than the oscillator clock; and a B/C clock order logic, wherein the B/C clock order logic phase shifts the C clock relative to a B clock. 2. The clock splitter of claim 1, wherein the clock frequency-divider further selectively suppresses pulses in the B clock to generate a slower B clock signal. 3. The clock splitter of claim 2, wherein the slower B and C clock signals have a same frequency. 4. The clock splitter of claim 3, wherein the clock splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. 5. A high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter comprising: a first AND Inverted (AI) gate having an input that is coupled to an inverted BC clock order control signal (BC signal), wherein the BC signal determines a time-phase order between a B clock and a C clock that are output from the high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter; a second AI gate having inputs that are coupled to the BC signal and a chopped oscillator signal; a third AI gate having inputs from an output of the first AI gate and an output of the second AI gate, wherein the third AI gate outputs the C clock; a fourth AI gate having inputs from the chopped oscillator signal and a B clock gate; and a fifth AI gate having inputs from an output of the fourth AI gate and a Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD) C clock control signal (LSSDC), wherein the fifth AI outputs the B clock. 6. The high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter of claim 5, further comprising: a sixth AI gate having an input that is coupled to a C clock suppression signal (CSUP), wherein the CSUP selectively suppresses C clock pulses to generate a clock signal having a lower frequency than the chopped oscillator signal. 7. The high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter of claim 6, further comprising: a seventh and an eighth AI gate that have inputs that are coupled to a B clock suppression signal (BSUP), wherein the BSUP selectively suppresses B clock pulses to generate a clock signal having a lower frequency than the chopped oscillator signal. 8. The high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter of claim 5, wherein the high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. 9. A high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter comprising: a first inverter having inputs that are coupled to a BC (B/C clock order) signal, an output of a first Shift Register Latch (SRL), and an output of a chopper, wherein the first SRL has inputs from a speed control signal that is part of a scan data input (D); a second AI having inputs that are coupled to the output of the chopper, an output of a third AI, the BC signal, and an output from a second SRL that is coupled to the first SRL, wherein the third AI has inputs that are coupled to a C clock suppression signal (CSUP) and the output of the first SRL; a fourth AI having inputs that are coupled to an output of the first AI, an output of the second AI, and a clock gate not (CGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a C clock signal at a C clock pin that is coupled to an output of the fourth AI; a second inverter having an input that is coupled to an Oscillator (OSC) clock; a fifth AI having inputs coupled to a Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD) C clock control signal (LSSDC) and an output of the second inverter, wherein an output of the first AI is coupled to an input to the chopper, an input to a sixth AI and an input to a seventh AI, wherein the seventh AI has additional inputs that are coupled to a B clock gate not (BGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a B clock at a C clock pin that is coupled to an output of a third inverter, wherein the third inverter has an input that is coupled to the seventh AI; an eighth AI having a first input coupled to a fixed value gate not (FVGTN) inverse logic signal that is capable of overriding the scan data input (D) signal, wherein the eighth AI has a second input coupled to the output of the chopper, and wherein the FVGTN inverse logic signal is also coupled to an input to the sixth AI; a fourth inverter coupling an output of the eighth AI to an input to an L1 latch in the first SRL; and a fifth inverter coupling an output of the sixth AI to an L2 latch in the first SRL, wherein an output of the L2 latch in the first SRL is coupled to an input of the first L1 latch in the second SRL, and wherein the output of the first L1 latch in the second SRL is coupled to an input of a ninth AI via a sixth inverter, and wherein the ninth AI has an input coupled to a B gate not (BGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a B clock at a ZB pin, and wherein an output of the ninth AI is coupled to an input of the seventh AI, and wherein a level-sensitive scan design B clock controller (LSSDB) is input to the seventh AI, wherein the high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter controls a speed and phase of output B and C clocks through a use of the BC, CGTN, CSUP, D, FVGTN, LSSDC, OSC, BGTN and LSSDB signals. 10. The high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter of claim 9, wherein the clock splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. 11. A system comprising: a processor; a data bus coupled to the processor; a memory coupled to the data bus; and a high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter that is a component of the processor, wherein the high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter comprises: first and second AND Inverted (AI) gates that are coupled to a third AI gate; a fourth AI gate coupled to an input of a chopper, wherein the chopper has an output that is coupled to a fifth AI gate and the first and second AI gates; a sixth AI gate that is coupled to an output of the fourth AI gate, wherein an output of the AI gate is coupled to an input of a first inverter; a second inverter having an input that is coupled to an output of the fifth AI gate, wherein outputs of the first and second inverters are coupled to a first Shift Register Latch (SRL), and wherein the output of the first inverter is also coupled to an input of second SRL, and wherein the output of the second inverter is also coupled to an input of a third inverter; a seventh AI gate having an input that is coupled to an output of the third inverter; an eighth AI gate having an input that is coupled to an output of the seventh AI gate; and a fourth inverter having an input that is coupled to an output of the eighth AI gate, wherein an output of the fourth inverter produces a B clock signal and an output of the third AI gate produces a C clock signal that is frequency and phase controlled by the high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field The present disclosure relates in general to the field of electronics, and in particular to timing clocks in electronic circuits. Still more particularly, the present disclosure relates to a clock splitter having an integrated clock frequency-divider. 2. Description of the Related Art Timing of clock signals in an electronic circuit, including an Integrated Circuit (IC), is essential to proper operations of the circuit. Timing problems arise, however, when components of the IC are physically spaced far apart. In such scenarios, a clock signal from one component will be time-delayed before it reaches another component. If the two components have a synchronous relationship, then problems will ensue. For example, consider the circuit shown in FIG. 1 . An oscillator 100 generates a 1.0 GHz clock signal. While this clock signal frequency is useful in many components of a circuit, other components may need a lower frequency clock signal. To obtain a lower frequency, a clock frequency-divider 102 is utilized. In the example shown, clock frequency-divider 102 suppresses every other clock waveform, thus created a clock signal that has a frequency of 0.5 GHz (500 MHz). The two (different frequency) clock signals are then sent to clock splitters 104 a - b, which output two clock signals (ZC and ZB), which have the same frequency as the respective input clock signal, but are time shifted. This allows the slave latch B and the master latch C in the Shift Register Latch (SRL) 106 a - e to launch and capture data stored in these elements. For example, the clock signal ZB from clock splitter 104 a causes data in latch B from SRL 106 a to be launched to latch C in SRL 106 b. Clock signal ZC from clock splitter 104 a causes latch C in SRL 106 b to capture the data that was just launched from latch B in SRL 106 a. Similarly, clock signals ZC and ZB from clock splitter 104 a cause data to be launched and captured from latch 106 b to latch 106 c. Similarly, the clock signals ZC and ZB in clock splitter 104 b cause data to be launched and captured from latch B in SRL 106 d to latch C in SRL 106 e. Assume that data captured in latches 106 c and 106 e are synchronously dependent. That is, assume that data must be captured (or launched) from these two latches at exactly the same time. Alternatively, latches 106 c and 106 e may be directly or indirectly coupled. If so, then the timing between these two latches must be perfectly synchronized. However, because of the distance (and distance differences) between oscillator 100 and latches 106 c and 106 e, such signal synchronization is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To address the problem described above, presented herein is a novel clock splitter that has a local internal clock frequency-divider. The clock splitter comprises an oscillator clock splitter, wherein the oscillator clock splitter splits an oscillator clock signal into a B clock and a C clock; a clock frequency-divider, wherein the clock frequency-divider selectively suppresses clock pulses in the C clock to generate a slower C clock signal that has a lower frequency than the oscillator clock; and a B/C clock order logic, wherein the B/C clock order logic phase shifts the C clock relative to a B clock. The clock frequency-divider can also selectively suppress pulses in the B clock to generate a correspondingly slower B clock signal. The slower B and C clock signals may have a same or different frequency. In one embodiment, the clock splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. The above, as well as additional, purposes, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent in the following detailed written description.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present disclosure relates in general to the field of electronics, and in particular to timing clocks in electronic circuits. Still more particularly, the present disclosure relates to a clock splitter having an integrated clock frequency-divider. 2. Description of the Related Art Timing of clock signals in an electronic circuit, including an Integrated Circuit (IC), is essential to proper operations of the circuit. Timing problems arise, however, when components of the IC are physically spaced far apart. In such scenarios, a clock signal from one component will be time-delayed before it reaches another component. If the two components have a synchronous relationship, then problems will ensue. For example, consider the circuit shown in FIG. 1. An oscillator 100 generates a 1.0 GHz clock signal. While this clock signal frequency is useful in many components of a circuit, other components may need a lower frequency clock signal. To obtain a lower frequency, a clock frequency-divider 102 is utilized. In the example shown, clock frequency-divider 102 suppresses every other clock waveform, thus created a clock signal that has a frequency of 0.5 GHz (500 MHz). The two (different frequency) clock signals are then sent to clock splitters 104a-b, which output two clock signals (ZC and ZB), which have the same frequency as the respective input clock signal, but are time shifted. This allows the slave latch B and the master latch C in the Shift Register Latch (SRL) 106a-e to launch and capture data stored in these elements. For example, the clock signal ZB from clock splitter 104a causes data in latch B from SRL 106a to be launched to latch C in SRL 106b. Clock signal ZC from clock splitter 104a causes latch C in SRL 106b to capture the data that was just launched from latch B in SRL 106a. Similarly, clock signals ZC and ZB from clock splitter 104a cause data to be launched and captured from latch 106b to latch 106c. Similarly, the clock signals ZC and ZB in clock splitter 104b cause data to be launched and captured from latch B in SRL 106d to latch C in SRL 106e. Assume that data captured in latches 106c and 106e are synchronously dependent. That is, assume that data must be captured (or launched) from these two latches at exactly the same time. Alternatively, latches 106c and 106e may be directly or indirectly coupled. If so, then the timing between these two latches must be perfectly synchronized. However, because of the distance (and distance differences) between oscillator 100 and latches 106c and 106e, such signal synchronization is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To address the problem described above, presented herein is a novel clock splitter that has a local internal clock frequency-divider. The clock splitter comprises an oscillator clock splitter, wherein the oscillator clock splitter splits an oscillator clock signal into a B clock and a C clock; a clock frequency-divider, wherein the clock frequency-divider selectively suppresses clock pulses in the C clock to generate a slower C clock signal that has a lower frequency than the oscillator clock; and a B/C clock order logic, wherein the B/C clock order logic phase shifts the C clock relative to a B clock. The clock frequency-divider can also selectively suppress pulses in the B clock to generate a correspondingly slower B clock signal. The slower B and C clock signals may have a same or different frequency. In one embodiment, the clock splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. The above, as well as additional, purposes, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent in the following detailed written description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features believed characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, as well as a preferred mode of use, further purposes and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed description of an illustrative embodiment when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, where: FIG. 1 depicts a prior art circuit having a clock frequency-divider that is distant from a clock splitter; FIG. 2 illustrates a high level conceptual figure describing a novel clock splitter (“splitter”) having an internal clock frequency-divider; FIG. 3 depicts circuitry for an exemplary high speed clock splitter (“splitter”) with an internal clock frequency-divider; FIGS. 4-5 are timing charts for the high speed clock splitter shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 6 illustrates circuitry for an alternative embodiment of a high speed clock splitter (“splitter”) that allows suppression of timing-selected B clock signals being output, as shown in FIG. 7; FIG. 8 depicts circuitry for an alternative embodiment of a high speed clock splitter that includes additional C clock signal chopping capability; FIG. 9 illustrates circuitry for a high speed clock splitter that utilizes pulsing a DATA input to allow functional clock division; FIG. 10 depicts the circuitry shown in FIG. 9 with additional circuitry for suppressing the C clock; FIG. 11 illustrates the circuitry shown in FIG. 10 with additional circuitry for suppressing the B clock; and FIG. 12 depicts an exemplary computer in which the clock splitter described herein may be incorporated. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to FIG. 2, a high-level overview of an inventive splitter 200 is presented. In a preferred embodiment, splitter 200 is at a leaf (termination point) of a clock tree. That is, in a preferred embodiment, splitter 200 provides clocking signals that are only used locally, and are not promulgated to other branches in a clock tree. A clock signal is generated by an oscillator 100. For exemplary purposes, the frequency of the clock signal is shown as 1.0 GHz, but oscillator (OSC) 100 is understood as being capable of generating any fixed frequency clock signal. The oscillator clock signal is split into a B clock signal and a C clock signal by an OSC clock splitter 210. From the OSC clock splitter 210, the B and C clock signals are sent to a clock frequency-divider 204, which is under the control of a frequency control signal 202. The B and C clock signals are preferably chopped such that they have a same frequency, although, alternatively, the B and C clock signals can be chopped independently such that the B and C clock signals have different frequencies. Clock frequency-divider 204 preferably “chops” (removes/suppresses) intermediary clock waveforms to reduce (divide) the frequency of the 1.0 GHz clock signal (e.g., down to 0.5 GHz or 0.33 GHz). Note, however, that the frequency control signal 202 may simply tell clock frequency-divider 204 to allow the 1.0 GHz clock signal to pass through clock frequency-divider 204 unaltered (still at 1.0 GHz). In either case, the B and C clock signals (altered or unaltered) are then sent to a B/C clock order logic 206, which is under the control of a B/C order control signal 208. B/C order control signal 208 directs B/C clock order logic 206 to time-shift the B and C clock signals such that the B clock signal is time/phase shifted before or after the C clock signal. The scenario shown in FIG. 2 permits the B and C clock signals to have the same or different frequencies. Alternatively, the clock frequency-divider 204 can be placed before the OSC clock splitter 210, such that the B and C clock signals are always at the same frequencies. FIG. 3 depicts additional detail of an exemplary splitter 300, whose function substantially comports with that described at a high-level for splitter 200 shown in FIG. 2. Splitter 300 inputs and outputs various signals, which are named and defined as follows: ZC—“C clock,” which is a split output clock, and may be used to clock “capture” data into the master latch of a SRL ZB—“B clock,” which is a split output clock, and may be used to clock “launch” data out of the slave latch of a SRL BC—control signal that determines whether ZC leads or lags ZB (in time or phase) CGTN—C clock gate not—inverse logic signal that controls the release of the C clock at ZC CSUP—signal for controlling the suppression intermediate, starting, or ending waveforms of the “C clock” D—scan data input, which also functions as a speed controller, which controls whether output clocks (at ZC and ZB) have a frequency that is at full speed, half speed, third speed, etc. FVGTN—fixed value gate not—inverse logic signal that allows the D speed controller to be overridden, such that clocks in the rest of the design are allowed to run at full speed LSSDC—level-sensitive scan design (LSSD) C clock controller, which affords control of Shift Register Latches (SRLs), found in the splitter 300, and fed through the ZC pin in accordance with LSSD protocol OSC—oscillator, fixed speed clock generator BGTN—B clock gate not—inverse logic signal that controls the release of the B clock at ZB, disabling the internal splitter latch control LSSDB—level-sensitive scan design (LSSD) B clock controller, which affords control of Shift Register Latches (SRLs), found in the splitter 300, and fed through the ZB pin in accordance with LSSD protocol SDO—scan data out—output of scan data that is passing through splitter 300 BSUP—signal for controlling the suppression intermediate, starting, or ending waveforms of the “B clock” (shown in FIG. 6) Referring again FIG. 3, BC is input into an inverter 331, which outputs to an AND Inverted (AI) gate 302. (Note that an AI gate is logically equivalent to a NAND gate.) Based on the value of BC, an output from AI gate 302 to AI gate 304 causes the C clock at ZC output pin 310 to pulse before the B clock at ZB output pin 312. That is, due to the configuration of different AI gates and other logic shown, BC as a low signal will cause a different delay to ZC compared to BC being a high signal. AI gate 302 also receives input signals from Shift Register Latch (SRL) 314, as well as from small chopper 328, which provides clock separation between the rising ZC edge and the falling ZB edge to ensure the master and slave clocks are not simultaneously active. AI 306 causes the C clock at ZC output pin 310 to pulse after the B clock at ZB output pin 312. Inputs to AI 306, which cause the C clock pulse to follow the B clock, include the output of small chopper 328, an output of AI 322 (whose inputs are discussed below), BC, and the output of SRL 316 (which can also be the Scan Data Out—SDO). CGTN is input to AI 304, thus permitting the C clock to be pulsed from ZC output pin 310 under the direction of AI 302 or AI 306. CSUP is input into AI 322, which causes C clock pulses to be suppressed in a controlled manner when combined with the output of SRL 314. Inputs to SRL 314 include input D, as well as inverted outputs of AI 324 and AI 326. Inputs to AI 324 include FVGTN and the output of small chopper 328. Input to the small chopper 328 is the output of AI 330, which has inputs of LSSDC and an inverted OSC clock signal. AI 330 thus provides a controlled input of raw signals which are cleaned up by small chopper 328. Note that the output of AI 330 also goes to the input of AI 326 and AI 318. Also input to AI 320 is BGTN and an inverted signal from the L1 latch in SRL 316, while AI 318 also receives LSSDB as an input. Output from AI 318 is a clock signal that, after being inverted by inverter 329, is put on ZB output pin 312. Note that in a conventional LSSD system, separate system and scan clocks are used to distinguish between normal operations and test mode. During normal operations, latches are used in pairs, wherein each has a normal data input, data output and clock. During test operations, however, the two latches form a master/slave pair with one scan input, one scan output and non-overlapping scan clocks (usually denoted as A and B), which are held low during system operations but cause the scan data to be latched when pulsed high during scan. In splitter 300, however, AI 318 allows scan gating via BGTN and functional gating from SRL 316. Thus, the LSSDB test clock signal is allowed to be shared for both normal functional test operations as well as scan operations (test mode), thus eliminating the need for a separate test clock input. Utilizing the inputs described above, SRLs 314 and 316 are used for clock gating. That is, SRLs 314 and 316 provide a tight timing path that closely synchronizes the relative temporal positions of the B and C clock outputs from respective ZB output pin 312 and ZC output pin 310. Note the existence of inverters 321, 323, 325, 327, 329, and 331, which may or may not have been described above, but which are utilized to provide appropriate inversion of inputs to components depicted. Referring now to FIG. 4, a timing chart 400 is presented showing the resulting C and B clocks at respective ZC output pin 310 and ZB output pin 312. At full speed (when D stays high and CSUP low), the B and C pulses are 180 degrees out of phase. However, when the D input is as shown, then one (for half speed) or two (for third speed) intermediate pulses for the C clock are suppressed. Note that intermediate pulses for the B clock are similarly suppressed so that the B follows the C clock pulses, allowing more cycle time from B to following C. Note also that, since splitter 300 serves as a suppression clock frequency-divider, pulse width is the same at all speeds, but duty cycle is reduced as a percentage of cycle time. Note also that all of the clock signals (full, half, third) are full cycle timed paths, while the half cycle clock gating paths are contained within the splitter from the SRLs 314 and 316. FIG. 5 shows timing chart 500, which depicts the timing of pulses when splitter 300 is used in at-speed testing (e.g., as part of an LBIST system). The ZC leading ZB clock timing (ZC→ZB) is rarely used. However, ZB leading ZC is often used, as in launching and capturing data from latches in SRLs. Note the extra ZB pulses for the divided clocks. The first B controls the data release from an SRL slave latch, with each subsequent ZB not changing the data. The timed path is therefore from the first ZB pulse to the only ZC pulse. This design, however, must time the final ZB versus the ZC to ensure that there is no pulse overlap. To avoid this problem, additional AIs 602 and 604 are added, as shown in the splitter 600 shown in FIG. 6. AI 602 has inputs from the inverted output of the L1 latch in SRL 316, the non-inverted output of the L1 latch in SRL 314, and BSUP, while AI 604 has inputs from the non-inverted output of the L1 latch of SRL 316 and the inverted BSUP signal. The output of AI 604 feeds into AI 320, which outputs to AI 318 in a manner described above for splitter 300. AIs 602 and 604 allow suppression of trailing ZB pulses during the ZB→ZC test, as shown in the timing chart 700 shown in FIG. 7. With reference now to FIG. 8, a splitter 800 is depicted. Splitter 800 has similar splitter/clock frequency-divider functionality as described above for splitter 300, but with an additional ZC chopping feature that is often useful in feeding Low Power Register Array (LPRA) clocks. Specifically, a chopper 802 includes a chop value 806 and two AIs 804 and 808. Test signals 1 and 2 are fed into respective AIs 804 and 808, thus providing exclusive paths for testability. FIGS. 9, 10, and 11 show another way to accomplish the functionality of splitter 800, but with a larger design. Referring now to FIG. 9, a splitter 900 is presented. A BC signal, via an inverter 901, is fed into an AI 902, which also has inputs from C Clock Gate 1 (CCLKGT1) and the outputs of AI 908, AI 918 and SRL 914. AI 906 has inputs from the BC signal, C Clock Gate 1 (CCLKGT1), Scan Data Out (SDO), and the outputs of AI 908 and AI 918. AI 904 has inputs from the ZC gate (GATEZC) and the outputs of AI 902 and AI 906. The output of AI 904 is the C clock found at ZC pin 910. A test control (TST2) signal is input to AI 908. A test control (TST1) is input into AI 918, along with an output of a chopper 928. The chopper 928 has a single input from the Oscillator (OSC) via an inverter 932. The output of inverter 932 also feeds an input to a delay 930, which feeds the input of an AI 924 as well as an AI 920. Using the SDO, output of delay 930, and a B clock gate (BCLKGT), AI 920, along with AI 922 (which includes an LSSD B Clock input (LSSDBCLK_NI) generates a B clock signal found at ZB pin 912. Note further that an output of AI 918 is input to AI 934, which outputs to inverter 903, which outputs to SRL 916. Note also that AI 924 outputs to an input of AI 926. AI gates 902, 906 and 904 allow the moving (time/phase shifting) of the ZC pulse (at ZC pin 910) to be before or after the ZB pulse (at ZB pin 912), thus generating a timing pattern such as that shown above in FIG. 4. However, suppression of the C clock pulses, as described above with splitter 300, is not possible using just the circuitry shown in FIG. 9. The splitter 1000, shown in FIG. 10, however, adds the C clock pulse suppression feature through the addition of an AI 1002, which accepts an input from a C suppression (CSUP) signal, which suppresses C clock pulses by suppressing C clock pulses at ZC pin 910. That is, the CSUP signal causes AI 1002 to block AI 906, which blocks 904 from pulsing unwanted C clock pulses. To provide suppression of B clock pulses, splitter 1100, shown in FIG. 11, includes additional AIs 1102 and 1104. As depicted, inputs to AI 1102 include a B clock suppression signal (BSUP) and the inverted output of the L1 latch in the SRL 914. The inputs to AI 1104 include the output of AI 1102, the inverted (BSUP) signal, and the L1 latch of SRL 916. AI 1102 and AI 1104 thus provide for suppression of B clock pulses (per the control of the BSUP signal), such as shown above in timing table 700 in FIG. 7. With reference now to FIG. 12, there is depicted a block diagram of a computer 1202, in which the present invention may be utilized. Computer 1202 includes a processor unit 1204 that is coupled to a system bus 1206. Within the circuitry of processor unit 1204 are one or more clock frequency-dividers/splitters, as described above in FIGS. 3, 6, 8-12, such that the logic shown in FIG. 12 is used to adjust the timing of clock signals used within processor 1204. Alternatively, the logic and software depicted for computer 1202 is used to control clock dividers (such as those depicted in FIGS. 3, 6, 8-12) in other (not shown) circuits. A video adapter 1208, which drives/supports a display 1210, is also coupled to system bus 1206. System bus 1206 is coupled via a bus bridge 1212 to an Input/Output (I/O) bus 1214. An I/O interface 1216 is coupled to I/O bus 1214. I/O interface 1216 affords communication with various I/O devices, including a keyboard 1218, a mouse 1220, a Compact Disk—Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) drive 1222, a floppy disk drive 1224, and a flash drive memory 1226. The format of the ports connected to I/O interface 1216 may be any known to those skilled in the art of computer architecture, including but not limited to Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports. Computer 1202 is able to communicate with a software deploying server 1250 via a network 1228 using a network interface 1230, which is coupled to system bus 1206. Network 1228 may be an external network such as the Internet, or an internal network such as an Ethernet or a Virtual Private Network (VPN). A hard drive interface 1232 is also coupled to system bus 1206. Hard drive interface 1232 interfaces with a hard drive 1234. In a preferred embodiment, hard drive 1234 populates a system memory 1236, which is also coupled to system bus 1206. System memory is defined as a lowest level of volatile memory in computer 1202. This volatile memory includes additional higher levels of volatile memory (not shown), including, but not limited to, cache memory, registers and buffers. Data that populates system memory 1236 includes computer 1202's operating system (OS) 1238 and application programs 1244. OS 1238 includes a shell 1240, for providing transparent user access to resources such as application programs 1244. Generally, shell 1240 is a program that provides an interpreter and an interface between the user and the operating system. More specifically, shell 1240 executes commands that are entered into a command line user interface or from a file. Thus, shell 1240 (as it is called in UNIX®), also called a command processor in Windows®, is generally the highest level of the operating system software hierarchy and serves as a command interpreter. The shell provides a system prompt, interprets commands entered by keyboard, mouse, or other user input media, and sends the interpreted command(s) to the appropriate lower levels of the operating system (e.g., a kernel 1242) for processing. Note that while shell 1240 is a text-based, line-oriented user interface, the present invention will equally well support other user interface modes, such as graphical, voice, gestural, etc. As depicted, OS 1238 also includes kernel 1242, which includes lower levels of functionality for OS 1238, including providing essential services required by other parts of OS 1238 and application programs 1244, including memory management, process and task management, disk management, and mouse and keyboard management. Application programs 1244 include a browser 1246. Browser 1246 includes program modules and instructions enabling a World Wide Web (WWW) client (i.e., software deploying server 1250) to send and receive network messages to the Internet using HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) messaging, thus enabling communication with computer 1202. In one embodiment of the present invention, software deploying server 1250 may utilize a same or substantially similar architecture as shown and described for computer 1202. Also stored with system memory 1236 is a Timing Pattern Program (TPP) 1248, which includes some or all software code needed to control the clock frequency-divider/splitters described above, including some or all of the signal inputs described above. TPP 1248 may be deployed from software deploying server 1250 to client computer 1202 in any automatic or requested manner, including being deployed to client computer 1202 in an on-demand basis. Similarly, TPP 1248 may be deployed to software deploying server 1250 from another software deploying server (not shown). The hardware elements depicted in computer 1202 are not intended to be exhaustive, but rather are representative to highlight essential components required by the present invention. For instance, computer 1202 may include alternate memory storage devices such as magnetic cassettes, Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs), Bernoulli cartridges, and the like. These and other variations are intended to be within the spirit and scope of the present invention. It should be understood that at least some aspects of the present invention may alternatively be implemented in a program product. Programs defining functions of the present invention can be delivered to a data storage system or a computer system via a variety of signal-bearing media, which include, without limitation, non-writable storage media (e.g., CD-ROM), writable storage media (e.g., a floppy diskette, hard disk drive, read/write CD ROM, optical media), and communication media, such as computer and telephone networks including Ethernet. It should be understood, therefore in such signal-bearing media when carrying or encoding computer readable instructions that direct method functions in the present invention, represent alternative embodiments of the present invention. Further, it is understood that the present invention may be implemented by a system having means in the form of hardware, software, or a combination of software and hardware as described herein or their equivalent. The presently presented splitter thus provides for a suppression style clock frequency-divider function that is built into the splitter. This allows for the use of a common oscillator clock signal to use different speed domains, easing timing on designs by enabling more opportunity for Common Path Pessimism Removal (CPPR), while still supporting LSSD at speed clock gating for LBIST through C and B clock suppression and relative phase adjustment (ZC→ZB or ZB→ZC). Specifically, one embodiment of the presently described clock splitter (as shown in an exemplary embodiment in FIG. 2 as splitter 200) comprises an oscillator clock splitter (210), wherein the oscillator clock splitter (210) splits an oscillator clock signal into a B clock and a C clock; a clock frequency-divider (204), wherein the clock frequency-divider (204) selectively suppresses clock pulses in the C clock to generate a slower C clock signal that is slower than the oscillator clock; and a B/C clock order logic (206), wherein the B/C clock order logic (206) phase shifts the C clock relative to a B clock. The clock frequency-divider (204) may selectively suppress pulses in the B clock to generate a slower B clock signal. The slower B and C clock signals may have a same or different frequency. In one embodiment, the clock splitter (200) is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. In one embodiment, the novel clock frequency-divider/splitter is incorporated into a computer system. As described in an exemplary embodiment in FIG. 3 and FIG. 12, the novel clock frequency-divider/splitter is incorporated into a processor (1204) in a computer system (1202) that comprises a data bus (1206) coupled to the processor (1204); and a memory (1236) coupled to the data bus (1206). In exemplary form, the high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter (see FIG. 3) comprises: first (302) and second (306) AND Inverted (AI) gates that are coupled to a third AI gate (304); a fourth AI gate (330) coupled to an input of a chopper (328), wherein the chopper (328) has an output that is coupled to a fifth AI gate (324) and the first (302) and second (306) AI gates; a sixth AI gate (326) that is coupled to an output of the fourth AI gate (330), wherein an output of the AI gate (326) is coupled to an input of a first inverter (325); a second inverter (323) having an input that is coupled to an output of the fifth AI gate (324), wherein outputs of the first (325) and second (323) inverters are coupled to a first Shift Register Latch (SRL) (314), and wherein the output of the first inverter (325) is also coupled to an input of second SRL (316), and wherein the output of the second inverter (323) is also coupled to an input of a third inverter (327); a seventh AI gate (320) having an input that is coupled to an output of the third inverter (327); an eighth AI gate (318) having an input that is coupled to an output of the seventh AI gate (320); a fourth inverter (329) having an input that is coupled to an output of the eighth AI gate (318), wherein an output of the fourth inverter (329) produces a B clock signal and an output of the third AI gate (304) produces a C clock signal that are frequency and phase controlled by the high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter. In one embodiment, control of and signals to the novel clock frequency-divider/splitter is provided by a computer readable medium on which computer program instructions are stored. As depicted in FIG. 3, in one embodiment, a high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter comprises: a first AND Inverted (AI) gate having an input that is coupled to an inverted BC clock order control signal (BC signal), wherein the BC signal determines a time-phase order between a B clock and a C clock that are output from the high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter; a second AI gate having inputs that are coupled to the BC signal and a chopped oscillator signal; a third AI gate having inputs from an output of the first AI gate and an output of the second AI gate, wherein the third AI gate outputs the C clock; a fourth AI gate having inputs from the chopped oscillator signal and a B clock gate; and a fifth AI gate having inputs from an output of the fourth AI gate and a Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD) C clock control signal (LSSDC), wherein the fifth AI outputs the B clock. The high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter may further comprise: a sixth AI gate having an input that is coupled to a C clock suppression signal (CSUP), wherein the CSUP selectively suppresses C clock pulses to generate a clock signal having a lower frequency than the chopped oscillator signal; and a seventh AI gate having an input that is coupled to a B clock suppression signal (BSUP), wherein the BSUP selectively suppresses B clock pulses to generate a clock signal having a lower frequency than the chopped oscillator signal. In one embodiment, this high speed clock frequency-divider/splitter is located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. As depicted in exemplary form in FIGS. 8-11, in another embodiment a high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter comprises: a first inverter having inputs that are coupled to a BC (B/C clock order) signal, an output of a first Shift Register Latch (SRL), and an output of a chopper, wherein the first SRL has inputs from a speed control signal that is part of a scan data input (D); a second AI having inputs that are coupled to the output of the chopper, an output of a third AI, the BC signal, and a Scan Data Out (SDO) from a second SRL that is coupled to the first SRL, wherein the third AI has inputs that are coupled to a C clock suppression signal (CSUP) and the output of the first SRL; a fourth AI having inputs that are coupled to an output of the first AI, an output of the second AI, and a clock gate not (CGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a C clock signal at a C clock pin that is coupled to an output of the fourth AI; a second inverter having an input that is coupled to an Oscillator (OSC) clock; a fifth AI having inputs coupled to a Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD) C clock control signal (LSSDC) and an output of the second inverter, wherein an output of the first AI is coupled to an input to the chopper, an input to a sixth AI and an input to a seventh AI, wherein the seventh AI has additional inputs that are coupled to a B clock gate not (BGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a B clock at a C clock pin that is coupled to an output of a third inverter, wherein the third inverter has an input that is coupled to the seventh AI; an eighth AI having a first input coupled to a fixed value gate not (FVGTN) inverse logic signal that is capable of overriding the data input (D) signal, wherein the eighth AI has a second input coupled to the output of the chopper, and wherein the FVGTN inverse logic signal is also coupled to an input to the sixth AI; a fourth inverter coupling an output of the eighth AI to an input to an L1 latch in the first SRL; and a fifth inverter coupling an output of the sixth AI to an L2 latch in the first SRL, wherein an output of the L2 latch in the first SRL is coupled to an input of the first L1 latch in the second SRL, and wherein the output of the first L1 latch in the second SRL is coupled to an input of a ninth AI via a sixth inverter, and wherein the ninth AI has an input coupled to a B gate not (BGTN) inverse logic signal that controls a release of a B clock at a ZB pin, and wherein an output of the ninth AI is coupled to an input of the seventh AI, and wherein a level-sensitive scan design B clock controller (LSSDB) is input to the seventh AI, wherein the high speed clock leaf clock frequency-divider/splitter controls a speed and phase of output B and C clocks through a use of the BC, CGTN, CSUP, D, FVGTN, LSSDC, OSC, BGTN and LSSDB signals. In this embodiment, the clock splitter may be located at a terminal leaf of a clock tree. While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to a preferred embodiment, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
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1
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10
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11867244
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US20090093900A1-20090409
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Production Moving Line System and Method
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ACCEPTED
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20090325
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20090409
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[]
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G06F1900
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["G06F1900"]
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7599756
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20071004
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20091006
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700
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113000
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93224.0
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PATEL
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RAMESH
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Reeves", "inventor_name_first": "Brad J.", "inventor_city": "Everett", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Bradley", "inventor_name_first": "James S.", "inventor_city": "Arlington", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Irvine", "inventor_name_first": "Richard S.", "inventor_city": "Mukilteo", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "McInelly", "inventor_name_first": "Chris G.", "inventor_city": "Stanwood", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A production moving line system. An illustrative embodiment of the production moving line system includes at least one metallic guide strip and at least one tow vehicle which may be adapted to follow the guide strip. The tow vehicle may include control circuitry and a power source and a wireless transceiver connected to the control circuitry. An assembly fixture cart may be coupled to the tow vehicle. A wireless communication link may be provided between a central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle. A production moving line method is also disclosed.
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1. A production moving line system, comprising: at least one metallic guide strip; at least one tow vehicle adapted to follow said guide strip; said at least one tow vehicle comprises control circuitry and a power source and a wireless transceiver connected to said control circuitry; an assembly fixture cart coupled to said tow vehicle; a central control computer; and a wireless communication link between said central control computer and said wireless transceiver of said tow vehicle. 2. The system of claim 1 further comprising a user interface pendant connected to said control circuitry. 3. The system of claim 1 wherein said power source comprises at least one battery. 4. The system of claim 3 further comprising a battery recharging system connected to said battery. 5. The system of claim 1 further comprising a data input/output device connected to said circuitry. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein said assembly fixture cart comprises a cart base having a plurality of cart wheels, a cart frame carried by said cart base and a cart platform carried by said cart frame. 7. The system of claim 6 wherein said tow vehicle is coupled to said cart base of said assembly fixture cart. 8. The system of claim 1 wherein said tow vehicle comprises a vehicle housing. 9. A production moving line system, comprising: a plurality of production work stations; at least one metallic guide strip extending generally adjacent to said production work stations; at least one tow vehicle adapted to follow said guide strip; said at least one tow vehicle comprises control circuitry having memory, at least one battery connected to said control circuitry, a wireless transceiver connected to said control circuitry, a position sensing mechanism connected to said control circuitry and adapted to sense said guide strip, a drive motor connected to said control circuitry, at least one wheel drivingly engaged by said drive motor and a steering mechanism connected to said control circuitry and coupled to said at least one wheel; an assembly fixture cart coupled to said tow vehicle; a central control computer; and a wireless communication link between said central control computer and said wireless transceiver of said tow vehicle. 10. The system of claim 9 further comprising a user interface pendant connected to said control circuitry. 11. The system of claim 9 further comprising a battery recharging system connected to said battery. 12. The system of claim 9 further comprising a data input/output device connected to said circuitry. 13. The system of claim 9 wherein said assembly fixture cart comprises a cart base having a plurality of cart wheels, a cart frame carried by said cart base and a cart platform carried by said cart frame. 14. The system of claim 13 wherein said tow vehicle is coupled to said cart base of said assembly fixture cart. 15. The system of claim 9 wherein said tow vehicle comprises a vehicle housing. 16. The system of claim 9 wherein said at least one tow vehicle comprises a plurality of tow vehicles and further comprising a wireless communication link between said tow vehicles. 17. A production moving line method, comprising the steps of: providing at least one metallic guide strip; providing at least one tow vehicle having a wireless transceiver in guided contact with said guide strip; coupling an assembly fixture cart to said at least one tow vehicle; providing at least one part on said assembly fixture cart; providing a central control computer; providing a wireless communication link between said central control computer and said wireless transceiver of said tow vehicle; and moving said tow vehicle along said guide strip. 18. The method of claim 17 further comprising connecting a user interface pendant to said tow vehicle and controlling said tow vehicle by operation of said user interface pendant. 19. The method of claim 17 further comprising providing at least one battery, powering said tow vehicle using said at least one battery and recharging said at least one battery during operation of said tow vehicle. 20. The method of claim 17 wherein said at least one tow vehicle comprises a plurality of tow vehicles and further comprising providing a wireless communication link between said plurality of tow vehicles.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Part moving lines may be used in assembly facilities to shuttle parts among multiple work stations. A conventional part moving line may utilize an automated guided vehicle (AGV) on which the part is placed and transported among and between the work stations. However, conventional part moving lines may suffer from any of multiple drawbacks. These may include, for example, breakdown of the entire part moving line in the event that one part of the line breaks down; duplication of tools/fixtures since the tools/fixtures may be empty as they move from an “unload position” (end of the line) to the “load position” (beginning of the line); requirement for a substantial support structure for the lines; difficulty in reconfiguration of the lines; imposition of work space by support rails for the lines; requirement for longer and more expensive curing ovens; lack of ergonomic height adjustments; and a requirement that the lines be designed and built for a maximum production rate. This requirement increases the cost of the line as well as the floor space which is required for the line. Various types of automated guided vehicles (AGVs) exist on the market today. However, AGVs may not be “system linked” and therefore, may act as individual units that do not communicate with each other. Moreover, AGVs may be large and expensive and may not be suitable or capable of precision low speeds which may be required for part-moving lines.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The disclosure is generally directed to a production moving line system. An illustrative embodiment of the production moving line system includes at least one metallic guide strip and at least one tow vehicle which may be adapted to follow the guide strip. The tow vehicle may include control circuitry and a power source and a wireless transceiver connected to the control circuitry. An assembly fixture cart may be coupled to the tow vehicle. A wireless communication link may be provided between a central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle. The disclosure is further generally directed to a production moving line method. An illustrative embodiment of the production moving line method may include the steps of providing at least one metallic guide strip, providing at least one tow vehicle having a wireless transceiver in guided contact with the guide strip, coupling an assembly fixture cart to the at least one tow vehicle, providing at least one part on the assembly fixture cart, providing a central control computer, providing a wireless communication link between the central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle and moving the tow vehicle along the guide strip.
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TECHNICAL FIELD The disclosure relates to production moving line systems and methods. More particularly, the disclosure relates to a production moving line system and method in which multiple line-following tow vehicles are controlled wirelessly by a central computer. BACKGROUND Part moving lines may be used in assembly facilities to shuttle parts among multiple work stations. A conventional part moving line may utilize an automated guided vehicle (AGV) on which the part is placed and transported among and between the work stations. However, conventional part moving lines may suffer from any of multiple drawbacks. These may include, for example, breakdown of the entire part moving line in the event that one part of the line breaks down; duplication of tools/fixtures since the tools/fixtures may be empty as they move from an “unload position” (end of the line) to the “load position” (beginning of the line); requirement for a substantial support structure for the lines; difficulty in reconfiguration of the lines; imposition of work space by support rails for the lines; requirement for longer and more expensive curing ovens; lack of ergonomic height adjustments; and a requirement that the lines be designed and built for a maximum production rate. This requirement increases the cost of the line as well as the floor space which is required for the line. Various types of automated guided vehicles (AGVs) exist on the market today. However, AGVs may not be “system linked” and therefore, may act as individual units that do not communicate with each other. Moreover, AGVs may be large and expensive and may not be suitable or capable of precision low speeds which may be required for part-moving lines. SUMMARY The disclosure is generally directed to a production moving line system. An illustrative embodiment of the production moving line system includes at least one metallic guide strip and at least one tow vehicle which may be adapted to follow the guide strip. The tow vehicle may include control circuitry and a power source and a wireless transceiver connected to the control circuitry. An assembly fixture cart may be coupled to the tow vehicle. A wireless communication link may be provided between a central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle. The disclosure is further generally directed to a production moving line method. An illustrative embodiment of the production moving line method may include the steps of providing at least one metallic guide strip, providing at least one tow vehicle having a wireless transceiver in guided contact with the guide strip, coupling an assembly fixture cart to the at least one tow vehicle, providing at least one part on the assembly fixture cart, providing a central control computer, providing a wireless communication link between the central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle and moving the tow vehicle along the guide strip. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram of an exemplary tow vehicle. FIG. 2 is a partially schematic side view of a tow vehicle towing an assembly fixture cart on which is supported a part. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a production moving line system in an illustrative implementation of the tow vehicles. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary production moving line method. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of an aircraft production and service methodology. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an aircraft. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring initially to FIGS. 1-3, the present disclosure is generally directed to a production moving line system 40 (FIG. 3) in which multiple line-following tow vehicles 1 may be controlled wirelessly by a central computer 44. As will be hereinafter described, each tow vehicle 1 may be adapted to tow an assembly fixture cart 30 (shown in FIG. 2 and in phantom in FIG. 3) which carries a part or parts 36 (FIG. 2) among multiple production work stations 42 in the production moving line system 40. The part or parts 36 may be modified or assembled as part of a production or assembly process. Any number of tow vehicles 1 may be provided in a single production moving line 41 and may be system linked such that the tow vehicles 1 communicate with the central control computer 44. The tow vehicles 1 may also be adapted to communicate with each other. The tow vehicles 1 may move independently of each other and at various speeds depending on the transport requirements of the production moving line system 40. In the event that one tow vehicle 1 breaks down, the remaining tow vehicles 1 may continue transport without interruption in the production moving line 41. As shown in FIG. 1, an exemplary tow vehicle 1 which may be suitable for implementation of the production moving line system 40 is indicated in schematic block diagram form. The tow vehicle 1 may include a vehicle housing 24 (shown in phantom) which may completely or partially enclose the functional components of the tow vehicle 1. The vehicle housing 24 may have a compact design. The tow vehicle 1 may include control circuitry 2 which controls and coordinates the various functions of the tow vehicle 1. The various functional components of the tow vehicle 1 may be electrically connected to the control circuitry 2 such as through electrical connections 8 which may be wiring or direct electrical contacts, for example and without limitation. The control circuitry 2 may have a memory 12 which is adapted to store data. A data input/output device 18 may be connected to the control circuitry 2 to facilitate input of data into and retrieval of data from the memory 12. At least one battery 10 or other power source may be connected to the control circuitry 2 to supply electrical power to the control circuitry 2 and other functional components of the tow vehicle 1. The at least one battery 10 may have sufficient electrical storage capacity to power additional tools and accessories (not shown) connected to the at least one battery 10. A battery recharging system 11 may be connected to the at least one battery 10. The battery recharging system 11 may be adapted to facilitate on-the-fly electrical recharging of the at least one battery 10 during operation of the tow vehicle 1, which will be hereinafter described. A wireless transceiver 16 may be connected to the control circuitry 2. The wireless transceiver 16 may be adapted to facilitate wireless communication (receive and transmit data) between the tow vehicle 1 and the central control computer 44 (FIG. 3) in the production moving line system 40. The wireless transceiver 16 may also be adapted to facilitate wireless communication between the tow vehicle 1 and other tow vehicles 1 in the production moving line 41. A drive motor 3 may be connected to the control circuitry 2. A vehicle wheel or wheels 5 may be drivingly engaged by the drive motor 3 through a mechanical coupling 6 which is suitable for the purpose. The drive motor 3 may be a variable-speed electric drive motor, for example and without limitation, and may have the capability of towing an assembly fixture cart 30 weighing at least 500 pounds at precise speeds of from 1 inch per minute to up to 3,000 inches per minute, for example and without limitation. A steering mechanism 4 may be connected to the control circuitry 2 and coupled to the vehicle wheels 5 through a mechanical coupling 7 which enables the steering mechanism 4 to steer the vehicle wheels 5. A track sensing mechanism 14 may be connected to the control circuitry 2. The track sensing mechanism 14 may be adapted to follow a metallic floor-mounted guide strip 46 (FIG. 3) and provide data input to the control circuitry 3 which enables the steering mechanism 4 to steer the vehicle wheels 5 along the guide strip 46 of the production moving line system 41. The track sensing mechanism 14 may also be adapted to provide data input to the control circuitry 3 which enables the control circuitry 3 to terminate operation of the drive motor 3 and thus, rotation of the wheel or wheels 5 in the event that the tow vehicle 1 inadvertently leaves the guide strip 46. The control circuitry 2 may be adapted to monitor the position of the tow vehicle 1 with respect to other tow vehicles 1 moving in the production moving line 41, such as through input from the wireless transceiver 16, for example. A user interface pendant 20 may be hard-wired to the control circuitry 2 such as through a pendant cord 21, for example. The user interface pendant 20 may be adapted to manually override commands which are transmitted from the central control computer 44 to the control circuitry 2 through the wireless transceiver 16. The guide strip 46 of the production moving line system 40 may be a metallic passive element guide strip (not connected to a power source), in which case the track sensing mechanism 14 of each tow vehicle 1 may be adapted to sense the metallic properties of the guide strip 46. As shown in FIG. 3, the guide strip 46 may be attached to a floor 38 in a production or assembly facility. The guide strip 46 may be a strip of sheet metal, for example, and may be attached to the floor 38 using adhesive such as tape and/or glue and/or may be attached to the floor 38 using fasteners. In the example of the production moving line system 40 shown in FIG. 3, the guide strip 46 is configured to form a loop which extends generally among and adjacent to a first production work station 42a, a second production work station 42b, a third production work station 42c and a fourth production work station 42d. The guide strip 46 may be readily reshaped, lengthened, shortened or moved, as shown by the alternative pathways 46a, 46b (shown in phantom) of the guide strip 46. The central control computer 44 may communicate with the wireless transceiver 16 (FIG. 1) of each tow vehicle 1 through a wireless communication link 48. The central control computer 44 may be programmed to control and adjust the speed of each tow vehicle 1 in order to keep the production moving line system 40 synchronized in relation to all tow vehicles 1 in the production moving line 41. The wireless transceivers 16 of the tow vehicles 1 may communicate with each other through a wireless communication link 50. Therefore, the speed of each tow vehicle 1 may be additionally adjusted depending on the proximity of each tow vehicle 1 to the next tow vehicle 1 on the production moving line 41, responsive to operation of the position sensing mechanism 99 (FIG. 1) of the tow vehicle 1. In implementation of the production moving line system 40, each tow vehicle 1 may be adapted to tow an assembly fixture cart 30 (shown in phantom in FIG. 3) on which may be supported a part 36 or parts 36 (FIG. 2). An exemplary assembly fixture cart 30 is shown in FIG. 2 and may include a cart base 31 having multiple cart wheels 32. The cart wheels 32 may be castor-type wheels, for example and without limitation. A cart frame 33 may extend from the cart base 31. A cart platform 34 may be provided on the cart frame 33. The part 36 which is to be transported may be supported by the cart platform 34. The tow vehicle 1 may be situated between cart base 31 of the assembly fixture cart 30 and the floor 38 of the production or assembly facility. The vehicle housing 24 of the tow vehicle 1 may be coupled to the cart base 31 using a suitable coupling mechanism 26 such as clamps, for example and without limitation. The guide strip 46 may be attached to the floor 38 of the production or assembly facility and configured in any desired configuration. The guide strip 46 may extend among or adjacent to the production work stations 42 according to the order in which the production work stations 42 sequentially implement the production or assembly process, such as by modifying and/or assembling the part or parts 36 on each assembly fixture cart 30, for example and without limitation. Multiple tow vehicles 1, each of which may be coupled to an assembly fixture cart 30, may be placed on the guide strip 46. The cart wheels 32 (FIG. 2) of each assembly fixture cart 30 and the vehicle wheels 5 (FIG. 2) of each tow vehicle 1 may rest on the floor 38 on opposite sides of the guide strip 46. At least one part 36 (FIG. 2) may be placed on each assembly fixture cart 30. Throughout sequential transport of the parts 36 among the production work stations 42, the tow vehicles 1 may be operated to follow the guide strip 46 of the production moving line 41 in the direction indicated by the arrows in FIG. 3. Therefore, each assembly fixture cart 30, towed by a tow vehicle 1, may sequentially transport each part 36 to the first production work station 42a, the second production work station 42b, the third production work station 42c and the fourth production work station 42d, respectively. When the tow vehicle 1 which tows an assembly fixture cart 30 having a particular part or parts 36 arrives at each production work station 42, the tow vehicle 1, responsive to commands from the central control computer 44, may stop to facilitate retrieval of the part 36 from the assembly fixture cart 30. At the production work stations 42, the part 36 may be progressively modified and/or assembled throughout the production or assembly process. After modification and/or assembly at each production work station 42, the part 36 may be replaced on the assembly fixture cart 30. The tow vehicle 1 may then tow the assembly fixture cart 30 and the part 36 which is carried thereon to the next production work station 42 in the production or assembly sequence. As each tow vehicle 1 travels along the guide strip 46, the battery recharging system 11 (FIG. 1) may continually recharge the at least one battery 10. The central control computer 44 may transmit wireless commands to each of the tow vehicles 1 via the wireless communication link 48. These wireless commands may relate to starting and stopping of the tow vehicles 1 at each production work station 42 or between the production work stations 42, as well as the speed of the tow vehicles 1. The commands may include commands for one or more of the tow vehicles 1 to switch guide strips 46, for example and without limitation. The wireless commands which are transmitted from the central control computer 44 to each of the tow vehicles 1 may enable the production moving line system 40 to stay synchronized and maintain a controlled production or assembly rate. The position sensing mechanism 99 (FIG. 1) may continually sense the position of each tow vehicle 1 along the guide strip 46 and relay this position of the tow vehicle 1 to the control circuitry 2. Via the wireless transceiver 16 and wireless communication link 48, the control circuitry 2 may in turn transmit position-indicating data to the central control computer 44. In turn, based on the positions of the tow vehicles 1 along the guide strip 46, the central control computer 44 may determine the distance between consecutive tow vehicles 1 and may control or adjust this distance by controlling the operational speed of the drive motor 3 (FIG. 1) of each tow vehicle 1 via the wireless communication link 48. Additionally or alternatively, the control circuitry 2 of each tow vehicle 1 may determine the distance between that tow vehicle 1 and the adjacent front or rear tow vehicle 1 via the wireless communication link 50. The control circuitry 2 of the tow vehicle 1 may then relay this data via the wireless communication link 48 to the central control computer 44, which may adjust the speed of the tow vehicles 1 accordingly in order to achieve the desired distance between the consecutive tow vehicles 1. In the event that a tow vehicle 1 inadvertently leaves the guide strip 46, the track sensing mechanism 14 may notify the control circuitry 2, which may then terminate operation of the drive motor 3 of the tow vehicle 1. In addition to control of each tow vehicle 1 by operation of the central control computer 44 via the wireless communication link 48, the tow vehicles 1 may also be manually controlled using the handheld user interface pendant 20 (FIGS. 1 and 3). This may facilitate driving of a tow vehicle 1 off the guide strip 46 in order to make changes to the production moving line 41 such as, for example and without limitation, adding or removing assembly fixture carts 30 to or from, respectively, the production moving line 41; reconfiguring the production moving line 41 for production rates; and moving the production moving line 41 to a different location. Referring next to FIG. 4, a flow diagram 400 which illustrates an exemplary production moving line method is shown. In block 402, at least one metallic guide strip is provided. In block 404, at least one tow vehicle having a wireless transceiver is provided in guided contact with the guide strip. In block 406, an assembly fixture cart is coupled to the tow vehicle. In block 408, at least one part is provided on the assembly fixture cart. In block 410, a central control computer is provided. In block 412, a wireless communication link is provided between the central control computer and the wireless transceiver of the tow vehicle. In block 414, the tow vehicle is moved along the guide strip. Referring next to FIGS. 5 and 6, embodiments of the disclosure may be used in the context of an aircraft manufacturing and service method 78 as shown in FIG. 5 and an aircraft 94 as shown in FIG. 6. During pre-production, exemplary method 78 may include specification and design 80 of the aircraft 94 and material procurement 82. During production, component and subassembly manufacturing 84 and system integration 86 of the aircraft 94 takes place. Thereafter, the aircraft 94 may go through certification and delivery 88 in order to be placed in service 90. While in service by a customer, the aircraft 94 is scheduled for routine maintenance and service 92 (which may also include modification, reconfiguration, refurbishment, and so on). Each of the processes of method 78 may be performed or carried out by a system integrator, a third party, and/or an operator (e.g., a customer). For the purposes of this description, a system integrator may include without limitation any number of aircraft manufacturers and major-system subcontractors; a third party may include without limitation any number of vendors, subcontractors, and suppliers; and an operator may be an airline, leasing company, military entity, service organization, and so on. As shown in FIG. 6, the aircraft 94 produced by exemplary method 78 may include an airframe 98 with a plurality of systems 96 and an interior 100. Examples of high-level systems 96 include one or more of a propulsion system 102, an electrical system 104, a hydraulic system 106, and an environmental system 108. Any number of other systems may be included. Although an aerospace example is shown, the principles of the invention may be applied to other industries, such as the automotive industry. The apparatus embodied herein may be employed during any one or more of the stages of the production and service method 78. For example, components or subassemblies corresponding to production process 84 may be fabricated or manufactured in a manner similar to components or subassemblies produced while the aircraft 94 is in service. Also, one or more apparatus embodiments may be utilized during the production stages 84 and 86, for example, by substantially expediting assembly of or reducing the cost of an aircraft 94. Similarly, one or more apparatus embodiments may be utilized while the aircraft 94 is in service, for example and without limitation, to maintenance and service 92. Although the embodiments of this disclosure have been described with respect to certain exemplary embodiments, it is to be understood that the specific embodiments are for purposes of illustration and not limitation, as other variations will occur to those of skill in the art.
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G
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19
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00
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11699996
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US20070132775A1-20070614
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Buffer management in vector graphics hardware
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ACCEPTED
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20070531
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20070614
|
[]
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G06F1210
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["G06F1210"]
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8390634
|
20070131
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20130305
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345
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537000
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74558.0
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MCDOWELL, JR
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MAURICE
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Tuomi", "inventor_name_first": "Mika", "inventor_city": "", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A graphics processor or a graphics block for use in a processor includes a type buffer used for determining if a currently processed pixel requires further processing. Each pixel has a number of sub-pixels and each sub-pixel line includes at least one counter that is stored in an edge buffer. A limited edge buffer that can store edge buffer values in a limited range can be employed. Each buffer can include information regarding the whole screen or a portion of thereof. The edge buffer also can be an external or internal buffer, and when implemented internally, the graphics processor or graphics block need not employ a bi-directional bus.
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1. A processor unit for processing vector graphics primitives, the processor unit comprising: counters configured to store a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point for a pixel; a first internal buffer configured to store at least one indicator bit value for each pixel; and determination logic configured to determine whether to retrieve and to retrieve the counter value from a memory based on the indicator bit values. 2. The processor unit of claim 1, wherein the processor unit is further configured to clear said memory by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 3. The processor unit of claim 1, the processor unit further comprising a bus, wherein said processor is configured to receive instructions and data from said bus 4. The processor unit of claim 3, wherein in said bus is a unidirectional bus. 5. The processor unit of claim 1, further comprising: a second internal buffer configured to store limited values for each counter, wherein the determination logic is further configured to determine whether to retrieve the limited counter values from the second buffer. 6. The processor unit of claim 5, wherein the processor unit is further configured to clear said memory and said second internal buffer by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 7. The processor unit of claim 5, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of the counter has not changed. 8. The processor unit of claim 5, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of the counter has to be retrieved from an external memory. 9. The processor unit of claim 5, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include values for indicating a range of the second buffer from which the limited value of each counter is retrieved. 10. The processor unit of claim 1, wherein the memory is an external memory configured to store counter values for each pixel to be processed. 11. The processor unit of claim 1, wherein the memory is an internal memory configured to store counter values for each pixel to be processed. 12. The processor unit of claim 1, wherein a memory is configured to store complete counter values for each sub-pixel having a counter. 13. The processor unit of claim 1, wherein the processor unit further comprises: an internal memory arranged to store a portion of the complete counter values. 14. The processor unit of claim 13, wherein the portion is a scan line. 15. The processor unit of claim 13, wherein the portion is a tile. 16. A processor unit for processing vector graphics primitives, the processor unit comprising: an internal memory configured to store a portion of vector graphics primitives; and wherein said portion of vector graphics primitives is a tile corresponding to a portion of the memory wherein said vector graphics primitives are stored. 17. The processor unit of claim 16, wherein the processor unit further comprising: counters configured to store a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point for a pixel. 18. A handheld device, comprising: a display; a processing unit for processing vector graphics primitives, and including: counters configured to store a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point for a pixel, a first internal buffer configured to store at least one indicator bit value for each pixel, a memory for storing data, and determination logic configured to determine whether to retrieve and to retrieve the counter value from a memory based on the indicator bit values. 19. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the handheld device is further configured to clear said memory by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 20. The handheld device of claim 18, the handheld device further comprising a bus, wherein said processing unit is configured to receive instructions and data from said bus 21. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein in said bus is a unidirectional bus. 22. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the processing unit further comprises: a second internal buffer configured to store limited values for each counter, wherein the determination logic is further configured to determine whether to retrieve the limited counter values from the second buffer. 23. The handheld device of claim 22, wherein the handheld device is further configured to clear said memory and said second internal buffer by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 24. The handheld device of claim 22, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of the counter has not changed. 25. The handheld device of claim 22, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of the counter has to be retrieved from an external memory. 26. The handheld device of claim 22, wherein the indicator bits of the first buffer include values for indicating a range of the second buffer from which the limited value of each counter is retrieved. 27. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the memory is an external memory configured to store counter values for each pixel to be processed. 28. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the memory is an internal memory configured to store counter values for each pixel to be processed. 29. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein a memory is configured to store complete counter values for each sub-pixel having a counter. 30. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the processor unit further comprises: an internal memory arranged to store a portion of the complete counter values. 31. The handheld device of claim 30, wherein the portion is a scan line. 32. The handheld device of claim 30, wherein the portion is a tile. 33. The handheld device of claim 18, wherein the device comprises a handheld device. 34. An apparatus for processing vector graphics primitives, the apparatus comprising: counters configured to store a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point for a pixel; a first internal buffer configured to store at least one indicator bit value for each pixel; and determination logic configured to determine whether to retrieve the counter value from a memory based on the indicator bit values, wherein the apparatus is further configured to clear said memory by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 35. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein the apparatus further comprising a second internal buffer configured to store limited values for each counter, wherein the determination logic is further configured to determine whether to retrieve the limited counter values from the second buffer and wherein the apparatus is further configured to clear said memory and said second internal buffer by resetting said indicator bit values from said first internal buffer. 36. The apparatus of claim 34, where in the apparatus is further comprising a unidirectional bus for receiving instructions.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to buffer management, and more particularly to buffer management in vector graphics hardware. 2. Discussion of the Background In recent years, vector graphics systems and algorithms have been developed for achieving robust and exact visualization, and have been employed in demanding software applications, such as in computer aided design, graphics applications, and the like. The benefit of the employing vector graphics, include scalability without the loss of graphics quality. The vector in a drawing or a plan typically includes a starting point, a direction, and a length or an ending point. Thus, a line can be represented using vector graphics with reduced information, as compared to having to indicate each pixel of the line, as with other methods. Furthermore, the vector need not be a direct line, as curves, and the like, also can be employed, and including additional information, for example, for defining a curve. The corresponding format employed during the execution of a corresponding graphical application, the file format for storing the corresponding graphical information, the fundamentals of vector graphics and the corresponding software applications employed, and the like, are well known and will not be described in detail herein. In addition, certain graphics standards have been developed, such the OpenVG 1.0 standard by Khronos group of Jul. 28, 2005, incorporated by reference herein, and which includes an application programming interface (API) for hardware accelerated two-dimensional vector and raster graphics applications. The standard provides a device independent and vendor-neutral interface for sophisticated two-dimensional graphical applications, while allowing device manufacturers to provide hardware acceleration on devices ranging from wrist watches, to full microprocessor-based desktop systems, to server machines, and the like. The standard provides an interface for a set of functions that can be implemented by hardware and/or software drivers for rasterization, filling of polygons, and the like. In the standard, two different fill rules, a non-zero and an odd/even rule, are implemented, and are described at page 72 of the standard. The basic principle of such filling technique employs the fact that each edge of a polygon has a direction, such that when the filling procedure arrives at the edge from the left, the filling procedure detects if the edge is going up or down. If the edge is going upwards, a counter is increased, and if the edge is going downwards, the counter is decreased. The value of the counter is stored in a buffer for each pixel on the screen. However, the pixels are further divided into sub-pixels, wherein the counter values must be stored for each line of each sub-pixel, requiring even larger buffers. The above technique presents a problem for compact hardware implementations, and the like, and which may limit the buffer size, for example, due to manufacturing considerations, cost considerations, and the like. For example, if a mobile device has a display resolution of 176×208 pixels, and each pixel is divided into 16×16 sub-pixels, and an 8-bit counter is employed for each line, a buffer of 585728 bytes is needed. However, a buffer of such size may not be practical for integration on a graphics hardware accelerator of such a mobile device. Furthermore, merely adding more memory to the graphics hardware accelerator may not be practical, for example, due to the common evolvement in manufacturing processes, a need for bigger graphics resolutions, and the like. One solution is to use the main memory of the device for implementing the above-noted buffer. However, such a solution results in increased traffic on limited bandwidth buses between the graphics accelerator and the main memory.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Therefore, there is a need for decreasing traffic on buses between a main memory, and a graphics accelerator, as described above. The above and other problems are addressed by the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, which provide an exemplary hardware implemented vector graphics solution. The exemplary embodiments can be employed with various graphical applications, including computer graphics applications, and the like, and in particular handheld device applications, low computing capacity device applications, memory limited device applications, and the like. Accordingly, in exemplary embodiments of the present invention there are provided a graphics processor, a graphics processing unit, a functional block for a graphics processor, a graphics device, and the like, for processing vector graphics primitives, and the like. The exemplary embodiments can include counters for storing a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point. The counter values are stored in a memory that can be an internal memory of the graphics processor or an external memory, for example, a conventional memory of a device. The exemplary embodiments further can include a bus for receiving instructions and primitives. If the memory is an internal memory, the bus is unidirectional, and if the memory is external, the bus is bidirectional for transmitting requests to the memory. Accordingly, the memory is used for storing the values of each of the counters. The exemplary embodiments further can include a first internal buffer arranged to store at least one indicator bit value for each pixel. Typically, the internal buffer has values having a length of one or two bits. However, different bit lengths can be employed, as needed. The exemplary embodiments further can include determination logic arranged to determine whether or not to retrieve a counter value from the memory based on the indicator bit values. The indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of a counter has not changed. Furthermore, the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of a counter has to be retrieved from the memory, which can be internal or external, depending on a given implementation, as described above. The exemplary embodiments can include a second internal buffer arranged to store limited values for each counter, and the determination logic can be further arranged to determine whether or not to retrieve the counter value from the second buffer. The indicator bits of the first buffer further can include values for indicating a range of the second buffer from which the limited value of each counter can be retrieved. In an exemplary embodiment, polygons can be processed in tiles, wherein, advantageously, the internal memories employed need not be allocated for the whole screen, but rather a portion thereof. The tile size can be, for example, 32×32 pixels. In further exemplary embodiments such a size can be chosen depending on a given implementation, and various other hardware architectures can be employed for the internal memory, the internal buffers, and the like, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). Advantageously, the exemplary embodiments can be employed to reduce traffic in a bus between a graphics accelerator and an external main memory, by employing the internal memory in the graphics processor, and which is faster than the external main memory that is addressed over the bus. As the exemplary embodiments include the counter information in the first or the second buffers internal to the graphics processor, advantageously, the main memory need not be addressed for every pixel, resulting in a solution that is beneficial and faster than conventional approaches to solving the above-noted problem. Furthermore, with the exemplary embodiments, the first buffer and the second buffer can be reduced in size, advantageously, allowing integration thereof in a graphics processor, and resulting in minimizing of manufacturing costs. Still other aspects, features, and advantages of the present invention are readily apparent from the following detailed description, by illustrating a number of exemplary embodiments and implementations, including the best mode contemplated for carrying out the present invention. The present invention is also capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details can be modified in various respects, all without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the drawings and descriptions are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED DOCUMENTS The present invention is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/272,867 of TUOMI, entitled “BUFFER MANAGEMENT IN VECTOR GRAPHICS HARDWARE,” filed Nov. 15, 2005, and is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/272,866 of TUOMI, entitled “VECTOR GRAPHICS ANTI-ALIASING,” filed Nov. 15, 2005, the entire disclosures of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to buffer management, and more particularly to buffer management in vector graphics hardware. 2. Discussion of the Background In recent years, vector graphics systems and algorithms have been developed for achieving robust and exact visualization, and have been employed in demanding software applications, such as in computer aided design, graphics applications, and the like. The benefit of the employing vector graphics, include scalability without the loss of graphics quality. The vector in a drawing or a plan typically includes a starting point, a direction, and a length or an ending point. Thus, a line can be represented using vector graphics with reduced information, as compared to having to indicate each pixel of the line, as with other methods. Furthermore, the vector need not be a direct line, as curves, and the like, also can be employed, and including additional information, for example, for defining a curve. The corresponding format employed during the execution of a corresponding graphical application, the file format for storing the corresponding graphical information, the fundamentals of vector graphics and the corresponding software applications employed, and the like, are well known and will not be described in detail herein. In addition, certain graphics standards have been developed, such the OpenVG 1.0 standard by Khronos group of Jul. 28, 2005, incorporated by reference herein, and which includes an application programming interface (API) for hardware accelerated two-dimensional vector and raster graphics applications. The standard provides a device independent and vendor-neutral interface for sophisticated two-dimensional graphical applications, while allowing device manufacturers to provide hardware acceleration on devices ranging from wrist watches, to full microprocessor-based desktop systems, to server machines, and the like. The standard provides an interface for a set of functions that can be implemented by hardware and/or software drivers for rasterization, filling of polygons, and the like. In the standard, two different fill rules, a non-zero and an odd/even rule, are implemented, and are described at page 72 of the standard. The basic principle of such filling technique employs the fact that each edge of a polygon has a direction, such that when the filling procedure arrives at the edge from the left, the filling procedure detects if the edge is going up or down. If the edge is going upwards, a counter is increased, and if the edge is going downwards, the counter is decreased. The value of the counter is stored in a buffer for each pixel on the screen. However, the pixels are further divided into sub-pixels, wherein the counter values must be stored for each line of each sub-pixel, requiring even larger buffers. The above technique presents a problem for compact hardware implementations, and the like, and which may limit the buffer size, for example, due to manufacturing considerations, cost considerations, and the like. For example, if a mobile device has a display resolution of 176×208 pixels, and each pixel is divided into 16×16 sub-pixels, and an 8-bit counter is employed for each line, a buffer of 585728 bytes is needed. However, a buffer of such size may not be practical for integration on a graphics hardware accelerator of such a mobile device. Furthermore, merely adding more memory to the graphics hardware accelerator may not be practical, for example, due to the common evolvement in manufacturing processes, a need for bigger graphics resolutions, and the like. One solution is to use the main memory of the device for implementing the above-noted buffer. However, such a solution results in increased traffic on limited bandwidth buses between the graphics accelerator and the main memory. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Therefore, there is a need for decreasing traffic on buses between a main memory, and a graphics accelerator, as described above. The above and other problems are addressed by the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, which provide an exemplary hardware implemented vector graphics solution. The exemplary embodiments can be employed with various graphical applications, including computer graphics applications, and the like, and in particular handheld device applications, low computing capacity device applications, memory limited device applications, and the like. Accordingly, in exemplary embodiments of the present invention there are provided a graphics processor, a graphics processing unit, a functional block for a graphics processor, a graphics device, and the like, for processing vector graphics primitives, and the like. The exemplary embodiments can include counters for storing a value indicating a current state of a fill rule for each of a sub-pixel sampling point. The counter values are stored in a memory that can be an internal memory of the graphics processor or an external memory, for example, a conventional memory of a device. The exemplary embodiments further can include a bus for receiving instructions and primitives. If the memory is an internal memory, the bus is unidirectional, and if the memory is external, the bus is bidirectional for transmitting requests to the memory. Accordingly, the memory is used for storing the values of each of the counters. The exemplary embodiments further can include a first internal buffer arranged to store at least one indicator bit value for each pixel. Typically, the internal buffer has values having a length of one or two bits. However, different bit lengths can be employed, as needed. The exemplary embodiments further can include determination logic arranged to determine whether or not to retrieve a counter value from the memory based on the indicator bit values. The indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of a counter has not changed. Furthermore, the indicator bits of the first buffer include a value for indicating that a value of a counter has to be retrieved from the memory, which can be internal or external, depending on a given implementation, as described above. The exemplary embodiments can include a second internal buffer arranged to store limited values for each counter, and the determination logic can be further arranged to determine whether or not to retrieve the counter value from the second buffer. The indicator bits of the first buffer further can include values for indicating a range of the second buffer from which the limited value of each counter can be retrieved. In an exemplary embodiment, polygons can be processed in tiles, wherein, advantageously, the internal memories employed need not be allocated for the whole screen, but rather a portion thereof. The tile size can be, for example, 32×32 pixels. In further exemplary embodiments such a size can be chosen depending on a given implementation, and various other hardware architectures can be employed for the internal memory, the internal buffers, and the like, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). Advantageously, the exemplary embodiments can be employed to reduce traffic in a bus between a graphics accelerator and an external main memory, by employing the internal memory in the graphics processor, and which is faster than the external main memory that is addressed over the bus. As the exemplary embodiments include the counter information in the first or the second buffers internal to the graphics processor, advantageously, the main memory need not be addressed for every pixel, resulting in a solution that is beneficial and faster than conventional approaches to solving the above-noted problem. Furthermore, with the exemplary embodiments, the first buffer and the second buffer can be reduced in size, advantageously, allowing integration thereof in a graphics processor, and resulting in minimizing of manufacturing costs. Still other aspects, features, and advantages of the present invention are readily apparent from the following detailed description, by illustrating a number of exemplary embodiments and implementations, including the best mode contemplated for carrying out the present invention. The present invention is also capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details can be modified in various respects, all without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the drawings and descriptions are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The embodiments of the present invention are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary graphical device, according to the present invention; and FIG. 2 illustrates a further exemplary graphical device, according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts throughout the several views, and more particularly to FIGS. 1 and 2 thereof, there are illustrated exemplary graphical devices, according to exemplary embodiments. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s), the bit values and data type lengths employed in the exemplary embodiments are for exemplary purposes, and in further exemplary embodiments can be selected, for example, depending on the overall design of the corresponding graphics module, and the like. In an exemplary embodiment, the exemplary graphics module can be part of a graphics processor unit, which can be a part of a graphics card, and the like. In further exemplary embodiments, for example, such in embedded system applications, and the like, the graphics processor unit can include further functionality for producing graphics, and the like. Thus, a graphics processor unit according to further exemplary embodiments can include further functionality in addition to the functionality of the exemplary embodiments. In FIG. 1, the exemplary graphical device 10 can include, for example, a mobile telephone, a video graphics card, and the like, and, thus, can include further components that need not be described with respect to the exemplary embodiments, but which can be employed for a given application. The exemplary embodiments, for example, can be implemented in a graphics processor unit 11, and the like, and which can include other functionality 15 that need not be described with respect to the exemplary embodiments, but which can be configured for a given application. The exemplary embodiments can be implemented via logic 12 (e.g., configured to determine whether or not to retrieve and to retrieve counter value from a memory based on indicator bit values), and internal buffers 13 and 14. Furthermore, an external memory 16 connected via a bus 17 can be employed, as shown in FIG. 1. However, the external memory 16 need not be employed, for example, if the exemplary embodiments are implemented in an internal memory of a graphics processor. If the external memory 16 is employed, a bi-directional bus 17 can be provided, as shown in FIG. 1. Otherwise, a unidirectional bus can be employed. In addition, other components in the graphics processing unit 11 may employ a bi-directional bus or unidirectional bus, as needed. The exemplary embodiments are based on an exemplary architecture, which can include three different memory areas that are employed for storing the information for producing a graphical image. The first memory area, which is referred to as an edge buffer 25, can include the complete information for the previously described filling operation. Each pixel includes sub-pixels that typically have a sampling point on each sub-pixel line. Thus, the allocated memory depends on the chosen resolution for each corresponding parameter. For example, for an actual screen resolution of 176×208 pixels, as is common for current mobile phone applications, and the like, each pixel is divided into 16×16 sub-pixels, with each sub-pixel line employing a corresponding 8-bit counter, resulting in a memory allocation of 585,728 bytes for the corresponding counters. The counters are used in the above-noted filling technique, and are employed because the complete information may not be available. The corresponding 585,728 bytes of memory can be configured as an internal or an external memory. However, it may not possible to manufacture such a memory as an internal memory, for example, because of manufacturing costs, and the like, and in which case an external memory can be employed and accessed with a bi-directional bus for requesting a value for each counter value when necessary, as shown in FIG. 1. The two other memories according to the exemplary embodiments include internal buffers 13 and 14, wherein the first internal buffer 13 can be configured as a type buffer 23, and the second internal buffer 14 can be configured as a limited edge buffer 24, for example, when there are no changes in filling rules for each pixel or sub-pixel. Thus, with the exemplary embodiments, advantageously, requests to the external memory can be avoided, minimized, and the like. In an exemplary embodiment, the first internal buffer 13 can be configured to have a resolution of two bits for each pixel. Thus, the corresponding memory allocation employed is 176×208/4 bytes, which equals 9,152 bytes, and which is considerably less than that needed for implementing a complete edge buffer 25. The exemplary values for the type buffer 23 can include and indicate, for example: 00=No information 01=Limited edge buffer, range −1 . . 2 10=Limited edge buffer, range −2 . . 1 11=edge buffer in the external memory The exemplary values indicate from where the filling information for each pixel can be retrieved. For example, a value of 00 can indicate that there is no information available for the current pixels, which means that the state of the filling rule does not change on a current pixel. Thus, no further processing need be performed, as all of the counters have the same values as in the previous pixel. Values 01 and 10 can be used to indicate that information is stored in the second internal buffer 14, which can be a limited edge buffer 24. The significance of the corresponding ranges is further described below with respect to the second internal buffer 14. The value 11 indicates that the counter value cannot be stored in the limited edge buffer 24, but rather can be retrieved from the complete edge buffer 25. According to the exemplary embodiments, the first internal buffer 13 is processed first. Thus, to clear the buffers, each value in the first internal buffer 13 can be set to 00. While computing the edge information, the first internal buffer 13 can be modified, for example, only when information is to be stored to the other buffers. Thus, outdated information stored into other buffers is not accessed, when the value of the type buffer 23 is set to 00. As the counters are assigned for each line of sub-pixels, the second internal buffer 14 includes more information, because there are 16 counters for each pixel. In an exemplary embodiment, the information in the second internal buffer 14 also has a length of two bits, but it is assigned for each sub-pixel sampling point. Thus, each pixel has 32-bits of information, for an implementation employing a 16×16 resolution. Advantageously, a 32-bit length can be covered with a single double word. However, in further exemplary embodiments, any suitable length, for example, depending on a given application can be employed, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). In the current example, the second internal buffer 14 employs 146,432 bytes, and which is considerably less than that needed for the complete information. With the exemplary embodiments, as two bits of information can be employed for the values 01 and 10, four different numbers can be represented. In addition, as the information can be signed, the possibilities for the values 01 and 10 can include − . . +2, and −2 . . +1, respectively. The selection of such a range can be indicated in the type buffer 23, wherein in most cases, such a range is sufficient for covering the changes within one pixel, advantageously, reducing accesses to the complete edge buffer 25. In an exemplary embodiment, the range can be different for different pixels, but within one pixel a single range can be applied. Thus, if either of the ranges is not acceptable, the type buffer 23 can be set to a value indicating that the counter value can be retrieved from the complete edge buffer 25. According to the exemplary embodiments, data lengths can vary depending on a given application. However, if the type buffer 23, which is the first internal buffer 13, has a data length of one bit, such implementation need not employ the second internal buffer 14. In this case, the type buffer 23 need only indicate if the counter value has to be retrieved from an edge buffer that is stored in the external memory 16. Such implementation is possible, but is not as efficient as the implementation of the example described above. However, such implementation may be employed and may be desirable, for example, if it is not possible to provide sufficient internal memory. In addition, the memory demand for the one-bit type buffer 23 implementation is one half that of the two-bit implementation. In FIG. 2, the exemplary graphics device 20 can include a graphics processing unit 21. In an exemplary embodiment, the screen can be processed in tiles, wherein, advantageously, the corresponding memory and internal buffers need not be allocated for the whole screen resolution. If the memory is an external memory, it can be allocated for the whole screen. Advantageously, with the tiled implementation, the corresponding memory can be an internal memory, due to a reduced need for memory size. Such an internal memory can be used for storing the complete edge buffer 25 for the whole tile. For example, if a 32×32 pixel tile is used, there can be employed 16,384 bytes for the complete edge buffer 25. If the type buffer 23, which is the first internal buffer 13, has 2-bit values, there can be employed 256 bytes for the type buffer 23. If the limited edge buffer 24, which is the second internal buffer 14, is employed and has 2-bit values for each sub-pixel line, there can be employed 4,096 bytes for the limited edge buffer 24. If the limited edge buffer 24 is not employed and the type buffer 23 has 1-bit values, the type buffer 23 need only employ 128 bytes. Advantageously, the memory employed can be adjusted by choosing the tile size without losing the resolution of the values in the buffers. When the type buffer 23, the edge buffer 25, and possibly the limited edge buffer 24 are stored internal to the graphics processing unit 21, the bus 27 can be configured as a unidirectional bus. The bus 27 can configured for receiving instructions and data from other components 28, such as CPU, main memory, and the like. The logic 22 and the other functionality 26 can function as in the exemplary embodiments of FIG. 1. In addition to tiles, in further exemplary embodiments, the screen can be divided into parts or in other ways, can by processed by scan lines, and the like, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). Although the exemplary embodiments are described in terms of implementation as part of a graphics processor unit, the exemplary embodiments can be implemented as a graphics block included in any suitable processor unit, and the like, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). The novel aspects of the exemplary embodiments include the logic 22, the type buffer 23, and the edge buffer 25, but may further include the limited edge buffer 24, and the like. The remaining components, for example, such as the bus 27, and the like, can depend on the needs of a given host processor. Advantageously, the exemplary embodiments need not employ a bi-directional bus, even though busses typically are bidirectional in general-purpose processors, graphics processors, and the like. In the tiled exemplary embodiment, the processor unit or graphics block 21 can be configured to process the screen tile by tile. Once a tile is processed, it need not be further employed and can be discarded. Advantageously, the respective tile memory can be re-used by clearing the type buffer 23. As only the data related to the currently processed tile is known, in an exemplary embodiment, appropriate rules can be employed, for example, for controlling the information related to adjacent tiles, and the like. For example, in a typical drawing process, operating from left to right, a currently processed tile can employ information from the left neighbor tile, and may pass information to the right neighbor tile. In an exemplary embodiment, the processing of the complete image can be started from the left. Thus, the first case to be handled is a situation wherein a polygon is not completely in view, but rather is partially out on the left side. In this situation, the portion of the edge exceeding the left border is forced to the left border. If the whole edge is outside the leftmost tile, the complete edge can be forced to the left border of the tile. When the edge is forced to the left border, each of the counters can be changed to produce an image rendered correctly in the visible part of the polygon. Without such forcing, some of the counters would not be changed and this would cause a situation, wherein a part of the pixel would be interpreted as being within the polygon, while another part of the pixel would be interpreted as being outside the polygon. Since the fill rule works cumulatively, all of the counter values in the same horizontal line before the currently processed counter value may need to be known. Thus, the values outside the image can be computed in the left border. The leftmost border can be computed in a similar manner, even if the tiled embodiment is not employed. When the first tile has been processed, the data affecting the second tile can be transferred to the second tile, in various different ways, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). For example, counters can be employed for passing the values of the sub-pixel counters to the next tile. However, if an edge crosses a sub-pixel so that it is not considered to be within the pixel, the result will not be correct in the next pixel, if this is not taken into account. Thus, when the tile is not the leftmost tile, the edges also can be computed one pixel to the left from the tile currently being processed. In this case, the edges are not forced on the left border, as with the leftmost tile. Similarly, the corresponding information is transferred to the next tile, until the rightmost tile is reached. In the rightmost tile, the information needs to be received from the previous tile, as previously described. However, such information need not be transferred further, as the rest of the edges are out of view. When the rightmost tile has been processed, the rendering moves to the next tile line, and starts from the leftmost tile, as described above. This process can be repeated until the rightmost tile of the last tile line has been processed. At this stage, the current polygon is considered processed, and the above processing can be repeated with the next polygon, until all of the polygons have been processed. The exemplary embodiments can receive the edges from an edge feeder component, configured to send all of the edges that hit on the screen or tile, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). In addition, in the case of the leftmost tile or complete screen implementation, the edges to the left of the present tile also can be sent, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). The exemplary embodiments can be included within any suitable device, for example, including any suitable servers, workstations, PCs, laptop computers, PDAs, Internet appliances, handheld devices, cellular telephones, wireless devices, other devices, and the like, capable of performing the processes of the exemplary embodiments, and which can communicate via one or more interface mechanisms, including, for example, Internet access, telecommunications in any suitable form (e.g., voice, modem, and the like), wireless communications media, one or more wireless communications networks, cellular communications networks, G3 communications networks, Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTNs), Packet Data Networks (PDNs), the Internet, intranets, a combination thereof, and the like. It is to be understood that the exemplary embodiments are for exemplary purposes, as many variations of the specific hardware used to implement the exemplary embodiments are possible, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the hardware art(s). For example, the functionality of one or more of the components of the exemplary embodiments can be implemented via one or more hardware devices. The exemplary embodiments can store information relating to various processes described herein. This information can be stored in one or more memories, such as a hard disk, optical disk, magneto-optical disk, RAM, and the like. One or more databases can store the information used to implement the exemplary embodiments of the present inventions. The databases can be organized using data structures (e.g., records, tables, arrays, fields, graphs, trees, lists, and the like) included in one or more memories or storage devices listed herein. The processes described with respect to the exemplary embodiments can include appropriate data structures for storing data collected and/or generated by the processes of the devices and subsystems of the exemplary embodiments in one or more databases. All or a portion of the exemplary embodiments can be implemented by the preparation of application-specific integrated circuits or by interconnecting an appropriate network of conventional component circuits, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the electrical art(s). As stated above, the components of the exemplary embodiments can include computer readable medium or memories according to the teachings of the present inventions and for holding data structures, tables, records, and/or other data described herein. Computer readable medium can include any suitable medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution. Such a medium can take many forms, including but not limited to, non-volatile media, volatile media, transmission media, and the like. Non-volatile media can include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, magneto-optical disks, and the like. Volatile media can include dynamic memories, and the like. Transmission media can include coaxial cables, copper wire, fiber optics, and the like. Transmission media also can take the form of acoustic, optical, electromagnetic waves, and the like, such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) communications, infrared (IR) data communications, and the like. Common forms of computer-readable media can include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other suitable magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, CDRW, DVD, any other suitable optical medium, punch cards, paper tape, optical mark sheets, any other suitable physical medium with patterns of holes or other optically recognizable indicia, a RAM, a PROM, an EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other suitable memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave or any other suitable medium from which a computer can read. While the present inventions have been described in connection with a number of exemplary embodiments, and implementations, the present inventions are not so limited, but rather cover various modifications, and equivalent arrangements, which fall within the purview of prospective claims.
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12
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10
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11958072
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US20090089750A1-20090402
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METHOD AND SYSTEM OF PERFORMING JAVA LANGUAGE CLASS EXTENSIONS
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ACCEPTED
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20090318
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20090402
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[]
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G06F944
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["G06F944"]
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8381177
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20071217
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20130219
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717
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108000
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97593.0
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MAMO
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ELIAS
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Cabillic", "inventor_name_first": "Gilbert", "inventor_city": "Brece", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lesot", "inventor_name_first": "Jean-Philippe", "inventor_city": "Argentre du Plessis", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FR"}]
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A method and system of performing Java language class extensions. At least some of the illustrative embodiments are computer-readable mediums storing a program that, when executed by a processor of a host system, causes the processor to identify a first class having a first name, and create a second class based on the first class (the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class).
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1. A computer-readable medium storing a program that, when executed by a processor of a host system, causes the processor to: identify a first class having a first name; and create a second class based on the first class, wherein the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and wherein the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class. 2. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to filter the first class, wherein the filtering is based on a set of annotations. 3. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to filter the first class, wherein the filtering is based on at least one selected from the group consisting of: extensible markup language files; or a dedicated application programming interface. 4. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to create the second class, wherein the second class is comprised within a filtered view. 5. The computer-readable medium according to claim 4 wherein the program further causes the processor to create the second class, wherein the second class is accessible to software applications based on being comprised within the filtered view. 6. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to create the second class, wherein the second class has a different name than the first name of the first class. 7. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to create the second class, wherein the second class is a global class, wherein the first class is a local class, and wherein the third class is a local class. 8. The computer-readable medium according to claim 1 wherein the program further causes the processor to filter one or more from the group consisting of: the first class; a field; and a method, and wherein the filtering changes one or more from the group consisting of: a name; and a visibility. 9. A computer system comprising: a processor that executes bytecodes; and a memory coupled to the processor; wherein the processor identifies a first class having a first name; and wherein the processor creates a second class based on the first class, wherein the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and wherein the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class. 10. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor executes a class loader, wherein the class loader identifies the first class. 11. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor executes a class loader, wherein the class loader filters the first class. 12. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor executes a class loader, wherein the class loader creates the second class. 13. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor executes a class loader, wherein the class loader provides classes to an application at runtime by way of the second class. 14. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor creates the second class, wherein the processor creates the second class based on a set of annotations. 15. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor creates the second class, wherein the processor creates the second class based on at least one selected from the group consisting of: extensible markup language files; or a dedicated application programming interface. 16. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor creates the second class, wherein the second class is comprised within a filtered view. 17. The computer system according to claim 16 further comprising wherein the processor creates the second class, wherein the second class is accessible to software applications based on being comprised within the filtered view. 18. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor creates the second class, wherein the second class is a global class, wherein the first class is a local class, and wherein the third class is a local class. 19. The computer system according to claim 9 wherein the processor filters the first class. 20. The computer system according to claim 9 further comprising wherein the processor filters one or more from the group consisting of: the first class; a field; and a method, and wherein the filtering changes one or more from the group consisting of: a name; and a visibility.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Java™ is a programming language that, at the source code level, is similar to object oriented programming languages such as C++. Java language source code is compiled into an intermediate representation based on a plurality of “bytecodes” that define specific actions. In some implementations, the bytecodes are further compiled to machine language for a particular processor. In order to speed the execution of Java language programs, some processors are specifically designed to execute some of the Java bytecodes directly. Many times, a processor that directly executes Java bytecodes is paired with a general purpose processor to accelerate Java program execution. To aid in the programming of Java, groups of related classes are bundled into class libraries, which are also referred to as a packages. Among other uses, packages enable efficient code reusability. A Java Application Programming Interface (API) comprises a plurality of such packages. One exemplary package, the Java language package (java.lang), comprises Java classes such as the object class (java.lang.object) that correspond to a set of classes that enable the execution of Java bytecodes. The Java language classes are provided by the Java API and are unique within any given Java platform. Stated otherwise, each Java API is targeted to only one configuration of a Java Virtual Machine (JVM). It would be desirable to define a methodology that would allow at least some JVM compatibility to any API configuration.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The problems noted above are solved in large part by a method and system of performing Java language class extensions. At least some of the illustrative embodiments are computer-readable mediums storing a program that, when executed by a processor of a host system, causes the processor to identify a first class having a first name, and create a second class based on the first class (the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class). Other illustrative embodiments are computer systems comprising a processor that executes bytecodes and a memory coupled to the processor. The processor identifies a first class having a first name. The processor creates a second class based on the first class (the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class).
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application claims priority to EP Application No. 07291168.8, filed on Sep. 28, 2007, hereby incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Java™ is a programming language that, at the source code level, is similar to object oriented programming languages such as C++. Java language source code is compiled into an intermediate representation based on a plurality of “bytecodes” that define specific actions. In some implementations, the bytecodes are further compiled to machine language for a particular processor. In order to speed the execution of Java language programs, some processors are specifically designed to execute some of the Java bytecodes directly. Many times, a processor that directly executes Java bytecodes is paired with a general purpose processor to accelerate Java program execution. To aid in the programming of Java, groups of related classes are bundled into class libraries, which are also referred to as a packages. Among other uses, packages enable efficient code reusability. A Java Application Programming Interface (API) comprises a plurality of such packages. One exemplary package, the Java language package (java.lang), comprises Java classes such as the object class (java.lang.object) that correspond to a set of classes that enable the execution of Java bytecodes. The Java language classes are provided by the Java API and are unique within any given Java platform. Stated otherwise, each Java API is targeted to only one configuration of a Java Virtual Machine (JVM). It would be desirable to define a methodology that would allow at least some JVM compatibility to any API configuration. SUMMARY The problems noted above are solved in large part by a method and system of performing Java language class extensions. At least some of the illustrative embodiments are computer-readable mediums storing a program that, when executed by a processor of a host system, causes the processor to identify a first class having a first name, and create a second class based on the first class (the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class). Other illustrative embodiments are computer systems comprising a processor that executes bytecodes and a memory coupled to the processor. The processor identifies a first class having a first name. The processor creates a second class based on the first class (the second class is an abstract view of the first class, and the second class has a second name equal to a third name of a third class). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more detailed description of the various embodiments, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates a diagram of a system in accordance with embodiments comprising a Java Stack Machine (JSM); FIG. 2 illustrates a first system in accordance with some embodiments of the invention; FIG. 3 illustrates a method of filtering a class in accordance with embodiments of the invention; FIG. 4 illustrates a second system in accordance with embodiments of the invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a method in accordance with embodiments of the invention; and FIG. 6 illustrates a system in accordance with at least some embodiments of the invention. NOTATION AND NOMENCLATURE Certain terms are used throughout the following description and claims to refer to particular system components. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, various companies may refer to a component by different names. This document does not intend to distinguish between components that differ in name but not function. In the following discussion and in the claims, the terms “including” and “comprising” are used in an open-ended fashion, and thus should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to . . . ”. Also, the term “couple” or “couples” is intended to mean either an indirect or direct connection. Thus, if a first device couples to a second device, that connection may be through a direct connection, or through an indirect connection via other devices and connections. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following discussion is directed to various embodiments of the invention. Although one or more of these embodiments may be preferred, the embodiments disclosed should not be interpreted, or otherwise used, as limiting the scope of the disclosure unless otherwise specified. In addition, one skilled in the art will understand that the following description has broad application, and the discussion of any embodiment is meant only to be exemplary of that embodiment, and not intended to intimate that the scope of the disclosure, including the claims, is limited to that embodiment. FIG. 1 illustrates a system 100 in accordance with at least some embodiments. In particular, the system 100 comprises at least one processor 102. Processor 102 is referred to for purposes of this disclosure as a Java Stack Machine (“JSM”) 102. The JSM 102 comprises an interface to one or more input/output (“I/O”) devices such as a keypad to permit a user to control various aspects of the system 100. In addition, data streams may be received from the I/O space into the JSM 102 to be processed by the JSM 102. Optional processor 104 may be referred to as a Micro-Processor Unit (“MPU”). System 100 may also comprise memory 106 coupled to both the JSM 102 and MPU 104 and thus accessible by both processors. A portion of the memory 106 may be shared by both processors, and if desired, other portions of the memory 106 may be designated as private to one processor or the other. The memory 106 may be further coupled to a display 114. System 100 also comprises a Java virtual machine (JVM) 124. The JVM 124 may comprise an Application Programming Interface implementation (API) 108 and a Java Virtual Processor (JVP) 118 (discussed more below). The API implementation 108 comprises a resource manager 120 and a configuration 122. The resource manager 120 manages resource sharing between multiple threads and/or applications running on the system 100. The configuration 122 provides applications with an API, which API is used to access base functionalities of the system. The JVP 118 may comprise a combination of software and hardware. The software may comprise a compiler 110 and a JSM Execution Kernel (JEK) 116. The JEK 116 comprises software that is executable within the JSM 102, such as a class loader, bytecode verifier, garbage collector, and firmware to interpret the bytecodes that are not directly executed on the JSM processor 102. Thus, the hardware of the JVP 118 may comprise the JSM 102. The JVP 118 provides a layer of abstraction between the API 108 and a physical hardware platform (e.g., JSM 102) that executes Java bytecodes. Other components may be present as well. Java language source code is converted or compiled to a series of bytecodes 112, with each individual one of the bytecodes referred to as an “opcode.” Bytecodes 112 may be provided to the JEK 116, possibly compiled by compiler 110, and provided to the JSM 102. When appropriate, the JVP 118 may direct some method execution to the MPU 104. The MPU 104 also may execute non-Java instructions. For example, the MPU 104 may host an operating system (O/S) which performs various functions such as system memory management, system task management and most or all other native tasks running on the system, management of the display 114, and receiving input from input devices. Java code, executed on the JVP 118, may be used to perform any one of a variety of applications such as multimedia, games or web based applications in the system 100, while non-Java code, which may comprise the O/S and other native applications, may run on the MPU 104. As discussed above, the JVP 118 provides a layer of abstraction. In particular, the JVP 118 is a virtual hardware platform that is compatible with any Java API, any real hardware/software platform that may comprise a JSM processor, or any JVM implementation. In some exemplary embodiments, the JVP 118 comprises a JEK core that has an execution engine, a memory management component, and a compiler. The execution engine may comprise a Bytecode engine, a class loader, a notification manager, and an external method interface. The memory management component may comprise a memory allocator, an object mapper for physically constrained objects, a garbage collector, a memory defragmentor, and a swapper. The compiler may comprise a dynamic compiler and provide code buffer management. The JEK core may also comprise firmware to facilitate the execution of Java Bytecodes on the JSM processor. The JVP 118 also provides the API 108 with methods to create software class loaders. A class loader loads classes used by an application at runtime. Other hardware components of the hardware platform or software components are virtualized within the JEK 116 as Java Virtual Devices (JVD) that communicate with the JEK core. Each JVD comprises some combination of fields, methods, and notifications. The fields may comprise standard Java fields or may be mapped to a predefined or constrained physical memory space, wherein the constraint may be due to hardware or software. The fields may also comprise a map to indirect memories. The methods may comprise standard bytecodes or may comprises JSM native code, hardware instructions, or may use any kind of native interface such as a Java Native Interface (JNI) or a KVM Native Interface (KNI). The notifications may be initiated by an event, for example, a hardware interrupt, or from software. Additionally, the JEK core manages native interface links and the notification mechanism provides a way to implement flexible monitoring. To aid in the programming of Java, groups of related classes are bundled into class libraries, which are also referred to as a packages. Among other uses, packages enable efficient code reusability. The Java API comprises a plurality of such packages. One exemplary package, the Java language package (java.lang), comprises Java classes such as the object class (java.lang.object) that correspond to a set of classes that enable the execution of Java bytecodes. Classes may define attributes and behaviors. Behaviors are referred to as methods, and classes may comprise one or more methods that define all the behaviors available within a given class. For example, methods may request performing of an action such as setting a value, returning a value, or writing to a file. The object class (java.lang.object) is at the top of the class hierarchy, and every other class inherits (either directly or indirectly) attributes and methods from the object class. In other words, the object class is a superclass for all other classes in a given Java system. FIG. 2 illustrates a system 200 that comprises a Java API 212 and a JVP 214. The API 212 comprises at least one class loader that loads classes used at runtime by Java applications 210. One exemplary class loaded by one of the class loaders of the API 212 is the object class 216 of the Java language package. As discussed above, the JVP 214 comprises the JSM and the JEK. The JVP 214 also comprises at least one class loader that may be used to load classes at runtime. In embodiments of the present invention, the JEK realizes its own limited Java API configuration (that can be used to execute itself). Thus, one of the JVP 214 class loaders has the capability to load its own object class 218 by way of the JEK. However, the object class 218 to be loaded by the JVP 214 is not necessarily the same object class 216 that the API 212 class loader provides to the applications 210 during program execution. In effect, there could be two different “local” versions (that may have the same name) of the object class (or any other class such as those classes of the Java language package). This raises a potential conflict since language classes are unique within any given Java system. To avoid this potential conflict, a class loader may filter classes (as discussed below) belonging to the Java language package such as the object class (java.lang.object). In some embodiments, the class loader may filter classes belonging to other distinct Java packages. The result of the filtering is that a new class (such as a new object class) is created (which is an abstract view of an already existing class), and conflicts can be avoided while the JVP 214 maintains compatibility with any Java API 212. Through the process of filtering, a class loader may abstract the “view” of an existing class, where the view is defined as the manner in which a Java application sees (or handles) a particular Java class. FIG. 3 illustrates a method of filtering a class by way of a class loader. In particular, the class loader may define a new filtered class as a “filtered view” of another already defined class. In some exemplary embodiments, the class loader performing the filtering is implemented by the JVP. As shown in FIG. 3A, a class loader 308 retrieves a class 304 and passes it through a filter 306, resulting in a filtered class 310. The area indicated by arrows 312 may be referred to as the “view”, and the area indicated by arrows 314 may be referred to as the “filtered view”. Thus, the filtering of a class 304 creates a filtered class 310 which is a filtered view of the unfiltered class 304. In some embodiments the filtering may be accomplished by a set of Java annotations (i.e., a set of modifiers), where the annotations may be applied to a class, a class member, or a method parameter in order to modify its top level view. An example of an annotation is a “name” annotation, which allows for the renaming of a class, field, or a method. Thus, a filtered class may be a renamed version of an unfiltered class, where the filtered class has a “filtered name”. Classes, fields, or methods that do not have a name annotation keep their original name. Another example of an annotation is a “visibility” annotation, which allows changing the visibility of a class, field, or a method. For example, in embodiments of the present invention, only classes that have an appropriate visibility annotation will be available to Java applications during runtime. Classes, fields, or methods that do not have a visibility annotation are by default considered to be invisible with respect to the Java applications and to the filtered classes. In other words, only classes within the filtered view 314 are accessible (i.e., visible) to the Java applications and to other filtered classes. The filtering process in not restricted to renaming or changing the visibility of an individual or group of classes, fields, or methods. In some embodiments, other distinct modifiers can be applied to any individual or group of classes, fields, or methods. In addition, the filtering process is not restricted to Java annotations. For instance, in alternative embodiments, filtering may be accomplished by way of extensible markup language (XML) files or a dedicated JVP API. FIG. 3B illustrates a method similar to that of FIG. 3A, where the class loader 308 retrieves and filters the class 304 resulting in a filtered class 310. However, in FIG. 3B, the filter 306 is comprised within the class loader 308. FIG. 4 illustrates a system 400 which implements a view abstraction method based on class filtering of the various embodiments. The system 400 comprises a Java API 412, and a JVP 414 which comprises the JSM and the JEK. The API 412 comprises at least one class loader that loads classes used at runtime by Java applications 410. The JVP 414 also comprises at least one class loader that may be used to load classes at runtime. Consider again the object class (java.lang.object), where the Java applications 410 and the JVP 414 each use their own “local” versions of the object class. In particular, the JVP 414 defines object class 418 that is used by both the API 412 and the JVP 414. The API 412 also uses object class 416 to define a filtered object class 420 (discussed below) that is used by the Java applications 410. In other embodiments, the Java applications 410 or the JVP 414 may use any other class such as those classes of the Java language package. In any case, having two different versions of the same class with the same name (e.g., two versions of the object class java.lang.object) poses a potential conflict since language classes are unique within any given Java system. The view abstraction method carried out by the system 400 of FIG. 4 may be implemented according to various embodiments. In some exemplary embodiments, the object class 416 is programmed with a name such as myconf.lang.object prior to runtime. As described with reference to FIG. 3, the class loader of the JVP 414 retrieves and filters the class myconf.lang.object (i.e., the object class 416) such that a new filtered class 420 is created, where the filtered class 420 is a filtered view (i.e., an abstract view) of myconf.lang.object (i.e., the object class 416) of the API 412. The filtering process may also perform a renaming such that the filtered class 420 has a different name than the object class 416 from which it was derived. In the present example, the filtered class 420 is named “java.lang.object” while the unfiltered object class 416 retains its original name of “myconf.lang.object”. Moreover, the filtering process may change the visibility of a class. For example, the applications 410 may access (i.e., view) the renamed, filtered class 420 (java.lang.object) based on appropriate visibility annotations that have been applied during the filtering process. Java.lang.object (object class 418) remains as the only “real” language class; however, the object class 418 remains invisible to the Java applications 410 since classes that do not have a visibility annotation are by default considered to be invisible with respect to the Java applications 410 as well as to the filtered class 420 (as discussed above). In addition, the object class 416 remains invisible to the Java applications 410 since it remains within the unfiltered view (i.e., view 312 of FIG. 3). Thus, by this filtering method, the object class 416 (myconf.lang.object) that the API 412 intended to provide to the applications 410 is still provided by way of the filtered class 420. Additionally, potential conflicts with the object class 418 (java.lang.object) are avoided. In some exemplary embodiments, following a similar view abstraction method as described with respect to FIG. 4, the object class 418 of the JVP 414 may be provided to the applications 410 by way of the filtered class 420. For purposes of this disclosure, the filtered class 420 may be referred to as a “global” class. The term global here does not mean that the filtered class 420 may be accessed across an entire Java system such as system 400 (in fact, the filtered class 420 is only visible to the applications 410). Rather, the term global is used to describe the fact that the abstract filtered class 420 can be used to provide (to the applications 410) any of a plurality of classes from the API 412 or from the JVP 414 while avoiding potential conflicts (e.g., with the object class 418). The filtered class 420 is not a new class. Rather, the filtered class 420 is an abstract view of the object class 416, as discussed above. Consequently, an instance of the object class 416 is “compatible” with an instance of the filtered class 420, where compatible is defined as having the same structure in memory (e.g., the same fields at the same offset). For example, in FIG. 4, an instance of the object class 416 is viewed in the API 412 as an instance of the object class 416, and the same instance of the object class 416 is viewed in the Java applications 410 as an instance of the filtered class 420. Thus, an instance of the object class 416 created in API 412 could be passed to the Java applications 410 or an instance of the filtered class 420 created in the Java applications 410 could be passed to the API 412. There is no overhead at runtime to access fields or invoke methods of an instance of the object class 416 in the API 412 nor in the Java applications 410. The filtered class 420 remains a pure abstract view of the object class 416, which describes the instance and remains as a real class. FIG. 5 illustrates a method (e.g., software) in accordance with some embodiments. In particular, the process starts (block 510) and proceeds to identify a first Java class having a first name (block 512). The first Java class may be an object class or any other class such as those classes of the Java language package. The first Java class is then filtered (block 514). The filtering is based on a set of annotations, extensible markup language (XML) files, or a dedicated application programming interface. The process then proceeds to create a second Java class based on the filtered first Java class (block 516). The second Java class is an abstract view of the first Java class, and has a second name equal to a third name of a third Java class. In some exemplary embodiments, the second name may be different than the third name. The second name is also different than the first name of the first Java class. The second Java class is also accessible (i.e., viewable) to Java applications based on the second Java class being comprised within a filtered view (area indicated by arrows 314 of FIG. 3). Furthermore, the second Java class is a “global” class (as described above), and the first Java class and the third Java class are both local classes. Also, since the first Java class and the third Java class are not comprised within the filtered view, they are not directly accessible to the Java applications. The process then ends (block 518). System 100 (FIG. 1) may be implemented as a mobile cell phone such as that shown in FIG. 6. As shown, the mobile communication device has an outer enclosure 615 and includes an integrated keypad 612 and display 614. The JSM processor 102 and MPU processor 104 and other components may be included in electronics package 610 connected to the keypad 612, display 614, and radio frequency (RF) circuitry 616. The RF circuitry 616 may be connected to an antenna 618. From the description provided herein, those skilled in the art are readily able to combine software created as described with appropriate general purpose or a special purpose computer hardware to create a computer system and/or computer subcomponents embodying aspects of the invention, to create a computer system and/or computer subcomponents for carrying out the method embodiments of the invention, and/or to create a computer-readable medium storing a software program to implement method aspects of the various embodiments. Moreover, the embodiments of the illustrative methods could be implemented together in a single program (with various subroutines), or split up into two or more programs executed on the processor. While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described, modifications thereof can be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and teachings of the invention. The embodiments described herein are illustrative only, and are not intended to be limiting. Numerous variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art once the above disclosure is fully appreciated. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such variations and modifications.
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G
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9
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44
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11697779
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US20070190694A1-20070816
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INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGE WITH LEADFRAME LOCKED ENCAPSULATION AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURE THEREFOR
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ACCEPTED
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20070801
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20070816
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[]
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H01L2100
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["H01L2100"]
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7413933
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20070409
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20080819
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438
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123000
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72874.0
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HOANG
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QUOC
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Punzalan", "inventor_name_first": "Jeffrey", "inventor_city": "Singapore", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SG"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ku", "inventor_name_first": "Jae Hun", "inventor_city": "Singapore", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SG"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Han", "inventor_name_first": "Byung Joon", "inventor_city": "Singapore", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SG"}]
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A semiconductor including a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads is provided. The die attach paddle has a recess to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle. An integrated circuit is positioned in the recess. Electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads are made, and an encapsulant is formed over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams.
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1. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor comprising: providing a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads; forming a recess in the die attach paddle to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle; positioning an integrated circuit in the recess; forming electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads; and forming an encapsulant over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams. 2. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 1 wherein forming a recess in the die attach paddle forms a recess about fifty-five percent of the way through the die attach paddle. 3. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 1 wherein providing a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle provides the number of mold dams in a position of at least one of at the corners of the die attach paddle, intermediate the corners of the die attach paddle, and combinations thereof. 4. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 1 wherein forming an encapsulant flows the encapsulant into the spaces between the mold dams and over the integrated circuit. 5. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 1 wherein forming the encapsulant forms at least one of plastic, epoxy, ceramic, and combinations thereof. 6. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor comprising: providing a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads; etching a recess at least half way into the die attach paddle to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle; bonding an integrated circuit in the recess; wire bonding electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads; and forming an encapsulant over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams. 7. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 6 wherein forming a recess into the die attach paddle forms a recess about fifty-five percent of the way through the die attach paddle. 8. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 6 wherein providing a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle provides the number of mold dams in a position of at least one of at the corners of the die attach paddle, intermediate the comers of the die attach paddle, and combinations thereof. 9. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 6 wherein forming an encapsulant flows the encapsulant into the spaces between the mold dams and over the integrated circuit. 10. The method of manufacturing a semiconductor as claimed in claim 6 wherein forming the encapsulant forms an encapsulant of at least one of plastic, epoxy, ceramic, and combinations thereof. 11. A semiconductor comprising: a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads; the die attach paddle having a recess to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle; an integrated circuit in the recess; electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads; and an encapsulant over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams. 12. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 11 wherein the recess in the die attach paddle is about fifty-five percent of the way through the die attach paddle. 13. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 11 wherein the number of mold dams is positioned in at least one of at the corners of the die attach paddle, intermediate the corners of the die attach paddle, and combinations thereof. 14. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 11 wherein the encapsulant substantially fills the spaces between the number of mold dams. 15. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 11 wherein the encapsulant comprises at least one of plastic, epoxy, ceramic, and combinations thereof. 16. A semiconductor comprising: a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads; the die attach paddle having a recess at least half way into the die attach paddle to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle; an integrated circuit in the recess; electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads; and an encapsulant over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams. 17. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 16 wherein the recess into the die attach paddle is about fifty-five percent of the way through the die attach paddle. 18. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 16 wherein the number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle is positioned in at least one of at the corners of the die attach paddle, intermediate the comers of the die attach paddle, and combinations thereof. 19. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 16 wherein the encapsulant substantially fills the spaces between the mold dams. 20. The semiconductor as claimed in claim 16 wherein the encapsulant comprises an encapsulant of at least one of plastic, epoxy, ceramic, and combinations thereof.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In the electronics industry, the continuing goal has been to reduce the size of electronic devices such as camcorders and portable telephones while increasing performance and speed. Integrated circuit packages for complex systems typically are comprised of a multiplicity of interconnected integrated circuit chips. The integrated circuit chips usually are made from a semiconductor material such as silicon or gallium arsenide. Semiconductor devices are formed in the various layers of the integrated circuit chips using photolithographic techniques. The integrated circuit chips may be mounted in packages that are then mounted on printed wiring boards. Packages including integrated circuit chips typically have numerous external pins that are mechanically attached by solder or a variety of other known techniques to conductor patterns on the printed wiring board. Typically, the packages on which these integrated semiconductor chips are mounted include a substrate or other chip mounting device. One example of such a substrate is a leadframe. High performance leadframes typically are multi-layer structures including power, ground, and signal planes. Leadframes also typically include at least an area on which an integrated circuit chip is mounted and a plurality of power, ground, and/or signal leads to which power, ground, and/or signal sites of the integrated semiconductor chip are electronically attached. Semiconductor integrated chips may be attached to the leadframe using adhesive or any other techniques for attaching such chips to a leadframe which are commonly known to those skilled in the art, such as soldering. The power, ground and signal sites on the chip may then be electrically connected to selected power, ground and signal plane or individual leads of the leadframe. Leadframes have been used extensively in the integrated circuit (IC) packaging industry mainly because of their low manufacturing cost and high reliability. Leadframe packages remain a cost-effective solution for packaging integrated circuits despite the introduction of various leadless packages in recent years. Typical leadframe packages include a die attach paddle, or pad, surrounded by a number of leads. An integrated circuit chip, is attached to the die attach paddle using a conductive adhesive such as silver epoxy. The conductive adhesive is cured after die attach. After the die is attached to the die paddle, a wire-bonding process is used to make electrical interconnections between the integrated circuit and the leads of the leadframe. After wire bonding, the leadframe with the integrated circuit attached is encapsulated using a molding compound. Such enclosures may include encapsulation in a plastic or a multi-part housing made of plastic ceramic, or metal. The enclosure protects the leadframe and the attached chip from physical, electrical, and/or chemical damage. Finally, post mold curing and singulation steps are conducted to complete the packaging process. The leadframe and attached chip(s) may then be mounted on, for example, a circuit board, or card along with other leadframes or devices. The circuit board or card may then be incorporated into a wide variety of devices such as computers, automobiles, or appliances, among others. One problem that persists with leadframes is that the integrated circuits mounted on these leadframes are subject to failure due to moisture penetration of the integrated circuit package. If the molding compound is not securely attached to the leadframe, moisture or other contaminants can contact the integrated circuit thereby causing failures. Another problem is that the molding compound does not flow evenly over the entire leadframe resulting in areas where moisture or other contaminants may contact the integrated circuit thereby contributing to the failure of the integrated circuit. Solutions to these problems have been long sought but prior developments have not taught or suggested any solutions and, thus, solutions to these problems have long eluded those skilled in the art.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a partial cross-sectional view of a leadframe in an intermediate stage of manufacture in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is the structure of FIG. 1 after processing of a mask on the surface of the leadframe; FIG. 3 is the structure of FIG. 2 after an etch process to form a die paddle; FIG. 4 is the structure of FIG. 3 after an integrated circuit is attached to the die paddle of the leadframe; FIG. 5 is the structure of FIG. 4 after encapsulation of the integrated circuit; FIG. 6 is a plan view of the structure of FIG. 5 manufactured in accordance with the present invention without an encapsulant; FIG. 7 is a plan view of another embodiment of a leadframe having four mold dams manufactured in accordance with the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a flow chart of a method for manufacturing a leadframe in accordance with the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/478,433 filed Jun. 12, 2003, and the subject matter thereof is hereby incorporated herein by reference thereto. This application is a continuation of U.S. Non Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 10/850,220 filed May 19, 2004. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to semiconductor technology, and more particularly to a method and apparatus for an integrated circuit leadframe package. BACKGROUND ART In the electronics industry, the continuing goal has been to reduce the size of electronic devices such as camcorders and portable telephones while increasing performance and speed. Integrated circuit packages for complex systems typically are comprised of a multiplicity of interconnected integrated circuit chips. The integrated circuit chips usually are made from a semiconductor material such as silicon or gallium arsenide. Semiconductor devices are formed in the various layers of the integrated circuit chips using photolithographic techniques. The integrated circuit chips may be mounted in packages that are then mounted on printed wiring boards. Packages including integrated circuit chips typically have numerous external pins that are mechanically attached by solder or a variety of other known techniques to conductor patterns on the printed wiring board. Typically, the packages on which these integrated semiconductor chips are mounted include a substrate or other chip mounting device. One example of such a substrate is a leadframe. High performance leadframes typically are multi-layer structures including power, ground, and signal planes. Leadframes also typically include at least an area on which an integrated circuit chip is mounted and a plurality of power, ground, and/or signal leads to which power, ground, and/or signal sites of the integrated semiconductor chip are electronically attached. Semiconductor integrated chips may be attached to the leadframe using adhesive or any other techniques for attaching such chips to a leadframe which are commonly known to those skilled in the art, such as soldering. The power, ground and signal sites on the chip may then be electrically connected to selected power, ground and signal plane or individual leads of the leadframe. Leadframes have been used extensively in the integrated circuit (IC) packaging industry mainly because of their low manufacturing cost and high reliability. Leadframe packages remain a cost-effective solution for packaging integrated circuits despite the introduction of various leadless packages in recent years. Typical leadframe packages include a die attach paddle, or pad, surrounded by a number of leads. An integrated circuit chip, is attached to the die attach paddle using a conductive adhesive such as silver epoxy. The conductive adhesive is cured after die attach. After the die is attached to the die paddle, a wire-bonding process is used to make electrical interconnections between the integrated circuit and the leads of the leadframe. After wire bonding, the leadframe with the integrated circuit attached is encapsulated using a molding compound. Such enclosures may include encapsulation in a plastic or a multi-part housing made of plastic ceramic, or metal. The enclosure protects the leadframe and the attached chip from physical, electrical, and/or chemical damage. Finally, post mold curing and singulation steps are conducted to complete the packaging process. The leadframe and attached chip(s) may then be mounted on, for example, a circuit board, or card along with other leadframes or devices. The circuit board or card may then be incorporated into a wide variety of devices such as computers, automobiles, or appliances, among others. One problem that persists with leadframes is that the integrated circuits mounted on these leadframes are subject to failure due to moisture penetration of the integrated circuit package. If the molding compound is not securely attached to the leadframe, moisture or other contaminants can contact the integrated circuit thereby causing failures. Another problem is that the molding compound does not flow evenly over the entire leadframe resulting in areas where moisture or other contaminants may contact the integrated circuit thereby contributing to the failure of the integrated circuit. Solutions to these problems have been long sought but prior developments have not taught or suggested any solutions and, thus, solutions to these problems have long eluded those skilled in the art. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a semiconductor including a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads. The die attach paddle has a recess to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle. An integrated circuit is positioned in the recess. Electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads are made, and an encapsulant is formed over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams. The present invention reduces failure of semiconductors due to moisture penetration of the integrated circuit package. The molding compound is attached more securely to the leadframe so moisture or other contaminants cannot contact the integrated circuit thereby causing failures. Also, the molding compound flows evenly reducing the areas where moisture or other contaminants may contact the integrated circuit thereby reducing the failure of the integrated circuit. Certain embodiments of the invention have other advantages in addition to or in place of those mentioned above. The advantages will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a reading of the following detailed description when taken with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a partial cross-sectional view of a leadframe in an intermediate stage of manufacture in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is the structure of FIG. 1 after processing of a mask on the surface of the leadframe; FIG. 3 is the structure of FIG. 2 after an etch process to form a die paddle; FIG. 4 is the structure of FIG. 3 after an integrated circuit is attached to the die paddle of the leadframe; FIG. 5 is the structure of FIG. 4 after encapsulation of the integrated circuit; FIG. 6 is a plan view of the structure of FIG. 5 manufactured in accordance with the present invention without an encapsulant; FIG. 7 is a plan view of another embodiment of a leadframe having four mold dams manufactured in accordance with the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a flow chart of a method for manufacturing a leadframe in accordance with the present invention. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION In the following description, numerous specific details are given to provide a thorough understanding of the invention. However, it will be apparent that the invention may be practiced without these specific details. In order to avoid obscuring the present invention, some well-known system configurations, and process steps are not disclosed in detail. Likewise, the drawings showing embodiments of the present invention are semi-diagrammatic and not to scale and, particularly, some of the dimensions are for the clarity of presentation and are shown exaggerated in the FIGs. The term “horizontal” as used herein is defined as a plane parallel to the conventional plane or surface of the leadframe, regardless of its orientation. The term “vertical” refers to a direction perpendicular to the horizontal as just defined. Terms, such as “on”, “above”, “below”, “bottom”, “top”, “side” (as in “sidewall”), “higher”, “lower”, “over”, and “under”, are defined with respect to the horizontal plane. The term “processing” as used herein includes deposition of material or photoresist, patterning, exposure, development, etching, cleaning, and/or removal of the material or photoresist as required in forming a described structure. Referring now to FIG. 1, therein is shown a partial cross-sectional view of a semiconductor 100 in an intermediate stage of manufacture in accordance with the present invention. The semiconductor 100 includes a leadframe 102. The leadframe has an upper surface 104 and a lower surface 106. Referring now to FIG. 2, therein is shown the structure of FIG. 1 after processing to form a mask 200 on the upper surface 104 of the leadframe 102. The mask 200 is formed by depositing a layer of photoresist 202 on the upper surface 104 of the leadframe 102 and processing the layer of photoresist 202 to form the mask 200. Referring now to FIG. 3, therein is shown the structure of FIG. 2 after an etch process 300 has been performed on the upper surface 104 of the leadframe 102 using the mask 200. The leadframe 102 is etched using the mask 200 to form a die attach paddle 302 and a number of leads 304 surrounding the die attach paddle 302. A recess 308 is formed in the leadframe 102 by etching only partially through the leadframe 102 to form a number of mold dams 310 in the die attach paddle 302. The recess 308 is formed interior to the peripheral areas of the die attach paddle 302. It has been discovered that etching the die paddle 302 of the leadframe 102 to about fifty-five percent (55%) of the thickness of the die paddle 302 to form the recess 308 results in providing suitable thickness for the number of mold dams 310 while maintaining the stiffness of the die paddle 302. Referring now to FIG. 4, therein is shown the structure of FIG. 3 after an integrated circuit 400 is attached to the die paddle 302 of the leadframe 102. The mask 200 shown in FIG. 3 has been removed. A bonding compound 402, such as an epoxy, has been deposited in the recess 308 in the die attach paddle 302. The integrated circuit 400 is positioned on the die attach paddle 302 to be bonded by the bonding compound 402. When the recess 308 is sufficiently deep, the integrated circuit 400 will be positioned partially below the upper surface 104 of the die attach paddle 302 and surrounded by the number of mold dams 310. The integrated circuit 400 is therefore locked in position by the number of mold dams 310 to provide additional stability for the integrated circuit 400. Referring now to FIG. 5, therein is shown the structure of FIG. 4 after encapsulation of the integrated circuit 400. The integrated circuit 400 is electrically connected to the number of leads 304 using a number of bonding wires 500. An encapsulant 502, such as plastic, epoxy, ceramic, or other suitable material, is formed over the integrated circuit 400, the number of bonding wires 500, and a portion of the number of leads 304. The encapsulant 502 also fills the space between the number of leads 304 and the die attach paddle 302. During the encapsulation process, a mold (not shown) is used to direct the flow of the encapsulant 502 into any spaces between the mold dams 310 thereby providing a locking mechanism for the encapsulant 502. It is therefore more difficult for the encapsulant 502 to pull away from the die attach paddle 302 or the integrated circuit 400 thereby enhancing the integrity and stability of the semiconductor 100. Moisture or other contaminants cannot as easily penetrate the semiconductor 100. Referring now to FIG. 6, therein is shown a plan view of the structure of FIG. 5 without the encapsulant 502 having the number of mold dams 310 manufactured in accordance with the present invention. The leadframe 102 includes the die attach paddle 302 and the number of leads 304 surrounding the die attach paddle 302. The die attach paddle 302 has been processed to form the number of mold dams 310 around the periphery of the die attach paddle 302 and the recess in the die attach paddle 302. The bonding compound 402 shown in FIG. 5 is deposited on the die attach paddle 302. The integrated circuit 400 is positioned over the bonding compound 402 to attach the integrated circuit 400 to the die attach paddle 302. The encapsulant 502 fills the spaces between the mold dams 310 to provide the locking mechanism for locking the encapsulant 502 and the die attach paddle 302. An edge 600 is formed during a singulation process after the semiconductor is encapsulated. Referring now to FIG. 7 therein is shown a plan view of another embodiment of the semiconductor 100 having four mold dams 310 manufactured in accordance with the present invention. The number of mold dams 310 is formed at each corner of the die attach paddle 302 to form four mold dams. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that a particular semiconductor may have any number of mold dams 310 depending upon the design requirements for a particular semiconductor. The encapsulant 502 fills the spaces between the mold dams 310 to provide the locking mechanism for locking the encapsulant 502 and the die attach paddle 302. An edge 700 is formed during a singulation process after the semiconductor is encapsulated. Referring now to FIG. 8 therein is shown a flow chart of a method 800 for manufacturing a semiconductor in accordance with the present invention. The method 800 includes providing a leadframe having a die attach paddle and a number of leads in a block 802; forming a recess in the die attach paddle to provide a number of mold dams around the periphery of the die attach paddle in a block 804; positioning an integrated circuit in the recess in a block 806; forming electrical connections between the integrated circuit and the number of leads in a block 808; and forming an encapsulant over the integrated circuit and around the number of mold dams in a block 810. Thus, it has been discovered that the method and apparatus of the present invention furnish important and heretofore unavailable solutions, capabilities, and functional advantages for the manufacture of semiconductors. The resulting process and configurations are straightforward, economical, uncomplicated, highly versatile, and effective, use conventional technologies, and are thus readily suited for manufacturing semiconductor devices and are fully compatible with conventional manufacturing processes and technologies. While the invention has been described in conjunction with a specific best mode, it is to be understood that many alternatives, modifications, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing description. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, and variations that fall within the scope of the included claims. All matters set forth herein or shown in the accompanying drawings are to be interpreted in an illustrative and non-limiting sense.
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H
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21
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00
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11809719
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US20110068350A1-20110324
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Diamond semiconductor devices and associated methods
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ACCEPTED
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20110309
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20110324
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[]
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H01L310312
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["H01L310312", "H01L21223"]
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8110846
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20070531
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20120207
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257
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079000
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63495.0
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TORNOW
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MARK
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Sung", "inventor_name_first": "Chien-Min", "inventor_city": "Tansui", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]
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Semiconductor devices and methods for making such devices are provided. One such method may include forming a transparent diamond layer having a SiC layer coupled thereto, where the SiC layer has a crystal structure that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer, forming epitaxially a plurality of semiconductor layers on the SiC layer, and coupling a diamond substrate to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers such that the diamond support is oriented parallel to the transparent diamond layer. In one aspect such a method may further include electrically coupling at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers.
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1. A semiconductor device, comprising: a diamond substrate; a transparent diamond layer positioned parallel to the diamond substrate; a plurality of semiconductor layers coupled between the transparent diamond layer and the diamond substrate; and a SiC layer coupled directly to the transparent diamond layer and facing the plurality of semiconductor layers, such that the SiC layer is coupled directly to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers, and wherein light generated in the semiconductor layers is emitted through the transparent diamond layer. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the semiconductor device is an LED device and the plurality of semiconductor layers is a plurality of LED nitride layers. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the plurality of semiconductor layers is arranged in series between the diamond substrate and the transparent diamond layer. 4. (canceled) 5. The device of claim 1, wherein the SiC layer is a single crystal SiC layer. 6. The device of claim 5, wherein the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer. 7. The device of claim 5, wherein the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to at least one of the semiconductor layers. 8. The device of claim 1, further comprising at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode electrically coupled to at least one of the semiconductor layers. 9. The device of claim 8, wherein the diamond substrate is p-type doped, and the p-type electrode is the p-type doped diamond substrate. 10. The device of claim 9, wherein the diamond substrate is doped with boron to form the p-type doped diamond substrate. 11. The device of claim 1, wherein the plurality of semiconductor layers includes at least one member selected from the group consisting of silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, zinc sulfide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium indium arsenide phosphide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium antimonide, indium nitride, and combinations thereof. 12. The device of claim 11, wherein at least one of the semiconductor layers is gallium nitride. 13. The device of claim 11, wherein at least one of the semiconductor layers is aluminum nitride. 14. A method of making a semiconductor device, comprising: forming a transparent diamond layer having a SiC layer coupled thereto, where the SiC layer has a crystal structure that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer; depositing epitaxially at least one of a plurality of semiconductor layers on the SiC layer opposite the transparent diamond layer; and coupling a diamond substrate to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers such that the diamond substrate is oriented parallel to the transparent diamond layer, and the plurality of semiconductor layers are located between the transparent diamond layer and the diamond substrate. 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising electrically coupling at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the plurality of semiconductor layers includes at least one member selected from the group consisting of silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, zinc sulfide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium indium arsenide phosphide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium antimonide, indium nitride, and combinations thereof. 17. The method of claim 14, wherein the semiconductor layer is gallium nitride. 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the semiconductor layer is aluminum nitride.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In many developed countries, major portions of the populations consider electronic devices to be integral to their lives. Such increasing use and dependence has generated a demand for electronics devices that are smaller and faster. As electronic circuitry increases in speed and decreases in size, cooling of such devices becomes problematic. Electronic devices generally contain printed circuit boards having integrally connected electronic components that allow the overall functionality of the device. These electronic components, such as processors, transistors, resistors, capacitors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), etc., generate significant amounts of heat. As it builds, heat can cause various thermal problems associated with such electronic components. Significant amounts of heat can affect the reliability of an electronic device, or even cause it to fail by, for example, causing burn out or shorting both within the electronic components themselves and across the surface of the printed circuit board. Thus, the buildup of heat can ultimately affect the functional life of the electronic device. This is particularly problematic for electronic components with high power and high current demands, as well as for the printed circuit boards that support them. Various cooling devices have been employed such as fans, heat sinks, Peltier and liquid cooling devices, etc., as means of reducing heat buildup in electronic devices. As increased speed and power consumption cause increasing heat buildup, such cooling devices generally must increase in size to be effective and may also require power to operate. For example, fans must be increased in size and speed to increase airflow, and heat sinks must be increased in size to increase heat capacity and surface area. The demand for smaller electronic devices, however, not only precludes increasing the size of such cooling devices, but may also require a significant size decrease. As a result, methods and associated devices are being sought to provide adequate cooling of electronic devices while minimizing size and power constraints placed on such devices due to cooling.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention provides diamond semiconductor devices having improved thermal properties and methods for making such devices. In one aspect, for example, a semiconductor device is provided having a diamond substrate, a transparent diamond layer positioned parallel to the diamond substrate, and a plurality of semiconductor layers coupled between the transparent diamond layer and the diamond substrate. In one specific aspect, the semiconductor device is an LED device and the plurality of semiconductor layers is a plurality of LED nitride layers. The plurality of semiconductor layers can be arranged in a variety of configuration, however in one aspect the plurality of semiconductor layers may be arranged in series between the diamond substrate and the transparent diamond layer. In various aspects of the present invention, semiconductor devices are provided having very low lattice mismatches between material layers. Such low lattice mismatches may be achieved through the use of a high quality SiC layer. In one aspect, for example, the device may further include a SiC layer coupled to the transparent diamond layer and facing the plurality of semiconductor layers, such that the SiC layer is coupled to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers. In another aspect the SiC layer is a single crystal SiC layer. In yet another aspect the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer. In a further aspect, the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to at least one of the semiconductor layers. The devices according to aspects of the present invention also may include various electrodes. In one aspect, for example, the device may include at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode electrically coupled to at least one of the semiconductor layers. In another aspect, the diamond substrate may be p-type doped, and the p-type electrode is the p-type doped diamond substrate. In one specific aspect, the diamond substrate is doped with boron to form the p-type doped diamond substrate. A variety of semiconductor materials may be used in various aspects the present invention depending on the intended use of resulting devices. For example, and without limitation, the plurality of semiconductor layers may include at least one of silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, zinc sulfide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium indium arsenide phosphide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium antimonide, indium nitride, and combinations thereof. In one specific aspect the semiconductor layers may include gallium nitride. In another specific aspect the semiconductor layers may include aluminum nitride. The present invention also provides methods for making semiconductor devices. In one aspect such a method may include forming a transparent diamond layer having a SiC layer coupled thereto, where the SiC layer has a crystal structure that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer, forming epitaxially a plurality of semiconductor layers on the SiC layer, and coupling a diamond substrate to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers such that the diamond support is oriented parallel to the transparent diamond layer. In another aspect such a method may further include electrically coupling at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers. There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, various features of the invention so that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood, and so that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. Other features of the present invention will become clearer from the following detailed description of the invention, taken with the accompanying claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to semiconductor devices and associated methods. Accordingly, the present invention involves the electrical and material science fields. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In many developed countries, major portions of the populations consider electronic devices to be integral to their lives. Such increasing use and dependence has generated a demand for electronics devices that are smaller and faster. As electronic circuitry increases in speed and decreases in size, cooling of such devices becomes problematic. Electronic devices generally contain printed circuit boards having integrally connected electronic components that allow the overall functionality of the device. These electronic components, such as processors, transistors, resistors, capacitors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), etc., generate significant amounts of heat. As it builds, heat can cause various thermal problems associated with such electronic components. Significant amounts of heat can affect the reliability of an electronic device, or even cause it to fail by, for example, causing burn out or shorting both within the electronic components themselves and across the surface of the printed circuit board. Thus, the buildup of heat can ultimately affect the functional life of the electronic device. This is particularly problematic for electronic components with high power and high current demands, as well as for the printed circuit boards that support them. Various cooling devices have been employed such as fans, heat sinks, Peltier and liquid cooling devices, etc., as means of reducing heat buildup in electronic devices. As increased speed and power consumption cause increasing heat buildup, such cooling devices generally must increase in size to be effective and may also require power to operate. For example, fans must be increased in size and speed to increase airflow, and heat sinks must be increased in size to increase heat capacity and surface area. The demand for smaller electronic devices, however, not only precludes increasing the size of such cooling devices, but may also require a significant size decrease. As a result, methods and associated devices are being sought to provide adequate cooling of electronic devices while minimizing size and power constraints placed on such devices due to cooling. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention provides diamond semiconductor devices having improved thermal properties and methods for making such devices. In one aspect, for example, a semiconductor device is provided having a diamond substrate, a transparent diamond layer positioned parallel to the diamond substrate, and a plurality of semiconductor layers coupled between the transparent diamond layer and the diamond substrate. In one specific aspect, the semiconductor device is an LED device and the plurality of semiconductor layers is a plurality of LED nitride layers. The plurality of semiconductor layers can be arranged in a variety of configuration, however in one aspect the plurality of semiconductor layers may be arranged in series between the diamond substrate and the transparent diamond layer. In various aspects of the present invention, semiconductor devices are provided having very low lattice mismatches between material layers. Such low lattice mismatches may be achieved through the use of a high quality SiC layer. In one aspect, for example, the device may further include a SiC layer coupled to the transparent diamond layer and facing the plurality of semiconductor layers, such that the SiC layer is coupled to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers. In another aspect the SiC layer is a single crystal SiC layer. In yet another aspect the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer. In a further aspect, the SiC layer has a crystal lattice that is substantially epitaxially matched to at least one of the semiconductor layers. The devices according to aspects of the present invention also may include various electrodes. In one aspect, for example, the device may include at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode electrically coupled to at least one of the semiconductor layers. In another aspect, the diamond substrate may be p-type doped, and the p-type electrode is the p-type doped diamond substrate. In one specific aspect, the diamond substrate is doped with boron to form the p-type doped diamond substrate. A variety of semiconductor materials may be used in various aspects the present invention depending on the intended use of resulting devices. For example, and without limitation, the plurality of semiconductor layers may include at least one of silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, zinc sulfide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium indium arsenide phosphide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium antimonide, indium nitride, and combinations thereof. In one specific aspect the semiconductor layers may include gallium nitride. In another specific aspect the semiconductor layers may include aluminum nitride. The present invention also provides methods for making semiconductor devices. In one aspect such a method may include forming a transparent diamond layer having a SiC layer coupled thereto, where the SiC layer has a crystal structure that is substantially epitaxially matched to the transparent diamond layer, forming epitaxially a plurality of semiconductor layers on the SiC layer, and coupling a diamond substrate to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers such that the diamond support is oriented parallel to the transparent diamond layer. In another aspect such a method may further include electrically coupling at least one of a p-type electrode or an n-type electrode to at least one of the plurality of semiconductor layers. There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, various features of the invention so that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood, and so that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. Other features of the present invention will become clearer from the following detailed description of the invention, taken with the accompanying claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-section view of a semiconductor device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a cross-section view of a semiconductor device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a cross-section view of a semiconductor device being constructed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a cross-section view of an LED device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a cross-section view of an LED device in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions In describing and claiming the present invention, the following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set forth below. The singular forms “a,” “an,” and, “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a heat source” includes reference to one or more of such sources, and reference to “the diamond layer” includes reference to one or more of such layers. The terms “heat transfer,” “heat movement,” and “heat transmission” can be used interchangeably, and refer to the movement of heat from an area of higher temperature to an area of cooler temperature. It is intended that the movement of heat include any mechanism of heat transmission known to one skilled in the art, such as, without limitation, conductive, convective, radiative, etc. As used herein, the term “emitting” refers to the process of moving heat or light from a solid material into the air. As used herein, “light-emitting surface” refers to a surface of a device or object from which light is intentionally emitted. Light may include visible light and light within the ultraviolet spectrum. An example of a light-emitting surface may include, without limitation, a nitride layer of an LED, or of semiconductor layers to be incorporated into an LED, from which light is emitted. As used herein, “vapor deposited” refers to materials which are formed using vapor deposition techniques. “Vapor deposition” refers to a process of forming or depositing materials on a substrate through the vapor phase. Vapor deposition processes can include any process such as, but not limited to, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). A wide variety of variations of each vapor deposition method can be performed by those skilled in the art. Examples of vapor deposition methods include hot filament CVD, rf-CVD, laser CVD (LCVD), laser ablation, conformal diamond coating processes, metal-organic CVD (MOCVD), sputtering, thermal evaporation PVD, ionized metal PVD (IMPVD), electron beam PVD (EBPVD), reactive PVD, and the like. As used herein, “chemical vapor deposition,” or “CVD” refers to any method of chemically forming or depositing diamond particles in a vapor form upon a surface. Various CVD techniques are well known in the art. As used herein, “physical vapor deposition,” or “PVD” refers to any method of physically forming or depositing diamond particles in a vapor form upon a surface. Various PVD techniques are well known in the art. As used herein, “diamond” refers to a crystalline structure of carbon atoms bonded to other carbon atoms in a lattice of tetrahedral coordination known as sp3 bonding. Specifically, each carbon atom is surrounded by and bonded to four other carbon atoms, each located on the tip of a regular tetrahedron. Further, the bond length between any two carbon atoms is 1.54 angstroms at ambient temperature conditions, and the angle between any two bonds is 109 degrees, 28 minutes, and 16 seconds although experimental results may vary slightly. The structure and nature of diamond, including its physical and electrical properties are well known in the art. As used herein, “distorted tetrahedral coordination” refers to a tetrahedral bonding configuration of carbon atoms that is irregular, or has deviated from the normal tetrahedron configuration of diamond as described above. Such distortion generally results in lengthening of some bonds and shortening of others, as well as the variation of the bond angles between the bonds. Additionally, the distortion of the tetrahedron alters the characteristics and properties of the carbon to effectively lie between the characteristics of carbon bonded in sp3 configuration (i.e. diamond) and carbon bonded in sp2 configuration (i.e. graphite). One example of material having carbon atoms bonded in distorted tetrahedral bonding is amorphous diamond. As used herein, “diamond-like carbon” refers to a carbonaceous material having carbon atoms as the majority element, with a substantial amount of such carbon atoms bonded in distorted tetrahedral coordination. Diamond-like carbon (DLC) can typically be formed by PVD processes, although CVD or other processes could be used such as vapor deposition processes. Notably, a variety of other elements can be included in the DLC material as either impurities, or as dopants, including without limitation, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, boron, nitrogen, silicon, tungsten, etc. As used herein, “amorphous diamond” refers to a type of diamond-like carbon having carbon atoms as the majority element, with a substantial amount of such carbon atoms bonded in distorted tetrahedral coordination. In one aspect, the amount of carbon in the amorphous diamond can be at least about 90%, with at least about 20% of such carbon being bonded in distorted tetrahedral coordination. Amorphous diamond also has a higher atomic density than that of diamond (176 atoms/cm3). Further, amorphous diamond and diamond materials contract upon melting. As used herein, “adynamic” refers to a type of layer which is unable to independently retain its shape and/or strength. For example, in the absence of a mold or support layer, an adynamic diamond layer will tend to curl or otherwise deform when the mold or support surface is removed. While a number of reasons may contribute to the adynamic properties of a layer, in one aspect, the reason may be the extreme thinness of the layer. As used herein, “growth side,” and “grown surface” may be used interchangeably and refer to the surface of a film or layer which is grows during a CVD process. As used herein, “substrate” refers to a support surface to which various materials can be joined in forming a semiconductor or semiconductor-on-diamond device. The substrate may be any shape, thickness, or material, required in order to achieve a specific result, and includes but is not limited to metals, alloys, ceramics, and mixtures thereof. Further, in some aspects, the substrate may be an existing semiconductor device or wafer, or may be a material which is capable of being joined to a suitable device. As used herein, the term “substantially” refers to the complete or nearly complete extent or degree of an action, characteristic, property, state, structure, item, or result. For example, an object that is “substantially” enclosed would mean that the object is either completely enclosed or nearly completely enclosed. The exact allowable degree of deviation from absolute completeness may in some cases depend on the specific context. However, generally speaking the nearness of completion will be so as to have the same overall result as if absolute and total completion were obtained. The use of “substantially” is equally applicable when used in a negative connotation to refer to the complete or near complete lack of an action, characteristic, property, state, structure, item, or result. For example, a composition that is “substantially free of” particles would either completely lack particles, or so nearly completely lack particles that the effect would be the same as if it completely lacked particles. In other words, a composition that is “substantially free of” an ingredient or element may still actually contain such item as long as there is no measurable effect thereof. As used herein, the term “about” is used to provide flexibility to a numerical range endpoint by providing that a given value may be “a little above” or “a little below” the endpoint. As used herein, a plurality of items, structural elements, compositional elements, and/or materials may be presented in a common list for convenience. However, these lists should be construed as though each member of the list is individually identified as a separate and unique member. Thus, no individual member of such list should be construed as a de facto equivalent of any other member of the same list solely based on their presentation in a common group without indications to the contrary. Concentrations, amounts, and other numerical data may be expressed or presented herein in a range format. It is to be understood that such a range format is used merely for convenience and brevity and thus should be interpreted flexibly to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. As an illustration, a numerical range of “about 1 to about 5” should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited values of about 1 to about 5, but also include individual values and sub-ranges within the indicated range. Thus, included in this numerical range are individual values such as 2, 3, and 4 and sub-ranges such as from 1-3, from 2-4, and from 3-5, etc., as well as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, individually. This same principle applies to ranges reciting only one numerical value as a minimum or a maximum. Furthermore, such an interpretation should apply regardless of the breadth of the range or the characteristics being described. The Invention The present invention provides semiconductor devices having incorporated diamond layers and methods of making such devices. Semiconductor devices are often challenging to cool, particularly those that emit light. It should be noted that, even though much of the following description is devoted to light emitting devices such as LEDs, the scope of the claims of the present invention should not be limited thereby and that such teachings are equally applicable to other types of semiconductor devices. Much of the heat generated by semiconductor devices tends to build up within the semiconducting layers, thus affecting the efficiency of the device. For example, an LED may consist of a plurality of nitride layers arranged to emit light from a light-emitting surface. As they have become increasingly important in electronics and lighting devices, LEDs continue to be developed that have ever increasing power requirements. This trend of increasing power has created cooling problems for such devices. These cooling problems can be exacerbated by the typically small size of these devices, which may render heat sinks with traditional aluminum heat fins ineffective due to their bulky nature. Additionally, such traditional heat sinks block the emission of light if applied to the light-emitting surface of the LED. Because heat sinks cannot interfere with the function of the nitride layers or the light-emitting surface, they are often located at the junction between the LED and a supporting structure such as a circuit board. Such a heat sink location is relatively remote from the accumulation of much of the heat, namely, the light-emitting surface and the nitride layers. It has been discovered that forming a diamond layer within the LED package allows adequate cooling even at high power, while at the same time maintaining a small LED package size. Additionally, in one aspect the maximum operating wattage of an LED may be exceeded by drawing heat from the semiconductor layers of the LED with a diamond layer in order to operate the LED at an operating wattage that is higher than the maximum operating wattage for that LED. Additionally, in both semiconductor devices that emit light and those that don't, heat may be trapped within the semiconducting layers due to the relatively poor thermal conductivity of materials that often make up these layers. Additionally, crystal lattice mismatches between semiconductive layers slow the conduction of heat, thus facilitating further heat buildup. Semiconductor devices have now been developed incorporating layers of diamond that provide, among other things, improved cooling properties to the device. Such layers of diamond increase the flow of heat laterally through the semiconductor device to thus reduce the amount of heat trapped within the semiconductor layers. This lateral heat transmission may thus effectively improve the thermal properties of many semiconductor devices. Furthermore, devices according to aspects of the present invention have increased lattice matching, thus further improving their thermal cooling properties. Additionally, it should be noted that the beneficial properties provided by diamond layers may extend beyond cooling, and as such, the present scope should not be limited thereto. More effective cooling can be achieved within a semiconductor device if diamond layers can be incorporated close to the semiconducting layers. One barrier to integration concerns the high dielectric properties of diamond materials, particularly those that have substantially single crystal lattice configurations. Optimum cooling conditions may be achieved if the diamond layer is within the conductive pathway of the semiconductor device, however such configurations have been difficult to achieve due to the dielectric properties of diamond. It has now been discovered that a conductive diamond layer can function as an electrode and be coupled to semiconductor layers and thus be within the conductive pathway of the device. Additionally, by utilizing a conductive diamond layer as an electrode, LED devices can be constructed having a linear conductive pathway through the semiconductive layers between the electrodes. Many prior LED devices were constructed such that the conductive pathway from the n-type electrode was at a right angle to the conductive pathway from the p-type electrode. Such an “L” shaped conductive pathway caused electrons and holes to be oriented at right angles to one another, thus reducing the efficiency of the device. The linear conductive pathway according to aspects of the present invention causes electrons and holes to be oriented along the same linear pathway, thus improving the efficiency of the LED device. Furthermore, it has been discovered that locating heat-generating semiconductor layers between layers of diamond materials in a “sandwich-like” configuration greatly improves the thermal cooling of semiconductor devices, particularly high power LEDs. It may be beneficial to utilize at least one of the diamond layers as a conductive diamond layer in some aspects, and as such, a high level of epitaxial lattice matching between the conductive diamond layer and an associated semiconductor layer is preferred. Although there may be thermal cooling benefits to lattice matching all associated diamond layers, diamond layers that are nonconductive do not necessarily require such matching. Accordingly, in one aspect of the present invention, an LED device is provided. As is shown in FIG. 1, such a device may include a diamond substrate 12, a transparent diamond layer 14 positioned parallel to the diamond substrate 12, and a plurality of semiconductor layers 16 coupled between the transparent diamond layer 14 and the diamond substrate 12. Light generated by the semiconductor layers 16 is emitted 15 through the transparent diamond layer 14. A reflective layer 13 may be applied to the diamond substrate 12 to reflect light that is emitted toward the diamond substrate 12 back through the semiconductor layers 16 and the transparent diamond layer 14 to thus improve the efficiency of the LED device. Such a reflective layer may be formed from a variety of reflective materials that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. One example of such a reflective material would be a layer of chromium metal or other reflective metal. In another aspect, as is shown in FIG. 2, a SiC layer 18 may be coupled to the transparent diamond layer 14 in order to improve the lattice matching between the transparent diamond layer 14 and the semiconductor layers 16. In some aspects the transparent diamond layer may also be conductive, thus functioning as an electrode for the semiconductor device. In such cases, an electrode of opposite polarity may be coupled to the semiconductor layers opposite the transparent conductive diamond layer (not shown). FIG. 3 shows selected steps of a method constructing a semiconductor substrate that may be used to form an LED device according to particular aspects of the present invention. A single crystal Si growth substrate 34 is provided upon which other materials are formed. Although it is not required that the Si growth substrate be single crystal, such a single crystal lattice configuration may facilitate deposition of additional materials with fewer lattice mismatches as compared to a non-single crystal substrate. It may be beneficial to thoroughly clean the Si growth substrate to remove any non-crystalline Si or non-Si particles from the wafer prior to deposition that may affect the lattice mismatch between the Si growth substrate and the layers formed thereon. Any method of cleaning the Si growth substrate would be considered to be within the present scope, however, in one aspect the substrate can be soaked in KOH and ultrasonically cleaned with distilled water. Following cleaning of the Si growth substrate 34, an epitaxial layer of single crystal SiC 32 and an epitaxial transparent diamond layer 36 may be formed thereon, such that the single crystal SiC layer 32 is located between the Si growth substrate 34 and the transparent diamond layer 36. The SiC layer may be formed separately from the diamond layer, or it may be formed as a result of, or in conjunction with, the deposition of the diamond layer. For example, the SiC layer may be formed as a result of a gradation process from Si to diamond, as is described below. Additionally, the SiC layer may be created in vivo by the deposition of an amorphous diamond layer onto the Si growth substrate, as is also described below. Subsequently, a Si layer 38 may be deposited on the transparent diamond layer 36. The Si layer 38 improves the bonding of the Si carrier substrate 42 to the transparent diamond layer 36. The Si carrier substrate 42 has a SiO2 layer for bonding to the Si layer 38. Following the wafer bonding of the Si carrier substrate 42 to the Si layer 38, the Si growth substrate 34 may be removed to expose the SiC layer 32. As has been described, the SiC layer 32 may be used as a growth surface for the deposition of semiconductor materials (not shown). In one aspect, following formation of the LED layers on the SiC layer 32, the Si carrier substrate 42 and the Si layer 38 may be removed to expose the transparent diamond layer 36. The diamond substrate may be coupled to the semiconductor layers as has been described (not shown). Diamond materials have excellent thermal conductivity properties that make them ideal for incorporation into semiconductor devices, such as LEDs. The transfer of heat that is present in the semiconductor device can thus be accelerated from the device through a diamond material. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited as to specific theories of heat transmission. As such, in one aspect the accelerated movement of heat from inside the device can be at least partially due to heat movement into and through a diamond layer. Due to the heat conductive properties of diamond, heat can rapidly spread laterally through the diamond layer and to the edges of a semiconductor device. Heat present around the edges will be more rapidly dissipated into the air or into surrounding structures, such as heat spreaders or device supports. Additionally, diamond layers having a major portion of surface area exposed to air will more rapidly dissipate heat from a device in which such a layer is incorporated. Because the thermal conductivity of diamond is greater than the thermal conductivity of a semiconductor layer or other structure to which it is thermally coupled, a heat sink is established by the diamond layer. As such, heat that builds up in the semiconductor layer is drawn into the diamond layer and spread laterally to be discharged from the device. Such accelerated heat transfer may result in semiconductor devices with much cooler operational temperatures. Additionally, the acceleration of heat transfer not only cools a semiconductor device, but may also reduce the heat load on many electronic components that are spatially located nearby the semiconductor device. In some aspects of the present invention, a portion of a diamond layer may be exposed to the air. Such exposure may be limited to the edges of the layer in some cases, or it may be a larger proportion of surface area, such as would be the case for a diamond layer having one side exposed. In such aspects, the accelerated movement of heat away from a semiconductor layer may be at least partially due to heat movement from the diamond layer to air. For example, a diamond material such as diamond-like carbon (DLC) has exceptional heat emissivity characteristics even at temperatures below 100° C., and as such, may effectively radiate heat directly to the air. Many semiconductor materials that comprise a device conduct heat much better than they emit heat. As such, heat can be conducted through a semiconductor material to a DLC layer, spread laterally through the DLC layer, and subsequently emitted to the air along the edges or other exposed surfaces. Due to the high heat conductive and radiative properties of DLC, heat movement from the DLC layer to air can be greater than heat movement from the semiconductor layer to air. Also, heat movement from the semiconductor device to the DLC layer can be greater than heat movement from the semiconductor device to the air. As such, the layer of DLC can serve to accelerate heat transfer away from the semiconductor layer more rapidly than heat can be transferred through the semiconductor device itself, or from the semiconductor device to the air. As has been suggested, various diamond materials may be utilized to provide accelerated heat transferring properties to a semiconductor device. Non-limiting examples of such diamond materials may include diamond, DLC, amorphous diamond, and combinations thereof. It should be noted, however, that any form of natural or synthetic diamond material that may be utilized to cool a semiconductor device is considered to be within the present scope. It should be understood that the following is a very general discussion of diamond deposition techniques that may or may not apply to a particular diamond layer or application, and that such techniques may vary widely between the various aspects of the present invention. Generally, diamond layers may be formed by any means known, including various vapor deposition techniques. Any number of known vapor deposition techniques may be used to form these diamond layers. The most common vapor deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD), although any similar method can be used if similar properties and results are obtained. In one aspect, CVD techniques such as hot filament, microwave plasma, oxyacetylene flame, rf-CVD, laser CVD (LCVD), metal-organic CVD (MOCVD), laser ablation, conformal diamond coating processes, and direct current arc techniques may be utilized. Typical CVD techniques use gas reactants to deposit the diamond or diamond-like material in a layer, or film. These gases generally include a small amount (i.e. less than about 5%) of a carbonaceous material, such as methane, diluted in hydrogen. A variety of specific CVD processes, including equipment and conditions, as well as those used for boron nitride layers, are well known to those skilled in the art. In another aspect, PVD techniques such as sputtering, cathodic arc, and thermal evaporation may be utilized. Further, specific deposition conditions may be used in order to adjust the exact type of material to be formed, whether DLC, amorphous diamond, or pure diamond. It should also be noted that many semiconductor devices such as LEDs may be degraded by high temperature. Care may need to be taken to avoid damage during diamond deposition by forming at lower temperatures. For example, if the semiconductor contains InN, deposition temperatures of up to about 600° C. may be used. In the case of GaN, layers may be thermally stable up to about 1000° C. Additionally, preformed layers can be brazed, glued, or otherwise affixed to the semiconductor layer or to a support substrate of the semiconductor device using methods which do not unduly interfere with the heat transference of the diamond layer or the functionality of the device. An optional nucleation enhancing layer can be formed on the growth surface of a substrate in order to improve the quality and deposition time of a diamond layer. Specifically, a diamond layer can be formed by depositing applicable nuclei, such as diamond nuclei, on a diamond growth surface of a substrate and then growing the nuclei into a film or layer using a vapor deposition technique. In one aspect of the present invention, a thin nucleation enhancer layer can be coated upon the substrate to enhance the growth of the diamond layer. Diamond nuclei are then placed upon the nucleation enhancer layer, and the growth of the diamond layer proceeds via CVD. A variety of suitable materials will be recognized by those in skilled in the art which can serve as a nucleation enhancer. In one aspect of the present invention, the nucleation enhancer may be a material selected from the group consisting of metals, metal alloys, metal compounds, carbides, carbide formers, and mixtures thereof. Examples of carbide forming materials may include, without limitation, tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), silicon (Si), and manganese (Mn). Additionally, examples of carbides include tungsten carbide (WC), silicon carbide (SiC), titanium carbide (TiC), zirconium carbide (ZrC), and mixtures thereof among others. The nucleation enhancer layer, when used, is a layer which is thin enough that it does not to adversely affect the thermal transmission properties of the diamond layer. In one aspect, the thickness of the nucleation enhancer layer may be less than about 0.1 micrometers. In another aspect, the thickness may be less than about 10 nanometers. In yet another aspect, the thickness of the nucleation enhancer layer is less than about 5 nanometers. In a further aspect of the invention, the thickness of the nucleation enhancer layer is less than about 3 nanometers. Various methods may be employed to increase the quality of the diamond in the nucleation surface of the diamond layer which is created by vapor deposition techniques. For example, diamond particle quality can be increased by reducing the methane flow rate, and increasing the total gas pressure during the early phase of diamond deposition. Such measures, decrease the decomposition rate of carbon, and increase the concentration of hydrogen atoms. Thus a significantly higher percentage of the carbon will be deposited in a sp3 bonding configuration, and the quality of the diamond nuclei formed is increased. Additionally, the nucleation rate of diamond particles deposited on the growth surface of the substrate or the nucleation enhancer layer may be increased in order to reduce the amount of interstitial space between diamond particles. Examples of ways to increase nucleation rates include, but are not limited to; applying a negative bias in an appropriate amount, often about 100 volts, to the growth surface; polishing the growth surface with a fine diamond paste or powder, which may partially remain on the growth surface; and controlling the composition of the growth surface such as by ion implantation of C, Si, Cr, Mn, Ti, V, Zr, W, Mo, Ta, and the like by PVD or PECVD. PVD processes are typically at lower temperatures than CVD processes and in some cases can be below about 200° C. such as about 150° C. Other methods of increasing diamond nucleation will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. In one aspect of the present invention, the diamond layer may be formed as a conformal diamond layer. Conformal diamond coating processes can provide a number of advantages over conventional diamond film processes. Conformal diamond coating can be performed on a wide variety of substrates, including non-planar substrates. A growth surface can be pretreated under diamond growth conditions in the absence of a bias to form a carbon film. The diamond growth conditions can be conditions that are conventional CVD deposition conditions for diamond without an applied bias. As a result, a thin carbon film can be formed which is typically less than about 100 angstroms. The pretreatment step can be performed at almost any growth temperature such as from about 200° C. to about 900° C., although lower temperatures below about 500° C. may be preferred. Without being bound to any particular theory, the thin carbon film appears to form within a short time, e.g., less than one hour, and is a hydrogen terminated amorphous carbon. Following formation of the thin carbon film, the growth surface may then be subjected to diamond growth conditions to form a conformal diamond layer. The diamond growth conditions may be those conditions which are commonly used in traditional CVD diamond growth. However, unlike conventional diamond film growth, the diamond film produced using the above pretreatment steps results in a conformal diamond film that typically begins growth substantially over the entire growth surface with substantially no incubation time. In addition, a continuous film, e.g. substantially no grain boundaries, can develop within about 80 nm of growth. Diamond layers having substantially no grain boundaries may move heat more efficiently than those layers having grain boundaries. Various techniques may be employed to render a diamond layer conductive. Such techniques are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, various impurities may be doped into the crystal lattice of the diamond layer. Such impurities may include elements such as Si, B, P, N, Li, Al, Ga, etc. In one specific aspect, for example, the diamond layer may be doped with B. Impurities may also include metallic particles within the crystal lattice, provided they do not interfere with the function of the device, such as by blocking light emitted from an LED. For some diamond layers, particularly those on which semiconductor layers are to be formed, it may be beneficial to create a growth substrate upon which the semiconductor material can be formed with minimal crystal lattice dislocations as a substantially single crystal. Additionally, diamond layers having low crystal lattice dislocations tend to be transparent to light. Minimizing crystal lattice dislocations may be facilitated by utilizing a growth substrate that is substantially a single crystal and has properties such that strong bonding interactions with the semiconductor material may be achieved. In one aspect, such a substrate includes a substantially single crystal diamond layer having a substantially single crystal SiC layer epitaxially coupled thereto. The substantially single crystal nature of the SiC layer facilitates the deposition of a semiconductor such as GaN or AlN as a substantially single crystal. Additionally, the epitaxial relationship from the diamond layer through the SiC layer and to the semiconductor layer increases thermal conduction to the diamond layer, thus improving the cooling properties of the device. Various methods are possible for building such a diamond/SiC composite substrate. Any such method would be considered to be within the scope of the present invention. For example, in one aspect such a substrate may be created by grading a single crystal Si wafer into a single crystal diamond layer. In other words, the Si wafer would gradually transition from Si to SiC and then to diamond. Techniques for such grading are further discussed in the Applicant's copending U.S. patent application entitled “Graded Crystalline Materials And Associated Methods”, and filed on May 31, 2007 under Attorney Docket No. 00802-32733.NP, which is incorporated herein by reference. In addition to the above described benefits of minimizing crystal dislocations, substantially single crystal diamond layers are substantially transparent to light and are thus useful in constructing light-emitting semiconductor devices such as LEDs and laser diodes. The resulting structure includes a substantially single crystal diamond layer having a substantially single crystal SiC layer epitaxially coupled thereto. Semiconductor layers may be epitaxially formed on the SiC layer by any method know to one of ordinary skill in the art. In one aspect such deposition may occur in a graded manner similar to the techniques used in forming the diamond layer on the Si wafer. Following formation of the semiconductor layers, a diamond support may be coupled thereto. Numerous methods of coupling are known to one of ordinary skill in the art, such as brazing, gluing, annealing, etc. It should be noted that any coupling method may be used, provided the functionality of the diamond support is not substantially affected. In one specific aspect, a reflective layer of a carbide forming metal may be applied to a surface of a semiconductor layer. One example of such a metal is titanium. The diamond support may then be formed on the titanium reflective layer and thus coupled to the semiconductive layer by titanium carbide bonds forming between the reflective layer and the diamond substrate. The diamond layers according to aspects of the present invention may be of any thickness that would allow thermal cooling of a semiconductor device. Thicknesses may vary depending on the application and the semiconductor device configuration. For example, greater cooling requirements may require thicker diamond layers. The thickness may also vary depending on the material used in the diamond layer. That being said, in one aspect a diamond layer may be from about 10 to about 50 microns thick. In another example, a diamond layer may be less than or equal to about 10 microns thick. In yet another example, a diamond layer may be from about 50 microns to about 100 microns thick. In a further example, a diamond layer may be greater than about 50 microns thick. In yet a further example, a diamond layer may be an adynamic diamond layer. SiC layers according to aspects of the present invention may have a variety of thicknesses, depending on the method of deposition of the SiC layer and the intended uses of the device. In some aspects the SiC layer may be merely thick enough to orient the crystal lattice of the layers being formed thereon. In other aspects, thicker SiC layers may be beneficial. With such variation in mind, in one aspect the SiC layer may be less than or equal to about 1 micron thick. In another aspect, the SiC layer may be less than or equal to about 500 nanometers thick. In yet another aspect, the SiC layer may be less than or equal to about 1 nanometer thick. In a further aspect, the SiC layer may be greater than about 1 micron thick. As has been described, the semiconductor devices according to aspects of the present invention include a plurality of semiconductor layers associated with one or more diamond layers. These semiconductor layers may be associated with a diamond layer by a variety of methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art. In one aspect of the present invention, however, one or more semiconductor layers may be formed on a diamond layer, or as is described above, on a SiC layer coupled to a diamond layer. A semiconductor layer may be formed on a substrate such as a SiC layer using a variety of techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. One example of such a technique is a MOCVD process. The semiconductor layer may include any material that is suitable for forming electronic devices, semiconductor devices, or the like. Many semiconductors are based on silicon, gallium, indium, and germanium. However, suitable materials for the semiconductor layer can include, without limitation, silicon, silicon carbide, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, zinc sulfide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, gallium indium arsenide phosphide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium antimonide, indium nitride, and composites thereof. In one aspect, however, the semiconductor layer can include silicon, silicon carbide, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, gallium phosphide, aluminum nitride, indium nitride, indium gallium nitride, aluminum gallium nitride, or composites of these materials. In some additional embodiments, non-silicon based devices can be formed such as those based on gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, germanium, boron nitride, aluminum nitride, indium-based materials, and composites thereof. In another embodiment, the semiconductor layer can comprise gallium nitride, indium gallium nitride, indium nitride, and combinations thereof. In one specific aspect, the semiconductor material is gallium nitride. In another specific aspect, the semiconductor material is aluminum nitride. Other semiconductor materials which can be used include Al2O3, BeO, W, Mo, c-Y2O3, c-(Y0.9La0.1)2O3, c-Al23O27N5, c-MgAl2O4, t-MgF2, graphite, and mixtures thereof. It should be understood that the semiconductor layer may include any semiconductor material known, and should not be limited to those materials described herein. Additionally, semiconductor materials may be of any structural configuration known, for example, without limitation, cubic (zincblende or sphalerite), wurtzitic, rhombohedral, graphitic, turbostratic, pyrolytic, hexagonal, amorphous, or combinations thereof. As has been described, the semiconductor layer 14 may be formed by any method known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Various known methods of vapor deposition can be utilized to deposit such layers and that allow deposition to occur in a graded manner. Additionally, surface processing may be performed between any of the deposition steps described in order to provide a smooth surface for subsequent deposition. Such processing may be accomplished by any means known, such as by chemical etching, polishing, buffing, grinding, etc. In one aspect of the present invention, at least one of the semiconductor layers may be gallium nitride (GaN). GaN semiconductor layers may be useful in constructing LEDs and other semiconductor devices. In some cases it may be beneficial to gradually transition between the SiC or other substrate and the semiconductor layer. For example, gradually transitioning an indium nitride (InN) semiconductor substrate into a GaN semiconductor layer may occur by fixing the concentration of the N being vapor deposited and varying the deposited concentration of Ga and of In such that a ratio of Ga:In gradually transitions from about 0:1 to about 1:0. In other words, the sources of Ga and In are varied such that as the In concentration is decreased, the Ga concentration is increased. The gradual transition functions to greatly reduce the lattice mismatch observed when forming GaN directly on InN. In another aspect, at least one of the semiconductor layers may be a layer of aluminum nitride (AlN). The AlN layer may be deposited onto a substrate by any means known to one of ordinary skill in the art. As with the GaN layer described above, gradually transitioning between semiconductor layers may improve the functionality of the semiconductor device. For example, in one aspect AlN may be deposited onto a semiconductor substrate of InN by gradually transitioning the layer of InN into the layer of AlN. Such a gradual transition may include, for example, gradually transitioning the layer of InN into the layer of AlN by fixing the concentration of N being deposited and varying the deposited concentration of In and of Al such that a ratio of In:Al gradually transitions from about 0:1 to about 1:0. Such a gradual transition may greatly reduce the lattice mismatch observed when forming AlN on InN directly. Surface processing may be performed between any of the deposition steps described in order to provide a smooth surface for subsequent deposition. Such processing may be accomplished by any means known, such as by chemical etching, polishing, buffing, grinding, etc. As has been described, electrodes may be incorporated into an LED device as an electrical contact for the semiconductive layers. Various electrodes, particularly p-type and n-type electrodes, including their use and formation, are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and will not be discussed in detail herein. In one specific aspect of the present invention as shown in FIG. 4, a “flip-chip” design for an LED device is described. A semiconductor substrate 42 is made as described above and as shown in FIG. 3. An n-type semiconductive material 44 such as n-Gan is formed on the semiconductor substrate 42, followed by the formation of MQW layers 46, and a p-type semiconductor material 48 such as p-GaN. The n-type semiconductive material 44 is electrically coupled to an n-type electrode 50, and the p-type semiconductive material 48 is electrically coupled to a p-type electrode 52. A reflective layer 54 and associated diamond substrate 56 may then be flip-chip bonded to the n-type electrode 50 and the p-type electrode 52. If the reflective layer 54 is conductive it may require division into two electrically isolated portions to facilitate functionality of the device (not shown). As is shown in FIG. 5, in order to emit light the nontransparent layers of the semiconductor substrate need to be removed to expose the transparent diamond layer 58. Upon activation of the LED device, light is generated by the semiconductor layers and emitted 62 through the SiC layer 60 and the transparent diamond layer 58. Additionally, light that is transmitted toward the diamond substrate 56 is reflected by the reflective layer 54 and transmitted back through the semiconductor layers to be emitted through the transparent diamond layer 58. EXAMPLES The following examples illustrate various techniques of making a semiconductor device such as an LED according to aspects of the present invention. However, it is to be understood that the following are only exemplary or illustrative of the application of the principles of the present invention. Numerous modifications and alternative compositions, methods, and systems can be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. The appended claims are intended to cover such modifications and arrangements. Thus, while the present invention has been described above with particularity, the following Examples provide further detail in connection with several specific embodiments of the invention. Example 1 A semiconductor substrate may be formed as follows: A single crystal Si wafer is obtained and cleaned by soaking in KOH and ultrasound cleaning with distilled water to remove any non-crystalline Si and foreign debris. A conformal amorphous carbon coating is applied to the cleaned surface of the Si wafer by exposing the wafer to CVD deposition conditions without an applied bias. Following carbonization of the surface, amorphous diamond is deposited for approximately 30 minutes at 800° in 1% CH4 and 99% H2. The amorphous carbon coating is then removed with H2 or F2 treatment for about 60 minutes, at 900°. Removal of the amorphous carbon coating exposes an epitaxial SiC layer that has formed in situ between the Si wafer and the amorphous carbon coating. The thickness of the SiC layer is approximately 10 nm. A transparent diamond coating 10 microns thick is then deposited onto the SiC layer by CVD deposition of CH4 for approximately 10 hours. After 10 hours, the CH4 source is then switched to SiH4 for approximately 10 minutes to deposit a 1 micron thick Si layer. A Si carrier substrate having a SiO2 surface is wafer bonded to the 1 micron thick Si layer at the SiO2 surface. Following wafer bonding, the single crystal Si wafer is removed to expose the SiC layer by etching with HF+3HNO2+H2O. Further details regarding etching Si materials may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 4,981,818, which is incorporated herein by reference. Example 2 An LED device may be constructed as follows: A semiconductor substrate is obtained as in Example 1. GaN semiconductor layers are deposited onto the exposed SiC layer by MOCVD with GaH3 and NH3 source materials. Of course, it is to be understood that the above-described arrangements are only illustrative of the application of the principles of the present invention. Numerous modifications and alternative arrangements may be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention and the appended claims are intended to cover such modifications and arrangements. Thus, while the present invention has been described above with particularity and detail in connection with what is presently deemed to be the most practical and preferred embodiments of the invention, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that numerous modifications, including, but not limited to, variations in size, materials, shape, form, function and manner of operation, assembly and use may be made without departing from the principles and concepts set forth herein.
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H
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3103
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12
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11862174
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US20080179696A1-20080731
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Micromechanical Device with Microfluidic Lubricant Channel
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ACCEPTED
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20080716
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20080731
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[]
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H01L2984
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["H01L2984"]
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7932569
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20070926
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20110426
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257
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415000
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99963.0
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PERT
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EVAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Dongmin", "inventor_city": "Saratoga", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Worley", "inventor_name_first": "William Spencer", "inventor_city": "Half Moon Bay", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Chen", "inventor_name_first": "Hung-Nan", "inventor_city": "Kaohsiung Hsien", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]
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A micromechanical device assembly includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through an interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region. Lubricant is injected into the lubricant channel via capillary forces and held therein via surface tension of the lubricant against the internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. The lubricant channel containing the lubricant provides a ready supply of fresh lubricant to prevent stiction from occurring between interacting components of the micromechanical device disposed within the processing region.
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1. A device assembly, comprising: a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region; and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 2. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein a volume of the lubricant channel is between about 0.1 nanoliter and about 1000 nanoliters. 3. The device assembly of claim 2, wherein a lubricant is disposed in the lubricant channel. 4. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel is less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. 5. The device assembly of claim 1, further comprising a channel inlet in fluid communication with the lubricant channel, wherein the channel inlet is formed through an external surface of the device assembly. 6. The device assembly of claim 5, further comprising a plug disposed in the channel inlet proximate the external surface of the device assembly. 7. The device assembly of claim 1, further comprising a particle filter disposed in the lubricant channel. 8. The device assembly of claim 7, wherein the particle filter comprises a plurality of obstructions formed on an interior surface of the lubricant channel. 9. The device assembly of claim 1, wherein first and second lubricant channels are formed respectively through different interior walls of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region. 10. The device assembly of claim 9, wherein lubricants are disposed in the first and second lubricant channels, and the lubricant disposed in the first lubricant channel is different from the lubricant disposed in the second lubricant channel. 11. A device assembly, comprising: a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region; and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. 12. The device assembly of claim 11, wherein a width of the lubricant channel is 10 μm to 800 μm and a depth of the lubricant channel is 10 μm to 200 μm. 13. The device assembly of claim 12, wherein a volume of the lubricant channel is between about 0.1 nanoliter and about 1000 nanoliters, and a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel is less than about 1 mm. 14. The device assembly of claim 11, further comprising another lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of said another lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 15. The device assembly of claim 11, wherein first and second lubricant channels are formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein each of the first and second lubricant channels are in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof. 16. A packaged micromechanical device, comprising: a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device; a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region; and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. 17. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein an epoxy layer is interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. 18. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 17, wherein the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. 19. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 18, further comprising a cap disposed in the lubricant channel proximate an opening of the lubricant channel into the processing region. 20. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 19, wherein the cap comprises a material that becomes porous in response to optical radiation or heating. 21. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 17, further comprising another lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein said another lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof. 22. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein the lid and the interposer are frit- or eutectic-bonded, and the interposer and the base are frit- or eutectic-bonded 23. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 22, further comprising a channel inlet in fluid communication with the lubricant channel, wherein the channel inlet is formed through an external surface of the device. 24. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 23, further comprising a plug disposed in the channel inlet proximate the external surface of the device. 25. The packaged micromechanical device of claim 16, wherein the lubricant channel is formed in the base.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to micro-electro-mechanical and nano-electro-mechanical systems and more specifically to such systems having one or more microfluidic lubricant channels. 2. Description of the Related Art As is well known, atomic level and microscopic level forces between device components become far more critical as devices become smaller. Problems related to these types of forces are quite prevalent with micromechanical devices, such as micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS). In particular, “stiction” forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another, either intentionally or accidentally, during operation are a common problem with micromechanical devices. Stiction-type failures occur when the interfacial attraction forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another exceed restoring forces. As a result, the surfaces of these parts either permanently or temporarily adhere to each other, causing device failure or malfunction. Stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include capillary forces, Van der Waal's forces and electrostatic attraction forces. As used herein, the term “contact” refers generally to any interaction between two surfaces and is not limited to the actual physical touching of the surfaces. Some examples of typical micromechanical devices are RF switches, optical modulators, microgears, accelerometers, worm gears, transducers, fluid nozzles, gyroscopes, and other similar devices or actuators. It should be noted that the term “MEMS device” is used hereafter to generally describe a micromechanical device, and to cover both MEMS and NEMS devices discussed above. Stiction is especially problematic in devices such as the RF switch, optical modulator, microgears, and other actuators. Various elements in these devices often interact with each other during operation at frequencies between a few hertz (Hz) and a few gigahertz (GHz). Various analyses have shown that, without adding some form of lubrication to these types of devices to reduce stiction and wear between component surfaces, product lifetimes may range from only a few contacts to a few thousand contacts, which is generally well below a commercially viable lifetime. Consequently, one of the biggest challenges facing the MEMS and NEMS industries is the long-term reliability of contacting microstructures in the face of stiction. Several techniques to address stiction between two contacting surfaces have been discussed in various publications. One such technique is to texture the contact surfaces (e.g., via micro patterning or laser patterning) to reduce the overall adhesion force by reducing the effective contact area. Another such technique involves selecting specific materials from which the contacting surfaces are made to lower the surface energy, reduce charging, or contact potential difference between components. Moreover, some prior references have suggested the insertion of a lubricant into the region around the interacting devices to reduce the chance of stiction-related failures. Such a lubricant often times is in a solid or liquid state, depending on the properties of the material, and the temperature and pressure or environment in which the lubricant is placed. In general, the terms a “solid” lubricant or a “liquid” lubricant is a lubricant that is in a solid or liquid state under ambient conditions, i.e., room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Some prior art references describe a lubricant as being in a “vapor” state. These references use the term vapor phase lubricant to generally describe a mixture of components that contain a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen) and a vaporized second component that is a solid or liquid at temperatures and pressures near ambient conditions (e.g., STP). In most conventional applications, the solid or liquid lubricant remains in a solid or liquid state at temperatures much higher than room temperature and pressures much lower than atmospheric pressure conditions. Examples of typical lubricants that are solid or liquid at ambient conditions and temperatures well above ambient temperature can be found in references such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,930,367. Such prior art lubricants include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecanoic acid (“PFDA”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), perfluoro polyether (“PFPE”) and/or fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”), that are deposited on various interacting components by use of a vapor deposition process, such as atmospheric chemical vapor deposition (APCVD), low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), or other similar deposition processes. The technique of forming the low-surface energy organic passivation layer on the surface of a MEMS component is commonly referred to in the art as “vapor lubricant” coating. One serious draw back to using a low-surface energy organic passivation layer, such as self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings, is that they typically are on the order of one monolayer thick. Generally, these types of coatings have a very limited usable lifetime, since they are easily damaged or displaced due to impact or wear created by the interaction of the various moving components. This inevitably happens in MEMS devices with contacting surfaces that are subject to frequent contact in use and a large number of contacts during the product lifetime, such as in light modulators and RF switches. Without some way to reliably restore or repair the damaged coatings, stiction occurs, and device failure results. As shown in FIG. 1A , one approach for lubricating MEMS components is to provide a getter 110 within the package 100 (that includes a base 111 , a lid 104 , and a seal 106 ) in which an array of MEMS devices 108 resides. FIG. 1B illustrates one conventional package 120 that contains a MEMS device 108 and a getter 110 positioned within the head space 124 of the package 120 . The package 120 also contains a package substrate 128 , window 126 and spacer ring 125 . These two configurations are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,843,936 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,979,893, respectively. These conventional devices employ some type of reversibly-absorbing getter to store the lubricant molecules in zeolite crystals or the internal volume of a micro-tube. In these designs, a supply of lubricant is maintained in the getter 110 , and an amount of lubricant needed to lubricate the MEMS device 108 is discharged during normal operation. However, adding the reversibly absorbing getter, or reservoirs, to retain the liquid lubricants increases package size and packaging complexity and adds steps to the fabrication process, all of which increase piece-part cost as well as the overall manufacturing cost of MEMS or NEMS devices. Thus, forming a device that uses these techniques generally requires a number of labor-intensive and costly processing steps, such as mixing the getter material, applying the getter material to the device-containing package, curing the getter material, conditioning or activating the getter material, and then sealing the MEMS device and the getter within the sealed package. Particles, moisture, and other contaminants found in our everyday atmospheric environment deleteriously effect device yield of a MEMS fabrication process and the average lifetime of a MEMS device. In an effort to prevent contamination during fabrication, the multiple process steps used to form a MEMS device are usually completed in an ultra-high grade clean room environment, e.g., class 10 or better. Due to the high cost required to produce and maintain a class 10 or better clean room environment, the more MEMS device fabrication steps that require such a clean room environment, the more expensive the MEMS device is to make. Therefore, there is a need to create a MEMS device fabrication process that reduces the number of processing steps that require an ultra-high grade clean room environment. As noted above, in an effort to isolate the MEMS components from the everyday atmospheric environment, MEMS device manufacturers typically enclose the MEMS device within a device package so that a sealed environment is formed around the MEMS device. Conventional device packaging processes commonly require the lubricating materials that are contained within the MEMS device package be exposed to high temperatures during the MEMS device package sealing processes, particularly wafer level hermetic packaging. Typically, conventional sealing processes, such as glass frit bonding or eutectic bonding, require that the MEMS device, lubricants, and other device components are heated to temperatures between about 250° C. to 450° C. These high-bonding temperatures severely limit the type of lubricants that can be used in a device package and also cause the lubricant to evaporate away or break down after a prolonged period of exposure. In addition, lubricant that has evaporated during high temperature bonding processes can later re-condense onto and contaminate sealing surfaces. Therefore, there is also a need for a MEMS device package-fabricating process that eliminates or minimizes the exposure of lubricants to high temperatures during the device fabrication process.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. A device assembly according to an embodiment of the invention includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. The volume of the lubricant channel may be between 0.1 nanoliter and 1000 nanoliters. The hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel may be less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. A device assembly according to another embodiment of the invention comprises a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. Embodiments of the invention also provide a packaged micromechanical device that includes a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device, a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region, and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. An epoxy layer may be interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. Typically, a channel inlet that is in fluid communication with the lubrication channel is formed through an exterior wall of the micromechanical device assembly or package. Lubricant is injected into the lubrication channel through this channel inlet. However, when an epoxy layer is used, the lubricant may be injected into the lubricant channel prior to the sealing of the package and the channel inlet becomes no longer necessary. One advantage of the invention is that a reservoir of a lubricating material is formed within a device package so that an amount of “fresh” lubricating material can be delivered to areas where stiction may occur. In one aspect, the lubricating material is contained in one or more microchannels that are adapted to evenly deliver a mobile lubricant to interacting areas of the MEMS device. In another aspect, different lubricant materials can be brought into the device in a sequential manner via one channel, or contained concurrently in separate channels. Consequently, the lubricant delivery techniques described herein more reliably and cost effectively prevent stiction-related device failures relative to conventional lubricant delivery schemes.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/847,831, filed Sep. 27, 2006, entitled “Method of Sealing a Microfluidic Lubricant Channel Formed in a Micromechanical Device,” which is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to micro-electro-mechanical and nano-electro-mechanical systems and more specifically to such systems having one or more microfluidic lubricant channels. 2. Description of the Related Art As is well known, atomic level and microscopic level forces between device components become far more critical as devices become smaller. Problems related to these types of forces are quite prevalent with micromechanical devices, such as micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS). In particular, “stiction” forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another, either intentionally or accidentally, during operation are a common problem with micromechanical devices. Stiction-type failures occur when the interfacial attraction forces created between moving parts that come into contact with one another exceed restoring forces. As a result, the surfaces of these parts either permanently or temporarily adhere to each other, causing device failure or malfunction. Stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include capillary forces, Van der Waal's forces and electrostatic attraction forces. As used herein, the term “contact” refers generally to any interaction between two surfaces and is not limited to the actual physical touching of the surfaces. Some examples of typical micromechanical devices are RF switches, optical modulators, microgears, accelerometers, worm gears, transducers, fluid nozzles, gyroscopes, and other similar devices or actuators. It should be noted that the term “MEMS device” is used hereafter to generally describe a micromechanical device, and to cover both MEMS and NEMS devices discussed above. Stiction is especially problematic in devices such as the RF switch, optical modulator, microgears, and other actuators. Various elements in these devices often interact with each other during operation at frequencies between a few hertz (Hz) and a few gigahertz (GHz). Various analyses have shown that, without adding some form of lubrication to these types of devices to reduce stiction and wear between component surfaces, product lifetimes may range from only a few contacts to a few thousand contacts, which is generally well below a commercially viable lifetime. Consequently, one of the biggest challenges facing the MEMS and NEMS industries is the long-term reliability of contacting microstructures in the face of stiction. Several techniques to address stiction between two contacting surfaces have been discussed in various publications. One such technique is to texture the contact surfaces (e.g., via micro patterning or laser patterning) to reduce the overall adhesion force by reducing the effective contact area. Another such technique involves selecting specific materials from which the contacting surfaces are made to lower the surface energy, reduce charging, or contact potential difference between components. Moreover, some prior references have suggested the insertion of a lubricant into the region around the interacting devices to reduce the chance of stiction-related failures. Such a lubricant often times is in a solid or liquid state, depending on the properties of the material, and the temperature and pressure or environment in which the lubricant is placed. In general, the terms a “solid” lubricant or a “liquid” lubricant is a lubricant that is in a solid or liquid state under ambient conditions, i.e., room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Some prior art references describe a lubricant as being in a “vapor” state. These references use the term vapor phase lubricant to generally describe a mixture of components that contain a carrier gas (e.g., nitrogen) and a vaporized second component that is a solid or liquid at temperatures and pressures near ambient conditions (e.g., STP). In most conventional applications, the solid or liquid lubricant remains in a solid or liquid state at temperatures much higher than room temperature and pressures much lower than atmospheric pressure conditions. Examples of typical lubricants that are solid or liquid at ambient conditions and temperatures well above ambient temperature can be found in references such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,930,367. Such prior art lubricants include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecanoic acid (“PFDA”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), perfluoro polyether (“PFPE”) and/or fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”), that are deposited on various interacting components by use of a vapor deposition process, such as atmospheric chemical vapor deposition (APCVD), low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), or other similar deposition processes. The technique of forming the low-surface energy organic passivation layer on the surface of a MEMS component is commonly referred to in the art as “vapor lubricant” coating. One serious draw back to using a low-surface energy organic passivation layer, such as self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings, is that they typically are on the order of one monolayer thick. Generally, these types of coatings have a very limited usable lifetime, since they are easily damaged or displaced due to impact or wear created by the interaction of the various moving components. This inevitably happens in MEMS devices with contacting surfaces that are subject to frequent contact in use and a large number of contacts during the product lifetime, such as in light modulators and RF switches. Without some way to reliably restore or repair the damaged coatings, stiction occurs, and device failure results. As shown in FIG. 1A, one approach for lubricating MEMS components is to provide a getter 110 within the package 100 (that includes a base 111, a lid 104, and a seal 106) in which an array of MEMS devices 108 resides. FIG. 1B illustrates one conventional package 120 that contains a MEMS device 108 and a getter 110 positioned within the head space 124 of the package 120. The package 120 also contains a package substrate 128, window 126 and spacer ring 125. These two configurations are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,843,936 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,979,893, respectively. These conventional devices employ some type of reversibly-absorbing getter to store the lubricant molecules in zeolite crystals or the internal volume of a micro-tube. In these designs, a supply of lubricant is maintained in the getter 110, and an amount of lubricant needed to lubricate the MEMS device 108 is discharged during normal operation. However, adding the reversibly absorbing getter, or reservoirs, to retain the liquid lubricants increases package size and packaging complexity and adds steps to the fabrication process, all of which increase piece-part cost as well as the overall manufacturing cost of MEMS or NEMS devices. Thus, forming a device that uses these techniques generally requires a number of labor-intensive and costly processing steps, such as mixing the getter material, applying the getter material to the device-containing package, curing the getter material, conditioning or activating the getter material, and then sealing the MEMS device and the getter within the sealed package. Particles, moisture, and other contaminants found in our everyday atmospheric environment deleteriously effect device yield of a MEMS fabrication process and the average lifetime of a MEMS device. In an effort to prevent contamination during fabrication, the multiple process steps used to form a MEMS device are usually completed in an ultra-high grade clean room environment, e.g., class 10 or better. Due to the high cost required to produce and maintain a class 10 or better clean room environment, the more MEMS device fabrication steps that require such a clean room environment, the more expensive the MEMS device is to make. Therefore, there is a need to create a MEMS device fabrication process that reduces the number of processing steps that require an ultra-high grade clean room environment. As noted above, in an effort to isolate the MEMS components from the everyday atmospheric environment, MEMS device manufacturers typically enclose the MEMS device within a device package so that a sealed environment is formed around the MEMS device. Conventional device packaging processes commonly require the lubricating materials that are contained within the MEMS device package be exposed to high temperatures during the MEMS device package sealing processes, particularly wafer level hermetic packaging. Typically, conventional sealing processes, such as glass frit bonding or eutectic bonding, require that the MEMS device, lubricants, and other device components are heated to temperatures between about 250° C. to 450° C. These high-bonding temperatures severely limit the type of lubricants that can be used in a device package and also cause the lubricant to evaporate away or break down after a prolonged period of exposure. In addition, lubricant that has evaporated during high temperature bonding processes can later re-condense onto and contaminate sealing surfaces. Therefore, there is also a need for a MEMS device package-fabricating process that eliminates or minimizes the exposure of lubricants to high temperatures during the device fabrication process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. A device assembly according to an embodiment of the invention includes a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region to be in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein a substantial length of the lubricant channel extends into said at least one interior wall to be completely enclosed thereby. The volume of the lubricant channel may be between 0.1 nanoliter and 1000 nanoliters. The hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel may be less than about 1 mm, and a length of the lubricant channel is substantially larger than a hydraulic diameter of the lubricant channel. A device assembly according to another embodiment of the invention comprises a micromechanical device enclosed within a processing region and a lubricant channel formed on at least one interior wall of the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is in fluid communication with the processing region along the entire length thereof, and the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. Embodiments of the invention also provide a packaged micromechanical device that includes a lid, a base, and an interposer that define a processing region for a micromechanical device, a micromechanical device disposed within the processing region, and a lubricant channel formed through at least one interior wall of the processing region and in fluid communication with the processing region, wherein the lubricant channel is configured so that a lubricant for the micromechanical device is held within the lubricant channel via surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel. An epoxy layer may be interposed between the lid and the interposer and between the interposer and the base. Typically, a channel inlet that is in fluid communication with the lubrication channel is formed through an exterior wall of the micromechanical device assembly or package. Lubricant is injected into the lubrication channel through this channel inlet. However, when an epoxy layer is used, the lubricant may be injected into the lubricant channel prior to the sealing of the package and the channel inlet becomes no longer necessary. One advantage of the invention is that a reservoir of a lubricating material is formed within a device package so that an amount of “fresh” lubricating material can be delivered to areas where stiction may occur. In one aspect, the lubricating material is contained in one or more microchannels that are adapted to evenly deliver a mobile lubricant to interacting areas of the MEMS device. In another aspect, different lubricant materials can be brought into the device in a sequential manner via one channel, or contained concurrently in separate channels. Consequently, the lubricant delivery techniques described herein more reliably and cost effectively prevent stiction-related device failures relative to conventional lubricant delivery schemes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the above recited features of the present invention can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typical embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective embodiments. FIG. 1A schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a prior art device package containing a getter. FIG. 1B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of another prior art device package containing a getter. FIG. 2A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2C schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly in a deflected state, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 3B and 3C illustrate close-up views of a partial section and a lubricant channel in FIG. 3A, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3D illustrates a lubricant channel that has a volume of lubricant disposed therein to provide a ready supply of lubricant to a processing region, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3E illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3F illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly having channels inside the processing region of the device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3G illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly having lubricant-containing channels on an interior wall of the processing region, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 4A-C illustrate process sequences for forming a MEMS device package that includes lubrication channels, according to embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 5A-5P illustrate the various states of one or more of the components of a MEMS device package after performing each step in the process sequences illustrated in FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C. FIG. 6A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly after performing multiple steps in the process sequence illustrated in FIG. 4A, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 6B and 6C illustrate a channel inlet formed into a lubricant channel, according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6D illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly after a lubricant has been drawn into a lubricant channel, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6E illustrates a cap is installed over a channel inlet to seal a lubricant channel, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 6F and 6G illustrate methods of sealing a lubricant channel using an IR laser, according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 7A illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7B illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7C illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7D illustrates a close-up of a partial section view illustrated in FIG. 7C, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7E illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate a close-up of a partial section view of a device package assembly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10A is a plan view of a MEMS device package having a lubricant channel formed with a particle trap, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10B is a plan view of a MEMS device package having a lubricant channel formed with a non-linear particle trap, according to an embodiment of the invention. For clarity, identical reference numbers have been used, where applicable, to designate identical elements that are common between figures. It is contemplated that features of one embodiment may be incorporated in other embodiments without further recitation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention generally relates to a micromechanical device that has an improved usable lifetime due to the presence of one or more channels that contain and deliver a lubricant that can reduce the likelihood of stiction occurring between the various moving parts of the device. Embodiments of the present invention include an enclosed device package, and a method of forming the same, where the enclosed device package has one or more lubricant-containing channels for delivering lubricant to a MEMS device disposed within the enclosed region of the device package. The one or more lubricant-containing channels act as a ready supply of fresh lubricant to prevent stiction between interacting components of the device disposed within the enclosed region of the device package. This supply of fresh lubricant may also be used to replenish damaged lubricants (worn-off, broken down, etc.) between various contacting surfaces. In one example, aspects of this invention may be especially useful for fabricating micromechanical devices, such as MEMS devices, NEMS devices, or other similar thermal or fluidic devices. In one embodiment, the amount and type of lubricant disposed within the channel is selected so that fresh lubricant can readily diffuse or be transported in a gas or vapor phase to all areas of the processing region to reduce the chances of stiction-related failure. In another embodiment, the lubricant and the surfaces of walls of the processing region, in particular the wettability of the surfaces, are selected so that fresh lubricant is transported in a liquid phase onto surfaces of walls of the processing region via capillary forces, and subsequently released to the internal region of the device as molecules or molecular vapor. One of skill in the art recognizes that the term lubricant, as used herein, is intended to describe a material adapted to provide lubrication, anti-stiction, and/or anti-wear properties to contact surfaces. In addition, the term lubricant, as used herein, is generally intended to describe a lubricant that is in a liquid, vapor and/or gaseous state during the operation and storage of a MEMS device. Aspects of the present invention take advantage of characteristics of the microfluidics. In particular, microchannels or lubricant channels are configured in view of the lubricant material to be used so that capillary forces can be used to manipulate liquid lubricants into one or more lubricant channels that are in fluid communication with a process region of a MEMS device. The lubricant channel has at least two types of applications. The first application is to serve as a storage for the lubricants for lifetime use of the MEMS device. The second application is to provide a controllable way to deliver lubricants into the process region in a well-controller manner. In certain cases, simple external mechanical pressure from a pipette or a pump, for example, may be used alone, or in conjunction with the capillary forces to manipulate liquid lubricants into the lubricant channels. Overview of Exemplary System In an effort to prevent contamination from affecting the longevity of MEMS or NEMS components, these devices are typically enclosed within an environment that is isolated from external contamination, such as particles, moisture, or other foreign material. FIG. 2A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a typical MEMS device package 230 that contains a MEMS device 231 enclosed within a processing region 234 formed between a lid 232, interposer 235 and a base 233. Typically, the lid 232, interposer 235 and base 233 are all hermetically or non-hermetically sealed so that the components within the processing region 234 are isolated from external contamination that may interfere with the use of the device. FIG. 2B illustrates a representative micromechanical device that may be formed within the MEMS device 231 of FIG. 2A, which is used herein to describe various embodiments of the invention. The device shown in FIG. 2B schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of a single mirror assembly 101 contained in a spatial light modulator (SLM). One should note that the MEMS device shown in FIG. 2B is not intended in any way to limit the scope of the invention described herein, since one skilled in the art would appreciate that the various embodiments described herein could be used in other MEMS, NEMS, larger scale actuators or sensors, or other comparable devices that experience stiction or other similar problems. While the discussion below specifically discusses the application of one or more of the various embodiments of the invention using a MEMS or NEMS type of device, these configurations also are not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the invention. In general, a single mirror assembly 101 may contain a mirror 102, base 103, and a flexible member 107 that connects the mirror 102 to the base 103. The base 103 is generally provided with at least one electrode (elements 106A or 106B) formed on a surface 105 of the base 103. The base 103 can be made of any suitable material that is generally mechanically stable and can be formed using typical semiconductor processing techniques. In one aspect, the base 103 is formed from a semiconductor material, such as a silicon-containing material, and is processed according to standard semiconductor processing techniques. Other materials may be used in alternative embodiments of the invention. The electrodes 106A, 106B can be made of any materials that conduct electricity. In one aspect, the electrodes 106A, 106B are made of a metal (e.g., aluminum, titanium) deposited on the surface 105 of the base 103 and etched to yield desired shape. A MEMS device of this type is described in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/901,706, filed Jul. 28, 2004. The mirror 102 generally contains a reflective surface 102A and a mirror base 102B. The reflective surface 102A is generally formed by depositing a metal layer, such as aluminum or other suitable material, on the mirror base 102B. The mirror 102 is attached to the base 103 by a flexible member 107. In one aspect, the flexible member 107 is a cantilever spring that is adapted to bend in response to an applied force and to subsequently return to its original shape after removal of the applied force. In one embodiment, the base 103 is fabricated from a first single piece of material, and the flexible member 107 and the mirror base 102B are fabricated from a second single piece of material, such as single crystal silicon. Importantly, the use of any device configuration that allows the surface of one component (e.g., mirror 102) to contact the surface of another component (e.g., base 103) during device operation, thereby leading to stiction-related problems, generally falls within the scope of the invention. For example, a simple cantilever beam that pivots about a hinge in response to an applied force such that one end of the cantilever beam contacts another surface of the device is within the scope of the invention. In one aspect, one or more optional landing pads (elements 104A and 104B in FIG. 2B) are formed on the surface 105 of the base 103. The landing pads are formed, for example, by depositing a metal layer containing aluminum, titanium nitride, tungsten or other suitable materials. In other configurations, the landing pads may be made of silicon (Si), polysilicon (poly-Si), silicon nitride (SiN), silicon carbide (SiC), diamond like carbon (DLC), copper (Cu), titanium (Ti) and/or other suitable materials. FIG. 2C illustrates the single mirror assembly 101 in a distorted state due to the application of an electrostatic force FE created by applying a voltage VA between the mirror 102 and the electrode 106A using a power supply 112. As shown in FIG. 2C, it is often desirable to bias a landing pad (e.g., elements 104A) to the same potential as the mirror 102 to eliminate electrical breakdown and electrical static charging in the contacting area relative to mirror 102. During typical operation, the single mirror assembly 101 is actuated such that the mirror 102 contacts the landing pad 104A to ensure that a desired angle is achieved between the mirror 102 and the base 103 so that incoming optical radiation “A” is reflected off the surface of the mirror 102 in a desired direction “B.” The deflection of the mirror 102 towards the electrode 106A due to the application of voltage VA creates a restoring force (e.g., moment), due to the bending of the flexible member 107. The magnitude of the restoring force is generally defined by the physical dimensions and material properties of the flexible member 107, and the magnitude of distortion experienced by the flexible member 107. The maximum restoring force is typically limited by the torque applied by the electrostatic force FE that can be generated by the application of the maximum allowable voltage VA. To assure contact between the mirror 102 and the landing pad 104A the electrostatic force FE must be greater than the maximum restoring force. As the distance between the mirror 102 and the landing pad 104A decreases, the interaction between the surfaces of these components generally creates one or more stiction forces that acts on the mirror 102. When the stiction forces equal or exceed the restoring force, device failure results, since the mirror 102 is prevented from moving to a different position when the electrostatic force generated by voltage VA is removed or reduced. As previously described herein, stiction forces are complex surface phenomena that generally include three major components. The first is the so-called “capillary force” that is created at the interface between a liquid and a solid due to an intermolecular force imbalance at the surface of a liquid (e.g., Laplace pressure differences) that generates an adhesive-type attractive force. Capillary force interaction in MEMS and NEMS devices usually occurs when a thin layer of liquid is trapped between the surfaces of two contacting components. A typical example is the water vapor in the ambient. The second major component of stiction forces is the Van der Waal's force, which is a basic quantum mechanical intermolecular force that results when atoms or molecules come very close to one another. When device components contact one another, Van der Waal's forces arise from the polarization induced in the atoms of one component by the presence of the atoms of the second component. When working with very planar structures, such as those in MEMS and NEMS devices, these types of stiction forces can be significant due to the size of the effective contact area. The third major component of stiction forces is the electrostatic force created by the coulombic attraction between trapped charges found in the interacting components. Device Package Configurations FIG. 3A is a plan view of the MEMS device package 230 illustrated in FIG. 2A having a microfluidic channel or lubricant channel 301 formed in the MEMS device package 230. For clarity, MEMS device package 230 is illustrated with a partial section 391 of lid 232 removed. The lubricant channel 301 is a microchannel, i.e., a conduit with a hydraulic diameter of a few micrometers to less than about 1 mm, and may be formed in any one of the walls that enclose the processing region 234. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 3A, the lubricant channel 301 is formed in the interposer 235 just below the lid 232. Alternatively, lubricant channel 301 may be formed in the lid 232 or in the base 233 of MEMS device package 230. In one embodiment, the lubricant channel 301 extends from an interior surface 235B of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234 to a channel inlet 302 (see FIG. 3B). The channel inlet 302 penetrates an exterior surface 235A to allow the introduction of one or more lubricants into the lubricant channel 301. In alternative embodiments, the lubricant channel 301 does not extend to an exterior surface (see FIG. 5L) and may be formed on one of the walls that enclose the processing region 234 (see FIG. 3G). To prevent ingress of particles, moisture, and other contamination into the processing region 234 and lubricant channel 301 from the outside environment, lubricant channel 301 is configured so that it is sealed from the outside environment. In one embodiment, channel inlet 302 is sealed with a closure 302A after a lubricant (not shown for clarity) is introduced into lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 3B. Methods for forming closure 302A to seal channel inlet 302 according to this embodiment are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 6F and 6G. In another embodiment, a cap 304 is positioned over the channel inlet 302 after lubricant channel 301 is filled with lubricant, as shown in FIG. 3C. The cap 304 may be a polymer, such as epoxy or silicone, or other solid material that is bonded to the exterior surface 235A using conventional sealing techniques. In one aspect, cap 304 is a plug of material that is positioned inside the channel inlet 302 after lubricant channel 301 is filled with lubricant. The plug of material sealing channel inlet 302 may be an indium metal plug, which may be applied as a molten solder droplet to channel inlet 302 without the use of flux, a potential contaminant. This is because indium alloys with silicon and therefore wets exterior surface 235A and channel inlet 302. The plug of material sealing channel inlet 302 may also include a hydrophobic, high-vacuum grease, such as Krytox®. The lubricant channel 301 is adapted to contain a desired amount of a lubricant (not shown) that vaporizes or diffuses into the processing region 234 over time. The rate at which the lubricant migrates into the processing region is affected by a number of factors, including the geometry of the lubricant channel 301, lubricant molecular weight, bond strength of the lubricant to processing region surfaces (e.g., via physisorption, chemisorption), capillary force created by the surface tension of the lubricant against internal surfaces of the lubrication channel 301, lubricant temperature, and pressure of the volume contained within the processing region 234. In one embodiment, lubricant channel 301 is adapted to contain a volume of lubricant between about 0.1 nanoliters (nl) and about 1000 nl. Referring to FIG. 3B, the volume of the lubricant channel 301 is defined by the formed length times the cross-sectional area of the lubricant channel 301. The length of the lubricant channel 301 is the channel length extending from the exterior surface 235A to the interior surface 235B, i.e., the sum of the length of segments A, B and C, as shown in FIG. 3B. The channel length is between 10 micrometers to 1 mm. In one aspect, the cross-section of lubricant channel 301 is rectangular and the cross-sectional area (not shown) is defined by the depth (not shown) and the width W of the lubricant channel 301. In one embodiment, the width W of the lubricant channel 301 is between about 10 micrometers (μm) and about 800 μm and the depth is between about 10 micrometers (μm) and about 200 μm. The cross-section of the lubricant channel 301 need not be square or rectangular, and can be any desirable shape without varying from the basic scope of the invention. FIG. 3D illustrates a lubricant channel 301 that has a volume of lubricant 505 disposed therein to provide a ready supply of lubricant to the processing region 234. During normal operation of the MEMS device 231, molecules of the lubricant tend to migrate to all areas within the processing region 234. The continual migration of the lubricant 505 to the areas of the MEMS device 231 where stiction may occur is useful to prevent stiction-related failures at contact regions between two interacting MEMS components. As lubricant molecules breakdown at the contact regions and/or adsorb onto other surfaces within the processing region 234 during operation of the MEMS device 231, fresh lubricant molecules from lubricant channel 301 replace the broken-down or adsorbed lubricant molecules, thereby allowing the lubricant 505 in the lubricant channel 301 to act as a lubricant reservoir. The movement or migration of molecules of the lubricant 505 is generally performed by two transport mechanisms. The first mechanism is a surface diffusion mechanism, where the lubricant molecules diffuse across the internal surfaces of processing region 234 to reach the contact region between two interacting MEMS components. In one aspect, the lubricant 505 is selected for good diffusivity over the surfaces contained within the processing region 234. The second mechanism is a vapor phase, or gas phase, migration of the lubricant 505 stored in lubricant channel 301 to the contact region between two interacting MEMS components. In one aspect, the lubricant 505 stored in the lubricant channels 301 of the device package is selected so that molecules of lubricant 505 desorb from these areas and enter into the process region 234 as a vapor or gas. During operation of the device, the lubricant molecules reach an equilibrium partial pressure within processing region 234 and then, in a vapor or gaseous state, migrate to an area between the interacting surfaces of process region 234 and MEMS device 231. Since these two types of transport mechanisms aid in the build-up of a lubricant layer, thereby reducing the interaction of moving MEMS components, the act of delivering lubricant to an exposed region of the MEMS device is generally referred to hereafter as “replenishment” of the lubricant layer, and a lubricant delivered by either transport mechanism is referred to as a “mobile lubricant.” Generally, a sufficient amount of replenishing lubricant molecules are stored inside the lubricant channel 301 so that the sufficient lubricant molecules are available to prevent stiction-induced failures at the interacting areas of the MEMS device during the entire life cycle of the product. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 3E, the size of the lubricant channel 301 is selected and the internal surface 234A is selectively treated, so that the surface tension of a liquid lubricant 505 against the surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 and the internal surface 234A causes the lubricant 505 to be drawn from a position outside of the MEMS device package 230 into lubricant channel 301 and then into the processing region 234. In this way, the lubricant channel 301 acts as a liquid injection system that allows the user to deliver an amount of the lubricant 505 into the processing region 234, by use of capillary forces created when the lubricant 505 contacts the walls of the lubricant channel 301. In one example, the cross-section of lubricant channel 301 is rectangular, and the width of the lubricant channel 301 is between about 100 micrometers (μm) and about 600 μm, and the depth is between about 100 μm±50 μm. When in use, capillary forces can deliver an amount of lubricant 505 to the processing region 234 that is smaller or larger than the volume of the lubricant channel 301. In this configuration it may be possible to sequentially deliver different volumes of two or more different lubricants through the same lubricant channel 301. Alternatively, a first lubricant may be transmitted through the lubricant channel 301 and then a second lubricant is retained in the lubricant channel 301 in a subsequent step. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is selected so that a portion of the lubricant 505 vaporizes to form a vapor or gas within the processing region during normal operation of the device. In cases where the MEMS device is a spatial light modulator (SLM), typical device operating temperatures may be in a range between about 0° C. and about 70° C. The ability of the lubricant to form a vapor or gas is dependent on lubricant equilibrium partial pressure, which varies as a function of the temperature of the lubricant, the pressure of the region surrounding the lubricant, lubricant bond strength to internal surfaces of the processing region 234, and lubricant molecular weight. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is selected due to its ability to rapidly diffuse along the surfaces within the processing region 234. In this embodiment, internal surfaces 234B of the processing region 234 and/or the lubricant channel 301 may be treated to act as wetting surfaces for the lubricant 505, as illustrated in FIG. 3F. In this way, the lubricant 505 is brought into processing region 234 in a liquid form to act as a reservoir of mobile lubricant for MEMS device package 230 throughout the MEMS device lifetime. To prevent interference with contact surfaces within the processing region 234, selected areas of internal surfaces 234C of processing region 234 may be treated to act as non-wetting surfaces for the lubricant 505. In this way, a liquid reservoir of mobile lubricant is formed in processing region 234 with no danger of interfering with components of MEMS device 231. In one aspect, channels or grooves 234D are formed in one or more internal surfaces of the processing region 234 to better retain lubricant 505, as shown in FIG. 3G. In another embodiment, the lubricant 505 is adapted to operate at a temperature that is within an extended operating temperature range, which is between about 0° C. and about 70° C. In yet another embodiment, the lubricant is selected so that it will not decompose when the device is exposed to temperatures that may be experienced during a typical MEMS or NEMS packaging process, i.e., between about −30° C. and about 400° C. Examples of lubricants 505 that may be disposed within a lubricant channel 301 and used to prevent stiction of the interacting components within a MEMS device are perfluorinated polyethers (PFPE), self assembled monolayer (SAM) or other liquid lubricants. Some known types of PFPE lubricants are Y or Z type lubricants (e.g., Fomblin® Z25) available from Solvay Solexis, Inc. of Thorofare, N.J., Krytoxe from DuPont, and Demnum® from Daikin Industries, LTD. Examples of SAM include dichlorodimethylsilane (“DDMS”), octadecyltrichlorosilane (“OTS”), perfluoroctyltrichlorsilane (“PFOTCS”), perfluorodecyl-trichlorosilane (“FDTS”), fluoroalkylsilane (“FOTS”). In alternative embodiments, it may be desirable to modify the properties of the surfaces within the lubricant channel 301 to change the lubricant bond strength to surfaces with the internal region 305, shown in FIG. 3B, of the lubricant channel 301. For example, it may be desirable to coat the surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 with an organic passivating material, such as a self-assembled-monolayer (SAM). Useful SAM materials include, but are not limited to, organosilane type compounds such as octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS), perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane (FDTS). The surfaces of the lubricant channel 301 may also be modified by exposing them to microwaves, UV light, thermal energy, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation to alter the properties of the surface of the lubricant channel 301. As noted above, conventional techniques that require the addition of a reversibly absorbing getter to MEMS device package to retain a lubricant substantially increase the device package size and the complexity of forming the device, and also add steps to the fabrication process. Such device package designs have an increased piece-part cost and an increased overall manufacturing cost, due to the addition of extra getter components. Therefore, by disposing a mobile lubricant in a lubricant channel formed in or on one or more of the walls enclosing the processing region, an inexpensive and reliable MEMS device can be formed. The use of the lubricant channel 301 eliminates the need for a reversibly adsorbing getter and thus reduces the device package size, the manufacturing cost, and the piece-part cost. The embodiments described herein also improve device reliability by reducing the likelihood that during operation additional components positioned within the processing region, such as getter materials, contact the moving or interacting MEMS components within the device package. Lubricant Channel Formation Process According to embodiments of the invention, a lubricant channel similar to lubricant channel 301 of MEMS device package 230 can be formed in one or more of the walls of an enclosure containing a MEMS or any other stiction-sensitive device. Typically, MEMS devices are enclosed in a MEMS device package 230, as illustrated above in FIG. 2A, using a chip-level or wafer-level packaging process. An example of a chip-level packaging process can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,936,758 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 20050212067. The process sequence discussed below can also be applied to wafer-level hermetic packaging, in which a plurality of MEMS devices are packaged simultaneously by aligning and assembling a number of silicon and glass wafers into a stack. For example, a plurality of MEMS device packages substantially similar to MEMS device 230 may be formed via wafer-level hermetic packaging by using a base 233 from which the MEMS device packages 230 will be formed. A plurality of MEMS devices 231 may be formed on the base 233 or individually bonded to the base 233. The sealed MEMS devices 230 can be formed by bonding the base 233, an interposer wafer, and a glass wafer. The individual MEMS device packages are then formed by singulating the bonded wafer stack by dicing, laser cutting or other methods of die separation. The remaining packaging assembly and testing processes following wafer-level hermetic packaging and die singulation do not require an ultra-high clean room environment and hence reduce the overall packaging cost to manufacture a device. In addition, embodiments of the invention described below have a particular advantage over conventional MEMS device packaging processes, since they eliminate the requirement that the MEMS device lubricant be exposed to a high temperature during the steps used to form the sealed processing region 234. While the discussion below focuses on a wafer-level packaging method, the techniques and general process sequence need not be limited to this type of manufacturing process. Therefore, the embodiments of the invention described herein are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. Examples of MEMS device packages and processes of forming the MEMS device packages that may benefit from one or more embodiments of the invention described herein are further described in the following commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,323, Attorney Docket No. 021713-000300, filed Oct. 24, 2003, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/902,659, Attorney Docket No. 021713-001000, filed Jul. 28, 2004, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/008,483, Attorney Docket No. 021713-001300, filed Dec. 8, 2004. FIG. 4A illustrates a process sequence 400 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that includes lubrication channels 301, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 5A-5F illustrate the various states of one or more of the components of the MEMS device package 230 after each step of process sequence 400 has been performed. FIG. 5A is a cross-sectional view of a wafer 235C that may be used to form the multiple MEMS device packages 230, as shown in FIG. 5F. The wafer 235C may be formed from a material such as silicon (Si), a metal, a glass material, a plastic material, a polymer material, or other suitable material. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5B, in step 450, conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques are used to form the lubricant channels 301 and the optional depressions 401 on a top surface 404 of the wafer 235C. The depth D of the lubricant channels 301 and the depressions 401 are set by the time and etch rate of the conventional dry etching process performed on the wafer 235C. It should be noted that the lubricant channels 301 and depressions 401 may be formed by other conventional etching, ablation, or other manufacturing techniques without varying from the scope of the basic invention. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5C, in step 452, conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques are used to remove material from the back surface 405 through the base wall 403 of the depressions 401 to form a through hole 402 that defines the interior surface 235B. Interior surface 235B, together with the lid 232 and the base 233 (shown in FIGS. 5E-5F), defines processing region 234 of MEMS device package 230. The process of removing material from the wafer 235C to form the through hole 402 may also be performed by conventional etching, ablation, or other similar manufacturing techniques. Alternatively, the wafer 235C may be formed with the through holes 402 in a previous step. In step 454, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 5D, the lid 232 is bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C to enclose the lubricant channels 301 and cover one end of each through hole 402. Typical bonding processes may include anodic bonding (e.g., an electrolytic process), eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding processes. In one embodiment, the lid 232 is a display grade glass material (e.g., Corning® Eagle 2000™) and the wafer 235C is a silicon-containing material, and the lid 232 is bonded to the wafer 235C by use of a conventional anodic bonding technique. Typically the temperature of one or more of the components in the MEMS device package reaches between about 350° C. and about 450° C. during a conventional anodic bonding process. Additional information related to the anodic bonding process is provided in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/028,946, filed on Jan. 3, 2005, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In step 456, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 5E, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C to form an enclosed processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. Typically, the base 233 is bonded to the wafer 235C using an anodic bonding (e.g., an electrolytic process), eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding process. In one embodiment, the base 233 is a silicon-containing substrate and wafer 235C is a silicon-containing wafer, and base 233 is bonded to the wafer 235C using a glass frit bonding process. Typically, the temperature of at least one or more of the components in the MEMS device package reaches a temperature between about 350° C. and about 450° C. during a glass frit bonding process. Additional information related to the glass frit bonding process is provided in the commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/028,946, filed on Jan. 3, 2005, which has been incorporated by reference in its entirety. Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 5F, in step 458, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. The excess or scrap material 411, which is left over after the dicing process, may then be discarded. As part of step 458, conventional wire bonding and testing can be performed on the formed MEMS device to assure viability thereof and prepare the MEMS device for use in a system that may utilize the MEMS device package 230. Other dicing techniques can also be used to first expose the bond pads to allow wafer level probing and die sorting, followed by a full singulation. FIG. 6A is a plan view of a MEMS device package 230 having a partially formed lubricant channel 301 that may be formed using process steps 450 through step 458 shown in FIG. 4A. For clarity, MEMS device package 230 is illustrated with a partial section 601 of lid 232 removed. As shown, the lubricant channel 301 is only partially formed in the interposer 235 so that the end of the lubricant channel 301 proximate the exterior surface 235A is blocked by an excess interposer material 501 having a material thickness 502. In general, the material thickness 502 can be relatively thin to allow for easy removal of the excess interposer material 501 and may be about 10 micrometers (μm) to about 1 mm in thickness. In this configuration, the lubricant channel 301 is formed to extend from the exit port 303, which penetrates the interior surface 235B, to the opposing end, which is blocked by the excess interposer material 501. In this way, the processing region 234 remains sealed until the excess interposer material 501 is removed for injection of lubricant into the lubricant channel 301 during step 460 of FIG. 4A as described below. In step 460 of the process sequence 400, a channel inlet 302 is formed into the lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIGS. 6B and 6C. The channel inlet 302 may be formed by a step of puncturing the excess interposer material 501, as illustrated in FIG. 6B. Alternatively, the channel inlet 302 may be formed by performing a conventional abrasive, grinding, or polishing technique to remove substantially all of the excess interposer material 501 to expose the lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 6C. In one aspect, it may be desirable to clean and remove any particles from the lubricant channel 301 created when the excess interposer material is removed to assure that particles cannot make their way into the processing region 234. Because the precision with which the excess interposer material 501 of the MEMS device package 230 can be removed is limited, a thickness control aperture 503 may be formed proximate the lubricant channel 301 during the formation of lubricant channel 301, as shown in FIG. 6A. During the process step of 458, materials on the right side of the aperture 503 is removed to expose the aperture 503. The presence of thickness control aperture 503 allows for a variation 504 (see FIG. 6A) in the removal of excess interposer material 501 without affecting material thickness 502. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 6B, the channel inlet 302 is created by delivering energy, such as a laser pulse or an electron-beam pulse, to drill a hole through the excess interposer material 501 and into the lubricant channel 301. Laser drilling of channel inlet 302 may be performed using a short-pulse laser, such as an ultraviolet (UV) laser, or a long-pulse laser, such as an infra-red (IR) laser or constant (CW) laser. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and material thickness 502 is about 100 to 200 μm thick, a Rofin 20E/SHG 532 nm Q-switch laser may be used. In this case, average power setting for the drilling process is between about 1.0 and about 2.5 W, approximately 3000 to 6000 pulses are used (depending on the exact thickness and composition of excess interposer material 501), Q switch frequency is less than about 15000 Hz, and pulse width is between about 6 ns and 18 ns. Alternatively, an IR laser may be used for laser drilling to form channel inlet 302, such as a 20 W fiber laser having a laser wavelength of 1.06 μm. In this case, between about 2,000 and 10,000 pulses are delivered, depending on the exact value of material thickness 502, and the pulses are delivered at a frequency between 25 kHz and 40 kHz. It is believed that the use of an IR laser versus a UV laser will reduce the number of particles produced during the drilling process due to the higher absorption of the energy at these wavelengths, which causes the heated material to form a liquid that will tend to adhere to the internal surfaces of the lubricant channel 301. Therefore, use of an IR laser can result in significant reduction in particulate contamination formed in the lubricant channel 301 and/or the processing region 234. The inventors have also determined that particle generation during IR laser drilling can be minimized by optimizing settings of the laser. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and material thickness 502 is about 100 to 200 μm thick, particle generation can also be minimized by adjusting the IR laser to form channel inlet 302 with a diameter between about 10 μm and about 30 μm. In addition, to minimize oxidation of the excess interposer material 501 during the laser drilling of step 460, the laser drilling process may be performed in an oxygen-free environment. For example, step 460 may take place in a chamber filled with an inert gas, e.g., nitrogen, or a noble gas, e.g., argon. Alternatively, the inert gas or noble gas may be used as a localized purge gas shield. In one embodiment, the processing region 234 is filled with a gas during the formation of MEMS device package 230 to a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure so that any particles created during the removal of the excess interposer material 501 are urged away from the processing region 234 by the escaping gas. In one aspect, the processing region 234 is filled with a gas to a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure during step 456, i.e., the process of bonding the base 233 to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C. In this case, the environment in which step 456 is performed is maintained at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure so that higher than atmospheric pressure gas is trapped in the processing region 234 when fully formed. The gas retained in the processing region 234 may be an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon. In another embodiment, the device is placed in an o-ring sealed container with a transparent wall to allow the penetration of a UV or IR laser beam. The container is evacuated to a vacuum pressure in the millitorr regime prior to laser drilling to form channel inlet 302. The large pressure difference between the processing region 234 and the evacuated chamber further suppress the ingress of particles produced by laser drilling into the lubricant channel 301 during the formation of channel inlet 302. The container and the device are subsequently back-filled with desired gases, such as dry nitrogen or argon, prior to removing the device from the sealed container. Referring to FIG. 4A, in step 461, one or more lubricants are introduced into lubricant channel 301. As noted above in conjunction with FIG. 3E, lubricant channel 301 and channel inlet 302 may be configured so that capillary force draws the lubricant 505 into lubricant channel 301A, as illustrated in FIG. 6D. Hence, lubricant channel 301 may be filled with the lubricant 505 by placing a suitable quantity of lubricant 505 adjacent the channel inlet 302 on the exterior surface 235A with a syringe, pipette, or other similar device. Referring to FIG. 4A, in step 462, channel inlet 302 is sealed to isolate the lubricant channel 301, the processing region 234, and the lubricant 505 disposed therein from the environment external to the MEMS device package 230. In one embodiment, a cap 304 is installed over the channel inlet 302 to seal lubricant channel 301, as illustrated in FIG. 6E. The composition of cap 304 is described above in conjunction with FIG. 3C. In another embodiment, a spot welding method, such as laser welding, may be used to seal channel inlet 302. In one aspect, a long-pulse laser or continuous laser, such as an IR laser, is used for this process. To minimize production costs, an IR laser substantially similar to the laser used in step 460, i.e., the step of forming channel inlet 302 through excess interposer material 501, may also be used in step 462, i.e., the step of sealing lubricant channel 301. For example, when excess interposer material 501 is a silicon-containing material and channel inlet 302 has a diameter of between about 10 μm and about 30 μm, a Rofin StarWeld 40 having a laser wavelength of 1.06 μm may be used in single pulse mode to seal channel inlet 302 with a pulse width of about 1 ms, an energy of between about 0.1 and 0.6 J, and a spot size between about 100 μm and 400 μm. FIG. 6F illustrates a method of sealing lubricant channel 301 according to one embodiment, using an IR laser, wherein a laser is used to heat an area that is adjacent to the channel inlet 302, and thus some of the excess interposer material 501 is melted and is pushed over channel inlet 302. In this embodiment, a weld puddle 520 is formed on the exterior surface 235A with an IR or other long-pulse laser, and a portion 521 of the weld puddle 520 is displaced over channel inlet 302, thereby sealing lubricant channel 301. FIG. 6G illustrates another method of sealing lubricant channel 301 with an IR laser according to an embodiment, wherein one or more laser pulses are used to heat areas on the exterior surface 235A to create one or more seals 522 inside the lubricant channel 301. In this embodiment, one or more weld puddles 523 are formed in a sealing region 524 with sufficient energy to seal the lubricant channel 301 internally as shown. The geometry of lubricant channel 301 may be configured in weld region 524 to ensure that weld puddles 523 completely seal lubricant channel 301 from the ambient environment. For example, the portion of lubricant channel 301 corresponding to the location of weld puddles 523 may be positioned closer to exterior surface 235A and/or may be formed substantially narrower than the remaining portions of lubricant channel 301. Using weld puddles 523 to seal lubricant channel 301 as illustrated in FIG. 6G can minimize the amount of oxidized material that is contained in the seal. FIG. 4B illustrates a process sequence 410 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that contains a lubricant channel 301, according to one embodiment of the invention. Steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 410 are substantially the same as steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 400, and are described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A, 5A, 5B, and 5C. Referring now to FIG. 4B, in step 494, a lid 432 with a plurality of channel inlets 302 is aligned with and bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C to enclose the lubricant channels 301 and cover one end of each through hole 402, as illustrated in FIG. 5G. FIG. 5G is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C and the lid 432 after bonding. Step 494 is substantially similar to step 454 of process sequence 410, except that the lid 432 includes a plurality of channel inlets 302 positioned to align with a portion of each lubricant channel 301 formed in the wafer 235C. Alternatively, the channel inlets 302 may be formed in the lid 432 after the lid 432 is bonded to the wafer 235C. In this case, the channel inlets 302 may be formed via lithographic, ablation, and/or etching techniques commonly known and used in the art. In either case, formation or alignment of the channel inlets 302 is part of the wafer-level process. As noted above, wafer-level processes generally reduce the cost to manufacture a device compared to chip-level processes. In step 496, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5H, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C to form an enclosed processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. Step 496 is substantially similar to step 456 of process sequence 400 in FIG. 4A. In step 498, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5I, lubricant 505 is introduced into each lubricant channel 301 in a wafer-level process. In this embodiment, it is not necessary to dice the wafer stack consisting of the base 233, the wafer 235C, and the lid 232 into multiple MEMS device packages 230 prior to introducing the lubricant 505 into lubricant channels 301. Instead, a suitable quantity of the lubricant 505 may be placed adjacent to each opening in the channel inlet 302 on the upper surface 432A of the lid 432 by use of a syringe, pipette, or other similar device, and using capillary forces draw the lubricant 505 into each lubricant channel 301. In this way, the number of chip-level fabrication steps required to produce the MEMS device packages 230 is minimized. In step 499, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5J, each channel inlet 302 is sealed to isolate the lubricant channels 301, the processing regions 234, and the lubricant 505 disposed therein from the environment external to the MEMS device package 230. Step 499 of process sequence 410 is substantially similar to step 462 of process sequence 400, except that in step 499 a wafer-level rather than chip-level process is used, thereby further reducing the number of chip-level fabrication steps required to produce the MEMS device packages 230. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5J, the lubrication channels 301 have been sealed using laser welding, wherein a portion of the weld puddle formed on the upper surface 432A by an energy source (e.g., laser) is displaced to seal lubricant channel 301. Alternatively, the seal can be achieved by epoxy, eutectic solder, glass frit or other typical sealing materials. In step 458, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 5K, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. Step 458 of process sequence 410 is substantially the same as step 458 in process sequence 400, and is described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A and 5F. The excess or scrap material 411, which is left over after the dicing process, may then be discarded. As part of step 458, conventional wire bonding and testing can be performed on the formed MEMS device to assure viability thereof and prepare the MEMS device for use in a system that may utilize the MEMS device package 230. Other dicing techniques can also be used to first expose the bond pads to allow wafer level probing and die sorting, followed by a full singulation. FIG. 5L illustrates a cross-sectional plan view of the device package assembly 230, where channel inlet 302 is formed in the lid 432 and does not penetrate exterior surface 235A, according to this embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4C illustrates a process sequence 420 for forming a MEMS device package 230 that contains a lubricant channel 301 and a removable lubricant plug, according to one embodiment of the invention. Steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 420 are substantially the same as steps 450 and 452 in process sequence 400, and are described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A, 5A, 5B, and 5C. Referring now to FIG. 4C, in step 484, the base 233, which has a plurality of MEMS devices 231 mounted thereon, is aligned with and bonded to the back surface 405 of the wafer 235C with an epoxy layer 506, as illustrated in FIG. 5M. FIG. 5M is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C and the base 233 partially forming processing region 234 after bonding. The epoxy bonding process of step 484 is a low temperature process compared to anodic bonding, eutectic bonding, fusion bonding, covalent bonding, and/or glass frit fusion bonding. A lubricant plug 508 is also formed in each lubricant channel 301 as shown, to separate the processing region 234 from the lubricant channel 301. As described above, lubricant plug 508 may be a polymer, such as a photoresist, that converts to a porous material when exposed to UV or other wavelengths of radiation. Alternatively, lubricant plug 508 may be a polymer or other heat-sensitive material that breaks down or otherwise changes physical properties when exposed to heat. In step 486, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5N, one or more lubricants are introduced into lubricant channel 301. Because in this process step lubricant channel 301 is an open channel, capillary force is not necessary to draw the lubricant 505 into lubricant channel 301. Lubricant plug 508 prevents lubricant 505 from entering processing region 234. In step 487, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5O, a lid 432 is aligned with and bonded to the top surface 404 of the wafer 235C with a second epoxy layer 507, as illustrated in FIG. 5O. FIG. 5O is a cross-sectional view of the wafer 235C, the base 233, and the lid 432 after bonding with the second epoxy layer 507. Bonding the lid 432 onto the top surface 404 encloses the lubricant channels 301 and the lubricant 505 contained therein, and completes the processing region 234 in which the MEMS device 231 resides. In step 488, as shown in FIGS. 4C and 5P, the seal of lubricant plug 508 is broken or physically altered to allow lubricant 505 into processing region 234. The removal process may involve exposure to UV radiation directed through lid 232 or exposure to heat. In step 458, as shown in FIG. 4C, the wafer stack consisting of base 233, wafer 235C, and lid 232, is separated by use of a conventional dicing technique to form multiple MEMS device packages 230. Step 458 is described above in conjunction with FIGS. 4A and 5F. In an alternative embodiment, the lubricant channel 301 is formed so that the contents of the lubricant channel 301 can be viewed through an optically transparent wall that encloses the processing region, such as the lid 232. In this configuration, the lubricant channel 301 is formed in the lid 232 or the interposer 235, so that the contents of the lubricant channel 301 can be viewed through the optically transparent lid 232. This configuration is useful since it allows the user to inspect the contents of the lubricant channel 301 to see how much lubricant 505 is left in the lubricant channel 301 so that corrective measures can be taken if necessary. In another embodiment, control over the quantity of lubricant introduced into the lubricant channel 301 and the processing region 234 is improved by diluting the lubricant with another liquid prior to insertion of the lubricant into the MEMS device package 230. In some applications, accurate and repeatable delivery of the quantity of lubricant into the lubricant channel 301 is important. Too much lubricant can supersaturate the processing region 234 with lubricant vapor, resulting in condensed lubricant droplets that can produce stiction-related failures at contact regions between interacting MEMS components. Too little lubricant can shorten the lifetime of the MEMS device 231 contained in the MEMS device package 230. However, the volume of lubricant required for the MEMS device package 230 can be as little as on the order of nanoliters, and accurate volumetric delivery of liquids is only known for liquid volumes one or more orders of magnitude greater than this. The inventors have determined that by diluting the lubricant in another liquid, the volume of liquid introduced into the MEMS device package 230 can be increased significantly, e.g., ten times, or 100 times, without increasing the quantity of lubricant introduced into the MEMS device package 230. In one aspect of this embodiment, the lubricant is diluted with a significantly larger volume of solvent having a lower vapor pressure than the lubricant. After sealing the lubricant-solvent solution in lubricant channel 301, the MEMS device package 230 undergoes a bake-out and pump-down process to remove the solvent as overpressure causes vaporized solvent molecules to diffuse out of the MEMS package 230. In another aspect of this embodiment, the lubricant is mixed with a significantly larger volume of a liquid that has a higher vapor pressure than the lubricant and is at least slightly miscible with the lubricant. After sealing the combined lubricant and higher vapor pressure liquid in lubricant channel 301, the MEMS device package is baked-out at a temperature higher than the vaporization temperature of the lubricant, e.g., 200° C., and lower than the vaporization temperature of the higher vapor pressure liquid, e.g., 600° C. In this way the lubricant is activated, i.e., vaporized and allowed to diffuse into the processing region 234, while the miscible liquid containing the lubricant remains in place in the lubricant channel 301. One advantage of the embodiments of the invention described herein relates to the general sequence and timing of delivering the lubricant 505 to the formed MEMS device package 230. In general, one or more embodiments of the invention described herein provide a sequence in which the lubricant 505 is delivered into the processing region after all high temperature MEMS device packaging processes have been performed, e.g., anodic bonding and glass frit bonding. This sequence reduces or prevents the premature release or breakdown of the lubricant that occurs during such high temperature bonding processes, which reach temperatures of 250° C. to 450° C. The ability to place the lubricant 505 into the lubricant channel 301 and processing region 234 after performing the high temperature bonding steps allows one to select a lubricant material that would degrade at the typical bonding temperatures and/or reduce the chances that the lubricant material will breakdown or be damaged during the MEMS device forming process. One skilled in the art will also appreciate that a lubricant channel 301 formed in a MEMS device package using a chip-level packaging process versus a wafer-level packaging process benefits from the delivery of the lubricant 505 after the MEMS device package sealing processes (e.g., anodic bonding, TIG welding, e-beam welding) are performed. Another advantage of the embodiments of the invention described herein relate to the reduced number of processing steps required to form a MEMS device package and the reduced number of steps that need to be performed in a clean room environment. Conventional MEMS device fabrication processes that utilize a reversibly absorbing getter require the additional steps of 1) bonding the getter material to a surface of the lid or other component prior to forming a sealed MEMS device package, and 2) heating the package to activate the getter device. The removal of these steps reduces the number of process sequence steps that need to performed in a clean room environment and thus reduces the cost of forming the MEMS device. The presence of the conventional reversibly absorbing getter also limits the temperature at which the MEMS device package can be hermetically sealed, especially for wafer-level processing. Lubricant Channel Configurations While the preceding discussion only illustrates a MEMS device package that has a single lubricant channel to deliver the lubricant material to the processing region 234, it may be advantageous to form a plurality of lubricant channels 301 having different geometric characteristics and positions within the MEMS device package 230 to better distribute the mobile lubricant within the MEMS package. It is also contemplated that geometrical features may be advantageously incorporated into a lubricant channel to act as particle filters or particle traps. The geometric attributes of each lubricant channel can be used to deliver differing amounts of mobile lubricants at different stages of the products lifetime. FIG. 7A is a cross-sectional plan view of a MEMS device package 230 that has multiple lubricant channels 301A-301C that are formed having differing lengths, shapes and volumes. In one aspect, it is desirable to uniformly distribute the lubricant channels, such as lubricant channels 301A and 301B, in different areas of the MEMS device package 230 so that the distribution of lubricant molecules from the lubricant channels is relatively uniform throughout the MEMS device package. This is particularly beneficial to device with large die dimensions. In one case, the length of the lubricant channels 301A and 301C may be adjusted to reduce the manufacturing cost or optimize the volume of lubricant contained within the lubricant channel. In one embodiment, it may be desirable to form a plurality of lubricant channels that each deliver or contain a different lubricant material having different lubricating properties and/or migration properties. In one embodiment, a first type of mobile lubricant molecule could be transported through or stored in the lubricant channel 301A and a second type of mobile lubricant molecule could be transported through or stored in the lubricant channel 301B, where the first and second mobile lubricant molecules each have different equilibrium partial pressures during normal operation of the device and/or each lubricant has a different migration rate throughout the package. In another embodiment, first and second type of mobile lubricant molecules are introduced into the processing region 234, where the first type of mobile lubricant molecule is selected for its bonding properties to the internal surfaces of the processing region 234 and the second type of mobile lubricant molecule is selected for its bonding properties to the first type of mobile lubricant molecule. In this way, the first type of lubricant molecule is introduced into the processing region 234 via one or more lubricant channels to form a uniform monolayer on internal surfaces of the processing region 234. The second type of mobile lubricant molecule is then introduced into the processing region 234 via one or more lubricant channels to form one or more monolayers on the first lubricant. The multiple monolayers of mobile lubricant molecules then serve as a lubricant reservoir throughout the life of the MEMS device. In one aspect, it may be desirable to tailor the geometry, volume, and surface roughness of the lubricant channels described herein to correspond to the type of lubricant processed within them. FIG. 7B is a cross-sectional view of a wall containing two lubricant channels 301D and 301E that have an exit port 303A or 303B that have a differing geometry to control the rate of lubricant migrating into the processing region. As shown, it may be desirable to have a first lubricant channel 301D that has an exit port 303A with a small cross-sectional area to reduce the diffusion and/or effusion of lubricant into the processing region 234, and a second lubricant channel 301E that has an exit port 303B that has a large cross-sectional area to allow for a rapid diffusion and/or effusion of lubricant into the processing region 234. When these two configurations are used in conjunction with each other, the second lubricant channel 301E can be used to rapidly saturate the surfaces within the processing region 234 during the startup of the MEMS device. However, the first lubricant channel 301D can be used to slowly deliver fresh lubricant to the processing region 234 throughout the life of the device. FIGS. 7C and 7D illustrate another embodiment of a lubricant channel 301F that contains a filter region 605 that contains a plurality of obstructions 601 that are used to minimize the influx of particles of a certain size into the processing region 234 from the environment outside the MEMS device package 230. The obstructions 601 are generally configured to have a desired length 603, width 604 and height (not shown, i.e., into the page) and have a desired spacing 602 between each of the obstructions 601, and thus act as a filter to prevent the influx of particles of a certain size into the processing region 234. The obstructions 601 may be formed in the lubricant channel 301F using conventional patterning, lithography and dry etch techniques during the process of forming the lubricant channel 301F. In one embodiment, the width W of lubricant channel 301F and the orientation of the obstructions 601 disposed in the lubricant channel 301F are configured to maximize the influx of the lubricant into the processing region. In another embodiment, the width W of lubricant channel 301F and the orientation of the obstructions 601 disposed therein are configured to control the flow of the lubricant. Generally, it is desirable to select the number and orientation of the obstructions 601, and the spacing 602 and depth (not shown; i.e., into the page of FIG. 7D) of the spaces between the obstructions 601 so that a particle of desired size is unable to pass into the processing region 234. In one embodiment, the obstructions 601 have a length between about 50 μm and about 200 μm, a width between about 1 μm and about 50 μm, and the spacing 602 is between about 1 μm and about 20 μm. In this embodiment, particles as small as 1 μm in size can be prevented from entering processing region 234. In one aspect, the depth of the spacings 602 may be the same as the depth of the channel. In another embodiment, the lubricant channel 301G contains a number of arrays of obstructions 601 that are staggered relative to each other along a portion of the length of the lubricant channel 301G. In this configuration, particles having a dimension smaller than the clearance of the filter, i.e., spacing 602, can also be blocked efficiently. In another embodiment, multiple groups of obstructions 601, or multiple filter regions 605, are placed in different areas of the lubricant channel to further prevent particles from entering the processing region of the formed device. For example, as shown in FIG. 7C, it may be desirable to have one filter region 605A near the inlet of the lubricant channel to collect particles that may enter from outside of the MEMS device package and another filter region 605B positioned in the lubricant channel near the processing region that acts as a final filtration device before entering the processing region 234. FIG. 7E is a cross-sectional view of a wall containing two lubricant channels that have differing exit port configurations that may be useful to enhance the distribution or delivery of the lubricant to the processing region 234. In one embodiment, a lubricant channel 301G has multiple outlets (e.g., exit ports 303C-303D) that are adapted to improve the rate of delivery of the lubricant to the processing region and/or improve the distribution of lubricant to different areas of the processing region. In another embodiment, the lubricant channel 301H has a large exit port 303E that acts a nozzle, which promotes the delivery of lubricant to the processing region 234. In another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, the temperature of the lubricant contained in the lubricant channel 301 may be controlled using a resistive element 921 and a temperature controller 922 for more controlled delivery of the lubricant. In this configuration, the controller 922 is adapted to deliver a desired amount of power to the resistive elements 921 to control the temperature of the lubricant disposed in the lubricant channel 301, and thus control the rate of lubricant migration to the processing region 234. In another aspect, the resistive element 921 is mounted on the exterior surface 235A of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234, to facilitate control of lubricant temperature within the lubricant channel 301. In one aspect, the resistive element 921 is a metal foil that is deposited on a surface of one of the walls that encloses the processing region 234. One should note that the migration rate of the lubricant from the lubricant channel 301 is strongly dependent on the temperature of the lubricant, since vaporization and diffusion are both thermally activated processes. In one embodiment, a volume of gas 901 (FIG. 8) may be purposely injected into the lubricant channel 301 prior to covering the channel inlet 302 with the cap 304 to provide a buffer and a temperature-compensating mechanism that controls the rate of delivery to the processing region 234. In this configuration, the volume of gas 901 expands as the temperature increases, which causes the lubricant disposed in the lubricant channel 301 to be pushed towards the exit port 303, and retract when the temperature in the lubricant channel 301 drops. In one embodiment, where the lubricant is a viscous liquid and/or has a strong adhesion to internal surfaces of the lubricant channel 301, the volume of gas 901 may be added at a pressure that is slightly higher than the pressure in the processing region 234. This allows the gas to slowly deliver the lubricant to the processing region as the volume of gas expands to compensate for the pressure difference. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 9A, a cap 304A may be inserted at the exit port 303 to isolate the lubricant channel 301 from the processing region 234, until it is desirable to remove the cap 304A to allow the lubricant 505 to enter the processing region 234. In one aspect, the cap 304A is a polymer, such as a photoresist, that remains in place over the exit port 303 until it is exposed to some form of optical radiation or heating that induces a phase separation or change of the physical properties of the material contained in the cap 304, thereby converting cap 304A into a porous material. This configuration is especially useful in configurations in which the lubricant channel 301 is positioned adjacent to a lid 232 (see FIGS. 2A and 6B) formed from an optically transparent material that passes the desired wavelength of light to break down the material of cap 304A. In another embodiment, the cap 304A is adapted to breakdown at an elevated temperature. This configuration allows the encapsulation of a desired quantity of lubricant in the lubricant channel 301 prior to bonding the device substrate with a lower temperature sealing method, e.g., epoxy sealing. Release of the lubricant can be initiated any time after the sealing process is completed. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the lubricant channel 301 and a MEMS device element 950 are formed on the base 233 as illustrated in FIG. 9B. The remainder of lubricant channel 301 may be formed in a wall of an interposer 235, as shown, or entirely in base 233. The MEMS device element 950 is disposed proximate the portion of lubricant channel 301 formed in base 233 so that a portion 951 of the MEMS device element 950 can be actuated to cover the exit port 303 of the lubricant channel 301. The MEMS device element 950 can be formed in base 233 at the same time that MEMS device 231 is formed. In this configuration, the MEMS device element 950 can be externally actuated by a power supply 112 to cover or expose the exit port 303 so that the MEMS device element 950 acts as a valve that can regulate the flow of lubricant material from the lubricant channel 301. The portion 951 may pivot (see “P” in FIG. 9B) to cover the exit port 303 by use of a bias applied by the power supply 112. In one embodiment, a lubricant channel contained in a wall that encloses the processing region of a MEMS package includes one or more geometrical features that serve as particle traps, as illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B. FIG. 10A is a plan view of a MEMS device package 1030 having a lubricant channel 1001 formed with a particle trap 1002, according to an embodiment of the invention. For clarity, MEMS device package 1030 is illustrated with a partial section 1091 of the lid 232 removed. As shown, lubricant channel 1001 is formed in the interposer 235 and extends from the exterior surface 235A to the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. The lubricant channel 1001 is substantially similar to the lubricant channel 301, described above, except that the lubricant channel 1001 is formed with the particle trap 1002. The particle trap 1002 is a cavity formed in fluid communication with the internal region 305 of the lubricant channel 1001 and positioned opposite the channel inlet 302. Because of the placement of the particle trap 1002, a substantial portion of particles urged into the internal region 305 when the channel inlet 302 is formed by a material removal or other similar process will be collected inside the particle trap 1002. This is particularly true when a laser drilling process is used to form channel inlet 302. As shown, particle trap 1002 is a dead space, i.e., a “dead end” volume that is not a part of the fluid passage between the exterior surface 235A and the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. Therefore, particles collected in the particle trap 1002 are not carried into the processing region 234 inside the MEMS device package 1030 when lubricant is introduced into the lubricant channel 1001 via the channel inlet 302. To further reduce the number of particles carried into the processing region 234, particle trap 1002 may also be configured to reduce the number of particles generated in internal region 305 when laser drilling is used to form channel inlet 302. The inventors have determined that a laser beam can blaze surfaces of internal region 305 during laser drilling, producing particles. An internal surface 1003 of internal region 305 can be ablated by the drilling laser after channel inlet 302 is formed and prior to laser shut-off. To minimize the number of particles produced by ablation of the surface 1003 by the drilling laser, the particle trap 1002 may be configured so that the surface 1003 is positioned away from the focal point 1004 of the drilling laser. Focal point 1004, which is indicated by the intersection of rays 1006 and 1007, is substantially coincident with the channel inlet 302. By positioning the surface 1003 away from the focal point 1004 and the channel inlet 302, the energy density of the penetrating laser beam is reduced when incident on the surface 1003. It is believed that by so doing, fewer particles are formed in internal region 305. It is also believed that particles that are present in internal region 305 are generally fused onto surface 1003 and other internal surfaces, and are therefore immobile particles that cannot be carried into processing region 234. FIG. 10B is a plan view of a MEMS device package 1031 having a lubricant channel 1011 formed with a non-linear particle trap 1009, according to an embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, the lubricant channel 1011 is substantially similar to the lubricant channel 1001 in FIG. 10A, except that the lubricant channel 1011 is formed with the non-linear particle trap 1009. In this embodiment, the non-linear particle trap 1009 positions a surface 1013 a distance from the focal point 1004 of the penetrating laser beam and further isolates particles collected in non-linear particle trap 1009 from the fluid passage between the exterior surface 235A and the interior surface 235B of the interposer 235. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10B, non-linear particle trap 1009 is configured with a single 90° bend, but it is contemplated that non-linear particle trap 1009 may also be configured with one or more bends of greater than or less than 90° to collect particles formed during the formation of the channel inlet 302. Lubricant Removal Steps In one embodiment, it is desirable to connect a pump (not shown) to the channel inlet 302 (shown in FIG. 6B) so that it can be used to evacuate the processing region to remove one or more of the mobile lubricants and/or dilutent contained therein. In this case the pump may be used to evacuate the processing region to a sufficient pressure to cause the lubricant to vaporize and thus be swept from the device package. In another embodiment, it may be desirable to connect a gas source (not shown) to one injection port (e.g., element 301A in FIG. 7A) and then remove a cap (e.g., element 304 in FIG. 7A) from another injection port (e.g., element 301B in FIG. 7A) so that gas delivered from the gas source can be used to sweep out any used or degraded lubricant material. In either case, these types of techniques can be used to remove old and/or degraded lubricant material so that new lubricant material can be added to the processing region, using the methods described above, to extend the life of the MEMS device. While the foregoing is directed to embodiments of the present invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scope thereof is determined by the claims that follow.
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11755814
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US20080157368A1-20080703
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MULTI-LAYERED METAL LINE OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE HAVING EXCELLENT DIFFUSION BARRIER AND METHOD FOR FORMING THE SAME
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ACCEPTED
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20080619
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20080703
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[]
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H01L21768
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["H01L21768", "H01L23538"]
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7531902
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20070531
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20090512
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257
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751000
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83468.0
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QUACH
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TUAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Jeong Tae", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Baek Mann", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Soo Hyun", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "LEE", "inventor_name_first": "Young Jin", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "JUNG", "inventor_name_first": "Dong Ha", "inventor_city": "Kyoungki-do", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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A multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device has a lower metal line and an upper metal line. The upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier, which is made of a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer.
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1. A multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device comprising: a lower metal line; an upper metal line; and a diffusion barrier formed between the lower and upper metal lines, wherein the diffusion barrier comprises a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer, and a second WNx layer. 2. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the first WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 3. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is in the range of 0.1˜10. 4. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the WCyNx layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 5. The multi-layered metal line according to claim 1, wherein the second WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 6. A method for forming a diffusion barrier layer to prevent diffusion of a metal line in a semiconductor device formed with a multi-layered metal line structure, the method for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of: depositing a first WNx layer; surface-treating the first WNx layer; and depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer. 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 8. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10-200 Å. 9. The method according to claim 6, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. 10. The method according to claim 6, wherein the step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of: forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. 12. The method according to claim 10, wherein the plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500 ° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. 13. The method according to claim 10, wherein the WCyNx layer is formed to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 14. The method according to claim 6, wherein the second WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 15. The method according to claim 6, wherein the second WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 16. A method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of: forming an interlayer dielectric layer on a semiconductor substrate, the interlayer dielectric layer having a damascene pattern for defining a metal line forming region; depositing a first WNx layer on the interlayer dielectric layer including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WNx layer; depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer so as to form a diffusion barrier comprising the surface-treated first WNx layer and the second WNx layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein the damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein the single type damascene pattern has a trench. 19. The method according to claim 17, wherein the dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. 20. The method according to claim 16, wherein the first WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 21. The method according to claim 16, wherein the first WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 22. The method according to claim 16, wherein the composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. 23. The method according to claim 16, wherein the step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of: forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. 25. The method according to claim 23, wherein the plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. 26. The method according to claim 23, wherein the WCyNx layer is formed to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. 27. The method according to claim 16, wherein the second WNx layer is formed in a CVD or ALD process. 28. The method according to claim 16, wherein the second WNx layer is formed to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. 29. The method according to claim 16, wherein the wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device and a method for forming the same, and more particularly to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, which has an excellent diffusion barrier and a method for forming the same. Memory cells in a highly integrated semiconductor device are formed in a stacked structure in order to meet the high operational speed requirements. Further, a metal line for carrying the electric signals to the memory cells are formed in a multi-layered structure. The multi-layered metal lines provides advantageous design flexibility and allows more leeway in setting the margins for the wiring resistance, the current capacity, etc. Aluminum has been the choice material for a metal line for its superior electric conductivity and the ease of being applied in a fabrication process. However, it is not the case when the design rule is so decreased for higher integration of a semiconductor device, because the resistance of the metal line made of aluminum increases to a undesirable level. To cope with this problem, copper is used as the material for a metal line instead of aluminum as the resistance of copper is relatively lower. In a process for forming a metal line using copper, the copper, unlike aluminum, diffuses through an interlayer dielectric. The copper diffused to a semiconductor substrate acts as deep-level impurities in the semiconductor substrate and induces a leakage current. Therefore, in the case of a metal line formed using copper, a diffusion barrier must be necessarily formed not only where the copper comes into contact with hetero-metal but also on a portion of an interlayer dielectric on which the copper is formed in order to decrease the leakage current due to diffusion of copper. In general, as a diffusion barrier for a metal line formed using copper, a Ti/TiN layer or a Ta/TaN layer is mainly used. Nevertheless, the Ti/TiN layer or Ta/TaN layer, which is used as a diffusion barrier in the metal line formed using copper, is significantly decreased in suppressing the diffusion of copper in an ultra-highly integrated device below 40 nm and cannot properly perform its function as a copper diffusion barrier.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An embodiment of the present invention is directed to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device which has a diffusion barrier having superior capability for preventing diffusion of copper and a method for forming the same. In one embodiment, there is provided a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device having a lower metal line and an upper metal line, wherein the upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier which is made of a stack of a first WN x layer, a WC y N x layer and a second WN x layer. The first WN x layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The WC y N x layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, including a process for forming a diffusion barrier to prevent diffusion of a metal line, the process for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of depositing a first WN x layer; surface-treating the first WN x layer; and depositing a second WN x layer on the first WN x layer which is surface-treated. The first WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WN x layer comprises the step of forming a WC y N x layer on a surface of the first WN x layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH 3 or C 2 H 5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH 3 or C 2 H 5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WC y N x layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In still another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of forming an interlayer dielectric having a damascene pattern for delimiting a metal line forming region, on a semiconductor substrate; depositing a first WN x layer on the interlayer dielectric including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WN x layer; depositing a second WN x layer on the surface-treated first WN x layer and thereby forming a diffusion barrier composed of the surface-treated first WN x layer and the second WN x layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. The damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. The single type damascene pattern has a trench. The dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. The first WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WN x layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WN x layer comprises the step of forming a WC y N x layer on a surface of the first WN x layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH 3 or C 2 H 5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH 3 or C 2 H 5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WC y N x layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WN x layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WN x layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application claims priority to Korean patent application number 10-2006-0137251 filed on Dec. 28, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device and a method for forming the same, and more particularly to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, which has an excellent diffusion barrier and a method for forming the same. Memory cells in a highly integrated semiconductor device are formed in a stacked structure in order to meet the high operational speed requirements. Further, a metal line for carrying the electric signals to the memory cells are formed in a multi-layered structure. The multi-layered metal lines provides advantageous design flexibility and allows more leeway in setting the margins for the wiring resistance, the current capacity, etc. Aluminum has been the choice material for a metal line for its superior electric conductivity and the ease of being applied in a fabrication process. However, it is not the case when the design rule is so decreased for higher integration of a semiconductor device, because the resistance of the metal line made of aluminum increases to a undesirable level. To cope with this problem, copper is used as the material for a metal line instead of aluminum as the resistance of copper is relatively lower. In a process for forming a metal line using copper, the copper, unlike aluminum, diffuses through an interlayer dielectric. The copper diffused to a semiconductor substrate acts as deep-level impurities in the semiconductor substrate and induces a leakage current. Therefore, in the case of a metal line formed using copper, a diffusion barrier must be necessarily formed not only where the copper comes into contact with hetero-metal but also on a portion of an interlayer dielectric on which the copper is formed in order to decrease the leakage current due to diffusion of copper. In general, as a diffusion barrier for a metal line formed using copper, a Ti/TiN layer or a Ta/TaN layer is mainly used. Nevertheless, the Ti/TiN layer or Ta/TaN layer, which is used as a diffusion barrier in the metal line formed using copper, is significantly decreased in suppressing the diffusion of copper in an ultra-highly integrated device below 40 nm and cannot properly perform its function as a copper diffusion barrier. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An embodiment of the present invention is directed to a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device which has a diffusion barrier having superior capability for preventing diffusion of copper and a method for forming the same. In one embodiment, there is provided a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device having a lower metal line and an upper metal line, wherein the upper metal line includes a diffusion barrier which is made of a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer. The first WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The WCyNx layer has a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer has a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, including a process for forming a diffusion barrier to prevent diffusion of a metal line, the process for forming a diffusion barrier comprising the steps of depositing a first WNx layer; surface-treating the first WNx layer; and depositing a second WNx layer on the first WNx layer which is surface-treated. The first WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WCyNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In still another embodiment, there is provided a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device, comprising the steps of forming an interlayer dielectric having a damascene pattern for delimiting a metal line forming region, on a semiconductor substrate; depositing a first WNx layer on the interlayer dielectric including the damascene pattern; surface-treating the first WNx layer; depositing a second WNx layer on the surface-treated first WNx layer and thereby forming a diffusion barrier composed of the surface-treated first WNx layer and the second WNx layer; and forming a wiring metal layer on the diffusion barrier to fill the damascene pattern. The damascene pattern is a single type or a dual type. The single type damascene pattern has a trench. The dual type damascene pattern has a via hole and a trench. The first WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The first WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer is 0.1˜10. The step of surface-treating the first WNx layer comprises the step of forming a WCyNx layer on a surface of the first WNx layer through heat treatment or plasma treatment under a high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based source gas. The hydrocarbon-based gas is CH3 or C2H5 gas. The plasma treatment is implemented under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at conditions including a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. The WCyNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The second WNx layer is formed through CVD or ALD. The second WNx layer is formed to have a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The wiring metal layer is made of a copper layer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1 through 5 are cross-sectional views illustrating the process steps of a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS In the present invention, as a diffusion barrier comprising a stack of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer and a second WNx layer is used to prevent diffusion of the metal line formed using copper. Since the WCyNx layer has excellent diffusion prevention characteristics, the diffusion barrier made of the stack of the first WNx layer, the WCyNx layer and the second WNx layer retains excellent capability for preventing diffusion of copper even in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device below 40 nm. Accordingly, in the present invention, in a process for forming a metal line using copper in conformity with the ultra-high integration of a semiconductor device, it is possible to form a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier, whereby the characteristics of a semiconductor device can be improved. Hereafter, a method for forming a multi-layered metal line of a semiconductor device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 1 through 5. Referring to FIG. 1, an interlayer dielectric 110 and a lower metal line 120 made of an aluminum layer are formed on a semiconductor substrate 100. A passivation layer 130 is formed on the interlayer dielectric 110 to prevent the lower metal line 120 from being damaged in a subsequent etching process. The passivation layer 130 is made of a nitride-based layer. A first insulation layer 140 and an etch barrier 150 for preventing the first insulation layer 140 from being etched in a subsequent process for etching a second insulation layer 160 are sequentially formed on the passivation layer 130. The second insulation layer 160 is then formed on the etch barrier 150. Each of the first and second insulation layers 140 and 160 is made of an oxide-based layer, and the etch barrier 150 is made of a nitride-based layer. By etching the second insulation layer 160, the etch barrier 150, the first insulation layer 140, and the passivation layer 130, a via hole 171 is defined to expose the lower metal line 120. By additionally etching the second insulation layer 160 over the via hole 171 using the etch barrier 150 as an etch stop layer until the etch barrier 150 is exposed, a trench 172 is formed to delimit (or define) a metal line forming region. In this way, a dual type damascene pattern 170 comprised of the via hole 171 and the trench 172 is formed. Here, while the dual type damascene pattern 170 is formed by defining the trench 172 after defining the via hole 171, the sequence of forming the dual type damascene pattern 170 can be reversed. Referring to FIG. 2, a first WNx layer 210 is deposited on the second insulation layer 160 including the damascene pattern 170 comprised of the via hole 171 and the trench 172 to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. The first WNx layer 210 is formed through a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or atomic layer deposition (ALD) process. The composition ratio x in the first WNx layer 210 is in the range of 0.1˜10. Referring to FIG. 3, by surface-treating the first WNx layer 210, a WCyNx layer 220 is formed on the surface of the first WNx layer 210 to a thickness of 5˜50 Å. The surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210 is implemented through an heat treatment or plasma treatment under high temperature using a hydrocarbon-based gas such as CH3 or C2H5 gas containing “C—H—”. In the case where the surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210 is implemented through a plasma treatment, the plasma treatment is conducted under an atmosphere of CH3 or C2H5 at a temperature of 200˜500° C., a pressure of 1˜100 torr, and an RF power of 0.1˜1 kW. Referring to FIG. 4, a second WNx layer 230 is deposited on the WCyNx layer 220 (which was formed through a surface treatment of the first WNx layer 210) to a thickness of 10˜200 Å. In this way, a diffusion barrier 240 made of a stack of the first WNx layer 210, the WCyNx layer 220, and the second WNx layer 230 is formed. The second WNx layer 230 is formed through a CVD or ALD process to improve the adhesion characteristics between a copper layer (to be subsequently formed) and the diffusion barrier 240. Referring to FIG. 5, a copper layer is deposited on the second WNx layer 230 to fill the trench 172 including the via hole 171 in which the diffusion barrier 240 made of the stack of the first WNx layer 210, the WCyNx layer 220, and the second WNx layer 230 is formed. Then, by performing a chemical mechanical polishing process (“CMPing”) on the copper layer until the second insulation layer 160 is exposed, a via contact 250 is formed in the via hole 171, and an upper metal line 260 made of copper is formed in the trench 172. As is apparent from the above description, because the diffusion barrier of the present invention for preventing the diffusion of a copper metal line is formed in a stack structure of a first WNx layer, a WCyNx layer formed through surface treatment of the first WNx layer, and a second WNx layer, it is possible to form a diffusion barrier having superior diffusion prevention characteristics. As a consequence, it is possible to form a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device. As a result, in the present invention, a metal line having an excellent diffusion barrier for copper can be formed in an ultra-highly integrated semiconductor device, whereby the characteristics of the semiconductor device can be improved. In the above embodiment, a multi-layered metal line was illustrated and explained, which is formed through a dual damascene process wherein a copper layer is deposited in the first insulation layer 140 and the second insulation layer 160 having the dual type damascene pattern 170 including the via hole 171 and the trench 172 and the copper layer is then CMPed to form the via contact 240 in the via hole 171 and the upper metal line 250 in the trench 172. However, it is to be noted that the present invention is not limited to this exemplary embodiment such that the present invention can be applied to a multi-layered metal line which is formed through a single damascene process wherein a copper layer is deposited in an insulation layer having a trench for delimiting (or defining) a metal line forming region and the copper layer is then CMPed to form an upper metal line in the trench. Although specific embodiments of the present invention have been described for illustrative purposes, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications, additions and substitutions are possible, without departing from the scope and the spirit of the invention as disclosed in the accompanying claims.
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11752955
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US20080001284A1-20080103
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Heat Dissipation Structure With Aligned Carbon Nanotube Arrays and Methods for Manufacturing And Use
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ACCEPTED
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20071218
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20080103
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[]
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H01L23373
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["H01L23373", "C01B3102"]
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8890312
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20070524
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20141118
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257
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712000
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67733.0
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NGUYEN
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DUY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Yuen", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew", "inventor_city": "Hong Kong", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhang", "inventor_name_first": "Kai", "inventor_city": "Hong Kong", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}]
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A heat dissipation structure with aligned carbon nanotube arrays formed on both sides. The carbon nanotube arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipating heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. In some embodiments, an adhesive material can be used to dispense around carbon nanotube arrays and assemble the heat dissipation structure in between a heat source and a cooler. In some other embodiments, carbon nanotube arrays are formed on at least one of a heat source surface and a cooler surface and connect them together by further growing. The carbon nanotube arrays can be exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler, and can serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection.
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1. A packaged semiconductor structure, comprising: a heat source; a heat sink; an aligned array of carbon nanotubes which thermally connects said source to said sink; and a peripheral connecting material which runs along at least some edges of said aligned array, while mechanically contacting said source and said sink to provide a fixed positional relationship there between. 2. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein the heat sink is an electronic structure which dissipates heat when operating. 3. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein the heat sink comprises a high thermal conductivity substrate; and a plurality of carbon nanotube arrays are grown on both sides of the substrate. 4. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein said heat sink comprises a metal substrate. 5. The packaged semiconductor structure of claim 1, wherein said carbon nanotube arrays are synthesized by chemical vapor deposition. 6. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration. 7. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a preformed catalyst. 8. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a modification layer when using a sublimed catalyst. 9. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat sink carries said aligned array of carbon nanotubes, some of which are patterned to form fins for convective cooling. 10. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 1, wherein said heat source is an electronic structure which generates heat when operating. 11. A packaged semiconductor structure, comprising: an extended structure which carries heat; and first and second mutually separate aligned carbon nanotube arrays which are thermally connected to opposite surfaces of said extended structure; wherein said first array terminates in a connection to another heat-conducting structure, and said second array terminates in bare carbon nanotube ends. 12. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure is an electronic structure which dissipates heat when operating. 13. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure comprises a high thermal conductivity substrate, and a plurality of carbon nanotube arrays are grown on both sides of the substrate. 14. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein the extended structure comprises a metal substrate. 15. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said aligned carbon nanotube arrays are synthesized by chemical vapor deposition. 16. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration. 17. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a preformed catalyst. 18. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays in a patterned configuration which is determined by patterning of a modification layer when using a sublimed catalyst. 19. The packaged semiconductor structure of Claim 11, wherein said extended structure carries the aligned carbon nanotube arrays, some of which are patterned to form fins for convective cooling. 20. A method of transferring heat from a microelectronic heat source, comprising: conducting heat through an array of aligned nanotube fibers; separating a heat source and heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; and mechanically stabilizing the position of the heat source relative to the heat sink, using an adhesive material. 21-57. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>The present application generally relates to thermal management solutions, and more specifically to heat dissipation structures using aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and to methods of fabricating such a heat dissipation structure and applying it to a package. With the development of microelectronic systems, for example, high brightness light emitting diode (HB-LED) for solid-state lighting, significant challenges of thermal management have to be faced to meet the increasing requirements of smaller profile, higher performance and longer product life time. More heat generated by devices needs to be effectively dissipated from a smaller area. Several kinds of heat sink are developed to expect to dissipate more heat from device to the environment. However it is very important to first conduct heat from device to heat sink by thermal interface materials. Unfortunately, conventional thermal interface materials, such as thermal grease thermal adhesives, phase change materials, etc., cannot meet the increasing requirement of the heat dissipation from a small area. Carbon nanotube (CNT) is an attractive candidate to improve the thermal performance of thermal interface materials because of their ultrahigh thermal conductivity up to 3000 W/m·K for multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT). Further information regarding CNT properties may be found in the Journal of the American Physical Society, Physical Review Letters , Vol. 87, page 215502 (2001), herein incorporated by reference. However thermal interface materials with randomly directed carbon nanotubes dispersed in epoxy resins or other matrix materials does not perform well because of the highly anisotropic nature of the thermal conduction by carbon nanotubes. Aligned carbon nanotube arrays directly extending from a first surface, for example a heat source surface, to a second surface, for example a cooler surface, is expected. U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,513 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,924,335, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose thermal interface materials with carbon nanotube bundles embedded in matrix materials. However, the phonon heat transfer modes in matrix materials and carbon nanotubes are not compatible, which significantly limits the advantage of heat conduction by carbon nanotube. In addition, solidified matrix material is less flexible to fill in the uneven surfaces of heat source and heat sink. As a result, the thermal conductivity of thermal interface material with aligned carbon nanotube arrays in matrix is only 1.21 W/m·K and the contact thermal resistance is more than 50 mm 2 ·K/W. Additional information regarding the thermal conductivity of thermal interface materials are detailed in Advanced Materials, Vol. 17, page 1652 (2005) incorporated by reference herein. U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,01 and U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2004/0150100, both incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose a thermal interface layer with carbon nanotubes grown on the surface of semiconductor die. However, the processes are not compatible for carbon nanotubes synthesis and device fabrication. If carbon nanotubes are grown before device fabrication, the decreased wafer cleanliness and ability to protect carbon nanotubes will make it difficult to conduct device fabrication using normal processes and equipments. Alternatively, if a device is fabricated before carbon nanotubes growth, the high temperature required by growing carbon nanotubes will damage the device or increasing the device cost by changing the processes and materials. As for the connecting methods, U.S. Patent Application Publication U.S. 2004/0261987, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, use an adhesion promoting layer to connect heat source and the array of carbon nanotubes. However, it is very difficult to form a very thin layer so that the tips of carbon nanotubes can still make contact with the heat source surface. As a result, there is actually another added layer with additional thermal resistance, which reduces the thermal performance of the thermal management solution. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,891,724, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, carbon nanotubes grown from the opposed surfaces intermesh as the surfaces are mated. However, it is difficult for carbon nanotubes from any surface to extend directly to the other surface.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>The present inventions provide a new way to use high thermal conductivity carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays. To avoid the process incompatibility of carbon nanotube growth and device fabrication the aligned CNT arrays are formed on heat dissipation structure surfaces instead of a heat source surface. To simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. The heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays are used to directly dissipate heat from a heat source to a cooler. The CNT arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipate heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. The CNT arrays exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection. In various embodiments, the disclosed inventions provide several of the following advantages: lower cost and more scalable manufacturing fast and simple process using efficient CNT synthesis and assembly method better heat sinking better convective cooling Other advantages and detailed novel features of the inventions will be explained with the descriptions of the example drawings.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO OTHER APPLICATION The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Patent Application No. 60/808,433, filed May 26, 2006, and entitled Heat Dissipation Structure with Carbon Nanotube Arrays and Method for Manufacturing the Same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS The present application generally relates to thermal management solutions, and more specifically to heat dissipation structures using aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and to methods of fabricating such a heat dissipation structure and applying it to a package. With the development of microelectronic systems, for example, high brightness light emitting diode (HB-LED) for solid-state lighting, significant challenges of thermal management have to be faced to meet the increasing requirements of smaller profile, higher performance and longer product life time. More heat generated by devices needs to be effectively dissipated from a smaller area. Several kinds of heat sink are developed to expect to dissipate more heat from device to the environment. However it is very important to first conduct heat from device to heat sink by thermal interface materials. Unfortunately, conventional thermal interface materials, such as thermal grease thermal adhesives, phase change materials, etc., cannot meet the increasing requirement of the heat dissipation from a small area. Carbon nanotube (CNT) is an attractive candidate to improve the thermal performance of thermal interface materials because of their ultrahigh thermal conductivity up to 3000 W/m·K for multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT). Further information regarding CNT properties may be found in the Journal of the American Physical Society, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 87, page 215502 (2001), herein incorporated by reference. However thermal interface materials with randomly directed carbon nanotubes dispersed in epoxy resins or other matrix materials does not perform well because of the highly anisotropic nature of the thermal conduction by carbon nanotubes. Aligned carbon nanotube arrays directly extending from a first surface, for example a heat source surface, to a second surface, for example a cooler surface, is expected. U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,513 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,924,335, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose thermal interface materials with carbon nanotube bundles embedded in matrix materials. However, the phonon heat transfer modes in matrix materials and carbon nanotubes are not compatible, which significantly limits the advantage of heat conduction by carbon nanotube. In addition, solidified matrix material is less flexible to fill in the uneven surfaces of heat source and heat sink. As a result, the thermal conductivity of thermal interface material with aligned carbon nanotube arrays in matrix is only 1.21 W/m·K and the contact thermal resistance is more than 50 mm2·K/W. Additional information regarding the thermal conductivity of thermal interface materials are detailed in Advanced Materials, Vol. 17, page 1652 (2005) incorporated by reference herein. U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,01 and U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2004/0150100, both incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, disclose a thermal interface layer with carbon nanotubes grown on the surface of semiconductor die. However, the processes are not compatible for carbon nanotubes synthesis and device fabrication. If carbon nanotubes are grown before device fabrication, the decreased wafer cleanliness and ability to protect carbon nanotubes will make it difficult to conduct device fabrication using normal processes and equipments. Alternatively, if a device is fabricated before carbon nanotubes growth, the high temperature required by growing carbon nanotubes will damage the device or increasing the device cost by changing the processes and materials. As for the connecting methods, U.S. Patent Application Publication U.S. 2004/0261987, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, use an adhesion promoting layer to connect heat source and the array of carbon nanotubes. However, it is very difficult to form a very thin layer so that the tips of carbon nanotubes can still make contact with the heat source surface. As a result, there is actually another added layer with additional thermal resistance, which reduces the thermal performance of the thermal management solution. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,891,724, incorporated by reference herein for all purposes, carbon nanotubes grown from the opposed surfaces intermesh as the surfaces are mated. However, it is difficult for carbon nanotubes from any surface to extend directly to the other surface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONS The present inventions provide a new way to use high thermal conductivity carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays. To avoid the process incompatibility of carbon nanotube growth and device fabrication the aligned CNT arrays are formed on heat dissipation structure surfaces instead of a heat source surface. To simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. The heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays are used to directly dissipate heat from a heat source to a cooler. The CNT arrays in between a heat source and a cooler are used as thermal interface material extending and dissipate heat directly from a heat source surface to a cooler surface. The CNT arrays exposed to the environment instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler serve as fins to enlarge heat dissipation area and improve thermal convection. In various embodiments, the disclosed inventions provide several of the following advantages: lower cost and more scalable manufacturing fast and simple process using efficient CNT synthesis and assembly method better heat sinking better convective cooling Other advantages and detailed novel features of the inventions will be explained with the descriptions of the example drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The embodiments of the inventions are illustrated by examples shown in the following figures but not limited in these figures. These drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. The inventions will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides, showing the surfaces of the heat dissipation structure are fully covered with grown carbon nanotube arrays without any pattern; FIG. 2 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides, showing an example of carbon nanotubes with pattern on one side; FIG. 3 is a schematic cross sectional side view of an electronic package including a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays on both sides having modification layers in between the carbon nanotube arrays and the heat dissipation structure surfaces; FIG. 5 is a detailed view of a heat dissipation structure showing some connecting methods with adhesive materials formed around the outside edges of the gap between the coupling heat source surface and cooler surface with carbon nanotube arrays in between; FIG. 6 is a detailed view of a heat dissipation system with carbon nanotube arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and directly connected together by further growth; FIG. 7 shows some applications of the heat dissipation structure with some carbon nanotube arrays exposed to the environment; FIG. 8 is a general flowchart for manufacturing a heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 9 is a flowchart for manufacturing an embodiment of a heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention with the least processes; FIG. 10 is a general flowchart for manufacturing a heat dissipation system with carbon nanotube arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and further growing to connect together; FIG. 11 is a chart showing the experimental results of thermal resistance of different TIM; FIG. 12 is a plan view of a device illustrating the relationship between the adhesive material and a heat source as well as a heat sink; FIG. 13 is a side view of the device of FIG. 12 illustrating the relationship between a heat source, the CNT-TIM, the adhesive material and a heat sink; FIG. 14 illustrates the heat conduction and heat convection flow paths of a CNT structure; and FIG. 15 illustrates a schematic of a thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) system for CNT synthesis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present application discloses embodiments of a heat dissipation structure with aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays on both sides that serve as thermal interface material or heat dissipation fins for enlarging the thermal convection area and methods for manufacturing it. Details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments of the present inventions with the help of the drawings but not limited to. The features, structures, materials, and characteristics of the inventions can be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. In one embodiment, to simplify the fabrication process and decrease the cost, the aligned CNT arrays are grown on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces at one time. No catalyst is predeposited on heat dissipation structure surfaces or pretreated for growing. Sublimed catalyst, such as Ferrocence, is used as raw material. In addition, carbon nanotubes are synthesized on heat dissipation structure surfaces without pattern or pretreatment. Therefore, no microelectronic fabrication is needed for manufacturing the inventive heat dissipation structure with carbon nanotube arrays. Thermal chemical vapor deposition is adopted to synthesize carbon nanotube arrays because it is much cheaper than plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. A heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays can be simply connected to the heat source surface and cooler surface by mechanical attachment with contact pressure. In some embodiments for high performance application with special requirements, modification layers and catalyst predeposition may be needed to modify the thermal and other properties of heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays. In some embodiments, an adhesive material can be formed around the outside edges of the gap between heat source and a cooler with CNT arrays in between. This connecting method avoids adding an additional thermal resistance to the heat dissipation structure. In some embodiments, CNT arrays are directly formed on at least one of the heat source surface and cooler surface and then connected together by further growth. The strong or good bonding formed by direct growth of the CNT arrays on both coupling surfaces is beneficial to reduce the thermal contact resistance. In some other embodiments, some CNT arrays are exposed to the environment to which the heat will dissipate instead of being in between a heat source and a solid cooler. In this case, carbon nanotube arrays serve as fins of heat dissipation structure to significantly enlarge the heat dissipation area and dissipate heat more effectively to the environment by thermal convection. The measured thermal contact resistance of CNT thermal interface material (TIM) synthesized by thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is only about 15 mm2W/K, which is much less than that of commercial available TIM. Further information regarding TIMs is disclosed in the Proceedings of the 56th Electronics Components and Technology Conference, pp. 177-182, herein incorporated by reference. The measured thermal contact resistance of heat spreader with CNT arrays on both sides synthesized by thermal CVD is only about 51 mm2W/K, which is only 30% of that of conventional heat spreader with TIM. Further experimental results show that CNTs synthesized by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) has better thermal performance. References throughout this specification to “heat source” mean a structure that generates heat when operating or only a body with higher temperature, for example, a die or a device or a module or combination of several dies, devices or modules, or even a heat spreader dissipating heat to a heat sink. References throughout this specification to “cooler” mean a structure that serves to absorb heat and may further help dissipate the heat to other media, for example, a heat spreader absorbing heat from a heat source, a heat sink, or even an air environment or a fluid, etc. References throughout this specification to “coupling surface” mean the surface used to connect to other structures or materials. FIG. 1 shows an embodiment of inventive heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays 2 and 4 grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. In the present invention, heat dissipation structure 3 can be made of any suitable high thermal conductivity materials, such as silicon, silicon oxide, silicon with silicon oxide layer, glass, some metals such as aluminum, copper, some metal alloys, such as aluminum alloy, copper alloy, or these metals or metal alloys with their oxide layers, or oxide of these metals or metal alloys, or any material containing at least one of the above materials. CNT arrays 2 and 4 can be grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces by thermal chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, arc-discharge, or laser ablation method. FIG. 2 shows an embodiment with a smaller area of CNT arrays 2 on heat dissipation structure surface 8 than the area of CNT arrays 4 on heat dissipation structure surface 9 in some specific applications. For example, the area of CNT arrays 2 is the same as the area of heat source surface 6 and the area of CNT arrays 4 is the same as the area of the cooler surface 7. In other embodiment, the area of CNT array 2 and 4 can be larger or smaller than the area of heat source surface 6 and the area of cooler surface 7. Heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and/or 9 can also be patterned to other desired features to make carbon nanotube arrays grow to the desired pattern in different applications. In FIG. 3, an application of an embodiment of the inventions in an electronic package with the inventive heat dissipation structure is shown schematically. A heat source 1 is connected to a cooler 5 through a heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 grown on both sides. In this embodiment, high density carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are grown on heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 without pattern by chemical vapor deposition using a sublimed catalyst, such as Ferrocene. Other sublimed catalysts can comprise at least one of dicyclopentadienyl iron (Ferrocene), dicyclopentadienyl cobalt (Cobaltocene), dicyclopentadienyl nickel (Nickelocene), iron titanium hydride, cobalt titanium hydride, nickel titanium hydride, or any materials containing at least one of these materials. A specific example of CNT array growth and CNT array growth conditions including temperature, pressure, source gases, and growth time is provided later in this application. There is no need for a microelectronic fabrication process to prepare the substrate and catalyst and, as a result, the manufacturing method is easy and low cost. High density CNT arrays are benefit to heat conduction because there are more heat conduction paths. In addition, CNT arrays with higher density can withstand the contact pressure in normal electronic packaging process without collapse. Therefore, aligned CNT arrays 2 are vertically extending from heat source surface 6 to heat dissipation structure surface 8 and CNT arrays 4 vertically extending from heat dissipation structure surface 9 to cooler surface 7, respectively. Under the contact pressure, some tips of CNT arrays 2 fill in the voids of uneven surface 6 and some even insert into the surface 6 of heat source 1. Similarly, some tips of CNT arrays 4 fill in the voids of uneven surface 7 and some even insert into the surface 7 of cooler 5. As a result, the inventive heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 as thermal interface material forms a high thermal conductive path from a heat source 1 to a cooler 5. FIG. 4. shows an embodiment with a layer 10 between CNT arrays 2 and heat dissipation structure surface 8 and layer 11 between CNT arrays 4 and heat dissipation structure surface 9. In some embodiments, the layers 10 and 11 can be a catalyst layer and/or multiple catalyst layers deposited on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 for growing CNT arrays. Iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminum, silicon, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, silver, oxides of these materials, any combination of these materials and/or their oxides, or any materials containing at least one of these materials or their oxides can be the catalyst. In other embodiments, the layers 10 and 11 can be a modification layer or multiple modification layers formed on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. They may be used to improve the bonding between CNT arrays and heat dissipation structure surfaces, and therefore reduce the thermal contact resistance between them. They may also be used to improve the distribution uniformity of CNT arrays on heat dissipation structure surfaces. Titanium, tungsten, silicon, aluminum, oxide of these materials, any combination of these materials, or any materials containing at least one of them can be used to form the modification layers. The layers 10 and 11 can also be multiple layers consisting of a catalyst layer and a modification layer. In some embodiments layers 10 and 11 may not be used at all or only one of them be used. FIG. 5 is a detail part of a heat dissipation structure showing some connecting methods with adhesive materials formed around the outside edges of the gap between a heat source and a cooler where there are CNT arrays grown in between. In FIGS. 5(a) and (b), the dimensions of the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 are the safe. The adhesive material 12 formed around the outside edges of the gap may only cover the gap and connect the heat source 1, CNT arrays 13 and the cooler 5, as shown in FIG. 5(a). It can also extend to a larger area, as shown in FIG. 5(b). The adhesive material can be an epoxy resin with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, a low melting metal or alloy, a phase change material, adhesive materials, or any materials containing any of these materials. In FIG. 5(c), the dimensions of the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 are not the same. The adhesive material 12 formed around the outside edges of the gap may shape like a fillet or any other shapes to connect the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 together with CNT arrays 13 extending from the heat source surface 6 to the cooler surface 7. The adhesive material 12 around the outside edges of the gap can help make CNT arrays have a good contact to the coupling surfaces as well as assembly the heat source and the cooler together. The adhesive material can be epoxy resins with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, low melting metals or alloys, phase change materials, adhesive materials, or any materials containing any of these materials. FIG. 6 is a detailed view of one embodiment of an inventive heat dissipation system. In this embodiment, CNT arrays 13 are directly grown face-to-face on a heat source surface 6 and a cooler surface 7 and further grow to connect together. In another embodiment, CNT arrays 13 can start to grow on one of the two coupling surfaces 6 and 7 till bonded to the opposite surface. FIG. 7 shows embodiments with some CNT arrays exposed to environment. In this case, CNT arrays serve as fins of heat dissipation structure to significantly enlarge the heat dissipation area and dissipate heat more effectively to the environment by thermal convection. In FIG. 7(a), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat spreader. CNT arrays 15 that are not in between the heat source, the heat dissipation structure and the cooler serve as fins to improve heat convection. In FIG. 7(b), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat sink. Part of CNT arrays on surface 8 of heat dissipation structure and all CNT arrays on surface 9 of heat dissipation structure function as fins to enlarge heat convection area. In FIG. 7(c), heat dissipation structure serves as a heat sink. Only part of CNT arrays on surface 8 of heat dissipation structure functions as fins to enlarge heat convection area. There are no CNT arrays grown on surface 9 of heat dissipation structure. CNT arrays can be formed with desired pattern. For example, in. FIG. 7(d). CNT arrays are formed with the center area the same as the heat resource and leaving a gap around the center CNT arrays to apply the adhesive material 12. More CNT arrays can be further grown on the outer surface to serve as fins to improve heat convection. CNT arrays can also be grown to form CNT bundles instead of uniformly distributed CNTs. FIG. 8 shows a flowchart for manufacturing the heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention. The method comprises the following steps: Step 801: providing a heat dissipation structure 3 with the desired dimension. Step 802: forming catalyst layers and/or modification layers 10 and 11 on at least one of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9; or no catalyst layer or modification layers at all. Step 803: growing carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9. Step 804: forming adhesive material 12 around outside edges of CNT arrays; or no adhesive material at all. Step 805: assembling the heat source 1, heat dissipation structure 3 with CNT arrays 2 and 4 on both sides and the cooler 5 by mechanical contact pressure or by solidifying the adhesive material 12. FIG. 9 shows a flowchart for manufacturing one embodiment of the heat dissipation structure in accordance with the present invention with the least processes. The method comprises the following steps: Step 901: providing a heat dissipation structure 3 with the desired dimension. Step 902: growing carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides of heat dissipation structure surfaces 8 and 9 at one time with sublimed catalyst such as Ferrocene. No pretreatment of heat dissipation structure surfaces is needed. No pretreatment or deposition of catalyst is needed. Step 903: assembling the heat source 1, heat dissipation structure 3 with carbon nanotube arrays 2 and 4 on both sides and the cooler 5 by mechanical contact pressure. FIG. 10 shows a flowchart for manufacturing one embodiment of the inventive heat dissipation structure with CNT arrays directly grown on a heat source surface and a cooler surface and further growing to connect together. The method comprises the following steps: Step 1001: providing a heat source 1 and a cooler 5 with desired dimensions. Step 1002: putting the heat source 1 and the cooler 5 together while leaving them separated by spacers 14. Step 1003: forming catalyst layers and/or modification layers 10 and 11 on at least one of the heat source surface 6 and the cooler surface 7; or no catalyst layer or modification layer at all. Step 1004 growing CNT arrays 13 on the heat source surface 6 and/or the cooler surface 7 and further growing to connect them together. FIG. 11 is the experimental results of thermal resistance of different thermal interface material (TIM). The thermal resistance includes the contact resistance of TIM and coupling surfaces as well as thermal resistance of TIM layer. The thermal resistance of CNT-TIM is much less than that of commercial TIM with silver particles in epoxy resin. It is also less than that of solder TIM with Titanium (Ti) and copper (Cu) as the supporting layers. CNT-TIM synthesized by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) has less thermal resistance than CNT-TIN synthesized by thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD). However, PECVD equipment is more expensive than thermal CVD furnace. FIG. 12 is a view of a is a plan view of a high brightness light emitting diode device package 20 that shows the structural relationship of the heat sink 5, adhesive material 12 and the device 1. FIG. 13 illustrates a side view of the high brightness light emitting diode device package 20 that depicts the relationship of the CNT-TIM 2 to the adhesive material 12 and the heat sink 5. FIG. 14 illustrates a two-sided CNT array structure that shows the convective heat transfer flow and conductive heat transfer flow through the structure of one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15 is merely one embodiment of a CNT synthesis process in which a CNT arrays has been synthesized by thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) using sublimed Ferrocene. In this embodiment, a one-stage CVD furnace system 40 was employed to grow CNT arrays on Silicon (SI) based substrates 48. The diameter of the internal quartz reactor (not shown) is 1.5 inches. The flow rate of gases was controlled by mass controllers. A volume of Argon (Ar) 42 equaling 200 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) was input as the carrier gas and 50 sccm of Ethylene 44 was used as one part of the carbon source. 100-200 milligrams (mg) of Ferrocene 46 was used as a catalyst and as another part of the carbon source. The Ferrocene 46 was introduced into the quartz reactor of the system at a location having a temperature of 200 degrees Celsius. CNTs were grown at 750 degrees Celsius (750° C.) for 10-20 minutes. Finally, the whole system was naturally cooled down to room temperature. During the CNT synthesis the pressure in the quartz tube was kept at atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, there is disclosed a packaged semiconductor structure, comprising a heat source, a heat sink, an aligned array of carbon nanotubes which thermally connects said source to said sink; and a peripheral connecting material which runs along at least some edges of said aligned array, while mechanically contacting said source and said sink to provide a fixed positional relationship there between. In another embodiment there is disclosed a packaged semiconductor structure, comprising an extended structure which carries heat; and first and second mutually separate aligned carbon nanotube arrays which are thermally connected to opposite surfaces of said extended structure, wherein said first array terminates in a connection to another heat conducting structure, and said second array terminates in bare carbon nanotube ends. In some embodiments, a method of transferring heat from a microelectronic heat source, comprises conducting heat through an if array of aligned nanotube fibers; separating a heat source and heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; and mechanically stabilizing a relative position of the heat source to the heat sink using an adhesive material. In some embodiments there is disclosed a method of operating an electronic system, comprising operating at least one electronic component, coupling heat from said electronic component into a thermal plane, the thermal plane having thermal interface material; laterally conducting heat along said plane; and conducting heat out of said plane through the thermal interface material, wherein the thermal interface material are aligned carbon nanotube arrays. In other embodiments, a method for thermal connection is disclosed. The method comprises separating a heat source and a heat sink by placing a spacer in a positional relationship with the heat source and heat sink; growing a first aligned carbon nanotube array in a first perpendicular direction from a heat source; growing a second aligned carbon nanotube array in a second perpendicular direction opposite to the first perpendicular direction from a heat sink; coupling the first and second carbon nanotube arrays by allowing the growth of the first carbon nanotube array to connect with the growth of the second nanotube array. In some embodiments, there is disclosed a method of fabricating an electronic system, comprising actions of a) forming a dry carbon nanotube (CNT) array on a heat spreader; b) thereafter positioning a packaged electronic device in a position which is spaced from at least part of said dry CNT array; and c) growing carbon nanotubes from both said CNT array and said packaged device, to thereby form a unified CNT array which provides a low-resistance heat path from said device to said heat spreader. In another embodiment, there is disclosed a method of fabricating an electronic system, comprising actions of a) forming a dry CNT array on a heat spreader; b) thereafter positioning a packaged electronic device in a position which is spaced from at least part of said dry CNT array by a spacer; and c) growing carbon nanotubes from both said CNT array and said packaged device, to thereby, form a unified CNT array which provides a low-resistance heat path from said device to said heat spreader. Another embodiment discloses a thermal management structure, comprising a heat source, thermally linked to a heat spreader by an aligned nanotube array and a heat sink, also thermally linked to said heat spreader by another aligned nanotube array. In another embodiment, a method is disclosed for operating an electronic device, comprising actions of conducting heat from a heat source to a heat spreader through an aligned nanotube array; and conducting heat from said heat spreader to a heat sink through another aligned nanotube array. In another embodiment, a cooling structure is disclosed comprising a heat source, which is operatively coupled to drive heat flow through an aligned nanotube array; and a convective cooling area, where at least some of said aligned nanotube array couples heat to a fluid. Some other embodiments disclose a method for operating an electronic device, comprising actions of conducting heat from a heat source to a heat spreader through an aligned nanotube array; and conducting heat from said heat spreader to a heat sink through another aligned nanotube array. The foregoing, detailed description and accompanying drawings are only illustrative and not restrictive. It is to be understood that the general nature revealed in the invention may be sufficient to those skilled in the art to devise with addition, deletion, modification and adaptation in various applications as well as alternative arrangements without departing from the spirit of the disclosed embodiments and the scope of the appended claims. Modifications and Variations As will be recognized by those skilled in the art, the innovative concepts described in the present application can be modified and varied over a tremendous range of applications and accordingly the scope of patented subject matter is not limited by any of the specific exemplary teachings given. For example, it should be noted that a heat source may be a heat dissipation structure that generates heat when in operation or may be a structure having a high temperature. The heat dissipation structure could be a die, device, a module or a combination of several dies, devices, modules or even a heat spreader that dissipates heat to a heat sink. Similarly, a cooler may be a structure that absorbs heat and further may help to dissipate heat to other media including a heat spreader, a heat sink, or even ambient air or a fluid. Note that the carbon nanotube array can be used not only to couple to a gas phase for convective or forced cooling, but also to a liquid phase. The carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays of the inventions may be grown or synthesized using processes such as thermal chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, arc discharging, or laser ablation. The carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are usually grown in a perpendicular alignment to the substrate. In some embodiments a high thermal conductivity substrate may, form particular patterns specific to certain applications and the CNT arrays may be grown within the particular pattern. The high thermal conductivity substrate comprises one of silicon, silicon oxide, silicon with silicon oxide layer, glass, some metals such as aluminum, copper, some metal alloys such as aluminum alloy, copper alloy, or these metals or metal alloys with their oxide layers, or oxide of these metals or metal alloys, or any materials containing at least one of the above materials. The CNT arrays may be grown by using sublimed catalysts such as dicyclopentadienyl iron (Ferrocene), dicyclopentadienyl cobalt (Cobaltocene), dicyclopentadienyl nickel (Nickelocene), iron titanium hydride, cobalt titanium hydride, nickel titanium hydride, or similar compounds containing at least one of these substances. CNT arrays may be grown from preformed catalyst dispersed on the high thermal conductivity substrate surfaces. Deformed catalyst types include iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminum, silicon, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, silver, oxides of these materials, and any combination or compound of these substances and/or their oxides. Some embodiments may, include a modification layer formed on the high thermal conductivity substrate surface that is operational to modify the distribution and density of the CNT arrays and modify the bonding between the CNT and the high thermal conductivity substrate surfaces. The modification layer may at least one of titanium, tungsten, silicon, aluminum, oxides of these elements, or any compounds containing at least one of these elements. In some embodiments, the electronic system is comprised of CNT arrays disposed in a gap exposed between a heat source and a cooler. Adhesive material may be placed around the outside edges of the exposed gap. The adhesive material may include epoxy resin with or without fillers, thermal conductive polymers, a low melting metal or alloy, a phase change material, adhesive materials, or any substances containing any of these materials. In some embodiments, the CNT arrays increase the heat dissipation from the electronic structure by operating as heat fins. The CNT heat fins significantly increase the heat dissipation area of the heat, dissipation structure resulting in increased heat dissipation to the environment by heat convection. The CNT arrays are positioned to effectively dissipate the heat into the environment by thermal convection. CNT arrays may be grown or synthesized into a specific pattern required for a particular application or may be adapted for a specific feature of an application. In some embodiments, aligned CNT arrays may be grown to vertically extend from a heat source surface or a cooler surface and may be grown until contact is made to the opposite surface. In other embodiments, aligned CNT arrays may be grown to vertically extend from a heat source surface and a cooler surface and may be grown until the opposite CNT arrays overlap. In one embodiment, the dimensions of the heat source and the cooler may be the same; the dimensions of the electronic structures may be device and application dependent. One example may be a 1 W LED package where the heat source is 1 millimeter (mm) by 1 mm and the cooler or heat sink is 20 mm by 20 mm. In other applications, the heat source may be much larger than 1 mm by 1 mm and the heat sink will be a corresponding dimension. None of the description the present application should be construed as implying that any particular element, step, or function is an essential element which must be included in the claim scope THE SCOPE OF PATENTED SUBJECT MATTER IS DEFINED ONLY BY THE ALLOWED CLAIMS. Moreover, none of these claims are intended to invoke paragraph six of 35 U.S.C. section 112 unless the exact words “means for” are followed by a participle. The claims as filed are intended to be as comprehensive as possible, and NO subject matter is intentionally relinquished, dedicated, or abandoned.
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Methods of Forming Mask Patterns on Semiconductor Wafers that Compensate for Nonuniform Center-to-Edge Etch Rates During Photolithographic Processing
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Chang", "inventor_name_first": "Chong Kwang", "inventor_city": "Kangwon", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Park", "inventor_name_first": "Wan Jae", "inventor_city": "Kyunggi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tsou", "inventor_name_first": "Len Yuan", "inventor_city": "New York City", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhuang", "inventor_name_first": "Haoren", "inventor_city": "Hopewell Junction", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lipinski", "inventor_name_first": "Matthias", "inventor_city": "Poughkeepsie", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Mishra", "inventor_name_first": "Shailendra", "inventor_city": "Singapore", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SG"}]
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Methods of forming integrated circuit devices include steps to selectively widen portions of a mask pattern extending adjacent an outer edge of a semiconductor wafer. These steps to selectively widen portions of the mask pattern are performed so that more uniform center-to-edge critical dimensions (CD) can be achieved when the mask pattern is used to support photolithographically patterning of underlying layers (e.g., insulating layers, antireflective coatings, etc.).
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1. A method of forming an integrated circuit device, comprising the steps of: forming a first electrically insulating layer on a semiconductor wafer; forming mask pattern on the first electrically insulating layer; selectively widening first portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer relative to second portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer, by depositing a second electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics on the mask pattern while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to having a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile; and selectively etching the electrically insulating layer using the mask pattern with the selectively widened portions as an etching mask. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the second electrically insulating layer is an organic polymer layer. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the second electrically insulating layer comprises carbon and fluorine. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the second electrically insulating layer is a CxFy or CxHyFz layer. 5. A method of forming an integrated circuit device, comprising the steps of: forming mask pattern on a semiconductor wafer; and selectively widening first portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer relative to second portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer, by depositing an electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics on the mask pattern while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to having a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the electrically insulating layer is an organic polymer layer. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the electrically insulating layer comprises carbon and fluorine. 8. The method of claim 5, wherein the electrically insulating layer is a CxFy or CxHyFz layer.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Processes for fabricating integrated circuit devices typically include the formation of a relatively large array of integrated circuits that are replicated at side-by-side locations on an integrated circuit wafer. These fabricating processes also typically include the formation of multiple levels of electrically insulating layers that extend across the entire surface of a wafer and are selectively and individually patterned using conventional photolithography techniques. During photolithography, an organic material layer, such as a photo-resist (PR) mask layer, may be deposited on an electrically insulating layer and then patterned to define a mask. This mask may contain a pattern that is replicated for each of the integrated circuits to be formed adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer and adjacent an edge (i.e., periphery) of the semiconductor wafer. Unfortunately, the steps to pattern the mask layer into a mask may result in mask patterns having non-uniform lateral dimensions that vary according to location on the semiconductor wafer. For example, it is not uncommon for a mask pattern that defines a critical dimension (CD) of a structure within in an integrated circuit extending adjacent the edge of the semiconductor wafer to be narrower than the corresponding mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer (i.e., near the center of the wafer). This nonuniformity in the mask pattern dimensions, which frequently results from the non-uniform etching characteristics associated with wafer-scale etching processes, can lead to complications in wafer level processing and result in poor device yield and reliability.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Methods of forming integrated circuit devices according to embodiments of the present invention include steps to selectively widen portions of a mask pattern extending adjacent an outer edge of a semiconductor wafer. These steps to selectively widen portions of the mask pattern are performed so that more uniform center-to-edge critical dimensions (CD) can be achieved when the mask pattern is used to support photolithographic patterning of underlying layers (e.g., insulating layers, antireflective coatings, etc.). These methods include forming a first electrically insulating layer on a semiconductor wafer and then forming a mask pattern on the first electrically insulating layer. First portions of the mask pattern, which extend adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer, are selectively widened relative to corresponding second portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer. This selective widening step is achieved by depositing a second electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics on the mask pattern. These temperature-dependent characteristics result in a second electrically insulating layer that is thicker on the peripheral portions of the semiconductor wafer and thinner on the interior portions of the semiconductor wafer. This fast (near edge) versus slow (near center) difference in the deposition rate characteristics of the second electrically insulating layer compensates for the narrower portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent the periphery of the semiconductor wafer. In some of these embodiments, the second electrically insulating layer may be an organic polymer layer, including an organic polymer layer containing carbon and fluorine, such as C x F y or C x H y F z . Moreover, the step of depositing the second electrically insulating layer is performed while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to have a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile. This nonuniform temperature profile may be achieved by establishing a corresponding nonuniform temperature profile in an underlying wafer support structure (e.g., wafer stage) within a processing chamber. A photolithographically defined etching step is then performed to pattern the electrically insulating layer. This selective etching step is performed using the mask pattern with the selectively widened portions as an etching mask.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to integrated circuit fabrication methods and, more particularly, to methods of fabricating mask patterns on semiconductor wafers. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Processes for fabricating integrated circuit devices typically include the formation of a relatively large array of integrated circuits that are replicated at side-by-side locations on an integrated circuit wafer. These fabricating processes also typically include the formation of multiple levels of electrically insulating layers that extend across the entire surface of a wafer and are selectively and individually patterned using conventional photolithography techniques. During photolithography, an organic material layer, such as a photo-resist (PR) mask layer, may be deposited on an electrically insulating layer and then patterned to define a mask. This mask may contain a pattern that is replicated for each of the integrated circuits to be formed adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer and adjacent an edge (i.e., periphery) of the semiconductor wafer. Unfortunately, the steps to pattern the mask layer into a mask may result in mask patterns having non-uniform lateral dimensions that vary according to location on the semiconductor wafer. For example, it is not uncommon for a mask pattern that defines a critical dimension (CD) of a structure within in an integrated circuit extending adjacent the edge of the semiconductor wafer to be narrower than the corresponding mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer (i.e., near the center of the wafer). This nonuniformity in the mask pattern dimensions, which frequently results from the non-uniform etching characteristics associated with wafer-scale etching processes, can lead to complications in wafer level processing and result in poor device yield and reliability. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Methods of forming integrated circuit devices according to embodiments of the present invention include steps to selectively widen portions of a mask pattern extending adjacent an outer edge of a semiconductor wafer. These steps to selectively widen portions of the mask pattern are performed so that more uniform center-to-edge critical dimensions (CD) can be achieved when the mask pattern is used to support photolithographic patterning of underlying layers (e.g., insulating layers, antireflective coatings, etc.). These methods include forming a first electrically insulating layer on a semiconductor wafer and then forming a mask pattern on the first electrically insulating layer. First portions of the mask pattern, which extend adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer, are selectively widened relative to corresponding second portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer. This selective widening step is achieved by depositing a second electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics on the mask pattern. These temperature-dependent characteristics result in a second electrically insulating layer that is thicker on the peripheral portions of the semiconductor wafer and thinner on the interior portions of the semiconductor wafer. This fast (near edge) versus slow (near center) difference in the deposition rate characteristics of the second electrically insulating layer compensates for the narrower portions of the mask pattern extending adjacent the periphery of the semiconductor wafer. In some of these embodiments, the second electrically insulating layer may be an organic polymer layer, including an organic polymer layer containing carbon and fluorine, such as CxFy or CxHyFz. Moreover, the step of depositing the second electrically insulating layer is performed while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to have a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile. This nonuniform temperature profile may be achieved by establishing a corresponding nonuniform temperature profile in an underlying wafer support structure (e.g., wafer stage) within a processing chamber. A photolithographically defined etching step is then performed to pattern the electrically insulating layer. This selective etching step is performed using the mask pattern with the selectively widened portions as an etching mask. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of steps that illustrates methods of forming integrated circuit devices according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 2A-2C are cross-sectional illustrations of intermediate structures that illustrate methods of forming integrated circuit devices according to embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the thickness of layers and regions are exaggerated for clarity. It will also be understood that when a layer is referred to as being “on” another layer or substrate, it can be directly on the other layer or substrate, or intervening layers may also be present. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. Referring now to the flow diagram of FIG. 1, methods 100 of forming integrated circuit devices include forming a first electrically insulating layer on a primary surface of semiconductor wafer, Block 102. This first electrically insulating layer may be formed relatively close to the primary surface, or may be an inter-layer dielectric layer that is separated from the primary surface by one or more underlying layers and integrated circuit structures. This first electrically insulating layer may be formed of a material such as silicon oxide or silicon nitride, for example, however, other electrically insulating and dielectric materials may also be used. As illustrated by Blocks 104-106, an antireflective coating (ARC) layer (optional) is deposited on the first electrically insulating layer and then a mask layer is deposited on the coating. This mask layer is then photolithographically patterned to define a mask that extends across the semiconductor wafer. Portions of mask that extend adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer are then selectively widened to compensate for a relative narrowing of these portions during the step of patterning the mask layer, Block 108. This step of selectively widening portions of the mask pattern is achieved by depositing a second electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics, on the mask pattern. These temperature-dependent characteristics result in a second electrically insulating layer that is thicker on the peripheral portions of the semiconductor wafer and thinner on the interior portions of the semiconductor wafer. This fast (near edge) versus slow (near center) difference in the deposition rate characteristics of the second electrically insulating layer compensates for the narrower portions of the mask extending adjacent the periphery of the semiconductor wafer. The second electrically insulating layer may be an organic polymer layer, including an organic polymer layer containing carbon and fluorine, such as CxFy or CxHyFz. The step of depositing the second electrically insulating layer is performed while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to have a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile. In particular, a chuck (e.g., wafer stage), which supports the semiconductor wafer in a processing chamber, may be configured to provide a high-to-low temperature profile across the wafer, with the center of the wafer being held at a higher temperature relative to an edge of the wafer. Referring now to Block 110, the first electrically insulating layer is then selectively etched, using the patterned mask layer (with selectively widened portions) as an etching mask. The patterned mask layer is then removed to complete the photolithography process, Block 112. The steps described above with respect to FIG. 1 will now be described more fully with reference to FIGS. 2A-2C. As illustrated by FIG. 2A, an electrically insulating layer 12 may be formed on a semiconductor wafer 10. This electrically insulating layer 12 may be a silicon dioxide layer that is conformally deposited across an entire surface of the semiconductor wafer 12, which includes edge, intermediate and center portions having integrated circuit structures (not shown) thereon. The edge portion extends adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer 10 and the center portion extends adjacent an interior portion of the semiconductor wafer 10. The intermediate portion of the semiconductor wafer extends between the interior and edge portions of the semiconductor wafer 10. Referring still to FIG. 2A, another electrically insulating layer 14 is conformally deposited on the underlying electrically insulating layer 12. This electrically insulating layer 14 may be a silicon nitride layer or other dielectric material layer that can be etched selectively relative to the underlying electrically insulating layer 12. A bottom anti-reflective coating (i.e., BARC) layer (optional) and a layer of photoresist are then formed in sequence on the electrically insulating layer 14. Conventional mask developing and photolithographic patterning techniques may then be performed to generate a mask pattern 18 from the layer of photoresist. During this mask patterning step, the anti-reflective coating may also be selectively etched to define an anti-reflective coating pattern 16. These steps of developing the layer of photoresist may result in the generation of a mask pattern 18 having corresponding shapes with nonuniform lateral dimensions, including nonuniform critical dimensions that are wider adjacent a center of the semiconductor wafer 10 relative to an edge of the semiconductor wafer 10. Referring now to FIG. 2B, portions of the mask pattern 18 are then selectively widened by depositing an electrically insulating layer 20 having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics, on the mask pattern 18. According to some embodiments of the present invention, this electrically insulating layer 20 may be an organic polymer layer, such as an organic polymer layer including carbon and fluorine (e.g., CxFy or CxHyFz). During this step of depositing the electrically insulating layer 20, the semiconductor wafer 10 is maintained at a nonuniform temperature, which results in an electrically insulating layer 20 having a nonuniform thickness. In particular, the center of the semiconductor wafer 10 is maintained at a higher temperature (Tc) relative to a temperature (Ti) of an intermediate portion of the semiconductor wafer 10 and a temperature (Te) of an edge portion of the semiconductor wafer 10, where Tc>Ti>Te. These relative temperatures can be adjusted to achieve a nonuniform thickness of the electrically insulating layer 20 that compensates for the nonuniform lateral dimensions in the mask pattern 18 illustrated by FIG. 2A. This nonuniform temperature may be achieved in a deposition processing chamber, by using a wafer support stage (e.g., wafer chuck) that is configured to provide different temperatures across its surface. Based on these different temperatures, the edge, intermediate and center portions of the electrically insulating layer 20 will have different thicknesses, with the edge portion 20e being thicker than the intermediate portion 20i and the intermediate portion 20i being thicker than the center portion 20c. Referring now to FIG. 2C, a selective etching step is then performed to etch through the electrically insulating layer 14, using the mask pattern 18 and the electrically insulating layer 20 as an etching mask. This etching step results in the generation of a patterned electrically insulating layer having edge regions 14e, intermediate regions 14i and center regions 14c with sufficiently equivalent dimensions (i.e., We≈Wi≈Wc). The mask pattern 18 and the electrically insulating layer 20 is then removed. Thus, as described above with respect to FIGS. 1 and 2A-2C, methods of forming integrated circuit devices according to embodiments of the invention include forming a first electrically insulating layer on a semiconductor wafer and forming mask pattern on the first electrically insulating layer. First portions of the mask pattern that extend adjacent a periphery of the semiconductor wafer are then selectively widened relative to second portions of the mask pattern that extend adjacent an interior of the semiconductor wafer. This selective widening step is performed by depositing a second electrically insulating layer having temperature-dependent deposition rate characteristics on the mask pattern while simultaneously controlling a temperature of the semiconductor wafer to having a nonuniform center-to-edge temperature profile. The electrically insulating layer is then selectively etched using the mask pattern with the selectively widened portions as an etching mask. In the drawings and specification, there have been disclosed typical preferred embodiments of the invention and, although specific terms are employed, they are used in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation, the scope of the invention being set forth in the following claims.
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213
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02
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11777276
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US20080054946A1-20080306
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SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
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ACCEPTED
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20080220
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20080306
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[]
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H01L2702
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["H01L2702", "H03K190944"]
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7569899
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20070712
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20090804
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257
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393000
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79459.0
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MANDALA
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VICTOR
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[{"inventor_name_last": "KANNO", "inventor_name_first": "Yusuke", "inventor_city": "Kodaira", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Yoshizumi", "inventor_name_first": "Kenichi", "inventor_city": "Fukuoka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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Logic LSI includes first power domains PD1 to PD4, thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4, and power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4. The thick-film power switches are formed by thick-film power transistors manufactured in a process common to external input/output circuits I/O. The first power domains include second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 including logic blocks, control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4, and thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 that are connected to the thick-film power switches via virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4, and formed by thin-film power transistors manufactured in a process common to the logic blocks. In this way, power switches having different thickness of gate insulating films from one another are vertically stacked so as to be in a hierarchical structure, and each power switch is individually controlled by a power switch controller and a control circuit block correspondingly to each mode.
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1. A semiconductor integrated circuit comprising: a plurality of first power switches for receiving a ground voltage; first ground lines connected to the first power switches; a plurality of second power switches that are connected to the first ground lines, and have gate insulating films being thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches; second ground lines provided for the plurality of second power switches respectively; a first power lines for receiving a power voltage; a plurality of circuit blocks connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively; first control circuits for controlling the first power switches individually; and second control circuits for controlling the second power switches individually. 2. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1, further comprising: external input/output circuits plurally arranged on a semiconductor substrate; wherein the first power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the external input/output circuits, and the second power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. 3. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1: wherein the second ground lines are wired with being approximately uniformly conducted in the regions of the circuit blocks, and the second power switches are arranged dispersedly on the second ground lines. 4. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1, further comprising: a plurality of third power switches formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulting films have the same thickness as the gate insulting films of the second power switches; wherein the plurality of first power switches and second power switches are formed by n-channel MOS transistors, each of the plurality of circuit blocks is connected to each of the first power lines via a corresponding switch among the plurality of third power switches, and the plurality of third power switches are controlled by the second control circuits. 5. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1: wherein the second power switches has the gate insulting films being thicker than gate insulting films of the transistors arranged in the regions of the circuit blocks. 6. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 5: wherein the second control circuits have level conversion circuits for conversing voltage levels applied to gates of the second power switches. 7. A semiconductor integrated circuit comprising: a plurality of first power switches that receive a ground voltage, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors; first ground lines connected to the first power switches; a plurality of second power switches that receive a power voltage, and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches; first power lines connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively; a plurality of circuit blocks connected to the first ground lines and the first power lines respectively; first control circuits for controlling the first power switches individually; and second control circuits for controlling the second power switches individually. 8. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 7, further comprising: third control circuits that are connected to gates of the second power switches, and perform control of allowing the second power switches to function as regulators. 9. A semiconductor integrated circuit comprising: a plurality of first power switches that receive a power voltage, and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors; a plurality of second power switches that receive a ground voltage, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches; first ground lines connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively; first power lines connected to the first power switches; a plurality of third power switches that are connected to the first power lines, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulting films have the same thickness as the gate insulting films of the second power switches; second power lines connected to the plurality of third power switches respectively; a plurality of circuit blocks connected to the first ground lines and the second power lines respectively; first control circuits for controlling the first power switches individually; and second control circuits for controlling the second power switches and the third power switches individually. 10. A semiconductor integrated circuit comprising: a plurality of first power switches for receiving a ground voltage; first ground lines connected to the first power switches; a plurality of second power switches connected to the first ground lines; second ground lines connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively; a first power lines for receiving a power voltage; a plurality of circuit blocks connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively; first control circuits for controlling the first power switches individually; and second control circuits for controlling the second power switches individually; wherein the first power switches and the second power switches are formed by transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of gate insulating films of transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks, and the first control circuits apply a voltage lower than the ground voltage to gates of the first power switches. 11. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1: wherein the number of gates is 100 or more.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor integrated circuit, and particularly relates to a technique useful for use in system LSI for mobile device, microprocessor and the like. 2. Description of Related Art The number of circuit blocks integrated in one LSI is remarkably increased due to progress in fine processing technology of semiconductors, and therefore usually unimaginable, complicated information processing can be achieved in one chip. Such LSI is called SoC (System on a Chip), and used for a system for mobile device and the like. However, a leakage current in a single transistor tends to increase due to progress in fine processing technology of semiconductors. As a result, the total leakage current in SoC is becoming extremely increased. To such SoC in which a large number of circuit blocks are integrated in one chip, demand on further high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is becoming increased with improvement in functions which is required for mobile devices and the like. For example, even if a transistor that can perform high-speed operation such as a transistor having a low threshold voltage or a transistor having a small thickness of a gate insulating film is used to achieve such high-speed operation, increase in leakage current is inevitable. Therefore, it is an important issue for SoC that increase in leakage current is prevented, in addition, high-speed operation is achieved. In SoC used for a system for mobile device or the like, the integrated circuit blocks can be exclusively used, and currently, only a necessary circuit is typically operated correspondingly to a scene to be used (hereinafter, simply called mode) or the like. That is, in SoC, an operation period can be definitely distinguished from a non-operation period in the integrated circuit blocks. When such technology is used, an idea is given, that is, circuits are configured by high-speed devices that can be operated at high speed, and power shutdown is closely performed during non-operation period so that the circuits are operated at extremely high speed in the operation period, and the leakage current is reduced in the non-operation period. JP-A-2004-235470 discloses a control method of power shutdown that can extremely reduce the leakage current by performing control using a switch having a large thickness of a gate insulating layer of transistors. However, since such a switch having the large thickness of the gate insulating layer takes large area, when a large number of power shutdown regions are provided within a chip, a real overhead costs are extremely increased, and therefore the switch is becoming hard to be mounted. On the other hand, when power is shut down using a switch having a small thickness of the gate insulating layer, while increase in area of the power switch can be reduced, an effect of reducing the leakage current cannot be sufficiently obtained compared with a case that power is shut down using the transistor having the large thickness of the gate insulating layer. JP-A-6-203558 discloses a technique that power shutdown of LSI is hierarchically carried out, thereby a period is reduced, in which a voltage level of a circuit being subjected to power shutdown is unstable, so that time for subsequently returning the circuit to an original state by voltage application is made faster. In a non-patent document 1, Y. Kanno, et al., “Hierarchical Power Distribution with 20 Power Domains in 90-nm Low-Power Multi-CPU Processor,” ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, PP. 540-541, 671, February, 2006; SoC is disclosed, which has a plurality of power domains provided within a chip, power switches (PSW) for the power domains, and SRAM macros arranged in the power domains. Here, the power domain refers to a region where power shutdown can be performed using a power switch, which corresponds to the above power shutdown region. The power switch includes n-channel MOS transistors, each transistor having a large thickness of a gate oxide film and a high threshold voltage, for which transistors used in an external input/output circuit (I/O) are used. In the SRAM macros, special power switches are provided for reducing the leakage current.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In consideration of layout or area of the power switches, and furthermore thickness of the gate insulating film, the inventor made investigation on a unit that enables high-speed operation of circuit blocks, and performs close power shutdown control while reducing the leakage current. In JP-A-6-203558, while power shutdown of LSI is hierarchically carried out, no description is made on thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor. Regarding the layout of the power switches, vertical stacking or series connection of the power switches has not been typically used. This is because on-resistances of transistors configuring the power switches are connected in series, causing reduction in on-currents, which may concernedly affect degradation in performance (reduction in speed). Therefore, for example, vertically-stacked power switches are provided in a circuit block consuming a large current only in the case that speed reduction is allowed. However, the inventor made detailed investigation on an effect of the power switches on a circuit block that operates at high speed, as a result, found that even if power shutdown was performed with the power switches being vertically stacked, only slight reduction in speed was given by considering a circuit scale of the circuit block or area of the power switches (hereinafter, called SW area) compared with a case that the power switches were not vertically stacked. Here, the circuit scale corresponds to the number of gates in a circuit block. Moreover, area of a circuit block corresponding to the number of gates is called logic part area. In this specification, a ratio (%) of the SW area to the total area of the logic part area and the SW area is called area overhead (hereinafter, called area OH). While the non-patent document 1 discloses a configuration of stacking the power switches that use gate oxide films having different thickness from one another, it does not consider area OH based on area of a memory cell array in the SRAM macro, and area of a special power switch corresponding to the memory cell array to reduce the leakage current. An object of an embodiment of the invention is to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit that enables high-speed operation of a circuit block, and can perform close power shutdown control while reducing the leakage current. The above and other objects and novel features of an embodiment of the invention will be clarified from description of the specification and accompanying drawings. Summaries of typical inventions disclosed in the application are briefly described as follows. (1) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 2 ) according to an embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 1 to SW 4 ), first ground lines (VSSM 1 to VSSM 4 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWN 11 to SWN 42 ), second ground lines (SVSSM 11 to SVSSM 42 ), first power lines (VDDM 1 to VDDM 4 ), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP: FIG. 1 ), first control circuits (PSWC 1 to PSWC 4 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines, and have gate insulating films being thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage. The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. From the above, the first power switches are connected with the plurality of second power switches via the first ground lines, and the first power switches and the plurality of second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively. Since the first power switches have the gate insulating films being thicker than the gate insulating films of the second power switches, each of them has a high threshold voltage, and therefore can reduce a leakage current. Since the first control circuits individually control the first power switches respectively, for example, in a mode that all circuit blocks are not used, which are supplied with currents via a plurality of second power switches connected to a particular first power switch, when the particular first power switch is allowed to be off, the circuit blocks can be collectively subjected to power shutdown. In particular, when a semiconductor integrated circuit as a whole is in a standby state, the first control circuits allow all the plurality of first power switches to be off, so that the leakage current can be extremely reduced. Since the second power switches have the gate insulating films being thinner than the gate insulating films of the first power switches, each of them has a low threshold voltage, and therefore can perform high-speed operation. Since the second control circuits individually control the second power switches respectively, for example, in a mode that a circuit block is not used, which is supplied with a current via a particular second power switch, when the particular second power switch is allowed to be off, power shutdown of the particular circuit block can be performed at high speed. In a word, the first power switches and the second power switches, in which the gate insulating films are different in thickness from each other, are in the hierarchical structure, and they are individually controlled by the first control circuits and the second control circuits, thereby high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor integrated circuit further has external input/output circuits (I/O) plurally arranged on a semiconductor substrate (SUB: FIG. 6 ). The first power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the external input/output circuits. The second power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. From the above, since each of the first power switches has a thick gate insulating film, and a high threshold voltage, it can reduce the leakage current. Since each of the second power switches has a thin gate insulating film, and a low threshold voltage, it can perform high-speed operation. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the second ground lines are wired with being approximately uniformly conducted in the regions of the circuit blocks. The second power switches are dispersedly arranged on the second ground lines. From the above, the second power switches are dispersedly arranged in the regions of the circuit blocks, and the transistors having thin gate insulating films, which configure the respective, second power switches, are connected in parallel with the second ground lines. Therefore, in the case that predetermined processing is performed in a circuit block, when an activation ratio of a plurality of logic circuits included in the circuit block is assumed to be, for example, about 10%, all transistors connected in parallel with the second ground lines contribute to supply currents to the about 10% of logic circuits. Thus, an increase rate of SW area of the second power switches is reduced compared with an increase rate of a circuit scale of the circuit block, that is, an increase rate of logic part area corresponding to the number of gates of transistors configuring the logic circuits. In a word, considering difference between the increase rate of SW area and the increase rate of logic part area, when the number of gates is somewhat increased, area OH can be decreased to less than a predetermined value, for example, about 10%. As a result, integration of the semiconductor integrated circuit can be increased. (2) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 8 ) according to another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 1 to SW 4 ), first ground lines (VSSM 1 to VSSM 4 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWP 11 to SWP 42 ), first power lines (SVDDM 11 to SVDDM 42 ), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC 1 to PSWC 4 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The first power lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The circuit blocks are connected to the first ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. From the above, the first power switches, which are formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having thick gate insulating films, and can reduce the leakage current, and the second power switches, which are formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having thin gate insulating films, and can perform high-speed operation, are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and furthermore, the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits. Consequently, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (1), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor integrated circuit further has third control circuits (RC 1 to RC 4 ) that are connected to gates of the second power switches, and perform control of allowing the second power switches to function as regulators. From the above, for example, while a voltage of a predetermined circuit block is lowered during standby to reduce the leakage current, an internal condition of the circuit block can be kept. Moreover, for example, a voltage is lowered during low-speed operation, so that power consumption can be reduced. (3) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 9 ) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 1 to SW 4 ), first ground lines (VSSM 1 to VSSM 4 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWN 11 to SWN 42 ), second ground lines (SVSSM 11 to SVSSM 42 ), a plurality of third power switches (SWP 11 to SWP 42 ), first power lines (SVDDM 11 to SVDDM 42 ), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC 1 to PSWC 4 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The third power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of the gate insulating films of the second power switches. The first power lines are connected to the plurality of third power switches respectively. The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches and the third power switches individually. From the above, the second power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a ground side, and the third power switches formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a power side, and furthermore, the first power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thick gate insulating films and the second power switches are made in a hierarchical structure respectively. According to this, while an increase rate of SW area corresponding to the number of gates in a circuit block is somewhat increased, since threshold voltages of the second power switches and the third power switches are apparently increased due to a substrate effect, the leakage current can be further reduced. Moreover, the first to third power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, thereby, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (1), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. (4) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 10 ) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 21 to SW 24 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWN 11 to SWN 42 ), first ground lines (SVSSM 11 to SVSSM 42 ), first power lines (VDDM 1 to VDDM 4 ), a plurality of third power switches (SWP 11 to SWP 42 ), second power lines (SVDDM 11 to SVDDM 42 ), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC 1 to PSWC 4 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ). The first power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors. The second power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The first ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines are connected to the first power switches. The third power switches are connected to the first power lines, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of the gate insulating films of the second power switches. The second power lines are connected to the plurality of third power switches. The circuit blocks are connected to the first ground lines and the second power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches and the third power switches individually. From the above, the second power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a ground side, and the third power switches formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a power side, and furthermore, while the first power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thick gate insulating films are provided at the power side, and the first power switches and the third power switches are made in a hierarchical structure respectively. Moreover, the first to third power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits. Consequently, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (3), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. (5) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 11 ) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 1 to SW 4 ), first ground lines (VSSM 1 to VSSM 4 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWN 110 to SWN 420 ), second ground lines, first power lines, a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC 1 to PSWC 4 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ) The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage (VDD). The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. The second power switches are formed by transistors in which the gate insulating films are thicker than gate insulating films of transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks, and thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. From the above, the first power switches and the second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, therefore close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode. Moreover, since thickness of the gate insulating film of the second power switch is an intermediate thickness between thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor included in the circuit block, and thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor included in the first power switch, a threshold voltage of the second power switch can be made higher than the transistor included in the circuit block, consequently the leakage current can be further reduced compared with in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the (1). As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the second control circuits have level conversion circuits (LS 1 to LS 4 ) for converting voltage levels to be applied to gates of the second power switches. From the above, since the transistor included in the second power switch is high in threshold voltage compared with the transistor included in the circuit block, when a signal level is converted by the level conversion circuit, even if area of the transistor included in the second control circuit is reduced, a sufficient current can be obtained. Thus, area of the second control circuits can be reduced. (6) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 13 ) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW 11 to SW 14 ), first ground lines (VSSM 11 to VSSM 42 ), a plurality of second power switches (SWN 11 to SWN 42 ), second ground lines (SVSSM 11 to SVSSM 42 ), first power lines, a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC 11 to PSWC 14 ), and second control circuits (SCB 1 to SCB 4 ). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage (VDD). The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. The first power switches and the second power switches are formed by transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of gate insulating films of transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. The first control circuits apply a voltage (VBN) lower than the ground voltage to gates of the first power switches. From the above, the first power switches and the second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, therefore close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode. Here, while thickness of the gate insulating films of the first power switches is the same as thickness of the gate insulating films of the transistors included in the circuit blocks, that is, thin, since the first control circuits apply a negative gate voltage, the leakage current can be reduced. In addition, since the first power switch can perform the same high-speed operation as the second power switch, the semiconductor integrated circuit can perform further high-speed operation compared with the semiconductor integrated circuit of the (1). As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the number of gates in the circuit block is 100 or more. From the above, according to a result of simulation of calculating area OH based on difference in increase rate between logic part area of the circuit block corresponding to the number of gates, and SW area of the second power switches, when the number of gates is 100 or more, the area OH can be sufficiently reduced. Thus, integration of the semiconductor integrated circuit can be increased.
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CLAIM OF PRIORITY The present application claims priority from Japanese application JP 2006-236119 filed on Aug. 31, 2006, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference into this application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor integrated circuit, and particularly relates to a technique useful for use in system LSI for mobile device, microprocessor and the like. 2. Description of Related Art The number of circuit blocks integrated in one LSI is remarkably increased due to progress in fine processing technology of semiconductors, and therefore usually unimaginable, complicated information processing can be achieved in one chip. Such LSI is called SoC (System on a Chip), and used for a system for mobile device and the like. However, a leakage current in a single transistor tends to increase due to progress in fine processing technology of semiconductors. As a result, the total leakage current in SoC is becoming extremely increased. To such SoC in which a large number of circuit blocks are integrated in one chip, demand on further high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is becoming increased with improvement in functions which is required for mobile devices and the like. For example, even if a transistor that can perform high-speed operation such as a transistor having a low threshold voltage or a transistor having a small thickness of a gate insulating film is used to achieve such high-speed operation, increase in leakage current is inevitable. Therefore, it is an important issue for SoC that increase in leakage current is prevented, in addition, high-speed operation is achieved. In SoC used for a system for mobile device or the like, the integrated circuit blocks can be exclusively used, and currently, only a necessary circuit is typically operated correspondingly to a scene to be used (hereinafter, simply called mode) or the like. That is, in SoC, an operation period can be definitely distinguished from a non-operation period in the integrated circuit blocks. When such technology is used, an idea is given, that is, circuits are configured by high-speed devices that can be operated at high speed, and power shutdown is closely performed during non-operation period so that the circuits are operated at extremely high speed in the operation period, and the leakage current is reduced in the non-operation period. JP-A-2004-235470 discloses a control method of power shutdown that can extremely reduce the leakage current by performing control using a switch having a large thickness of a gate insulating layer of transistors. However, since such a switch having the large thickness of the gate insulating layer takes large area, when a large number of power shutdown regions are provided within a chip, a real overhead costs are extremely increased, and therefore the switch is becoming hard to be mounted. On the other hand, when power is shut down using a switch having a small thickness of the gate insulating layer, while increase in area of the power switch can be reduced, an effect of reducing the leakage current cannot be sufficiently obtained compared with a case that power is shut down using the transistor having the large thickness of the gate insulating layer. JP-A-6-203558 discloses a technique that power shutdown of LSI is hierarchically carried out, thereby a period is reduced, in which a voltage level of a circuit being subjected to power shutdown is unstable, so that time for subsequently returning the circuit to an original state by voltage application is made faster. In a non-patent document 1, Y. Kanno, et al., “Hierarchical Power Distribution with 20 Power Domains in 90-nm Low-Power Multi-CPU Processor,” ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, PP. 540-541, 671, February, 2006; SoC is disclosed, which has a plurality of power domains provided within a chip, power switches (PSW) for the power domains, and SRAM macros arranged in the power domains. Here, the power domain refers to a region where power shutdown can be performed using a power switch, which corresponds to the above power shutdown region. The power switch includes n-channel MOS transistors, each transistor having a large thickness of a gate oxide film and a high threshold voltage, for which transistors used in an external input/output circuit (I/O) are used. In the SRAM macros, special power switches are provided for reducing the leakage current. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In consideration of layout or area of the power switches, and furthermore thickness of the gate insulating film, the inventor made investigation on a unit that enables high-speed operation of circuit blocks, and performs close power shutdown control while reducing the leakage current. In JP-A-6-203558, while power shutdown of LSI is hierarchically carried out, no description is made on thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor. Regarding the layout of the power switches, vertical stacking or series connection of the power switches has not been typically used. This is because on-resistances of transistors configuring the power switches are connected in series, causing reduction in on-currents, which may concernedly affect degradation in performance (reduction in speed). Therefore, for example, vertically-stacked power switches are provided in a circuit block consuming a large current only in the case that speed reduction is allowed. However, the inventor made detailed investigation on an effect of the power switches on a circuit block that operates at high speed, as a result, found that even if power shutdown was performed with the power switches being vertically stacked, only slight reduction in speed was given by considering a circuit scale of the circuit block or area of the power switches (hereinafter, called SW area) compared with a case that the power switches were not vertically stacked. Here, the circuit scale corresponds to the number of gates in a circuit block. Moreover, area of a circuit block corresponding to the number of gates is called logic part area. In this specification, a ratio (%) of the SW area to the total area of the logic part area and the SW area is called area overhead (hereinafter, called area OH). While the non-patent document 1 discloses a configuration of stacking the power switches that use gate oxide films having different thickness from one another, it does not consider area OH based on area of a memory cell array in the SRAM macro, and area of a special power switch corresponding to the memory cell array to reduce the leakage current. An object of an embodiment of the invention is to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit that enables high-speed operation of a circuit block, and can perform close power shutdown control while reducing the leakage current. The above and other objects and novel features of an embodiment of the invention will be clarified from description of the specification and accompanying drawings. Summaries of typical inventions disclosed in the application are briefly described as follows. (1) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 2) according to an embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW1 to SW4), first ground lines (VSSM1 to VSSM4), a plurality of second power switches (SWN11 to SWN42), second ground lines (SVSSM11 to SVSSM42), first power lines (VDDM1 to VDDM4), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP: FIG. 1), first control circuits (PSWC1 to PSWC4), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines, and have gate insulating films being thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage. The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. From the above, the first power switches are connected with the plurality of second power switches via the first ground lines, and the first power switches and the plurality of second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively. Since the first power switches have the gate insulating films being thicker than the gate insulating films of the second power switches, each of them has a high threshold voltage, and therefore can reduce a leakage current. Since the first control circuits individually control the first power switches respectively, for example, in a mode that all circuit blocks are not used, which are supplied with currents via a plurality of second power switches connected to a particular first power switch, when the particular first power switch is allowed to be off, the circuit blocks can be collectively subjected to power shutdown. In particular, when a semiconductor integrated circuit as a whole is in a standby state, the first control circuits allow all the plurality of first power switches to be off, so that the leakage current can be extremely reduced. Since the second power switches have the gate insulating films being thinner than the gate insulating films of the first power switches, each of them has a low threshold voltage, and therefore can perform high-speed operation. Since the second control circuits individually control the second power switches respectively, for example, in a mode that a circuit block is not used, which is supplied with a current via a particular second power switch, when the particular second power switch is allowed to be off, power shutdown of the particular circuit block can be performed at high speed. In a word, the first power switches and the second power switches, in which the gate insulating films are different in thickness from each other, are in the hierarchical structure, and they are individually controlled by the first control circuits and the second control circuits, thereby high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor integrated circuit further has external input/output circuits (I/O) plurally arranged on a semiconductor substrate (SUB: FIG. 6). The first power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the external input/output circuits. The second power switches are formed by the same transistors as transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. From the above, since each of the first power switches has a thick gate insulating film, and a high threshold voltage, it can reduce the leakage current. Since each of the second power switches has a thin gate insulating film, and a low threshold voltage, it can perform high-speed operation. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the second ground lines are wired with being approximately uniformly conducted in the regions of the circuit blocks. The second power switches are dispersedly arranged on the second ground lines. From the above, the second power switches are dispersedly arranged in the regions of the circuit blocks, and the transistors having thin gate insulating films, which configure the respective, second power switches, are connected in parallel with the second ground lines. Therefore, in the case that predetermined processing is performed in a circuit block, when an activation ratio of a plurality of logic circuits included in the circuit block is assumed to be, for example, about 10%, all transistors connected in parallel with the second ground lines contribute to supply currents to the about 10% of logic circuits. Thus, an increase rate of SW area of the second power switches is reduced compared with an increase rate of a circuit scale of the circuit block, that is, an increase rate of logic part area corresponding to the number of gates of transistors configuring the logic circuits. In a word, considering difference between the increase rate of SW area and the increase rate of logic part area, when the number of gates is somewhat increased, area OH can be decreased to less than a predetermined value, for example, about 10%. As a result, integration of the semiconductor integrated circuit can be increased. (2) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 8) according to another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW1 to SW4), first ground lines (VSSM1 to VSSM4), a plurality of second power switches (SWP11 to SWP42), first power lines (SVDDM11 to SVDDM42), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC1 to PSWC4), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The first power lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The circuit blocks are connected to the first ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. From the above, the first power switches, which are formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having thick gate insulating films, and can reduce the leakage current, and the second power switches, which are formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having thin gate insulating films, and can perform high-speed operation, are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and furthermore, the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits. Consequently, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (1), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor integrated circuit further has third control circuits (RC1 to RC4) that are connected to gates of the second power switches, and perform control of allowing the second power switches to function as regulators. From the above, for example, while a voltage of a predetermined circuit block is lowered during standby to reduce the leakage current, an internal condition of the circuit block can be kept. Moreover, for example, a voltage is lowered during low-speed operation, so that power consumption can be reduced. (3) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 9) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW1 to SW4), first ground lines (VSSM1 to VSSM4), a plurality of second power switches (SWN11 to SWN42), second ground lines (SVSSM11 to SVSSM42), a plurality of third power switches (SWP11 to SWP42), first power lines (SVDDM11 to SVDDM42), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC1 to PSWC4), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The third power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of the gate insulating films of the second power switches. The first power lines are connected to the plurality of third power switches respectively. The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches and the third power switches individually. From the above, the second power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a ground side, and the third power switches formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a power side, and furthermore, the first power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thick gate insulating films and the second power switches are made in a hierarchical structure respectively. According to this, while an increase rate of SW area corresponding to the number of gates in a circuit block is somewhat increased, since threshold voltages of the second power switches and the third power switches are apparently increased due to a substrate effect, the leakage current can be further reduced. Moreover, the first to third power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, thereby, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (1), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. (4) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 10) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW21 to SW24), a plurality of second power switches (SWN11 to SWN42), first ground lines (SVSSM11 to SVSSM42), first power lines (VDDM1 to VDDM4), a plurality of third power switches (SWP11 to SWP42), second power lines (SVDDM11 to SVDDM42), a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC1 to PSWC4), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4). The first power switches receive a power voltage (VDD), and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors. The second power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS), and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films are thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. The first ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines are connected to the first power switches. The third power switches are connected to the first power lines, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of the gate insulating films of the second power switches. The second power lines are connected to the plurality of third power switches. The circuit blocks are connected to the first ground lines and the second power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches and the third power switches individually. From the above, the second power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a ground side, and the third power switches formed by the p-channel MOS transistors having the thin gate insulating films are provided at a power side, and furthermore, while the first power switches formed by the n-channel MOS transistors having the thick gate insulating films are provided at the power side, and the first power switches and the third power switches are made in a hierarchical structure respectively. Moreover, the first to third power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits. Consequently, as in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the above (3), high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode while reducing the leakage current. (5) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 11) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW1 to SW4), first ground lines (VSSM1 to VSSM4), a plurality of second power switches (SWN110 to SWN420), second ground lines, first power lines, a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC1 to PSWC4), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4) The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage (VDD). The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. The second power switches are formed by transistors in which the gate insulating films are thicker than gate insulating films of transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks, and thinner than gate insulating films of the first power switches. From the above, the first power switches and the second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, therefore close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode. Moreover, since thickness of the gate insulating film of the second power switch is an intermediate thickness between thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor included in the circuit block, and thickness of the gate insulating film of the transistor included in the first power switch, a threshold voltage of the second power switch can be made higher than the transistor included in the circuit block, consequently the leakage current can be further reduced compared with in the semiconductor integrated circuit of the (1). As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the second control circuits have level conversion circuits (LS1 to LS4) for converting voltage levels to be applied to gates of the second power switches. From the above, since the transistor included in the second power switch is high in threshold voltage compared with the transistor included in the circuit block, when a signal level is converted by the level conversion circuit, even if area of the transistor included in the second control circuit is reduced, a sufficient current can be obtained. Thus, area of the second control circuits can be reduced. (6) A semiconductor integrated circuit (LSI: FIG. 13) according to still another embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of first power switches (SW11 to SW14), first ground lines (VSSM11 to VSSM42), a plurality of second power switches (SWN11 to SWN42), second ground lines (SVSSM11 to SVSSM42), first power lines, a plurality of circuit blocks (IP), first control circuits (PSWC11 to PSWC14), and second control circuits (SCB1 to SCB4). The first power switches receive a ground voltage (VSS). The first ground lines are connected to the first power switches. The second power switches are connected to the first ground lines. The second ground lines are connected to the plurality of second power switches respectively. The first power lines receive a power voltage (VDD). The circuit blocks are connected to the second ground lines and the first power lines respectively. The first control circuits control the first power switches individually. The second control circuits control the second power switches individually. The first power switches and the second power switches are formed by transistors in which the gate insulating films have the same thickness as thickness of gate insulating films of transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. The first control circuits apply a voltage (VBN) lower than the ground voltage to gates of the first power switches. From the above, the first power switches and the second power switches are arranged in a vertically stacked manner so as to be in a hierarchical structure respectively, and the power switches are individually controlled using the first control circuits and the second control circuits, therefore close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to each kind of mode. Here, while thickness of the gate insulating films of the first power switches is the same as thickness of the gate insulating films of the transistors included in the circuit blocks, that is, thin, since the first control circuits apply a negative gate voltage, the leakage current can be reduced. In addition, since the first power switch can perform the same high-speed operation as the second power switch, the semiconductor integrated circuit can perform further high-speed operation compared with the semiconductor integrated circuit of the (1). As a specific mode of the embodiment of the invention, the number of gates in the circuit block is 100 or more. From the above, according to a result of simulation of calculating area OH based on difference in increase rate between logic part area of the circuit block corresponding to the number of gates, and SW area of the second power switches, when the number of gates is 100 or more, the area OH can be sufficiently reduced. Thus, integration of the semiconductor integrated circuit can be increased. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a schematic configuration of LSI configured as SoC as an example of a semiconductor integrated circuit according to embodiment 1 of the invention; FIG. 2 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI as a part of the LSI illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 3A is a diagram showing a simulation result of logic part area corresponding to the number of gates; FIG. 3B is a diagram showing a simulation result of area OH based on SW area; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing delay time in a circuit block corresponding to an increase rate of a ground voltage VSS to a power voltage VDD; FIG. 5 is an explanatory diagram illustrating the amount of leakage current in each mode; FIG. 6 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a layout configuration of LSI configured as SoC; FIG. 7 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an example of integrating thick-film power switches and thin-film power switches in LSI; FIG. 8 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI according to embodiment 2 of the invention; FIG. 9 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI according to embodiment 3 of the invention; FIG. 10 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI according to embodiment 4 of the invention; FIG. 11 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI according to embodiment 5 of the invention; FIG. 12 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a schematic configuration of a power switch for achieving high-speed return from power shutdown; FIG. 13 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a circuit configuration of logic LSI in the case that respective power switches have the same gate insulating films; and FIG. 14 is an explanatory diagram showing an example of integrating power switches, different from that in FIG. 7, and an example of wiring power lines. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic configuration of LSI configured as SoC as an example of a semiconductor integrated circuit according to embodiment 1 of the invention. The LSI has first power domains PD1, PD2 which can be subjected to power shutdown using power switches SW1, SW2 for receiving a ground voltage VSS or the like, power switch controllers PSWC1, PSWC2 for controlling the power switches SW1, SW2, a global interrupt control circuit GINTC for controlling interrupt from the outside of the LSI, and a system controller SYSC for performing basic control of the LSI as a whole; which are integrated on a semiconductor substrate. The power switches SW1, SW2 are, while not particularly limited, formed by a transistor manufactured by a process common to a not-shown external input/output circuit I/O, that is, n-channel MOS transistors (hereinafter, sometimes described as thick-film power transistors) in which a gate tunnel leakage current is small because of a large thickness of a gate insulating film and a high threshold voltage. Hereinafter, the power switches SW1, SW2 are called thick-film power switches. Moreover, while two, first power domains are shown in the LSI, the number of the domains is not limited, and the domains may be integrated in the LSI by the number according to need. The insides of the first power domains PD1, PD2 are divided into a plurality of sub power domains, and second power domains SPD11 to SPD1n and SPD21 to SPD2n which can be subjected to power shutdown using power switches SWN11 to SWN1n and SWN21 to SWN2n, and control circuit blocks SCB1, SCB2 which are not by way of the power switches respectively. In the second power domains, a plurality of logic blocks IP11 to IP1n and IP21 to IP2n, which are sometimes called a plurality of IP (Intellectual Properties) modules, having predetermined functions are integrated. The logic blocks are integrated in the LSI via glue logics GLC11 to GLC1n and GLC21 to GLC2n being connection interface circuits. The power switches SWN11 to SWN1n and SWN21 to SWN2n are, while not particularly limited, formed by transistors manufactured by a process common to the logic blocks, that is, n-channel MOS transistors (hereinafter, sometimes described as thin-film power transistors) that can perform high-speed operation because of a small thickness of a gate insulating film and a low threshold voltage. Hereinafter, the power switches SWN11 to SWN1n and SWN21 to SWN2n are called thin-film power switches. Next, description is made on operation that LSI shuts down power of a particular logic block in a mode where the logic block is not used. The mode corresponds to a scene of using a mobile device in the case that the LSI is used for a system for mobile device. In this case, since a logic block to be unnecessary is varied depending on a mode, the LSI needs to perform power shutdown control of a particular logic block. Hereinafter, description is made on control that the logic block IP11 is assumed as such a particular logic block, and power of the logic block IP11 is shut down with an interrupt signal SINTEX0 from the outside of the LSI. First, when the interrupt signal SINTEX0 is inputted into the GINTIC, the GINTIC outputs an interrupt signal SINT1 to an interrupt control circuit INTC1 of a control circuit block SCB1 that performs control of the logic block IP11. When the interrupt signal SINT1 is inputted into the INTC1, an internal control circuit CTL1 outputs a control signal SGL11 to the logic block IP11. The control signal SGL11 is a power shutdown request signal, and inputted into the glue logic GLC11 of the logic block IP11. As control of stopping operation of the logic block IP11, the glue logic GLC11 allows data, which have been held in a storage element such as an appropriate memory or a flip-flop, to be held in a not-shown backup circuit as needed. As control by the glue logic GLC11, which is not particularly limited, the data may be saved into a register, SRAM memory, latch circuit or the like provided outside the second power domain SPD11, or held in an information hold circuit for power shutdown period, which is formed by a flip-flop having a latch circuit driven by a different power supply. In some logic block, data holding is not necessary, and in that case, the above save or hold of data can be omitted. Next, after the glue logic GLC11 allows the data in the logic block IP11 to be saved or held as necessary, it outputs a signal ACK11 to a register REG1 integrated in the control circuit block SCB1. The signal ACK11 is a signal for rewriting a specified bit of the REG1 for instructing execution of power shutdown control. For example, when a value of the specified bit is “0”, shutdown of power of the logic block IP11 is enabled, and when the value is “1”, use of the logic block IP11 is enabled. The CTL1 reads the value of the specified bit of the REG1, and when the value is “0”, it applies a voltage shown by GTN11 to a gate of a corresponding thin-film power switch SWN11 to allow the thin-film power switch SWN11 to be off. When a signal is outputted from the logic block IP11 to an external circuit such as the control circuit block SCB1, transmission of an irregular signal needs to be prevented during power shutdown, however, such control can be performed by the CTL1 using the control signal SGL11. Next, description is made on operation of returning the logic block IP11 being shut down in power. First, the CTR1 performs control of allowing the thin-film power switch SWN11 for the logic block IP11 to be on, and after the thin-film power switch SWN11 is perfectly on, the CTR1 performs operation setting of the logic block IP11. Whether the thin-film power switch SWN11 is perfectly into an on-state or not may be determined by measuring a fact that a gate signal of the thin-film power switch SWN11 is in high by, for example, using an unshown sensor circuit, or may be determined by setting a sequencer or the like such that timing at which the switch is perfectly into the on-state is previously calculated by simulation, and subsequent control is performed at an interval of such timing. Next, description is made on operation setting of the logic block IP11 after the thin-film power switch SWN11 is into the on-state. First, when the thin-film power switch SWN11 is into the on-state, the CTL11 outputs a signal instructing start of operation to the GLC11 of the logic block IP11. When the signal is inputted, the GLC11 drives a sequencer or the like within the GLC11 such that data saved before power shutdown is returned, and thus controls data transfer from an external storage device. When data are not saved before power shutdown, the above operation can be omitted. Then, for example, the GLC11 cancels gating of clock to start supply of clock in order to start operation of the logic block IP11. When the processing for starting operation of the logic block IP11 in this way is completed, the GLC11 rewrites a value of the specified bit of the REG1, which corresponds to the logic block, to be “1”. Thus, the logic block IP11 becomes available. Other logic blocks IP12 to IP1n can be subjected to power shutdown control by the control circuit block SCB1 as the logic block IP11. Next, description is made on a case of performing power shutdown of the first power domain PD1. The first power domain PD1 is subjected to power shutdown when none of the control circuit block SCB1 and the second power domains SCB11 to SCB1n is operated, that is, in a mode that the logic blocks IP11 to IP1n are not used. The power shutdown is controlled by the system controller SYSC. The SYSC outputs a REQ1 signal for allowing the thick-film power switch SW1 to be off to the PSWC1 for controlling a corresponding thick-film power switch SW1. When the REQ1 signal is inputted, the PSWC1 allows the thick-film power switch SW1 to be off, and furthermore, informs the SYSC of a fact that the first power domain PD1 is in a power shutdown condition by outputting an ACK1 signal to the SYSC. On the other hand, in the case that power of the first power domain PD1 is allowed to be on, the SYSC outputs a REQ1 signal for allowing the thick-film power switch SW1 to be on to the PSWC1. Then, the PSWC1 allows the thick-film power switch SW1 to be on, and furthermore, informs the SYSC of a fact that the first power domain PD1 becomes operable by outputting an ACK1 signal to the SYSC. FIG. 2 shows the logic LSI as a part of the LSI illustrated in FIG. 1. Here, connection relationships between various wiring lines in the logic LSI are shown in detail. The logic LSI has a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4 each of which is divided into sub power domains as described before. The sub power domains include a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42, and control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4. Each of the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 is configured by a logic block including many transistors having a low threshold voltage. Therefore, the logic block is a circuit block that can perform high-speed operation. Here, since configurations of the first power domains PD1 to PD4 are approximately the same, only the first power domain PD1 is described for convenience of description. The first power domain PD1 includes virtual ground lines VSSM1 for receiving a ground voltage VSS, the lines VSSM1 being connected to the thick-film power switch SW1; a plurality of thin-film power switches SWN11, SWN12 connected to the virtual ground lines VSSM1; the second power domains SPD11, SPD12; and a control circuit block SCB1, and the like. The second power domains SPD11, SPD12 include sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11, SVSSM12 connected to the thin-film power switches SWN11, SWN12 respectively, and a logic block. The logic blocks are connected to the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11, SVSSM12, and power lines VDDM1 for receiving a power voltage VDD. In the control circuit block SCB1, a control circuit for individually controlling the plurality of thin-film power switches SWN11, SWN12 or the like, and a circuit block such as various registers or control circuits being most fundamental in the first power domain PD1 are integrated. In the second power domains SPD11 and SPD12, CPU or DSP being omitted to be shown, other hardware accelerators and the like are integrated. In the LSI, the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 are controlled by power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4 each of which can apply a high voltage to a gate of the power switch. As described before, the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 are formed by thick-film power transistors having a large thickness of the gate insulating film compared with the thin-film transistors included in the logic block, so that the gate tunnel leakage current can be reduced therein compared with in the thin-film transistor. Furthermore, since the thick-film power transistor is a highly-durable transistor that can be applied with a high gate voltage compared with the thin-film transistor, even if a high threshold voltage is set therein, a sufficiently low on-resistance is obtained. Therefore, the power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4 allow the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 to be off, thereby a sub threshold leakage current can be reduced compared with in the thin-film transistor. Moreover, since the thick-film VCC power switches SW1 to SW4 can be operated at a higher voltage than the power voltage VDD, they cannot be designed by the same circuits as circuits of the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42, or circuits of the control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4. Therefore, the power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4 are needed. The power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4 are arranged in a partial region on a semiconductor substrate in a concentrated manner to reduce area in consideration of wiring of lines of the power voltage VCC (see FIG. 6). The thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 control power supply to the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42, which are enabled to be controlled by control signals by the control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4 in the first power domains PD1 to PD4 respectively. This is because the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 can be operated at the same power voltage VDD as in the transistors configuring the control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4 or circuit blocks of the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42. In this way, since the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 can be controlled by the control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4, circuits of the switches can be designed using logic synthesis. Thus, the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 can be easily controlled by the control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4. Next the area OH is described. The area OH refers to a ratio (%) of SW area of the thin-film power switch SWN11 to the total area of a logic part area corresponding to the number of gates of the circuit block such as the logic block IP11 and the SW area. The thin-film power switch SWN11 is controlled in the following way; transistors in the same kind of those in the logic part such as N-channel MOS transistors are connected in series, and one of the transistors is subjected to off-control, thereby the switch SWN11 is controlled. When the power switch is integrated, transistors added as the switch are seen as a resistance during operation (on-resistance of transistor), which typically cause reduction in speed. For example, while a 2-input NAND circuit is considered as the simplest circuit using the N-channel MOS transistors as a switch, it is a well-known fact to those skilled in the art that delay in signal transmission is significantly increased in the NAND circuit compared with in an inverter circuit being simplest in CMOS circuits. This is because increase in on-resistance by vertically stacking the transistors significantly affects the delay. Typically, transistors are vertically stacked, thereby in a transistor of a second stage connected via a transistor of a first stage from a power line, since a source potential of the transistor of the second stage rises due to potential drop caused by on-resistance of the transistor of the first stage, even if a gate voltage of the transistor of the first stage is equal to a gate voltage of the transistor of the second stage, on-resistance of the transistor of the second stage is higher than on-resistance of the transistor of the first stage due to a substrate effect. Therefore, the NAND circuit operates slow compared with the inverter circuit. Since the NAND circuit and the like are required to have a logic operation function rather than high operation speed, they are designed with minimal area, thereby they are slow in operation speed compared with the inverter circuit. To increase speed of the 2-input NAND circuit, it is necessary that gate width of the transistor of the first stage as a switch is increased to gain a current, and potential drop of the first transistor is minimized to reduce on-resistance of the transistor of the second stage. Generally, a transistor has a feature that a current flows more easily therein in proportion to increase in gate width. This means that on-resistance is reduced in inverse proportion to gate width. Therefore, gate width of the transistor of the first stage needs to be set approximately 5 to 10 times as large as original width in order to make the speed of the NAND circuit approach original speed of the inverter. Next, a case that such a power switch is used for a region of a circuit block is considered. Typically, in a CMOS circuit, a signal is transmitted to a circuit of a subsequent stage at a speed of several tens of picoseconds to several hundred picoseconds. Such transmission time is approximately equal to time of circuit operation (for example, time in which a state of an inverter is changed from HI into LO). Moreover, in a typical synchronous CMOS logic circuit, operation is repeated in a period of a clock signal. While a combination of logic is changed in each period, operation probability of a circuit is considered to be approximately the same. When 300 MHz operation is considered, a period of a clock is 3.3 ns, and signal transmission is performed from a flip-flop (FF) to another FF in the period. Logic circuits can be integrated by the number corresponding to the number of circuits to which signals can reach in the period. For example, when the number of stages of logic of signal transmission is assumed to be 20, for example, 10 stages of circuits having logic delay of 30 ps, and 9 stages of circuits having logic delay of 300 ps can be mounted as details. This is merely an example, and the logic circuits can be designed such that circuits having various periods of delay are set within 3.3 ns. Considering in this way, current consumption can be regarded as consumption of a current averaged with a clock period. That is, since a signal outputted from FF is inputted into a circuit of a first stage, then the signal is sequentially transmitted while a current consumption position is changed, and finally the signal arrives at FF of a final stage, when power consumption in each moment is considered, current consumption in such circuits can be considered as power consumption of one circuit or adjacent, several circuits, rather than current consumption in such circuits in the case that all the circuits are concurrently operated. Therefore, when a power switch is used for a logic circuit block, the power switch is commonly provided in the logic circuit block, thereby a current consumed by a plurality of circuits is supplied by one power switch in a temporally dividing manner, and therefore size of the power switch can be reduced compared with a case that each circuit is added with a switch. In other words, when a power switch is provided in each circuit, while the power switch is used during operation of each circuit, after signal transmission into the relevant circuit is finished, the power switch does not fulfill a function of current supply. On the contrary, when a plurality of circuits share a power switch, the power switch effectively continues to work during a period in which a circuit covered by the power switch operates. Even in the case, since a supply current can have size enough to suit operation of at most several circuits, size of the power switch can be reduced. Furthermore, a case that the power switch is used for a somewhat larger circuit block is considered. In that case, probability of activation of a signal path itself from FF to another FF is newly added to items to be considered. Generally, a logic circuit has a plurality of signal processing paths, and a signal transmission path is typically changed depending on the content of operation. For example, when a program is considered, conditional branching is given. In the conditional branching, a plurality of calculation paths are selected according to a condition for operation. Therefore, when a circuit scale is increased, distribution of operation or non-operation of circuits tends to effectively appear. While operation probability (hereinafter, called activation ratio) of a circuit is changed depending on a property of a program to be operated, it is considered to be at most about 10%. Such an activation ratio can be defined only in a somewhat large circuit scale. Using the activation ratio as an index, simulation was carried out on a relationship between a circuit scale and size of a power switch. FIG. 3A illustrates area of a logic part and SW area corresponding to the number of gates. In the figure, a horizontal axis shows the number of gates, and a vertical axis shows area (arbitrary value). Since area of the logic part is in proportion to the number of gates, it is normalized with the number of gates, and area of the power switch is normalized with gate area. A result of the simulation was obtained under a condition that an activation ratio of the circuit block was constant, and a precondition described later. As a result, an expression (1) showing the area of the logic part corresponding to the number of gates, and an expression (2) showing the SW area were obtained. However, the number of gates≧10 was assumed in the simulation. Area of the logic part=number of gates expression (1) SW area=0.06*(number of gates)+5.15 expression (2) In the precondition of the simulation, a case that the power switch is used for a high-speed inverter (for example, inverter including transistors having a low threshold voltage) while keeping high speed of the inverter is considered. As clear from the above expressions, a feature is given, that is, while area of the logic part is in proportion to the number of gates, area of the power switch takes a constant value in a range of small gate number, in addition, increase in acceleration is one order of magnitude smaller than increase in acceleration of area of the logic part. In this example, since circuits needs to be designed using transistors having a small threshold voltage of the logic part circuit, and a large threshold voltage of the power switch, the constant value (y-intercept in the expression 2) is comparatively large, and consequently the area OH is large. Here, it is shown that in the case that the number of gates is 10, a power switch having area 5.75 times as large as original area is necessary. However, it is further shown that as the number of gates increases, overhead area of the power switch is relatively reduced. It reflects a fact that increase in operational average of a circuit becomes sufficiently small compared with increase in gate scale due to time-sharing operation of the circuit as described before. While the y-intercept in the expression 2 is an important factor in considering the area OH, since on-resistance of a transistor is in inverse proportion to gate width, even if size of the power switch is further increased, an effect of increase in speed is reduced. Therefore, the y-intercept shows minimum necessary area for satisfying speed to be required. When a value of the y-intercept is smaller than the relevant value, operation speed does not meet the speed to be required. When the value of the y-intercept is larger than the relevant value, cost increase is caused due to increase in area. While this is merely a numerical value in the case that one process technology is supposed, it is considered that an essential relationship does not deviate from such a relationship as long as a CMOS technology is used. According to the expressions (1) and (2), it is known that a ratio of increase in area of the logic part is larger than a ratio of increase in SW area due to difference in slope of a linear function. The reason for this is as follows: for example, when predetermined processing is performed in the logic block IP11, an activation ratio of the logic block IP11 is typically about 10%, and in this case, all the thin-film power transistors configuring the thin-film power switch SWN11 are responsible for supplying currents to activated logic circuits among a plurality of logic circuits included in the logic block IP11. In a word, while area (size) of the thin-film power transistors to be necessary for activating respective logic circuits included in the logic block IP11 is not changed, other thin-film power transistors arranged near logic circuits being unnecessary to be activated also supply currents to the logic circuits being necessary to be activated. In other words, this means that since other thin-film power transistors take part of power supply to the logic circuits, effective SW area, that is, total area of all the thin-film power transistors configuring the thin-film power switch SWN11 can be reduced. Thus, when the number of gates increases in some degree, the area OH can be controlled to be small. FIG. 3B illustrates area OH corresponding to the number of gates. In the figure, a horizontal axis shows the number of gates, and a vertical axis shows area OH (%). Here, for example, data are plotted such that a rate of increase in potential of the virtual ground lines VSSM1 is constant to voltage drop of the thin-film power switch SWN11 due to DC-like current consumed by the logic circuits in the logic block IP11. As a result, as the number of gates is increased, the area OH is decreased as shown in the figure. Specifically, as the number of gates is increased in order of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000, the area OH is decreased in order of 36.54, 24.13, 18.83, 15.9, 14.1, 10.11, 6.14, 5.74 and 5.7 respectively. According to the simulation result, it is known that the area OH is abruptly decreased in a gate number range of 10 to 100, and gradually decreased in a gate number range of 100 to 100000. In a word, when the number of gates is 100 or more, the area OH can be sufficiently reduced. In actual LSI, when a circuit scale is small, a high activation ratio must be considered in most cases as described before. Considering that the activation ratio is increased in the case that the number of gates is smaller in this way, it is highly possible that area OH in a region of small number of gates is large compared with that in the above estimation. Since a logic block defined by a logic circuit is generally considered to be a basic unit of the block to be subjected to bus connection, a logic scale of the block is designed to be sufficiently large compared with a logic scale of a bus connection interface. Therefore, the logic scale of the block typically reaches to about 10 kilo gates, that is, the number of gates is about 10,000 even in a logic block having the smallest logic scale. Calculation is made assuming that one gate corresponds to one 2-input NAND. When power shutdown is performed with such a logic block as a unit, the area OH illustrated in the figure can be set extremely small, 5.74%. For such a large-scale circuit, supposition in the above simulation is approximately true, consequently the area OH is also true. In this way, the reason for dividing the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 with the logic block as a unit is that when the number of gates of the logic block is 100 or more, the area OH can be sufficiently reduced. Next, description is made on a relationship between vertical stacking of the thick-film power switch SW1 and the thin-film power switch SWN11 via the virtual ground line VSSM1, namely, series connection of the power switches, and operation speed. Vertical stacking of power switches has been regarded to be not preferable. This is because on-resistances of transistors are connected in series, causing reduction in on-current, consequently reduction in operation speed is concernedly caused. Therefore, vertically-stacked power switches are provided in a circuit block consuming a large current such as the logic block only in the case that speed reduction is allowed. On the contrary, in the LSI, for example, the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 connected to the thin-film power switch SWN11 are in a mesh structure, that is, wired with being approximately uniformly conducted in a region of the logic block IP11, and furthermore, thin-film power transistors of the thin-film power switch SWN11 are dispersedly arranged on the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11, thereby reduction in impedance can be sufficiently achieved (see FIG. 7). Therefore, the thin-film power switch SWN11 as a whole can be grasped as a parallel resistance of a plurality of thin-film power transistors. Therefore, when the number of gates is, for example, 100 or more, since an effective on-resistance of the thin-film power switch SWN11 corresponding to the gates can be sufficiently reduced, increase in on-resistance due to vertical stacking is avoided. Furthermore, focusing the logic circuits activated when predetermined processing is performed in the logic block, the thin-film power transistors are shared, and therefore effective size of the thin-film power switch SWN11 is not reduced. As a result, even if the area OH is reduced correspondingly to the number of gates of the integrated logic block IP11, reduction in operation speed is not caused. Hereinafter, this is specifically described. FIG. 4 illustrates delay time in a circuit block corresponding to a rising rate of the ground voltage VSS to the power voltage VDD. The delay time in the circuit block can be grasped as speed reduction in the case that voltage drop occurs due to the power switch, and thereby potential of the virtual ground line VSSM rises. Evaluation results in the figure are results of investigation on reduction in speed of a single inverter circuit. Here, reduction in speed of the logic block as a circuit block has an extremely slight effect on operation speed in the case of potential rise of about 0.5%. In such a case, a rate of speed reduction was about 1%. The area OH according to the above simulation is calculated on a condition that potential rise of 0.5% is allowed. Even in the case of potential rise of about 1%, the rate of speed reduction was about 2%. In this way, an effect of the power switch on speed reduction was investigated in detail, as a result, it was known that even if the thick-film power switch SW1 and the thin-film power switch SWN11 were vertically stacked, when the area OH was about 10%, operation speed performance was obtained, which bore comparison with operation speed in the case that power shutdown was performed without stacking the switches. In a word, the thin-film power switches are appropriately used, thereby an effect is given: power shutdown control can be closely carried out without causing usually concerned, increase in speed reduction due to vertically-stacked power switches. FIG. 5 illustrates a leakage current in each mode. In the figure, a horizontal axis shows the mode, and vertical axis shows the leakage current. Modes 1 to 5 are modes during operation. Modes 6 to 10 are modes during standby. In the mode 1, all the circuit blocks are on, and a leakage current is 100 mA in this case. In the mode 2, circuit blocks being unnecessary to be operated are 10% of all the circuit blocks, which are subjected to power shutdown with the second domain SPD as a unit. An effect of reducing the leakage current due to power shutdown of the second domain SPD is varied by a relationship between the threshold voltage of the transistors configuring the logic block included in the second domain SPD and the threshold voltage of the thin-film power transistors of the thin-film power switches, and a current necessary for operating the logic block. For example, when it is assumed that the threshold voltage of the transistors configuring the logic block is different by 0.1 V from the threshold voltage of the thin-film power transistors of the thin-film power switches, the leakage current is changed approximately one digit. Furthermore, when width of the thin-film power transistors is tenth part of width of the transistors configuring the logic block, the leakage current is decreased to hundredth part in conjunction with an effect of difference in threshold voltage. In a word, since the leakage current is decreased two digits, it is known that in consideration of the amount of leakage current in the mode 1, power consumption can be reduced by 10% in the mode 2 by performing power shutdown of the circuits being unnecessary to be operated. In the modes 3 and 4, a ratio of the circuit blocks being unnecessary to be operated is increased compared with in the mode 2, consequently the leakage current can be further reduced. In this way, a circuit scale to be necessary is reduced, and the amount of leakage current can be reduced with increase in mode number. In the mode 5, all the second power domains SPD are subjected to power shutdown. At that time, when 10% of the whole circuit block is assumed to be supplied with current, the leakage current is decreased to tenth part compared with in the mode 1, that is, 10 mA. In a word, the thin-film power switches are controlled for each second power domain PD in the modes 1 to 5. On the contrary, in modes 6 to 9, power shutdown is performed for each first power domain PD during standby. The first power domain PD is subjected to power shutdown by the thick-film power switches, so that the leakage current can be drastically reduced. For example, the threshold voltage of the transistors configuring the logic block is different by at least about 0.3 V from the threshold voltage of the thick-film power transistors of the thick-film power switches. Therefore, the leakage current can be reduced to about thousandth part. Furthermore, when width of all gates of the thick-film power switch is tenth part compared with width of all gates of transistors included in the circuit block in the first power domain PD, the leakage current can be reduced to ten-thousandth part. For example, in the mode 6, only one circuit block is supplied with current to be in a standby state, and the leakage current is 1 mA. In the mode 7, only one circuit block is subjected to limited current supply to be in a standby state, and the leakage current is 500 μA. The limited current supply refers to current supply to a circuit block which is limitedly used in a partial region in the second power domain SPD. In this case, the circuit block may be a logic block, for example, in a logic scale of the number of gates of about 100, and the area OH can be controlled to be about 10% as shown in the FIG. 3B. In the mode 8, only one circuit block is subjected to limited current supply, and furthermore, the circuit block is made into a standby state with a voltage being lowered for low-speed operation, and the leakage current is 100 μA. In the mode 9, all the first power domains PD are subjected to power shutdown, and the leakage current is 10 μA. Consequently, control in combination of power shutdown by the thin-film power switches in the modes 1 to 5 and power shutdown by the thick-film power switches in the modes 6 to 9 is performed, thereby the circuit blocks being unnecessary to be operated are subjected to power shutdown, and only the minimum necessary circuit blocks are supplied with current, and consequently the leakage current can be reduced. According to this, logic LSI can be designed, which performs appropriate power supply corresponding to a mode, while many functions are integrated in one LSI. As a result, high-performance LSI can be achieved while the total leakage current in LSI configured as SoC is reduced. FIG. 6 illustrates a layout of LSI configured as SoC. Here, twenty, first power domains PD, and a plurality of second power domains SPD are illustrated, which are integrated on a semiconductor substrate SUB. The thick-film power switches SW are arranged in both ends of each first power domain PD. Power switch controllers PSWC are arranged in limited regions on the semiconductor substrate SUB. In the LSI, since when the number of gates of the logic block in the second power domain SPD is 100 or more, the area OH can be reduced as illustrated in FIG. 3B, for example, about one hundred, first power domains PD can be defined on the semiconductor substrate SUB. The number of the first power domains PD is increased, and the thick-film power switches SW and the thin-film power switches are combined for power shutdown control, thereby power shutdown control is performed more closely, and consequently reduction in leakage current corresponding to each mode can be achieved. FIG. 7 shows an integration example of the thick-film power switches and the thin-film power switches in LSI. In the figure, a region shown by oblique lines is assumed as a standard cell, and VDD for supplying current to the standard cell is also illustrated. The standard cell corresponds to the circuit block. Here, SW in the figure is shown as a plurality of thick-film power transistors configuring the thick-film power switch SW1 illustrated in FIG. 1, and similarly SWN in the figure is shown as a plurality of thin-film power transistors configuring the thin-film power switch SWN11 illustrated in FIG. 1. In the LSI, the virtual ground lines VSSM for receiving the ground voltage VSS, which are connected via the thick-film power transistors SW, are wired in a mesh pattern in the first power domain PD so as to be reduced in impedance. Similarly, power lines for receiving the power voltage VDD are wired in a mesh pattern in the first power domain PD so as to be reduced in impedance. Moreover, the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM connected to one another via the virtual ground lines VSSM and the thin-film power transistors SWN are similarly wired in a mesh pattern so as to be reduced in impedance. Since the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM are ground lines near the circuit blocks to be subjected to power shutdown, they are desirably in a mesh structure using a lower power line layer in a semiconductor substrate. Moreover, the virtual ground lines VSSM are made in a mesh structure using a higher power line layer in a semiconductor substrate, thereby area of the lines can be reduced. The thin-film power switches SWN11 are formed by the thin-film power transistors SWN having the same thickness of the gate insulating film as that of the circuit block as described before, and a large number of the switches SWN11 need to be integrated to achieve reduction in impedance. Therefore, the thin-film power transistors SWN are dispersedly arranged in the second power domain SPD as the standard cells. Furthermore, stabilizing capacitances DCP are integrated between the power voltage VDD and the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM. According to this, voltage drop can be controlled to be minimal. The thick-film power transistors SW are desirably integrated under longitudinal power trunk lines so as to be mounted while being prevented from increase in area. Embodiment 2 FIG. 8 shows a circuit configuration example of logic LSI according to embodiment 2 of the invention. Hereinafter, in each embodiment, portions having the same function and the like as those of the logic LSI according to the embodiment 1 are marked with the same references, and overlapped description is appropriately omitted. Here, the logic LSI includes a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4, thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 that receives the ground voltage VSS, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors, and power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4 for controlling the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4, therein. The first power domains PD1 to PD4 have a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42; control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4; power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 for receiving the power voltage VDD; thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 that are connected to the power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 respectively, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors; and control circuits RC1 to RC4. The thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 are connected with virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4. The thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 are connected with virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42. Logic blocks as circuit blocks are connected between the virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4 and the virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42. Gates of the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 are connected with control circuits RC1 to RC4. The control circuits RC1 to RC4 allow the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 to function as regulators. According to this, while voltages of the second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 are lowered during standby to reduce a leakage current, an internal condition can be kept. For example, when a voltage is lowered by the thin-film power switch SWP11, the control circuit RC1 performs switch control intermittently to the thin-film power switch SWP11. Furthermore, the control circuit allows the second power domains to operate with a voltage being lowered during low-speed operation, thereby power consumption can be reduced. Embodiment 3 FIG. 9 shows a circuit configuration example of logic LSI according to embodiment 3 of the invention. Here, the logic LSI includes a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4, thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4, and power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4, therein. The first power domains PD1 to PD4 include a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42; control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4; power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 for receiving the power voltage VDD; thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 that are connected to the power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 respectively, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors; and thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 that are connected to the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 via virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4 respectively, and formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4 can control the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 and SWN11 to SWN42. The second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 include virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42 connected to the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42, sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 to SVSSM42 connected to the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42, and circuit blocks. As the circuit blocks, logic blocks connected between the virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42 and the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 to SVSSM42 are given. In this way, the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 are arranged at a power side, and the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 are arranged at a ground side, and furthermore, the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 and the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 are in a hierarchical structure respectively. Thus, while an increase rate of SW area corresponding to the number of gates of a circuit block is somewhat increased, since threshold voltages of the thin-film power switches are apparently increased due to a substrate effect, the leakage current can be further reduced. Moreover, the thick-film power switches and the thin-film power switches are combined, thereby close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to a mode. Moreover, gates of the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 may be connected with the control circuits RC1 to RC4 illustrated in the embodiment 2. In this case, reduction in leakage current during standby, and reduction in power consumption during low-speed operation can be achieved as described before. Embodiment 4 FIG. 10 shows a circuit configuration example of logic LSI according to embodiment 4 of the invention. Here, the logic LSI includes a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4, thick-film power switches SW21 to SW24, and power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4, therein. The thick-film power switches SW21 to SW24 receive the power voltage VDD, and are formed by p-channel MOS transistors. The first power domains PD1 to PD4 include a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42; control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4; thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 that are connected to the thick-film power switches SW21 to SW24 via the virtual power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 respectively, and formed by p-channel MOS transistors; and thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 that receive the ground voltage VSS, and are formed by n-channel MOS transistors. The control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4 can control the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42 and SWN11 to SWN42. The second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 include virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42 connected to the thin-film power switches SWP11 to SWP42, sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 to SVSSM42 connected to the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42, and circuit blocks. As the circuit blocks, logic blocks connected between the sub virtual power lines SVDDM11 to SVDDM42 and the sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 to SVSSM42 are given. According to this, high-speed operation of the circuit blocks is enabled, and close power shutdown control can be performed correspondingly to a mode while reducing the leakage current as the logic LSI of the embodiment 3. Embodiment 5 FIG. 11 shows a circuit configuration example of logic LSI according to embodiment 5 of the invention. Here, the logic LSI includes a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4, thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4, and power switch controllers PSWC1 to PSWC4, therein. The first power domains PD1 to PD4 include a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42; control circuit blocks SCB10 to SCB40; and power switches SWN110 to SWN420 being connected to the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 via the virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4 respectively. The second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 include circuit blocks connected to power lines VDDM1 to VDDM4 for receiving the power voltage VDD, and not-shown sub virtual ground lines connected to the power switches SWN110 to SWN420. The power switches SWN110 to SWN420 are formed by power transistors in which the gate insulating films are thicker than gate insulating films of thin-film transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks, and thinner than gate insulating films of the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4. The control circuit blocks SCB10 to SCB40 include level conversion circuits LS1 to LS4 for converting levels of voltages applied to gates of the power switches SWN110 to SWN420. According to this, since the power transistors forming the power switches SWN110 to SWN420 may have high threshold voltage compared with the thin-film transistors, the leakage current can be further reduced. Moreover, since the power switches SWN110 to SWN420 need to be applied with a high voltage compared with the thin-film transistors, the level conversion circuits LS1 to LS4 convert signal levels, thereby even if area of transistors included in the control circuit blocks SCB10 to SCB40 is reduced, a sufficient current can be obtained. Therefore, area of the control circuit blocks SCB10 to SCB40 can be reduced. High-Speed Return from Power Shutdown FIG. 12 illustrates a schematic configuration of a power switch achieving high-speed return from power shutdown. Here, description is made on a case that power shutdown is performed in the second power domain SPD while data of the flip-flop FF are backed up. Hereinafter, a flip-flop FF that holds a state even during power shutdown is called state-holding FF. For the state-holding FF, power, which is different from power for a typical standard cell, is controlled by a power switch SWNA. The power for the typical standard cell is controlled by a power switch SWNB. Thus, even if the typical standard cell is subjected to power shutdown, data of the state-holding FF is held. When such a state-holding FF is integrated, substrate potential is essentially made common between the cells in the light of reduction in area. However, when a substrate of the state-holding FF is in common with a substrate of the typical standard cell, in the case that the typical standard cell is subjected to power shutdown, substrate potential of the state-holding FF is shut down at the same time. Thus, the substrate of the state-holding FF is also into a floating condition, and therefore a relationship in substrate potential is reversed to power for the state-holding FF, and consequently a forward junction current may flow. When the substrate of the typical standard cell is separated from the substrate of the state-holding FF to avoid this, area OH is increased due to integration of the separated cells. Thus, as shown in the figure, a substrate of the typical standard cell and a substrate of the state-holding FF are made into common, so that even if the typical standard cell is subjected to power shutdown, the substrate is not subjected to power shutdown. In such a condition, increase in area OH can be suppressed. However, in this case, a large amount of junction leakage current passing through the substrate may flow in a fine processing process. Therefore, a power switch SWNC in a different system is provided also for substrate power, thereby the leakage current during standby can be reduced. Hereinbefore, while the invention made by the inventor was specifically described according to the embodiments, the invention is not limited to those, and it will be appreciated that the invention can be variously altered or modified within a scope without departing from the gist of the invention. For example, while the thick-film power switches SW1 to SW4 and SW21 to SW24 are formed by the thick-film transistors manufactured by a common process to the external input/output circuit I/O, and have different thickness of gate insulating films from the thin-film switches SWN11 to SWN42 and SWP11 to SWP42 or the power switches SWN110 to SWN420 in the embodiments 1 to 5, the invention is not limited to this. FIG. 13 shows a circuit configuration example of logic LSI in the case that respective power switches have the same gate insulating films. Here, the logic LSI includes a plurality of first power domains PD1 to PD4, power switches SW11 to SW14, and power switch controllers PSWC11 to PSWC14 therein. The first power domains PD1 to PD4 have a plurality of second power domains SPD11 to SPD42; control circuit blocks SCB1 to SCB4; and thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42 connected to the power switches SW11 to SW14 via the virtual ground lines VSSM1 to VSSM4 respectively. The second power domains SPD11 to SPD42 have circuit blocks connected to power lines VDDM11 to VDDM42 for receiving the power voltage VDD, and sub virtual ground lines SVSSM11 to SVSSM42 connected to the thin-film power switches SWN11 to SWN42. The power switches SW11 to SW14 are formed by thin-film power transistors in which the gate insulating films are same as those of thin-film transistors arranged in regions of the circuit blocks. In a word, here, in the logic LSI, all the power switches have the same thickness of the gate insulating films. The power switch controllers PSWC11 to PSWC14 applies a negative gate voltage VBN lower than the ground voltage VSS to gates of the power switches SW11 to SW14. Thus, even if the power switches SW11 to SW14 are used, which include transistors in which the gate insulating films are thin and the threshold voltages are low compared with the thick-film power switches, the leakage current can be controlled to be low. While an example of integrating the thick-film power switches and the thin-film power switches in LSI was shown in FIG. 7, the invention is not limited to this. FIG. 14 shows an example of integrating power switches, different from that in FIG. 7, and an example of wiring power lines. Here, an example is shown, in which first metal lines M1 are wired in a direction where standard cells are arranged, that is, in a lateral direction in the figure, and second metal lines M2, that is, VDD, VSS, VSSM and VSSM2 in the figure are wired in a direction perpendicular to the lateral direction. Moreover, regions under the second metal lines M2 are made to be switch regions, and sub power switches, capacitance cells and the like are integrated under the switch regions. Furthermore, regions shown by oblique lines in the figure correspond to switch cells SWcell which are formed only by P-well. The LSI as described hereinbefore can be used not only for the system for mobile devices such as mobile phone, but also various microprocessors to which high-speed operation and power saving are required.
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H
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27
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02
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11630930
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US20080111231A1-20080515
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Semiconductor Device Comprising a Housing and a Semiconductor Chip Partly Embedded in a Plastic Housing Composition, and Method for Producing the Same
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ACCEPTED
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20080501
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20080515
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[]
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H01L2314
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["H01L2314", "H01L2102"]
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7781900
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20070801
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20100824
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257
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789000
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80120.0
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NGUYEN
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DAO
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Carmona", "inventor_name_first": "Manuel", "inventor_city": "Barcelona", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "ES"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Legen", "inventor_name_first": "Anton", "inventor_city": "Muenchen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wennemuth", "inventor_name_first": "Ingo", "inventor_city": "Muenchen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]
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One aspect of the invention relates to a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition. Another aspect relates to a method for producing the same. The plastic housing composition has at least one host component having a softening temperature and an incorporated component having a phase change temperature. In this case, the softening temperature of the host component is greater than the phase change temperature of the incorporated component.
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1.-16. (canceled) 17. A semiconductor device comprising: a housing; and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition; wherein the plastic housing composition has at least two mixture components, a host component having a softening temperature range in which the plastic housing composition increasingly softens as the temperature increases, and an incorporated component having a phase change range in which the incorporated component takes up heat of fusion or heat of crystallization and increasingly melts or increasingly undergoes transition to a crystalline form with the temperature of the housing remaining constant and with the heat loss of the semiconductor chip increasing; wherein the melting point or the crystallization temperature of the incorporated component of the plastic housing composition is lower than the softening temperature of the host component of the plastic housing composition. 18. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the host component comprises an amorphous plastic and the incorporated component comprises a crystallizable plastic having a constant crystallization temperature. 19. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the host component comprises a softenable thermosetting plastic or softenable thermoplastic having a softening temperature and the incorporated component comprises a fusible plastic having a constant melting point. 20. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the plastic housing composition has a constant temperature of the phase change range of the incorporated component of between 65° C. and 155° C. 21. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the plastic housing composition has a constant temperature of the phase change range of the incorporated component of between 80° C. and 130° C. 22. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component comprises a plastic based on terephthalic acid/ethylene glycol ester such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). 23. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component comprises a paraffin-based plastic. 24. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component comprises a hydrated salt and/or eutectic salt. 25. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component comprises 30% by volume to 90% by volume of the total volume of the plastic housing component. 26. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component comprises 40% by volume to 60% by volume of the total volume of the plastic housing component. 27. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the incorporated component is arranged in a manner distributed uniformly in the volume of the plastic housing composition in microbubbles of an order of magnitude of a few micrometers. 28. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 27, wherein the microbubbles have a larger volume than the incorporated component arranged therein in the amorphous or solid state. 29. The semiconductor device as claimed in claim 17, wherein the semiconductor chip is a memory device with a central bonding channel on a carrier substrate. 30. A method for producing a semiconductor device comprising a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition, the method comprising: producing a carrier substrate for a semiconductor chip; applying a semiconductor chip to the carrier substrate; producing electrical connections between semiconductor chip and carrier substrate; and packaging the semiconductor chip on the carrier substrate into a plastic housing composition, the plastic housing composition being mixed together from at least two mixture components prior to packaging and the plastic housing composition being heated above a softening temperature of the host component for packaging, and the semiconductor chip being packaged at said temperature, and the host component solidifying before the incorporated component after packaging. 31. The method as claimed in claim 29, wherein during packaging the host component falls below its softening temperature and encloses the incorporated component in a manner distributed uniformly in the volume in microbubbles in an amorphous and/or liquid state, and the volume of the incorporated component shrinks in the microbubbles upon further cooling. 32. The method as claimed in claim 29, wherein for packaging, the plastic housing composition is heated to a temperature between the softening temperature and decomposition temperature of the host component. 33. The method as claimed in claim 29, wherein prior to packaging, the host component and the incorporated component are mixed in the solid state in powder form. 34. The method as claimed in claim 29, wherein prior to the application of the semiconductor chip to the carrier substrate, the latter is coated with a double-sided adhesive film with a central bonding channel being left free, and the semiconductor chip is subsequently applied by its active top side to the carrier substrate with alignment of its contact areas in the central bonding channel, and afterward a connection of the contact areas of the semiconductor chip in the bonding channel to a wiring structure of the carrier substrate is produced and the central bonding channel is filled with a plastic composition comprising only the host component of the plastic housing composition, and the rear side and the edge sides of the semiconductor chip are embedded in the plastic housing composition comprising at least two mixture components. 35. A semiconductor device comprising: a housing; a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition; wherein the plastic housing composition comprises: host means having a softening temperature for increasingly softening the plastic housing composition as the temperature increases; and incorporated means for taking up heat and increasingly melting or increasingly undergoing transition to a crystalline form with the temperature of the housing remaining constant and with the heat loss of the semiconductor chip increasing; wherein a melting point or a crystallization temperature of the incorporated means is lower than the softening temperature of the host means.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition, and to a method for producing the same. The power loss that arises in BGA housings (ball grid array), for example, is not generated with a uniform and constant magnitude over time in most applications. Rather, periods of high power loss are temporally limited and alternate with periods of low power losses. In particular this applies to the customary pulse methods in which no heat loss whatsoever arises in the interpulse intervals. It is only in the active phase of the pulse that a high heat loss arises, which is emitted from the semiconductor chip to the housing. Typical situations for the thermal behavior of a semiconductor device thus arise during these periods of high power losses. Many solutions for improving the thermal behavior of the plastic housing compositions have already been proposed, but most of these solutions are based on optimizing the static thermal behavior of the housing plastic compositions. Moreover, many of these solutions are very cost-intensive and may reduce the reliability of the housing. Said solutions include for example an integrated heat sink or a heat distributing plate within the housing. This is a cost-intensive solution with additional reliability risks, with the result that the thermal problems can be only partly solved thereby. Another solution is concerned with so-called underfill materials. The latter are used to fill interspaces between a semiconductor chip and a superordinate circuit board arranged underneath. This is a cost-intensive thermostatic solution that is usually associated with technological problems. Accordingly, the temperature stabilization of semiconductor devices is a constant problem. As the construction, the speed and the complexity of the semiconductor devices are increasingly improved, increasingly large amounts of heat loss are generated in the semiconductor devices. What is more, the increasing miniaturization of the housings in which semiconductor devices are accommodated provides for a reduction of the possibilities for enabling said semiconductor devices to distribute heat to the surroundings by convection. With increasing miniaturization of the housings it becomes more and more difficult to provide adequate cooling in the surrounding space, especially as the possibility and the efficacy of convection flows are reduced with increasing miniaturization of the housing sizes. There is additionally the problem of the field of application of these increasingly shrinking semiconductor devices, which nowadays are often incorporated in portable electronic devices such as earphones, portable mobile telephones, portable television sets and also miniature computers and schedulers. The demand for smaller housings produced from lighter materials such as plastics is constantly increasing. These housings are generally lighter than metal housings, but these plastic housings of mobile phones, portable telephones or notebook computers have a higher thermal conduction resistance, with the result that the possibility of dissipating the heat loss of the active semiconductor devices via the housing of these devices has diminished. Consequently, the problem of heat loss dissipation in extremely small devices having electronic semiconductor devices is increasing as the use of plastic housings increases. Since the reliability of semiconductor devices is associated with the temperature of the devices, many manufacturers of portable electronic systems have conceived of reducing the amount of heat in the semiconductor devices by distributing the heat that is generated within the devices. In particular, it has been attempted to distribute the heat loss within power devices by thermal conduction in order to avoid peak temperatures. Other manufacturers of power devices have attempted to incorporate metallic heat sinks in their power devices, but the efficacy of said heat sinks is very restricted by virtue of the reduction of the available surroundings in the small portable devices for cooling the heat sinks. In addition, the weight of such metallic components for portable electronic devices is neither a contribution for reducing the size nor a contribution for reducing the weight, so that metallic heat sinks within these devices are not very promising. A further method for reducing the generation of heat loss consists in changing over from an analog design to a digital design. The digital communication systems have therefore substantially replaced analog communication systems, especially as digital systems generally enable improved properties and a generally lower generation of power loss than analog systems, since digital systems operate with a pulse mode. This means that digital systems constantly switch on and off; on the other hand, these pulses may be nested in one another in the form of a plurality of grading systems which can also reduce the total power distribution in a communication system, since these digital systems are operated in only a fraction of the time compared with continuous system. However, precisely these pulse-operated systems can generate considerable peak power losses during the switched-on pulse. Consequently, rapid power changes may lead to considerably increased thermal stress of the devices during switching on and off. Accordingly, precisely in portable communication systems, the rapid switchover of powers may lead to considerable thermal and mechanical stresses in the semiconductor devices. As a result, circuit connections, wire bonding connections and other mechanical components are severely loaded, which likewise reduces the reliability of these systems. However, since portable electronic devices cannot contain heat sinks for reducing the temperature fluctuations on account of rapid power switching sequences, there is a need to reduce said thermal and mechanical stresses without having to use additional metal heat sinks or heat dissipation arrangements. For these and other reasons, there is a need for the present invention.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>One embodiment of the invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition in which the plastic housing composition ensures that a limited heat compensation is provided in the case of an increased power loss occurring momentarily. One embodiment of the invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition. The plastic housing composition of this semiconductor device includes at least two mixture components. One of the mixture components is a host component having a softening temperature range in which said plastic housing composition increasingly softens as the temperature increases. The other one of the mixture components is an incorporated component having a phase change range in which the incorporated component takes up heat of fusion or heat of crystallization and increasingly melts or increasingly undergoes transition to a crystalline form with the temperature of the housing remaining constant and with the heat loss of the semiconductor chip increasing. In the case of this semiconductor device, the melting point or crystallization temperature of the incorporated component of the plastic housing composition is lower than the softening temperature of the host component. With a semiconductor device including such a housing based on a plastic composition according to one embodiment of the present invention, the heat loss of a semiconductor chip can be stored in the plastic housing composition if the temperature of the housing composition reaches a specific critical temperature, that is to say the temperature of the phase change range of the incorporated component. During this phase change from, for example, an amorphous state to a crystalline state or from a solid state to a liquid state, the temperature of the plastic housing composition remains constant during the storage phase or phase change. For a limited period of time, with the power loss increasing, for a number of minutes depending on the chosen incorporated material and the ratio between the quantity of the incorporated component with respect to the quantity of the host component, the housing temperature is kept constant before it rises further, when the heat storage capability of the plastic housing material is exceeded, up to the softening temperature range of the host component. In an operating phase of the semiconductor device in which the power loss is reduced, the stored heat can be emitted again from the plastic housing composition, the original phase state of the incorporated component being reestablished. With one embodiment of this semiconductor device, the critical temperature at which the housing temperature remains constant for a period of time can be adapted to the specific temperature of the semiconductor PN junction of the semiconductor chip by selection of the incorporated material. It is thus possible, by way of example, to set the phase change temperature, such as melting point or a crystallization temperature, to 85° C., for example, thereby preventing malfunctions of the semiconductor chip in this plastic housing composition for a limited time. Since this material has completely different mechanical properties at a high temperature than at a low temperature, it is also possible to influence other parameter such as a reduction of thermal stresses with the aid of the plastic housing composition in such a way that the reliability of these semiconductor devices is improved. By way of example, warpage effects such as occur in the case of conventional plastic housing compositions can be reduced. Moreover, it is possible to reduce the stresses induced by warpage on solder balls, for example, in particular during the cyclic temperature tests for semiconductor devices. Through the use of a plastic housing composition having an incorporated component having a phase change range, it is possible to compensate for peak values in the power loss of the semiconductor chip by means of the good thermal contact between the plastic housing composition and the semiconductor chip embedded in the plastic housing composition, so that on average a critical PN junction temperature is not exceeded. In this case, this plastic housing composition composed of a mixture of host component and incorporated component may be used in a conventional molding process. In one embodiment of the invention, the host component includes an amorphous plastic which maintains this amorphous state even at elevated temperature and undergoes transition to a tough viscous state in the event of the softening temperature being exceeded. The incorporated component, by contrast, has a crystallizable phase and undergoes transition from an amorphous state at low temperatures to a crystalline state at a constant crystallization temperature, in which the incorporated component has largely attained the crystalline state. With this embodiment of the invention, a solid-solid phase transition is the basis and no change occurs in the state of matter of the incorporated component. In a further embodiment of the invention, the host component is a softenable thermosetting plastic or a softenable thermoplastic having a corresponding softening temperature and a corresponding softening temperature range, or the incorporated component has a fusible plastic having a constant melting point, the melting point of which lies below the softening temperature. With a semiconductor device having a plastic housing composition of this type, the energy taken up by the plastic housing composition as a result of the change in the state of matter of the incorporated component is greater than in the case of a solid-solid phase transition. In a further embodiment of the invention, the constant temperature of the plastic housing composition and hence the temperature of the phase transition range of the incorporated component is at a temperature of between 65° C. and 155° C., in one example at a temperature of between 80° C. and 130° C. With a semiconductor device which ensures a constant temperature in the given or in preferred temperature ranges, the reliability of the device is increased and malfunctions of the semiconductor device are reduced. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component includes a plastic based on terephthalic acid/ethylene glycol ester, and in one example a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ester. With said plastic, it undergoes a phase change between amorphous and crystalline at predetermined crystallization temperatures, with the result that it may be suitable for a plastic housing composition according to the invention. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component of the plastic housing composition is based on a paraffin basis. Paraffins also have the property of providing phase transitions in the solid state. Finally, it is also possible to use hydrated salts and/or eutectic salts as incorporated components. In this case, the solid-liquid phase transition is utilized in order to keep the temperature in a plastic housing constant for a limited time. However, said salts are electrically conductive upon attaining the liquid phase, so that in the case of the plastic housing composition care must be taken to ensure that said hydrated salts and/or eutectic salts are incorporated in finely distributed fashion as microbubbles in the host component, and no closed electrically conductive bridges can arise between adjacent conductor tracks via the incorporated components. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component includes 30% by volume to 90% by volume, and in one example 40% by volume to 60% by volume, of the total volume of the plastic housing composition. The percentage proportion by volume made up by the incorporated component in the total volume of the plastic housing composition can be used to set the time duration of the constant temperature phase or the time duration for the phase transition from amorphous to crystalline and/or from solid to liquid. The higher the percentage proportion by volume made up by the incorporated component, the longer it is possible to maintain the constant temperature phase for the housing of the semiconductor device. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component is distributed uniformly in the form of microbubbles in the volume of the plastic housing composition, the microbubbles being arranged for an order of magnitude of a few micrometers in the plastic housing composition. In this case, the microbubbles have a larger volume than the incorporated component arranged therein in the amorphous or solid state. The larger volume of the microbubbles prevents the occurrence of stresses in the plastic housing composition, which might lead to microcracks in the housing, during the phase transition from solid to liquid or during the phase transition from amorphous to crystalline which are usually associated with an increase in volume. In a further embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor chip is a memory device having a central bonding channel on a carrier substrate. The embedding of the semiconductor chip in a plastic housing composition composed of a mixture of host component and incorporated component has proved worthwhile precisely in the case of memory components. A method for producing a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition has the following method steps. The first step involves providing a carrier substrate for a semiconductor chip. Afterward, a semiconductor chip is applied to the carrier substrate and electrical connections are produced between the semiconductor chip and the carrier substrate. The semiconductor chip on the carrier substrate is then embedded in a plastic housing composition, the plastic housing composition being mixed together from at least two mixture components, a host component and an incorporated component, prior to packaging. The plastic housing composition is heated beyond the softening temperature of the host component for packaging, and the semiconductor chip is packaged at this temperature. In this case, the incorporated component has a phase change range whose phase change temperature lies below the softening temperature of the host component. After packaging, the host component solidifies before the incorporated component. With this method, during packaging a housing made from a plastic composition arises which can take up heat loss of the semiconductor chips for a limited time without the temperature of the housing increasing. What is more, with this method, the semiconductor device can be produced by means of conventional molding tools and only the constitution of the plastic housing composition changes in comparison with conventional synthetic resin housings. The production sequence does not have to be altered further apart from a step of premixing host component and incorporated component. In the case of this production method, a degree of filling of the host component with the material of the incorporated component is achieved which determines the capacity for taking up heat loss of the semiconductor chip and hence the time duration for a constant temperature of the plastic housing despite an increasing power loss of the semiconductor chip. The greater the degree of filling with the incorporated component, the longer the period of time during which the housing is kept at a constant temperature. In one implementation of the method, during packaging or shortly after the application of the viscous plastic housing composition to the semiconductor chip, the host component is cooled below its softening temperature, while the incorporated component forms microbubbles in an amorphous and/or liquid state in a manner distributed uniformly in the volume of the host component in this cooling process. Upon further cooling, the volume of the incorporated component shrinks in the microbubbles and leaves a cavity which ensures that during the operation of the semiconductor device no stresses occur on account of the expansion of the incorporated component during a phase transition. In a further form of implementation of the method, for packaging the plastic housing composition is heated to a temperature between the softening temperature and the decomposition temperature of the host component. This limited range of heating is provided particularly when processing thermosetting plastics as host component, since thermosetting plastics do not have a liquefying temperature after the softening phase, but rather decompose. Consequently, the packaging temperature remains significantly below this critical decomposition temperature for thermosetting plastics. In the case of thermoplastics, this temperature is not known since thermoplastics undergo transition to a liquid state of matter after the softening temperature range. The mixing of host component and incorporated component prior to heating for packaging a semiconductor chip on a carrier substrate is in one example carried out in the solid state of the two components. For this purpose, at least the incorporated component is put into a powder form having an average grain diameter of less than 10 μm. This is associated with the advantage that it is possible to achieve a relatively uniform distribution of the incorporated component in the powder of the host component. In a further form of implementation of the invention, a memory device having a central bonding channel is produced in concrete terms. For this purpose, firstly a semiconductor chip including memory cells is applied to the carrier substrate. A double-sided adhesive film that leaves free the central bonding channel of the semiconductor chip is used during this application. The semiconductor chip is applied by its active top side to the carrier substrate with alignment of its contact areas in the central bonding channel. This is followed by the production of the contact areas of the semiconductor chip in the bonding channel with a wiring structure of the carrier substrate. Finally, the central bonding channel is filled with a plastic composition having at least the host component. The rear side and the edge sides of the semiconductor chip are then embedded in a plastic housing composed of at least two mixture components, the host component and an incorporated component, as described above. With a semiconductor device of this type, on account of the properties of the incorporated component, the housing can be kept for a limited time duration at a constant temperature as the heat loss of the semiconductor chip rises. Furthermore, with this device, the encapsulating plastic housing composition is in close contact with the semiconductor chip material, with the result that an intensive heat transfer to the heat-storing plastic housing composition is possible. With this semiconductor device, a constant housing temperature can be achieved without any metallic heat sink. Rather, the heat sink is formed by the plastic housing material itself, because the incorporated component can take up heat loss and converts the latter into phase change heat such as heat of fusion or heat of crystallization.
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BACKGROUND The invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition, and to a method for producing the same. The power loss that arises in BGA housings (ball grid array), for example, is not generated with a uniform and constant magnitude over time in most applications. Rather, periods of high power loss are temporally limited and alternate with periods of low power losses. In particular this applies to the customary pulse methods in which no heat loss whatsoever arises in the interpulse intervals. It is only in the active phase of the pulse that a high heat loss arises, which is emitted from the semiconductor chip to the housing. Typical situations for the thermal behavior of a semiconductor device thus arise during these periods of high power losses. Many solutions for improving the thermal behavior of the plastic housing compositions have already been proposed, but most of these solutions are based on optimizing the static thermal behavior of the housing plastic compositions. Moreover, many of these solutions are very cost-intensive and may reduce the reliability of the housing. Said solutions include for example an integrated heat sink or a heat distributing plate within the housing. This is a cost-intensive solution with additional reliability risks, with the result that the thermal problems can be only partly solved thereby. Another solution is concerned with so-called underfill materials. The latter are used to fill interspaces between a semiconductor chip and a superordinate circuit board arranged underneath. This is a cost-intensive thermostatic solution that is usually associated with technological problems. Accordingly, the temperature stabilization of semiconductor devices is a constant problem. As the construction, the speed and the complexity of the semiconductor devices are increasingly improved, increasingly large amounts of heat loss are generated in the semiconductor devices. What is more, the increasing miniaturization of the housings in which semiconductor devices are accommodated provides for a reduction of the possibilities for enabling said semiconductor devices to distribute heat to the surroundings by convection. With increasing miniaturization of the housings it becomes more and more difficult to provide adequate cooling in the surrounding space, especially as the possibility and the efficacy of convection flows are reduced with increasing miniaturization of the housing sizes. There is additionally the problem of the field of application of these increasingly shrinking semiconductor devices, which nowadays are often incorporated in portable electronic devices such as earphones, portable mobile telephones, portable television sets and also miniature computers and schedulers. The demand for smaller housings produced from lighter materials such as plastics is constantly increasing. These housings are generally lighter than metal housings, but these plastic housings of mobile phones, portable telephones or notebook computers have a higher thermal conduction resistance, with the result that the possibility of dissipating the heat loss of the active semiconductor devices via the housing of these devices has diminished. Consequently, the problem of heat loss dissipation in extremely small devices having electronic semiconductor devices is increasing as the use of plastic housings increases. Since the reliability of semiconductor devices is associated with the temperature of the devices, many manufacturers of portable electronic systems have conceived of reducing the amount of heat in the semiconductor devices by distributing the heat that is generated within the devices. In particular, it has been attempted to distribute the heat loss within power devices by thermal conduction in order to avoid peak temperatures. Other manufacturers of power devices have attempted to incorporate metallic heat sinks in their power devices, but the efficacy of said heat sinks is very restricted by virtue of the reduction of the available surroundings in the small portable devices for cooling the heat sinks. In addition, the weight of such metallic components for portable electronic devices is neither a contribution for reducing the size nor a contribution for reducing the weight, so that metallic heat sinks within these devices are not very promising. A further method for reducing the generation of heat loss consists in changing over from an analog design to a digital design. The digital communication systems have therefore substantially replaced analog communication systems, especially as digital systems generally enable improved properties and a generally lower generation of power loss than analog systems, since digital systems operate with a pulse mode. This means that digital systems constantly switch on and off; on the other hand, these pulses may be nested in one another in the form of a plurality of grading systems which can also reduce the total power distribution in a communication system, since these digital systems are operated in only a fraction of the time compared with continuous system. However, precisely these pulse-operated systems can generate considerable peak power losses during the switched-on pulse. Consequently, rapid power changes may lead to considerably increased thermal stress of the devices during switching on and off. Accordingly, precisely in portable communication systems, the rapid switchover of powers may lead to considerable thermal and mechanical stresses in the semiconductor devices. As a result, circuit connections, wire bonding connections and other mechanical components are severely loaded, which likewise reduces the reliability of these systems. However, since portable electronic devices cannot contain heat sinks for reducing the temperature fluctuations on account of rapid power switching sequences, there is a need to reduce said thermal and mechanical stresses without having to use additional metal heat sinks or heat dissipation arrangements. For these and other reasons, there is a need for the present invention. SUMMARY One embodiment of the invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition in which the plastic housing composition ensures that a limited heat compensation is provided in the case of an increased power loss occurring momentarily. One embodiment of the invention provides a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition. The plastic housing composition of this semiconductor device includes at least two mixture components. One of the mixture components is a host component having a softening temperature range in which said plastic housing composition increasingly softens as the temperature increases. The other one of the mixture components is an incorporated component having a phase change range in which the incorporated component takes up heat of fusion or heat of crystallization and increasingly melts or increasingly undergoes transition to a crystalline form with the temperature of the housing remaining constant and with the heat loss of the semiconductor chip increasing. In the case of this semiconductor device, the melting point or crystallization temperature of the incorporated component of the plastic housing composition is lower than the softening temperature of the host component. With a semiconductor device including such a housing based on a plastic composition according to one embodiment of the present invention, the heat loss of a semiconductor chip can be stored in the plastic housing composition if the temperature of the housing composition reaches a specific critical temperature, that is to say the temperature of the phase change range of the incorporated component. During this phase change from, for example, an amorphous state to a crystalline state or from a solid state to a liquid state, the temperature of the plastic housing composition remains constant during the storage phase or phase change. For a limited period of time, with the power loss increasing, for a number of minutes depending on the chosen incorporated material and the ratio between the quantity of the incorporated component with respect to the quantity of the host component, the housing temperature is kept constant before it rises further, when the heat storage capability of the plastic housing material is exceeded, up to the softening temperature range of the host component. In an operating phase of the semiconductor device in which the power loss is reduced, the stored heat can be emitted again from the plastic housing composition, the original phase state of the incorporated component being reestablished. With one embodiment of this semiconductor device, the critical temperature at which the housing temperature remains constant for a period of time can be adapted to the specific temperature of the semiconductor PN junction of the semiconductor chip by selection of the incorporated material. It is thus possible, by way of example, to set the phase change temperature, such as melting point or a crystallization temperature, to 85° C., for example, thereby preventing malfunctions of the semiconductor chip in this plastic housing composition for a limited time. Since this material has completely different mechanical properties at a high temperature than at a low temperature, it is also possible to influence other parameter such as a reduction of thermal stresses with the aid of the plastic housing composition in such a way that the reliability of these semiconductor devices is improved. By way of example, warpage effects such as occur in the case of conventional plastic housing compositions can be reduced. Moreover, it is possible to reduce the stresses induced by warpage on solder balls, for example, in particular during the cyclic temperature tests for semiconductor devices. Through the use of a plastic housing composition having an incorporated component having a phase change range, it is possible to compensate for peak values in the power loss of the semiconductor chip by means of the good thermal contact between the plastic housing composition and the semiconductor chip embedded in the plastic housing composition, so that on average a critical PN junction temperature is not exceeded. In this case, this plastic housing composition composed of a mixture of host component and incorporated component may be used in a conventional molding process. In one embodiment of the invention, the host component includes an amorphous plastic which maintains this amorphous state even at elevated temperature and undergoes transition to a tough viscous state in the event of the softening temperature being exceeded. The incorporated component, by contrast, has a crystallizable phase and undergoes transition from an amorphous state at low temperatures to a crystalline state at a constant crystallization temperature, in which the incorporated component has largely attained the crystalline state. With this embodiment of the invention, a solid-solid phase transition is the basis and no change occurs in the state of matter of the incorporated component. In a further embodiment of the invention, the host component is a softenable thermosetting plastic or a softenable thermoplastic having a corresponding softening temperature and a corresponding softening temperature range, or the incorporated component has a fusible plastic having a constant melting point, the melting point of which lies below the softening temperature. With a semiconductor device having a plastic housing composition of this type, the energy taken up by the plastic housing composition as a result of the change in the state of matter of the incorporated component is greater than in the case of a solid-solid phase transition. In a further embodiment of the invention, the constant temperature of the plastic housing composition and hence the temperature of the phase transition range of the incorporated component is at a temperature of between 65° C. and 155° C., in one example at a temperature of between 80° C. and 130° C. With a semiconductor device which ensures a constant temperature in the given or in preferred temperature ranges, the reliability of the device is increased and malfunctions of the semiconductor device are reduced. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component includes a plastic based on terephthalic acid/ethylene glycol ester, and in one example a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ester. With said plastic, it undergoes a phase change between amorphous and crystalline at predetermined crystallization temperatures, with the result that it may be suitable for a plastic housing composition according to the invention. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component of the plastic housing composition is based on a paraffin basis. Paraffins also have the property of providing phase transitions in the solid state. Finally, it is also possible to use hydrated salts and/or eutectic salts as incorporated components. In this case, the solid-liquid phase transition is utilized in order to keep the temperature in a plastic housing constant for a limited time. However, said salts are electrically conductive upon attaining the liquid phase, so that in the case of the plastic housing composition care must be taken to ensure that said hydrated salts and/or eutectic salts are incorporated in finely distributed fashion as microbubbles in the host component, and no closed electrically conductive bridges can arise between adjacent conductor tracks via the incorporated components. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component includes 30% by volume to 90% by volume, and in one example 40% by volume to 60% by volume, of the total volume of the plastic housing composition. The percentage proportion by volume made up by the incorporated component in the total volume of the plastic housing composition can be used to set the time duration of the constant temperature phase or the time duration for the phase transition from amorphous to crystalline and/or from solid to liquid. The higher the percentage proportion by volume made up by the incorporated component, the longer it is possible to maintain the constant temperature phase for the housing of the semiconductor device. In a further embodiment of the invention, the incorporated component is distributed uniformly in the form of microbubbles in the volume of the plastic housing composition, the microbubbles being arranged for an order of magnitude of a few micrometers in the plastic housing composition. In this case, the microbubbles have a larger volume than the incorporated component arranged therein in the amorphous or solid state. The larger volume of the microbubbles prevents the occurrence of stresses in the plastic housing composition, which might lead to microcracks in the housing, during the phase transition from solid to liquid or during the phase transition from amorphous to crystalline which are usually associated with an increase in volume. In a further embodiment of the invention, the semiconductor chip is a memory device having a central bonding channel on a carrier substrate. The embedding of the semiconductor chip in a plastic housing composition composed of a mixture of host component and incorporated component has proved worthwhile precisely in the case of memory components. A method for producing a semiconductor device including a housing and a semiconductor chip partly embedded in a plastic housing composition has the following method steps. The first step involves providing a carrier substrate for a semiconductor chip. Afterward, a semiconductor chip is applied to the carrier substrate and electrical connections are produced between the semiconductor chip and the carrier substrate. The semiconductor chip on the carrier substrate is then embedded in a plastic housing composition, the plastic housing composition being mixed together from at least two mixture components, a host component and an incorporated component, prior to packaging. The plastic housing composition is heated beyond the softening temperature of the host component for packaging, and the semiconductor chip is packaged at this temperature. In this case, the incorporated component has a phase change range whose phase change temperature lies below the softening temperature of the host component. After packaging, the host component solidifies before the incorporated component. With this method, during packaging a housing made from a plastic composition arises which can take up heat loss of the semiconductor chips for a limited time without the temperature of the housing increasing. What is more, with this method, the semiconductor device can be produced by means of conventional molding tools and only the constitution of the plastic housing composition changes in comparison with conventional synthetic resin housings. The production sequence does not have to be altered further apart from a step of premixing host component and incorporated component. In the case of this production method, a degree of filling of the host component with the material of the incorporated component is achieved which determines the capacity for taking up heat loss of the semiconductor chip and hence the time duration for a constant temperature of the plastic housing despite an increasing power loss of the semiconductor chip. The greater the degree of filling with the incorporated component, the longer the period of time during which the housing is kept at a constant temperature. In one implementation of the method, during packaging or shortly after the application of the viscous plastic housing composition to the semiconductor chip, the host component is cooled below its softening temperature, while the incorporated component forms microbubbles in an amorphous and/or liquid state in a manner distributed uniformly in the volume of the host component in this cooling process. Upon further cooling, the volume of the incorporated component shrinks in the microbubbles and leaves a cavity which ensures that during the operation of the semiconductor device no stresses occur on account of the expansion of the incorporated component during a phase transition. In a further form of implementation of the method, for packaging the plastic housing composition is heated to a temperature between the softening temperature and the decomposition temperature of the host component. This limited range of heating is provided particularly when processing thermosetting plastics as host component, since thermosetting plastics do not have a liquefying temperature after the softening phase, but rather decompose. Consequently, the packaging temperature remains significantly below this critical decomposition temperature for thermosetting plastics. In the case of thermoplastics, this temperature is not known since thermoplastics undergo transition to a liquid state of matter after the softening temperature range. The mixing of host component and incorporated component prior to heating for packaging a semiconductor chip on a carrier substrate is in one example carried out in the solid state of the two components. For this purpose, at least the incorporated component is put into a powder form having an average grain diameter of less than 10 μm. This is associated with the advantage that it is possible to achieve a relatively uniform distribution of the incorporated component in the powder of the host component. In a further form of implementation of the invention, a memory device having a central bonding channel is produced in concrete terms. For this purpose, firstly a semiconductor chip including memory cells is applied to the carrier substrate. A double-sided adhesive film that leaves free the central bonding channel of the semiconductor chip is used during this application. The semiconductor chip is applied by its active top side to the carrier substrate with alignment of its contact areas in the central bonding channel. This is followed by the production of the contact areas of the semiconductor chip in the bonding channel with a wiring structure of the carrier substrate. Finally, the central bonding channel is filled with a plastic composition having at least the host component. The rear side and the edge sides of the semiconductor chip are then embedded in a plastic housing composed of at least two mixture components, the host component and an incorporated component, as described above. With a semiconductor device of this type, on account of the properties of the incorporated component, the housing can be kept for a limited time duration at a constant temperature as the heat loss of the semiconductor chip rises. Furthermore, with this device, the encapsulating plastic housing composition is in close contact with the semiconductor chip material, with the result that an intensive heat transfer to the heat-storing plastic housing composition is possible. With this semiconductor device, a constant housing temperature can be achieved without any metallic heat sink. Rather, the heat sink is formed by the plastic housing material itself, because the incorporated component can take up heat loss and converts the latter into phase change heat such as heat of fusion or heat of crystallization. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the present invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrate the embodiments of the present invention and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. Other embodiments of the present invention and many of the intended advantages of the present invention will be readily appreciated as they become better understood by reference to the following detailed description. The elements of the drawings are not necessarily to scale relative to each other. Like reference numerals designate corresponding similar parts. FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic cross section through a semiconductor device in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic temperature diagram of a housing of a semiconductor device in accordance with FIG. 1 as a function of time with increasing heat loss in the semi-conductor chip of the semiconductor device. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following Detailed Description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. In this regard, directional terminology, such as “top,” “bottom,” “front,” “back,” “leading,” “trailing,” etc., is used with reference to the orientation of the Figure(s) being described. Because components of embodiments of the present invention can be positioned in a number of different orientations, the directional terminology is used for purposes of illustration and is in no way limiting. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. The following detailed description, therefore, is not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims. FIG. 1 shows a schematic cross section through a semiconductor device 1 in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The semiconductor device 1 has a semiconductor chip 4, which is fixed by its active top side 13 on a carrier substrate 9 by means of a double-sided adhesive film 11. The semiconductor chip 4 is embedded with its rear side 17 and its edge sides 18 and 19 in a plastic housing composition 3. Said plastic housing composition 3 forms a housing 2 which, on account of the particular material choice for the plastic housing composition 3, with the heat loss of the semiconductor chip 4 increasing, takes up and stores said heat loss without the housing temperature increasing. For this purpose, the plastic housing composition 3 includes at least one host component 5, which is amorphous plastic having a softening temperature range if said host component 5 is heated above the softening point or the softening temperature. The plastic housing composition 3 furthermore has the incorporated component 6 including a plastic or a salt, the incorporated component 6 being present in the manner finely distributed in the volume of the host component 5. Said incorporated component 6 may be arranged in microbubbles 22, the dimensions of which may be a few micrometers, the material of the incorporated component 6 not completely filling the microbubbles 7 as long as the incorporated material is in the solid state or in the amorphous state. The microbubbles 7 ensure that there is enough space for a phase transition of the incorporated component 6 from an amorphous to a crystalline structure or from a solid to a liquid phase, so that this phase can expand in the microbubbles 7 without bursting the plastic housing composition or producing microcracks. The behavior of the incorporated component 6 in interaction with the semiconductor device housing 2 is examined in detail below in the discussion of FIG. 2. The plastic housing composition also covers a top side 23 of the carrier substrate 9 alongside the semiconductor chip 4 provided that said top side 23 is taken up neither by the double-sided adhesive film 11 nor by the semiconductor chip 4. The underside 24 of the carrier substrate 9 simultaneously forms the underside of the semiconductor device 1 and has external contacts 12 in the form of solder balls. Said external contacts 12 are arranged on external contact areas 20 left free of a soldering resist layer in order to position the solder balls on the external contact areas 20 in delimited fashion. The soldering resist layer 21 simultaneously covers a wiring structure 15 that connects the external contact areas 20 by means of electrical connections 10 in the form of bonding wires 25 through the central bonding channel 8 to corresponding contact areas 14 of the active top side 13 of the semiconductor chip 4. The central bonding channel 8 is covered by a further plastic composition 16, which protects the bonding wires 25 against mechanical damage. Said plastic composition 16 has at least the host component 5 of the plastic housing composition 3. The thermal behavior of this semiconductor device is influenced by the plastic housing composition 3. This influence can be seen in the following FIG. 2. FIG. 2 shows a schematic temperature diagram of a housing of a semiconductor device in accordance with FIG. 1 as a function of time t in minutes (min) with increasing heat loss in the semiconductor chip of the semiconductor device that can be seen in FIG. 1. As the heat loss increases, the temperature T in ° C. of the plastic housing of the semiconductor device rises until the time t1. The phase change of the incorporated component subsequently commences in this example of the diagram of FIG. 2 at Ts of 85° C. and keeps the temperature Ts of the plastic housing constant until the phase change or phase transformation of the incorporated component from an amorphous to a crystalline state or from a solid state to a melted state has concluded at the instant t2. If there is then a decrease in the heat loss on account of the operation of the semiconductor device in the semiconductor chip, the storage capability of the plastic housing composition can be reestablished by heat of fusion or heat of crystallization then being emitted to the plastic housing composition, so that if in the event of an increase in the heat loss, the housing temperature can again be stabilized by being kept constant for a limited time from t1 to t2. With this interrelationship between heat loss generation in phases of high operational performance of the semiconductor device and diminishing heat loss in the case of lower operational deployment of the semiconductor device, what can thus be achieved is that the plastic housing does not exceed the critical constant temperature of 85° C. It is only when the power loss increases further that the temperature can rise further after reaching the instant t2 and lead to the destruction of the semiconductor device in the extreme case. The plastic housing composition thus acts like a heat accumulator and can therefore replace heat sinks made of metal, so that, on the one hand, the weight of the semiconductor devices in use decreases and, on the other hand, possible forced cooling of the device by convection can be dispensed with. Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that a variety of alternate and/or equivalent implementations may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown and described without departing from the scope of the present invention. This application is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of the specific embodiments discussed herein. Therefore, it is intended that this invention be limited only by the claims and the equivalents thereof.
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H
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23
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14
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11795251
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US20080122052A1-20080529
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Member for Semiconductor Device and Production Method Thereof
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ACCEPTED
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20080514
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20080529
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[]
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H01L2314
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["H01L2314", "C22C105", "B22F314", "B22F704"]
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7749430
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20070713
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20100706
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419
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026000
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69222.0
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CHU
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CHRIS
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Fukui", "inventor_name_first": "Akira", "inventor_city": "Toyama", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A member for a semiconductor device of low price, capable of forming a high quality plating layer on a surface, having heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K and toughness that will not cause breaking due to screwing, and will not cause solder breaking due to heat stress when it is bonded to other member with solder, and a production method thereof are provided. A member for a semiconductor device (1) having a coefficient of thermal expansion ranging from 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive, and heat conductivity at 100° C. of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, has: a base material (11) formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material starting from powder material in which particulate silicon carbide is dispersed in aluminum or aluminum alloy, and the content of the silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive; and a superficial layer (12) containing aluminum or aluminum alloy starting from a melt material bonded on top and bottom faces of the base material (11).
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1. A member for a semiconductor device (1) having a coefficient of thermal expansion ranging from 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive, and heat conductivity at 100° C. of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, comprising: a base material (11) formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material starting from powder material in which particulate silicon carbide is dispersed in aluminum or aluminum alloy, and the content of the silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive, the base material having a first surface, and a second surface which is opposite face of the first surface; and a superficial layer (12) containing aluminum or aluminum alloy starting from a melt material bonded on the first surface and the second surface of the base material (11). 2. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the bonding strength between the base material (11) and the superficial layer (12) is more than or equal to (2×9.8) MPa. 3. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the base material (11) and the superficial layer (12) are bonded by a metal bond in at least a part of interface. 4. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the average thickness of superficial layer (12) is from 2% to 30% inclusive, of the average thickness of the member for a semiconductor device (1). 5. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the variation in the thickness of the superficial layer (12) is within ±30% of the average thickness of the superficial layer (12). 6. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the superficial layer (12) contains a recrystallized structure of aluminum or aluminum alloy. 7. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the aluminum alloy of the superficial layer (12) contains at least one element selected from the group consisting of magnesium, silicon, titanium, copper, zinc, manganese, chromium, iron and nickel, and the total content of the elements is from 0.005% by mass to 15% by mass inclusive. 8. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the purity of the aluminum in the superficial layer (12) is more than or equal to 99%. 9. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the hardness of the superficial layer (12) is from 25 to 185 inclusive by Vickers hardness. 10. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein the average particle diameter of particles of the silicon carbide is from 10 μm to 150 μm inclusive. 11. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, further comprising a plating layer formed on an outer face. 12. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 11, wherein the plating layer contains at least one element selected from the group consisting of nickel, copper, silver and gold, and has a thickness ranging from 0.1 μm to 10 μm inclusive. 13. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 11, wherein the plating layer has a surface roughness of less than or equal to 2 μm by Ra. 14. The member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 1, wherein when the length of a long side of the member for a semiconductor device is X mm, and the warp is Y mm, the value of (Y/X) is less than or equal to 0.2%. 15. A method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) comprising the steps of preparing mixed powder by mixing powder of aluminum or aluminum alloy and powder of silicon carbide so that the content of the silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive; obtaining a molded body by molding while placing the mixed powder between first and second melt materials of aluminum or aluminum alloy; and compressing the molded body by heating the molded body to a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt materials is denoted by Tm° C. 16. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 15, wherein the average thickness of the first and second melt materials is from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive. 17. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 15, wherein the molding pressure in the step of obtaining a molded body is more than or equal to (2×98) MPa. 18. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 15, further comprising, between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of compressing, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of aluminum or aluminum alloy is denoted by Tm° C. 19. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 15, wherein the step of compressing is conducted in non-oxidizing atmosphere. 20. A method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) comprising the steps of: preparing mixed powder by mixing powder of aluminum or aluminum alloy and powder of silicon carbide so that the content of silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive; obtaining a molded body by molding while placing the mixed powder between first and second melt materials of aluminum or aluminum alloy; and heating and rolling the molded body at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of aluminum or aluminum alloy is denoted by Tm° C. 21. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 20, wherein the average thickness of the first and second melt materials is from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive. 22. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 20, wherein the molding pressure in the step of obtaining a molded body is more than or equal to (2×98) MPa. 23. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 20, further comprising, between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of heating and rolling, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. 24. The method of producing a member for a semiconductor device (1) according to claim 20, wherein the step of heating and rolling is conducted in non-oxidizing atmosphere.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>For example, in a power device which is a semiconductor device of high performance, for insulation of a silicon (Si) chip serving as a semiconductor integrated circuit device (IC), such a structure is employed that an Si chip is soldered on aluminum nitride (AlN) sintered substrate having copper (Cu) or aluminum (Al) on its surface, and under the AlN sintered substrate; a member for a semiconductor device which is an object of the present invention is soldered; and the member for a semiconductor device is fixed with screw to a radiator formed of aluminum alloy in order to cool the member for a semiconductor device with water. At present, as such a member for a semiconductor device, copper (Cu)-molybdenum (Mo)-based composite alloy is mainly used. However, Mo has problems of high costs and a high specific gravity. To the contrary, an aluminum (Al)-silicon carbide (SiC) composite material can be produced from inexpensive materials such as Al and SiC without causing pollution problems, and its coefficient of thermal expansion can be adjusted in wide range in accordance with an incorporated Si chip, peripheral member and the like, so that it is a light-weight and excellent member for a semiconductor device. However, there still remain several problems in using an Al—SiC composite material as a member for a power device, and an Al—SiC composite material is not regularly adopted except for in certain devices. For example, when an Al—SiC composite material is used as a member for a power device which is one exemplary application of a member for a semiconductor device, the following problems arise. (1) Since a member for a semiconductor device is soldered to other member, it is necessary to plate the surface with, for example, nickel (Ni). For example, when the resultant plating has a defect, a void occurs in solder, which may deteriorate performance and shorten the lifetime of the semiconductor device. Plating on the surface of the Al—SiC composite material faces the problem that porous defects occur in the case of an Al—SiC composite material produced by sintering or self-infiltration, and cracking occurs in SiC in the case of an Al—SiC composite material produced by sintering plus forging, and shedding of SiC particles occurs due to grinding which is a pre treatment in any of these production methods. Therefore, there is a problem that it is impossible to form a plated layer with high quality on the surface of the member for a semiconductor device. (2) With increased performance and decreased size of power device, it becomes more apparent that low heat conductivity at a high temperature of the member for a semiconductor device decreases the performance of the device, and shortens lifetime. For this reason, it is currently requested that heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) is more than or equal to 180 W/m·K. Therefore, it is necessary to further increase heat conductivity of Al—SiC composite material at high temperature. (3) It is important for a power converter device which is one kind of power device, to efficiently transfer generated heat at Si chip to a radiator. A member for a semiconductor device is fixed to a radiator of Al alloy with screw, however, since the Al—SiC composite material is fragile, it may break, and breaking occur particularly at the site of screwing, leading device failure. (4) In a power device, heat resistance is decreased by bonding constituting parts or members with solder for improvement of heat radiation property. In recent years, as power devices are used in hybrid EV cars or EV cars, and lighter weight, higher reliability and longer lifetime are demanded. On the other hand, as the environmental problems increase, solder materials tend to be free from lead (Pb). When a solder material having less ductility is bonded with a material having high Young's module, heat stress concentrates the solder part, and breaking may occur, leading the problem of shortening device lifetime. In particular, since a Pb-free solder material is inferior in ductility to the Pb-containing solder material, this problem tends to be further closed up. (5) A member for a semiconductor device is requested to be low in cost. In order to obtain a member for a semiconductor device having the coefficient of thermal expansion which is adjustable in wide range, in particular in the range of 6.5×10 −6 /K to 15×10 −6 /K inclusive, in accordance with the incorporated Si chip, peripheral members and the like, and having high heat conductivity for realizing a high heat radiation property and light weight, various cases using composite materials of aluminum and silicon carbide as described below have been proposed. JP-A 11-310843 publication (Patent document 1) discloses a member for a semiconductor device having excellent heat conductivity which is produced by a method including a step of sintering at temperature between 600° C. and the melting point of Al, inclusive, in non-oxidizing atmosphere, following a powder mixing and molding step, or produced by a so-called hot forging method (atmosphere is preferably non-oxidizing atmosphere, upper limit temperature is 800° C.) including a step of heating under pressure at a temperature of more than or equal to 700° C. (upper limit 900° C.) or a step of heating under pressure after preheating a sintered body at a temperature of more than or equal to 600° C. and pouring it into a dye. In such a member for a semiconductor device, when plating is conducted on the surface, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a member for a semiconductor device realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through pressuring process at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2000-192182 publication (Patent document 2) discloses a silicon carbide-based composite material having excellent heat conductivity despite high porosity, produced by a method including heat treating a molded body in vacuo at temperature less than melting point, starting from a material which is used for a heat radiator substrate of semiconductor device, and sintering at temperature not less than the melting point. When such a material is used for a member for a semiconductor device, voids will occur in solder due to high porosity and plating defects, which may deteriorate the performance of semiconductor device and shorten the lifetime. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a silicon carbide-based composite material realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2000-160267 publication (Patent document 3) discloses a silicon carbide-based composite material having excellent heat conductivity, produced by a method of heating a molded body of material used for a radiator substrate of semiconductor device at a temperature of melting point or higher, followed by forging under pressurizing to make a forged body. In such a material, when plating is conducted, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at a part where screwing is conducted and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a silicon carbide-based composite material realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2004-288912 publication (Patent document 4) discloses a lid-type member for a semiconductor device having high dimension accuracy as a semiconductor heat radiator substrate which is subjected to forging process at a temperature ranging from 650 to 800° C. in atmospheric air after sintering a molded body at a temperature of not more than melting point. In such a member for a semiconductor device, when plating is conducted, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Since it is produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises, a lid-type member for a semiconductor device having excellent dimension accuracy is obtained. Therefore, when a member for a semiconductor device is formed using a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide disclosed in any one of the above disclosed publications, it is impossible to obtain a member for a semiconductor device capable of solving the problems (1), (3) and (4) while solving the problems (2) and (5), although the above problems (2) and (5) can be solved. By the way, also disclosed is a member for a semiconductor device shown below using a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide. JP-A 10-335538 publication (Patent document 5) discloses a member for a semiconductor device having improved bonding strength with resin by providing a covering layer based on aluminum on the surface of a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide produced by sintering, having heat conductivity of more than or equal to 100 W/m·K (or 180 W/m·K or more) and a coefficient of thermal expansion of less than or equal to 20×10 −6 /K. As a concrete technique for improving bonding strength with resin, there is disclosed post application of an Al layer having a thickness ranging from 1 to 100 μm by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing on the surface of an Al—SiC composite material which is rusticated after production of an Al—SiC composite material. However, as disclosed in the above publications, even when the above problems (1), (3) and (4) are attempted to be solved by forming an Al layer afterward on the surface of an Al—SiC composite material, it is difficult to be achieved due to the following reasons. When such a member for a semiconductor device is applied to a member for used in a power device, it is necessary to make heat resistance smaller, and hence it is necessary to realize stronger bonding between an Al—SiC composite material and an Al layer. The bonding strength between an Al layer which is formed afterward by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing, and an Al—SiC composite material is insufficient. Further, when an Al layer formed by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing is a thin film, defects may occur in the Al layer, so that there is a possibility that voids occur in solder when other member is soldered on surface of the Al layer, and problems of deterioration in the performance of semiconductor device, and shortened lifetime occur. Such possibility can be avoided by making the Al layer a thick film, however, this measure leads increase in production cost. Further, this measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. In order to solve the above problems (1), (3) and (4), it can be conceived that sintering or forging is conducted while an Al layer is previously formed on superficial layer of a molded body which is a starting material of an Al—SiC composite material. However, since any of production methods disclosed in the above JP-A 11-310843 (Patent document 1), JP-A 2000-192182 publication (Patent document 2), JP-A 2000-160267 publication (Patent document 3), and JP-A 2004-288912 publication (Patent document 4) is a production method involving sintering or forging at a temperature at which a liquid phase arises, it is impossible to obtain an Al—SiC composite material on which a thick Al layer is strongly bonded on its surface. Patent document 1: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 11-310843 publication Patent document 2: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2000-192182 publication Patent document 3: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2000-160267 publication Patent document 4: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2004-288912 publication Patent document 5: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 10-335538 publication
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 A cross section view showing a schematic section of a member for a semiconductor device which is one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 A schematic section view showing an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) unit incorporated into an automobile or the like, which is one example of a power device given as one embodiment of semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. FIG. 3 A schematic section view showing a semiconductor device having a central processing unit (CPU) such as a computer or server or semiconductor integrated circuit element chip of microprocessor unit (MPU), which is one example of another embodiment of the semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. FIG. 4 A schematic section view showing a test method for measuring peel strength of Al layer which is a superficial layer. FIG. 5 A view showing the influence of heating temperature in heating treatment step exerted on a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity at 100° C. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention generally relates to a member for a semiconductor device and a production method thereof, and more specifically to a member for a semiconductor device serving as a heat radiator member such as a heat spreader or lid member constituting a semiconductor device, and a production method thereof. BACKGROUND ART For example, in a power device which is a semiconductor device of high performance, for insulation of a silicon (Si) chip serving as a semiconductor integrated circuit device (IC), such a structure is employed that an Si chip is soldered on aluminum nitride (AlN) sintered substrate having copper (Cu) or aluminum (Al) on its surface, and under the AlN sintered substrate; a member for a semiconductor device which is an object of the present invention is soldered; and the member for a semiconductor device is fixed with screw to a radiator formed of aluminum alloy in order to cool the member for a semiconductor device with water. At present, as such a member for a semiconductor device, copper (Cu)-molybdenum (Mo)-based composite alloy is mainly used. However, Mo has problems of high costs and a high specific gravity. To the contrary, an aluminum (Al)-silicon carbide (SiC) composite material can be produced from inexpensive materials such as Al and SiC without causing pollution problems, and its coefficient of thermal expansion can be adjusted in wide range in accordance with an incorporated Si chip, peripheral member and the like, so that it is a light-weight and excellent member for a semiconductor device. However, there still remain several problems in using an Al—SiC composite material as a member for a power device, and an Al—SiC composite material is not regularly adopted except for in certain devices. For example, when an Al—SiC composite material is used as a member for a power device which is one exemplary application of a member for a semiconductor device, the following problems arise. (1) Since a member for a semiconductor device is soldered to other member, it is necessary to plate the surface with, for example, nickel (Ni). For example, when the resultant plating has a defect, a void occurs in solder, which may deteriorate performance and shorten the lifetime of the semiconductor device. Plating on the surface of the Al—SiC composite material faces the problem that porous defects occur in the case of an Al—SiC composite material produced by sintering or self-infiltration, and cracking occurs in SiC in the case of an Al—SiC composite material produced by sintering plus forging, and shedding of SiC particles occurs due to grinding which is a pre treatment in any of these production methods. Therefore, there is a problem that it is impossible to form a plated layer with high quality on the surface of the member for a semiconductor device. (2) With increased performance and decreased size of power device, it becomes more apparent that low heat conductivity at a high temperature of the member for a semiconductor device decreases the performance of the device, and shortens lifetime. For this reason, it is currently requested that heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) is more than or equal to 180 W/m·K. Therefore, it is necessary to further increase heat conductivity of Al—SiC composite material at high temperature. (3) It is important for a power converter device which is one kind of power device, to efficiently transfer generated heat at Si chip to a radiator. A member for a semiconductor device is fixed to a radiator of Al alloy with screw, however, since the Al—SiC composite material is fragile, it may break, and breaking occur particularly at the site of screwing, leading device failure. (4) In a power device, heat resistance is decreased by bonding constituting parts or members with solder for improvement of heat radiation property. In recent years, as power devices are used in hybrid EV cars or EV cars, and lighter weight, higher reliability and longer lifetime are demanded. On the other hand, as the environmental problems increase, solder materials tend to be free from lead (Pb). When a solder material having less ductility is bonded with a material having high Young's module, heat stress concentrates the solder part, and breaking may occur, leading the problem of shortening device lifetime. In particular, since a Pb-free solder material is inferior in ductility to the Pb-containing solder material, this problem tends to be further closed up. (5) A member for a semiconductor device is requested to be low in cost. In order to obtain a member for a semiconductor device having the coefficient of thermal expansion which is adjustable in wide range, in particular in the range of 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive, in accordance with the incorporated Si chip, peripheral members and the like, and having high heat conductivity for realizing a high heat radiation property and light weight, various cases using composite materials of aluminum and silicon carbide as described below have been proposed. JP-A 11-310843 publication (Patent document 1) discloses a member for a semiconductor device having excellent heat conductivity which is produced by a method including a step of sintering at temperature between 600° C. and the melting point of Al, inclusive, in non-oxidizing atmosphere, following a powder mixing and molding step, or produced by a so-called hot forging method (atmosphere is preferably non-oxidizing atmosphere, upper limit temperature is 800° C.) including a step of heating under pressure at a temperature of more than or equal to 700° C. (upper limit 900° C.) or a step of heating under pressure after preheating a sintered body at a temperature of more than or equal to 600° C. and pouring it into a dye. In such a member for a semiconductor device, when plating is conducted on the surface, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a member for a semiconductor device realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through pressuring process at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2000-192182 publication (Patent document 2) discloses a silicon carbide-based composite material having excellent heat conductivity despite high porosity, produced by a method including heat treating a molded body in vacuo at temperature less than melting point, starting from a material which is used for a heat radiator substrate of semiconductor device, and sintering at temperature not less than the melting point. When such a material is used for a member for a semiconductor device, voids will occur in solder due to high porosity and plating defects, which may deteriorate the performance of semiconductor device and shorten the lifetime. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a silicon carbide-based composite material realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2000-160267 publication (Patent document 3) discloses a silicon carbide-based composite material having excellent heat conductivity, produced by a method of heating a molded body of material used for a radiator substrate of semiconductor device at a temperature of melting point or higher, followed by forging under pressurizing to make a forged body. In such a material, when plating is conducted, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at a part where screwing is conducted and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Further, such a silicon carbide-based composite material realizes improvement in heat conductivity by being produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises. JP-A 2004-288912 publication (Patent document 4) discloses a lid-type member for a semiconductor device having high dimension accuracy as a semiconductor heat radiator substrate which is subjected to forging process at a temperature ranging from 650 to 800° C. in atmospheric air after sintering a molded body at a temperature of not more than melting point. In such a member for a semiconductor device, when plating is conducted, it is impossible to prevent plating defects caused by shedding of SiC, porous defects, cracking of SiC and the like, so that voids occur in solder, and the performance of semiconductor device may decrease and lifetime may be shortened. Further, such a measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. Since it is produced through forging at temperature at which liquid phase arises, a lid-type member for a semiconductor device having excellent dimension accuracy is obtained. Therefore, when a member for a semiconductor device is formed using a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide disclosed in any one of the above disclosed publications, it is impossible to obtain a member for a semiconductor device capable of solving the problems (1), (3) and (4) while solving the problems (2) and (5), although the above problems (2) and (5) can be solved. By the way, also disclosed is a member for a semiconductor device shown below using a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide. JP-A 10-335538 publication (Patent document 5) discloses a member for a semiconductor device having improved bonding strength with resin by providing a covering layer based on aluminum on the surface of a composite material of aluminum and silicon carbide produced by sintering, having heat conductivity of more than or equal to 100 W/m·K (or 180 W/m·K or more) and a coefficient of thermal expansion of less than or equal to 20×10−6/K. As a concrete technique for improving bonding strength with resin, there is disclosed post application of an Al layer having a thickness ranging from 1 to 100 μm by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing on the surface of an Al—SiC composite material which is rusticated after production of an Al—SiC composite material. However, as disclosed in the above publications, even when the above problems (1), (3) and (4) are attempted to be solved by forming an Al layer afterward on the surface of an Al—SiC composite material, it is difficult to be achieved due to the following reasons. When such a member for a semiconductor device is applied to a member for used in a power device, it is necessary to make heat resistance smaller, and hence it is necessary to realize stronger bonding between an Al—SiC composite material and an Al layer. The bonding strength between an Al layer which is formed afterward by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing, and an Al—SiC composite material is insufficient. Further, when an Al layer formed by plating, vapor deposition or screen printing is a thin film, defects may occur in the Al layer, so that there is a possibility that voids occur in solder when other member is soldered on surface of the Al layer, and problems of deterioration in the performance of semiconductor device, and shortened lifetime occur. Such possibility can be avoided by making the Al layer a thick film, however, this measure leads increase in production cost. Further, this measure is insufficient for solving the problems of breaking at the site of screwing and of breaking of solder due to concentration of heat stress. In order to solve the above problems (1), (3) and (4), it can be conceived that sintering or forging is conducted while an Al layer is previously formed on superficial layer of a molded body which is a starting material of an Al—SiC composite material. However, since any of production methods disclosed in the above JP-A 11-310843 (Patent document 1), JP-A 2000-192182 publication (Patent document 2), JP-A 2000-160267 publication (Patent document 3), and JP-A 2004-288912 publication (Patent document 4) is a production method involving sintering or forging at a temperature at which a liquid phase arises, it is impossible to obtain an Al—SiC composite material on which a thick Al layer is strongly bonded on its surface. Patent document 1: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 11-310843 publication Patent document 2: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2000-192182 publication Patent document 3: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2000-160267 publication Patent document 4: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 2004-288912 publication Patent document 5: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application No. 10-335538 publication DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION Problems to be Solved by the Invention As described above, conventional arts have not proposed a material satisfying all of the following required characteristics as a member for a semiconductor device. i) A surface of a member for a semiconductor device is plated for soldering to other member. When there is a defect in this plating, for example, voids occur in solder, which may lead deterioration in the performance of semiconductor device and shortening in lifetime. Therefore, a plating layer of high quality without defects on surface of member for a semiconductor device is requested. ii) With increased performance and downsizing of a power device, it is necessary that heat conductivity at high temperature of member for a semiconductor device is excellent. Therefore, for example, heat conductivity of member for a semiconductor device at high temperature (100° C.) should be more than or equal to 180 W/m·K. iii) Since in a power converter device it is important to efficiently transfer generated heat at Si chip to a radiator, a member for a semiconductor device is fixed to a radiator of Al alloy with screw. Therefore, the member for a semiconductor device should have toughness of such toughness will not cause breaking screwing and the like. iv) In a power device, parts are bonded with solder to decrease heat resistance and improve heat radiation property. Therefore, solder breaking should not occur due to heat stress even when the member for a semiconductor device is bonded to other member with solder. v) Not only the raw material cost of the member for a semiconductor device, but also production cost should be low and the price of product should be low. In view of the above, it is an object of the present invention to provide a member for a semiconductor device capable of satisfying all of the above characteristic requirements, and more specifically, to provide a member for a semiconductor device and production method thereof of low price, capable of forming high quality plating layer on surface, having heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K and toughness that will not cause breaking due to screwing, and will not cause solder breaking due to heat stress when it is bonded to other member with solder. Means for Solving the Problems The member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention is a member for a semiconductor device having a coefficient of thermal expansion ranging from 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive, and heat conductivity at 100° C. of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, and has a base material and a superficial layer. The base material is formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material starting from a powder material in which particulate silicon carbide is dispersed in aluminum or aluminum alloy, and the content of the silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive, and has a first surface, and a second surface which is opposite face of the first surface. The superficial layer contains aluminum or aluminum alloy starting from a melt material bonded on the first surface and the second surface. The term “powder material” used herein refers to a material in powder condition or in the form of particles. The term “melt material” used herein refers to a bulky material solidified from melt condition, and implies materials having subjected to plasticizing process such as rolling after solidification. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, on the first surface and the second surface which are outer surfaces of the base material formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material, a superficial layer containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness can be bonded thickly without defects. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that bonding strength between a base material and a superficial layer is more than or equal to 2×9.8 MPa. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that the base material and the superficial layer are bonded by a metal bond in at least a part of the interface. Further, in the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that the average thickness of superficial layer is from 2% to 30% inclusive, of the average thickness of the member for a semiconductor device. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that variation in thickness of superficial layer is within ±30% of the average thickness of the superficial layer. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that the superficial layer contains a recrystallized structure of aluminum or aluminum alloy. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that aluminum alloy of the superficial layer contains at least one element selected from the group consisting of magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si), titanium (Ti), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni), and the total content of the elements is from 0.005% by mass to 15% by mass inclusive. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, the purity of aluminum in the superficial layer may be more than or equal to 99%. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that hardness of superficial layer is from 25 to 185 inclusive by Vickers hardness. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that the average particle diameter of particles of silicon carbide is from 10 μm to 150 μm inclusive. Preferably, the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention further includes a plating layer formed on the outer face. In this case, it is preferred that the plating layer contains at least one element selected from the group consisting of nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au), and the thickness is from 0.1 μm to 10 μm inclusive. Preferably, the surface roughness of the plating layer is less than or equal to 2 μm by Ra. In the member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that when the length of the long side of the member for a semiconductor device is X mm, and the warp is Y mm, the value of (Y/X) is less than or equal to 0.2%. A method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the present invention includes the following steps. a) a step of preparing mixed powder by mixing powder of aluminum or aluminum alloy and powder of silicon carbide so that content of silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive. b) a step of obtaining a molded body by conducting molding while placing mixed powder between first and second melt materials of aluminum or aluminum alloy. c) a step of compressing a molded body by heating it to a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C. According to the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device in one aspect of the present invention, it is possible to bond a superficial layer containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness on a first surface and second surface of the aluminum-silicon carbide composite material in a thick manner without occurrence of defects. In the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferred that average thickness of the first and second melt materials is from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive. In the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferred that molding pressure in the step of obtaining a molded body is more than or equal to (2×98) MPa. Preferably, the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention further includes between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of compressing, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and less than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C. The value of Tm is 660° C. in the case of aluminum, and 577° C. in the case of aluminum −9% by mass silicon alloy as one example of aluminum alloy. In the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention, it is preferable that the heating and compressing step is conducted in non-oxidizing atmosphere. A method of producing member for a semiconductor device according to another aspect of the present invention includes the following steps. a) a step of preparing mixed powder by mixing powder of aluminum or aluminum alloy and powder of silicon carbide so that the content of silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive. b) a step of obtaining a molded body by conducting molding while placing mixed powder between first and second melt materials of aluminum or aluminum alloy. d) a step of rolling while heating a molded body to a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C., when melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C. According to the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to another aspect of the present invention, it is possible to bond a superficial layer containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness on a first surface and second surface of the aluminum-silicon carbide composite material in a thick manner without occurrence of defects. In the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the present invention, it is preferred that average thickness of the first and second melt materials is from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm. According to the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to another aspect of the present invention, it is preferred that the molding pressure in the step of obtaining a molded body is more than or equal to (2×98) MPa. Preferably, the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to another aspect of the present invention further includes between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of heating and rolling, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and less than Tm° C. when melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C. In the method of producing a member for a semiconductor device according to another aspect of the present invention, it is preferable that the step of heating and rolling is conducted in non-oxidizing atmosphere. EFFECT OF THE INVENTION As described above, in accordance with the present invention, since it is possible to bond a superficial layer containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness on the first surface and second surface which are outer faces of the base material formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material in a thick manner without occurrence of defects, it is possible to form a plating layer of high quality on the surface, and hence it is possible to obtain a member for a semiconductor device of low price capable of forming high quality plating layer on surface, having heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K and toughness that will not cause breaking due to screwing, and will not cause solder breaking due to heat stress when it is bonded to other member with a solder. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 A cross section view showing a schematic section of a member for a semiconductor device which is one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 A schematic section view showing an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) unit incorporated into an automobile or the like, which is one example of a power device given as one embodiment of semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. FIG. 3 A schematic section view showing a semiconductor device having a central processing unit (CPU) such as a computer or server or semiconductor integrated circuit element chip of microprocessor unit (MPU), which is one example of another embodiment of the semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. FIG. 4 A schematic section view showing a test method for measuring peel strength of Al layer which is a superficial layer. FIG. 5 A view showing the influence of heating temperature in heating treatment step exerted on a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity at 100° C. EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE NUMERAL 1: member for a semiconductor device, 11: base material, 12: superficial layer DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Inventors of the present invention made diligent efforts for achieving a member for a semiconductor device satisfying all of the five required characteristics as described above and a production method thereof, and accomplished the present invention. As to a member for a semiconductor device, it is possible to obtain a material having bonding strength between aluminum-silicon carbide composite material and aluminum or aluminum alloy layer of more than or equal to 2 kgf/mm2 (2×9.8 MPa) and a coefficient of thermal expansion ranging from 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive and heat conductivity at 100° C. of more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, by forming a layer of aluminum or aluminum alloy starting from a melt material as a superficial layer on top and bottom faces of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material starting from a powder material in which 30 to 85% by mass of particulate silicon carbide is dispersed in aluminum or aluminum alloy serving as a base material, and it was found that the resultant material satisfied all the required characteristics. FIG. 1 is a cross section view showing a schematic section of a member for a semiconductor device which is one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, a member for a semiconductor device 1 includes a base material 11 formed of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material, and superficial layers 12 containing aluminum or aluminum alloy bonded onto a first and second surface which is an opposite face of the first surface, namely onto the top and bottom faces, of the base material 11. FIG. 2 is a schematic section view showing an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) unit incorporated into an automobile or the like, which is one example of power device given as one embodiment of semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. As shown in FIG. 2, the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention is fixed, as a heat radiation substrate (heat spreader material), to an aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate 2 forming a radiator with a screw 3 after a plating layer is formed on its surface. On the other hand, an insulation layer 4 realized by an aluminum nitride (AIN) sintered body formed on its top and bottom faces with copper or aluminum layer 5 is fixed via a solder layer 6 on top face of the member for a semiconductor device 1 on which plating layer is formed. On the insulation layer 5 formed on its top face with the copper or aluminum layer 5, an Si chip 7, or in the present case, a semiconductor integrated circuit element chip including an insulated gate bipolar transistor is incorporated while being fixed via a solder layer 6. By making up the power device in the manner as described above, heat generating from the Si chip 7 is conducted and radiated to the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention serving as a heat radiation substrate via the copper or aluminum layer 5, the insulation layer 4 formed of aluminum nitride (AIN) sintered body, and the copper or aluminum layer 5, having respectively high heat conductivity, and absorbed into the aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate 2 which is a constituent of a water-cooled radiator. At this time, in the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention, since it is possible to bond a superficial layer 12 (FIG. 1) containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness thickly without occurrence of defects, it is possible to form a plating layer of high quality on the surface, and heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) is more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, and toughness of such a degree that will not cause breaking, for example, by screwing with the screw 3 is realized, and solder breaking due to heat stress will not occur when bonding to an insulation layer 4 formed of nitride aluminum (AIN) sintered body is realized with the solder layer 6. FIG. 3 is a schematic section view showing a semiconductor device having a central processing unit (CPU) such as computer or server or semiconductor integrated circuit element chip of microprocessor unit (MPU), which is one example of another embodiment of the semiconductor device to which the member for a semiconductor device shown in FIG. 1 is applied. As shown in FIG. 3, a solder ball 9 is used for electric bonding between a semiconductor integrated circuit element chip and a package (ball grid array (BGA) system). The Si chip 7 of CPU or MPU is fixed, via the solder layer 6, to a ceramic substrate in which a plurality of solder balls 9 are arranged as wiring terminus for conduction between top and bottom faces. On the top face of the Si chip 7, the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention serving as a lid member having a plating layer on its surface is fixed via the solder layer 6. Peripheral parts of the member for a semiconductor device 1 are arranged to surround the Si chip 7, and fixed onto the ceramic substrate 8 with resin or the like. By making up the semiconductor device in this manner, heat generating from the Si chip 7 is conducted to the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention serving as a heat radiation substrate and radiated. At this time, in the member for a semiconductor device 1 of the present invention, since the superficial layer 12 (FIG. 1) containing aluminum or aluminum alloy and having excellent toughness can be bonded thickly without occurrence of defects, a plating layer of high quality can be formed on the surface, and heat conductivity at high temperature (100° C.) is more than or equal to 180 W/m·K, and solder breaking due to heat stress will not occur when bonding to the Si chip 7 is realized with the solder layer 6. In the aluminum-silicon carbide composite material serving as a base material constituting the member for a semiconductor device of the present invention, an amount of silicon carbide particles is set at 30 to 85% by mass because an amount less than 30% by mass will result in a large coefficient of thermal expansion and an amount of more than 85% by mass will make condensation difficult. By forming an aluminum or aluminum alloy layer on top and bottom faces of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material, it becomes possible to form a plating layer of high quality on the outer surface, and excellent soldering characteristic is realized. The bonding strength between an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material and aluminum or aluminum alloy layer is set at more than or equal to 2 kgf/mm2 (2×9.8 MPa) because the bonding strength of less than 2 kgf/mm2 will not only cause deterioration of heat conductivity in the entire member for a semiconductor device but also cause decrease in toughness which is required in screwing, and reduce the effect of preventing breaking of solder due to heat stress. The bonding strength is preferably more than or equal to 3 kgf/mm2 (3×9.8 MPa), and more preferably more than or equal to 5 kgf/mm2 (5×9.8 MPa). The bonding strength is preferably lower than tensile strength of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer, for example, less than or equal to 10 kgf/mm2 (10×9.8 MPa) which is tensile strength of a general aluminum flexible material. A coefficient of thermal expansion is set within the range from 6.5×10−6/K to 15×10−6/K inclusive because the coefficient of thermal expansion can be adjusted in wide range in accordance with an incorporated Si chip, peripheral member and the like as a member for a powder device. Further, heat conductivity at 100° C. is set at more than or equal to 180 W/m·K because heat conductivity less than 180 W/m·K will result in the low heat conductivity of member for a semiconductor device, and the lower performance of semiconductor device and shorten lifetime. Inventors or the present invention found that when an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material and an aluminum or aluminum alloy layer are bonded via a metal bond in a part of interface therebetween, it is possible to improve toughness and heat conductivity of the member for a semiconductor device, and to prevent concentration of heat stress of solder. Whether they are bonded via a metal bond can be determined by observation of lattice image of interface under a transmission electron microscope. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer as a superficial layer is preferably from 2% to 30% inclusive, of the average thickness of the member for a semiconductor device. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer is set within the range from 2% to 30% inclusive, of the average thickness of the member for a semiconductor device because if it is less than 2% of the average thickness of member for a semiconductor device, toughness and alleviating effect of heat stress concentration of solder are insufficient, and if it is more than 30%, a coefficient of thermal expansion becomes too large. Inventors of the present invention also found that allowable variation in thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer as a superficial layer is within ±30% of the average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer. Allowable variation is within ±30% of the average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy layer because sufficient toughness will not be obtained and fluctuations in heat conductivity and in characteristic of the coefficient of thermal expansion increase when the variation exceeds ±30%. The crystal structure of aluminum or aluminum alloy in the crystal superficial layer is more preferably recrystallized structure. When the superficial layer contains recrystallized structure, toughness is further improved, and concentration of heat stress of solder can be further alleviated. The average crystal particle diameter is preferably from 1 μm to 500 μm inclusive, and more preferably from 20 μm to 200 μm inclusive. Any aluminum alloy is applicable insofar as aluminum alloy of superficial layer contains at least one element selected from the group consisting of Mg, Si, Ti, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr, Fe and Ni, and the content of the total elements is from 0.005% by mass to 15% by mass inclusive. For example, when a higher strength is required for the superficial layer, aluminum may be alloyed for controlling the crystal particle diameter. In such a case, it is preferred to add at least one element selected from the group consisting of Mg, Si, Ti, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr, Fe and Ni, and an adding amount is set in the range from 0.005% by mass to 15% by mass inclusive because the effect of addition is not obtained in an amount of less than 0.005%, and the effect will saturate in an amount exceeding 15% by mass. When higher heat conductivity is requested by the member for a semiconductor device, it is preferred that purity of aluminum in the superficial layer is more than or equal to 99%. Purity is set at more than or equal to 99% because purity of less than 99% has less effect of improving the heat conductivity. More preferably, purity of aluminum is more than or equal to 99.5%. Preferably, the hardness of aluminum or aluminum alloy of the superficial layer is from 25 to 185 inclusive by Vickers hardness. The hardness is set in the range from 25 to 185 inclusive by Vickers hardness because the Vickers harness of less than 25 makes fastening by screwing difficult, and the Vickers hardness exceeding 185 will result in decrease in toughness and decrease the effect of alleviating concentration of heat stress. The Vickers hardness of aluminum or aluminum alloy of the superficial layer is more preferably from 30 to 120 inclusive, and more preferably from 30 to 70 inclusive. When the member for a semiconductor device of the present invention has excellent toughness, further advantages can be obtained such that breaking will not occur by screwing or the like, and the effect of alleviating concentration of heat stress at a soldered part increases. As an evaluation method of such toughness, the following methods can be exemplified. (A) Drilling a through hole in the surface of member for a semiconductor device by means of super-hard alloy drill of 12 mm in diameter while applying cutting oil thereon. A bolt of M10 is inserted into the resultant through-hole and a nut is screwed via a washer with a torque of 10 kgf·m (98 N·m). At this time, superficial layer should not peel and cracking should not occur around the hole. (B) Punching a hole of 12 mm in diameter in the member for a semiconductor device using 100 ton press. At this time, superficial layer should not peel and cracking should not occur around the hole. (C) Conducting three-point bending test on the member for a semiconductor device. At this time, the superficial layer should not peel and displacement of bending should be larger than that of a comparative material. (D) When tensile test is conducted, m value of Weibull distribution of tensile strength should be more than or equal to 5, and more desirably more than or equal to 15. In the member for a semiconductor device of the present invention, the average particle diameter of silicon carbide particles in the aluminum-silicon carbide composite material is preferably from 10 μm to 150 μm inclusive. The average particle diameter is set within the range from 10 μm to 150 μm inclusive because it is difficult to bond the aluminum or aluminum alloy layer to aluminum-silicon carbide composite material with good adhesivity with particle diameters of larger than 10 μm and smaller than 150 μm. Further, inventors of the present invention found that a member for a semiconductor device having a plating layer on its outer face in order to improve the solderability of the member for a semiconductor device provided with an aluminum or aluminum alloy layer on top and bottom faces of the aluminum-silicon carbide composite material satisfies all of the characteristics requested for a member for a semiconductor device for power device. In particular, it is preferred to apply plating having thickness ranging from 0.1 μm to 10 μm inclusive and containing at least one element selected the group consisting of Ni, Cu, Ag and Au is applied on the surface. In this case, the thickness of plating is set at 0.1 μm and less than or equal to 10 μm because thickness of less than 0.1 μm is insufficient for improving the solderability, and thickness of more than 10 μm gives adverse influence on solderability. The larger the surface roughness of the plating layer, the poorer the solder wettability, so that the surface roughness is preferably less than or equal to 2 μm by Ra. The lower limit of the surface roughness of the plating layer is, but is not particularly limited, 0.03 μm by Ra in consideration of the surface roughness which is industrially achievable. The surface roughness within the above range of the plating layer is achieved by subjecting a substrate to mechanical grinding, chemical grinding or the like prior to formation of the plating layer. A preferred member for a semiconductor device according to the present invention satisfies value of (Y/X) of less than or equal to 0.2% when the length of the long side of the member for a semiconductor device is X mm, and the warp is Y mm. When the value of (Y/X) exceeds 0.2%, bonding with other member is insufficient and heat resistance tends to increase. As a method of producing a member for a semiconductor device satisfying all of the requested characteristics, inventors of the present invention found that a method of producing a member for a semiconductor device which forms an aluminum or aluminum alloy layer on top and bottom faces of an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material, which includes the steps of preparing mixed powder by mixing powder of aluminum or aluminum alloy and powder of silicon carbide so that content of silicon carbide is from 30% by mass to 85% by mass inclusive; obtaining a molded body by conducting molding while placing mixed powder between first and second melt materials of aluminum or aluminum alloy; and compressing the molded body by heating it to a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. is preferred. Further, inventors of the present invention found that by placing an aluminum or aluminum alloy on top and bottom faces in a manufacturing step of molded body to make a molded body, and heating and compressing the molded body at a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C., when the melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C., it is possible to obtain a member for a semiconductor device having excellent adhesiveness, small variation in the thickness of layer, giving no damages such as cracking on silicon carbide particles, having excellent toughness, having desired heat conductivity, causing no breaking in solder due to concentration of heat stress, and causing little warp at low costs. According to the production method of the present invention, although the biaxial compression is employed, a similar effect as is the case of hydrostatic pressing is obtained. Therefore, the characteristics as described above are realized. Further, since the number of steps is small, it is possible to obtain a product having excellent characteristics at low costs. Heating and compressing temperature is set at a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C., when melting point or solidus temperature of melt material is denoted by Tm° C., because at temperature of less than (Tm-100)° C., sufficient adhesiveness, toughness, heat conductivity, and small warp cannot be achieved, and at temperature of Tm° C. or higher there arise the problems of occurrence of seizure in a mold and generation of liquid phase. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy plate is preferably from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy plate is set within the range from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive because damages may be caused on silicon carbide particles at a thickness of less than 0.1 mm, and the effect exerted by forming the aluminum or aluminum alloy layer as a superficial layer is saturated at a thickness of more than 2.0 mm. When molding pressure at the molding step is more than or equal to 2 ton/cm2 (2×98 MPa), it is possible to produce a member for a semiconductor device having more excellent adhesiveness and heat conductivity. Inventors of the present invention found that heat conductivity and toughness of the member for a semiconductor device are further improved when it is produced by a method that further includes between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of heating and compressing step, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. Inventors also found that heat conductivity and toughness can be further improved by conducting the heating and compressing step in the non-oxidizing atmosphere. The heating and compressing step may be conducted in atmospheric air or in oxidizing atmosphere. As another production method of the present invention, inventors found that a member for a semiconductor device having comparable characteristics and performance can be produced at low costs even when the step of heating and compressing a molded body at a temperature of (Tm-100)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. is replaced by the step of heating and rolling the molded body at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. The heating and rolling temperature is set at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. because sufficient adhesiveness, toughness, heat conductivity, and small warp cannot be achieved at temperature of less than (Tm-300)° C., and at a temperature of Tm° C. or higher there arise the problems of occurrence of seizure in a roll and generation of liquid phase. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy plate is preferably from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive. The average thickness of aluminum or aluminum alloy plate is set within the range from 0.1 mm to 2.0 mm inclusive because damages may be caused silicon carbide particles at a thickness of less than 0.1 mm, and the effect exerted by forming the aluminum or aluminum alloy layer as a superficial layer is saturated at a thickness of more than 2.0 mm. When molding pressure at the molding step is more than or equal to 2 ton/cm2 (2×98 MPa), it is possible to produce a member for a semiconductor device having more excellent adhesiveness and heat conductivity. Also in this another production method of the present invention, inventors of the present invention found that heat conductivity and toughness of the member for a semiconductor device are further improved when it is produced by a method that further includes between the step of obtaining a molded body and the step of heating and rolling step, the step of obtaining a heat-treated body by subjecting the molded body to heat treatment in non-oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of (Tm-300)° C. or higher and lower than Tm° C. when the melting point or solidus temperature of the melt material is denoted by Tm° C. Further, also in this another production method of the present invention, inventors found that heat conductivity and toughness can be further improved by conducting the heating and rolling step in the non-oxidizing atmosphere. The heating and rolling step may be conducted in atmospheric air or in oxidizing atmosphere. EXAMPLES Example 1 Aluminum (Al) powder having an average particle diameter of 10 μm and silicon carbide (SiC) powder having an average particle diameter of 15 μm were mixed so that the content of SiC was as shown in Table 1 while the mixing ratio was varied, and molding was carried out while the resultant mixed powder was placed on the top and bottom faces of an aluminum plate of JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) 1050, or in other words, in the condition that the mixed powder was sandwiched by an aluminum plate having a thickness shown in Table 1, to prepare a molded body (molding step). Molding of mixed powder was carried out so that the molding pressure was 2 ton/cm2 (2×98 MPa) by applying a load of 72 tons on the powder using 100-ton pressing machine. The molded body obtained in this manner was heated and compressed while it was heated to a temperature of 600° C. so that compression pressure was 2 ton/cm2 (2×98 MPa) by application of a load of 72 tons on the molded body with the use of the same pressuring machine that was used for preparing the molded body (heating and compressing step). In this manner, a sample of 60 mm in high, 60 mm in wide, and 5 mm in thick was prepared. Each sample was evaluated for the characteristics as shown below. The obtained characteristics are shown in Table 1. In Table 1, in comparative examples 4 to 7, an aluminum plate was not placed on top and bottom faces of the mixed powder in the molding step. (I) Thickness of Al Layer [mm], Thickness Ratio of Al Layer/Sample [%] The thickness of Al layer which was the finally obtained superficial layer (thickness on first surface side) was measured, and a ratio of Al layer relative to the thickness of sample was calculated. (II) Variation in Thickness of Al Layer [%] The variation in the thickness, relative to the average value of the thickness of the finally obtained superficial layer was determined. (III) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion [×10−6/K] Using PIL-402PC available from NETZSCH, a sample cut into a size of 4 mm×4 mm×20 mm was heated, and an elongation was detected by a differential transformer to determine a coefficient of thermal expansion. (IV) Heat Conductivity [W/m·K] at a Temperature of 100° C. This was determined by laser flash method using a thermal constant measuring apparatus TC-700 available from ULVAC-RIKO, Inc. To be more specific, on either face of a sample cut out in a size of 10 mm in diameter, and 2 mm in thick was radiated with laser beam for a short time to give thermal energy, and nonstationary temperature change in the opposite face of the sample at this time was measured with a thermocouple and InSb (indium antimony) infrared detector for obtaining specific heat and a coefficient of thermal diffusivity, respectively, and whereby heat conductivity was determined. (V) Peel Strength (Bonding Strength) of Al Layer [×9.8 MPa] FIG. 4 is a schematic section view showing a test method for measuring a peel strength of Al layer which is a superficial layer. As shown in FIG. 4, in a peeling test of Al layer, a tensile test jig 20 having a boding face of 10 mm in diameter and a holding part of tensile test of 8 mm in diameter was pasted on top and bottom faces of a test piece 1 of each sample previously cut out in a disc of 10 mm in diameter by a cutting wire, with the use of an adhesive of Scotch-weld (trade name) DP460 available from Sumitomo 3M Limited, and after curing, the tensile was applied in the direction of arrow to conduct a tensile test. As a tensile test machine, Instron tensile test machine having a tensile axial alignment mechanism was used. By measuring strength until an Al layer serving as the superficial layer 12 peeled with this tensile test, bonding strength between the Al layer serving as the superficial layer 12 and an aluminum-silicon carbide composite material serving as base material 11 was evaluated. (VI) Ratio of Warp Y/X[%] Warp Y[mm] per length 60 [mm] of one side of each sample was measured, and ratio of warp relative to the length was calculated. (VII) Presence/Absence of Void Surface of each sample was plated with nickel of 2 μm thick, and heated to a temperature of 250° C., and then whether voids occurred was observed. In inventive examples 1 to 7 and comparative examples 1 and 2, occurrence of voids was not observed, however in comparative examples 4 to 7, occurrence of voids was observed in every example. Further, similar results were obtained when tests were carried out in a similar manner except that plating was conducted using copper, silver and gold in a thickness ranging from 0.1 μm to 10 μm. (VIII) Solder Wettability Solder wettability of inventive examples 1 to 7 plated with nickel were evaluated. In evaluation, after dipping each sample into an eutectic lead tin solder bath heated to a temperature of 200° C., the sample was drawn up, and degree of solder adhesion was examined. The samples in which a part where solder was not adhered was not observed on the surface of plating a layer after dipping, and good adhesion of solder was observed had surface roughness of plating the layer of less than or equal to 2 μm by Ra. In samples having surface roughness of plating the layer of more than or equal to 2 μm by Ra, a part where solder was not adhered was observed. Surface of each sample of inventive examples 1 to 7 was plated with copper, silver or gold inplace of nickel plating and solder wettability was evaluated, and similar results were obtained. TABLE 1 Variation Ratio of Al plate Al layer Al layer/ of Al layer Coefficient of Heat Al layer peel warp Presence/ SiC thickness thickness sample thickness thermal conductivity strength (Y/X) absence of [mass %] [mm] [mm] [%] [%] expansion [×10−6/K] [W/m · K] [×9.8 MPa] [%] void Inventive 1 30 0.1 0.1 2 6 14.8 208 3.1 0.13 Not example observed 2 40 0.1 0.1 2 5 12.1 196 3.6 0.09 Not observed 3 40 0.5 0.4 8 20 12.5 195 4.1 0.08 Not observed 4 40 2 1.5 30 29 12.7 197 4.3 0.14 Not observed 5 50 1 0.5 10 14 10 196 5.3 0.11 Not observed 6 65 0.5 0.2 4 15 8 200 4.0 0.05 Not observed 7 85 0.5 0.3 6 20 6.8 202 3.3 0.19 Not observed Comparative 1 10 0.5 0.2 4 10 20 230 3.5 0.09 Not example observed 2 20 0.6 0.3 6 20 18 220 3.0 0.14 Not observed 3 87 0.3 Impossible to produce 4 40 — — — — 12.6 164 — 0.33 Observed 5 50 — — — — 10.2 167 — 0.43 Observed 6 65 — — — — 8.1 175 — 0.44 Observed 7 85 — — — — 6.9 169 — 0.50 Observed Results shown in Table 1 demonstrate that in inventive examples 1 to 7 in which the SiC content was from 30 to 85% by mass, a coefficient of thermal expansion was 6.5 to 15×10−6/K and heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. was more than or equal to 180 W/m·K. In comparative examples 1 and 2 in which the SiC content was less than 30% by mass, a coefficient of thermal expansion was larger than 15×10−6/K. Production of comparative example 3 in which the SiC content was more than 85% by mass was impossible. In inventive examples 1 to 7 and comparative examples 1 and 2, value of (Y/X) was less than or equal to 0.2%. A cooling and heating cycle test (temperature range from −40° C. to 150° C.) was conducted for samples of inventive examples 1 to 7 having surface plated with nickel of 2 μm thick and for samples which were obtained by plating surface with nickel of 2 μm following vapor deposition of aluminum of 3 μm thick in comparative examples 4 to 7. As a result, in comparative examples 4 to 7, peeling of an Al deposition layer was observed for every case after 100 cycles, however, in inventive examples 1 to 7, peeling of the Al layer was not observed even after 5000 cycles. As shown in FIG. 4, a test for measuring peel strength of an All layer serving as a superficial layer was conducted using an adhesive in a similar manner as described above, and peel strength was measured. In comparative examples 4 to 7, peel strength was 0.3 to 0.4 kgf/mm2 (0.3×9.8 to 0.4×9.8 MPa), while any of inventive examples 1 to 7 had peel strength over 2 kgf/mm2 (2×9.8 MPa). Observation of bonding part under transmission electron microscope revealed that a part of bonding part included a metal bond in inventive examples 1 to 7. Further, cooling and heating cycle test (temperature range from −40° C. to 150° C.) was conducted on samples obtained by soldering an AIN sintered body having a copper or aluminum layer on its surface, to samples of inventive examples 1 to 7 having surface plated with nickel of 2 μm thick, or to samples which were obtained by plating surface with nickel of 2 μm following vapor deposition of aluminum of 3 μm thick in comparative examples 4 to 7, using alloy of tin (Sn)—3% by mass of silver (Ag)—0.5% by mass of copper (Cu) as a solder material. As a result, in comparative examples 4 to 7, breaking was observed in a solder bonding part for every case after 100 cycles, however, in inventive examples 1 to 7, breaking in a solder bonding part was not observed even after 10000 cycles. Example 2 Each sample in Example 1 was drilled while lubricant oil was applied to form a hole of 10.5 mm in diameter by means of a drill, and a bolt of M10 was inserted, and a nut was fastened at a torque of 10 kgf in (98 N·m). Breaking occurred in comparative examples 5 to 7, while breaking was not observed in inventive examples 5 to 7 even torque was elevated to 15 kgf·μm (15×9.8 N·m). The crystal structure of an aluminum layer serving as a superficial layer in inventive examples 5 to 7 was observed, and the average crystal particle diameter was 84 μm, 158 μm, and 34 μm, respectively. Example 3 Samples was prepared in a similar manner as in Example 1 at an SiC content of 60% by mass, with variable the average particle diameter of SiC powder of 5 μm, 10 μm, 80 μm, 150 μm and 200 μm, and a variable thickness of an aluminum layer of 0.050 mm, 0.100 mm, 0.500 mm, 1.000 mm, 2.000 mm, and 2.500 mm. Each sample was evaluated for heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C., variation in a thickness of an Al layer, and ratio of warp in the same manner as described in Example 1. The results are shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. TABLE 2 Heat conductivity [W/m · K] SiC average particle diameter Thickness of Al layer [mm] [μm] 0.050 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 2.500 5 181 182 180 182 183 187 10 187 206 200 203 201 200 80 186 198 183 185 198 201 150 185 200 200 205 198 210 200 190 190 190 198 197 205 TABLE 3 Variation in thickness of Al layer [%] SiC average particle Thickness of Al layer [mm] diameter [μm] 0.050 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 2.500 5 10 9 8 5 4 3 10 30 15 12 10 6 3 80 40 20 15 12 7 3 150 55 25 18 14 8 4 200 80 36 25 20 14 6 TABLE 4 Ratio of warp (Y/X) [%] SiC average particle diameter Thickness of Al layer [mm] [μm] 0.050 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 2.500 5 0.11 0.12 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.12 10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.23 80 0.12 0.11 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.24 150 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.30 200 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.33 Results shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 demonstrate that when average particle diameter of SiC powder was 5 μm, a coefficient of thermal expansion was comparable, however, heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. was lower than those having other particle diameters. Further, when the average particle diameter of SiC powder was 200 μm, a part where the thickness of the aluminum layer was not uniform and thin occurred at a thickness of the aluminum layer of 0.050 mm. When a thickness of the aluminum layer was larger than 2.500 mm, tendency that the warp becomes greater was observed. Example 4 In production methods of inventive examples 1 to 7 shown in Table 1, samples were produced with varied molding pressures. Influence of molding pressure exerted on a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. was examined. The coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity were determined in a similar manner as described in Example 1. Results are shown in Table 5. In Table 5, “α” and “κ” mean a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity, respectively. TABLE 5 Coefficient of Molding pressure thermal Heat 1.4 × 98 expansion α conductivity κ 98 MPa MPa 2 × 98 MPa 3 × 98 MPa [×10−6/K] [W/m · K] α κ α κ α κ α κ Inventive 1 14.9 190 14.8 208 14.7 208 14.7 208 example 2 12.3 188 12.1 196 11.8 199 11.7 200 3 12.8 187 12.5 195 12.4 198 12.3 199 4 12.9 183 12.7 197 12.6 198 12.6 199 5 11 189 10 196 9.8 198 9.7 199 6 9.1 184 8 200 7.9 204 7.8 206 7 7.7 183 6.8 202 6.7 208 6.7 210 Results shown in Table 5 demonstrate that the higher the molding pressure, the smaller the coefficient of thermal expansion and the higher heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. Toughness of samples obtained at molding pressure of 98 MPa and 2×98 MPa in the inventive example 5 was evaluated. Toughness was evaluated by a ratio of number of samples in which breaking occurred when each sample was drilled while lubricant oil was applied to form a hole of 10.5 mm in diameter by means of a drill, and a bolt of M10 was inserted, and a nut was fastened at a torque of 20 kgf·m (2×98 N·m), relative to the total number of samples. Ratio of number of samples in which breaking occurred at a molding pressure of 2×98 MPa was 20%, compared to that at molding pressure of 98 MPa. It can be understood that the higher molding pressure, the more toughness improves. Example 5 In the production methods of inventive examples 1 to 7 shown in Table 1, a sample was prepared in a similar manner as in Example 1 except that between the molding step and the heating and compressing step, the molded body was heated for 5 hours at a temperature of 600° C. in nitrogen gas atmosphere. Influence of the heating process which is an intermediate step exerted on a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. was examined. The coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity were determined in a similar manner as described in Example 1. Results are shown in Table 6. In Table 6, “α” and “κ” mean a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity, respectively. TABLE 6 Coefficient of Heating process thermal Heat expansion α conductivity κ Conducted Not conducted [×10−6/K] [W/m · K] α κ α κ Inventive 1 14.6 212 14.8 208 example 2 12.1 201 12.1 196 3 12.5 199 12.5 195 4 12.6 202 12.7 197 5 9.9 202 10 196 6 7.8 209 8 200 7 6.7 211 6.8 202 Results shown in Table 6 demonstrate that conducting the heating process as an intermediate step improves heat conductivity. In inventive example 5, toughness was evaluated for samples having experienced heating process and not experienced heating process. Toughness was evaluated by a ratio of number of samples in which breaking occurred when each sample was drilled while lubricant oil was applied to form a hole of 10.5 mm in diameter by means of a drill, and a bolt of M10 was inserted, and a nut was fastened at a torque of 20 kgf·m (2×98 N·m), relative to the total number of samples. The ratio of number of samples in which breaking occurred in the samples having experienced heating process was 10%, compared to the samples not having experienced heating process. It can be understood that toughness improves when heating process is conducted as an intermediate step. Further, in inventive example 3 and inventive example 5 shown in Table 1, by varying the heating temperature in the heating process step in nitrogen gas atmosphere conducted between the molding step and heating and compressing step, influence of the heating temperature exerted on a coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity at a temperature of 100° C. was examined. The coefficient of thermal expansion and heat conductivity were determined in a similar manner as described in Example 1. Results are shown in FIG. 5. In FIG. 5, horizontal axis represents heating temperature, left vertical axis represents heat conductivity κ, and right vertical axis represents a coefficient of thermal expansion α. Results shown in FIG. 5 demonstrate that heat conductivity is improved when heating process is conducted as an intermediate step at heating temperature of more than or equal to (Tm-300)° C. (more than or equal to about 350° C. in inventive example 3 and inventive example 5). Example 6 Aluminum (Al) powder having an average particle diameter of 10 μm and silicon carbide (SiC) powder having an average particle diameter of 15 μm were mixed in variable mixing ratio so that the content of SiC was as shown in Table 7 while varying mixing ratio, and molding was carried out while the resultant mixed powder is placed on the top and bottom faces of an aluminum plate of JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) 1050, or in other words, in the condition that the mixed powder was sandwiched by an aluminum plate having a thickness shown in Table 7, to prepare a molded body (molding step). Molding of mixed powder was carried out so that the molding pressure is 2 ton/cm2 (2×98 MPa) by applying a load of 72 tons on the powder using 100-ton pressing machine. The molded body obtained in this manner was then heated and rolled by being subjected to hot rolling involving five passages at 5% reduction while it was heated to a temperature of 600° C. (heating and rolling step). In this manner, a sample of 60 mm high×60 mm wide×5 mm thick was prepared. Each sample was evaluated for the characteristics in a similar manner as in Example 1. The obtained characteristics are shown in Table 7. TABLE 7 Variation in Al Coefficient of SiC Al plate Al layer Al layer/ layer thermal Heat Al layer peel Ratio of warp [% by thickness thickness sample thickness expansion conductivity strength (Y/X) mass] [mm] [mm] [%] [%] [×10−6/K] [W/m · K] [×9.8 MPa] [%] Inventive 2 40 0.4 0.3 6 11 12.5 197 4.3 0.10 example 4 50 0.6 0.4 8 14 9.9 197 4.9 0.12 5 65 0.5 0.2 4 17 8.0 203 5.2 0.11 6 85 0.8 0.3 6 22 6.8 206 3.7 0.19 Surface of each sample was plated with nickel of 2 μm thick, and heated to a temperature of 250° C., and then presence of void was observed. However, occurrence of void was not observed. Each sample plated with nickel of 2 μm thick on the surface was subjected to cooling and heating cycle test (temperature range of −40° C. to 150° C.), and no peeling was observed in an Al layer after 5000 cycles. Each sample obtained by plating surface with nickel of 2 μm soldered with alloy of tin (Sn)—3% by mass of silver (Ag)—0.5% by mass of copper (Cu) as a solder material was subjected to cooling and heating cycle test (temperature range of −40° C. to 150° C.), and no breaking was observed in solder bonding part after 10000 cycles. It is to be understood that the embodiments and examples disclosed in the above are given for exemplification and not for limitation in all respects. The scope of the present invention is defined by attached claims and not by the above embodiments and examples, and embraces any changes and modification made within the meanings and coverage of equivalence of claims. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The member for a semiconductor device of the present invention is used as a heat radiation member such as heat spreader member or lid member in a semiconductor device called a power device such as insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) unit mounted in, e.g., automobile, or in semiconductor device into which semiconductor integrated circuit element chip or central processing unit (CPU) unit such as computer or server, or microprocessor unit (MPU) is incorporated.
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23
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14
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11659360
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US20080042159A1-20080221
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Transparent Electrode for Semiconductor Light-Emitting Device
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ACCEPTED
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20080206
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20080221
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[]
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H01L3300
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["H01L3300", "H01L2128"]
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7498611
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20070523
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20090303
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257
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099000
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87893.0
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HO
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TU TU
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Eitoh", "inventor_name_first": "Nobuo", "inventor_city": "Chiba", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Muraki", "inventor_name_first": "Noritaka", "inventor_city": "Chiba", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Miki", "inventor_name_first": "Hisayuki", "inventor_city": "Chiba", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Watanabe", "inventor_name_first": "Munetaka", "inventor_city": "Chiba", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A transparent electrode for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device includes a p-type semiconductor layer (5), a contact metal layer (1) formed by ohmic contact on the p-type semiconductor layer, an current diffusion layer (12) formed on the contact metal layer and having a lower magnitude of resistivity on the plane of the transparent electrode than the contact metal, and a bonding pad (13) formed on the current diffusion layer. The transparent electrode is at an advantage in widening the surface of light emission in the p-type semiconductor layer, decreasing the operation voltage in the forward direction, and enabling the bonding pad to provide excellent adhesive strength.
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1. A transparent electrode for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device, comprising a p-type semiconductor layer, a contact metal layer formed by ohmic contact on the p-type semiconductor layer, an current diffusion layer formed on the contact metal layer and having a lower magnitude of resistivity on a plane of the transparent electrode than the contact metal, and a bonding pad formed on the current diffusion layer. 2. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the bonding pad has an area of 90% or more held in contact with the current diffusion layer. 3. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the transparent electrode is formed solely of a metal. 4. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the transparent electrode contains a layer of an electroconductive oxide. 5. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the bonding pad has an area of contact with the p-type semiconductor layer that is 10% or less. 6. A transparent electrode according to claim 5, wherein the bonding pad avoids contacting the p-type semiconductor layer. 7. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer has an uppermost layer covered with a layer formed of a metal. 8. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the contact metal layer is formed of a platinum group metal. 9. A transparent electrode according to claim 8, wherein the contact metal layer is formed of platinum. 10. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the contact metal layer has a thickness in a range of 0.1 to 7.5 nm 11. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the contact metal layer has a thickness of 5 nm or less. 12. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the contact metal layer has a thickness in a range of 0.5 to 2.5 nm. 13. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer is formed of a metal selected from the group consisting of gold, silver and copper or an alloy containing at least one of these. 14. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer is formed of gold. 15. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer has a thickness in a range of 1 to 20 nm. 16. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer has a thickness of 10 nm or less. 17. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the current diffusion layer has a thickness in a range of 3 to 6 nm. 18. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the bonding pad contains a first layer contacting the current diffusion layer, and the first layer is formed of at least one metal selected from the group consisting of Ti, Al, Au, and Cr or an alloy thereof. 19. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the first layer of the bonding pad has a thickness in a range of 20 to 3000 nm. 20. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the bonding pad contains a second layer formed on the first layer of the bonding pad, and the second layer is formed of at least one metal selected from Ti and Cr or an alloy thereof. 21. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the second layer of the bonding pad has a thickness in a range of 20 to 3000 nm. 22. A transparent electrode according to claim 1, wherein the bonding pad has an uppermost layer formed of Au. 23. A light-emitting device using the transparent electrode set forth in claim 1.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In recent years, the GaN-based compound semiconductor materials have been attracting attention as semiconductor materials for use in the short wavelength light-emitting devices. The GaN-based compound semiconductors are formed on sapphire single crystals and various oxides and Group III-V compounds as substrates by the metal organic chemical vapor deposition method (MOCVD method), the molecular beam epitaxy method (MBE method), etc. The GaN-based compound semiconductor materials have a characteristic feature of inducing small current diffusion in the lateral direction. Though the cause for this phenomenon has not been elucidated in detail, it may be probably ascribed to the presence of numerous dislocations threading the epitaxial crystal from the substrate through the first surface. Further, the p-type GaN compound semiconductor has high specific resistance as compared with the n-type GaN compound semiconductor and is not hardly enabled by simply stacking metal on the first surface to add to the lateral expanse of electric current in the p-layer and, when fabricated in an LED configuration having a p-n junction, is enabled to emit light only directly below the positive electrode. Thus, it is common to use a transparent electrode as the p-electrode. For example, the idea of stacking Ni and Au on a p-layer and subjecting the stacked metals to an alloying treatment and consequently promoting decrease of the resistance of the p-layer and forming a positive electrode with transparent property and ohmic property, has been proposed (refer, for example, to Japanese Patent No. 2804742). For the purpose of acquiring bonding strength in the pad electrode, a structure which is enabled, by cutting off a portion of a transparent electrode and forming a pad electrode throughout on the transparent electrode and a straddle the cut-off portion, to acquire the bonding strength in the part directly contiguous to the GaN layer and at the same time attain current diffusion in the part contiguous to the transparent electrode, has been laid open to public inspection (refer, for example, to JP-A HEI 7-94782). Because a given metal ideally acquires ohmic contact, it does not necessarily follow that this metal shows a high mechanical-contact-strength. When a bonding pad is allowed to contact a semiconductor layer, the contact entails the problem that the part of this contact inevitably gives rise to an increase in the contact resistance and consequently suffers the forward voltage (V F ) to rise. In short, the bonding pad is effective in lowering the operation voltage in the forward direction when the area of contact which it produces with the semiconductor layer is decreased. This invention has for an object the provision of a transparent electrode for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device, which transparent electrode produces excellent ohmic contact and current diffusion and abounds in contact strength of bonding pad as well. The term “transparent property” as used in this invention means that the pertinent electrode is transparent to the light of a wavelength in the range of 300 to 600 nm.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention fabricated in Example 1. FIG. 3 is a schematic view illustrating the plan view of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention fabricated in Example 1. FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating the plan view of a transparent electrode part containing a cut-off portion in a transparent electrode fabricated in Comparative Example 1. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is an application filed under 35 U.S.C. §111(a) claiming the benefit pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §119(e)(1) of the filing dates of Provisional Application No. 60/602,648 filed Aug. 19, 2004 and Japanese Application No. 2004-228968 filed Aug. 5, 2004 pursuant to 35 U.S.C §111 (b). TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to a transparent electrode and more particularly to a transparent electrode possessing excellent transparent property and ohmic property suitable for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device. BACKGROUND ART In recent years, the GaN-based compound semiconductor materials have been attracting attention as semiconductor materials for use in the short wavelength light-emitting devices. The GaN-based compound semiconductors are formed on sapphire single crystals and various oxides and Group III-V compounds as substrates by the metal organic chemical vapor deposition method (MOCVD method), the molecular beam epitaxy method (MBE method), etc. The GaN-based compound semiconductor materials have a characteristic feature of inducing small current diffusion in the lateral direction. Though the cause for this phenomenon has not been elucidated in detail, it may be probably ascribed to the presence of numerous dislocations threading the epitaxial crystal from the substrate through the first surface. Further, the p-type GaN compound semiconductor has high specific resistance as compared with the n-type GaN compound semiconductor and is not hardly enabled by simply stacking metal on the first surface to add to the lateral expanse of electric current in the p-layer and, when fabricated in an LED configuration having a p-n junction, is enabled to emit light only directly below the positive electrode. Thus, it is common to use a transparent electrode as the p-electrode. For example, the idea of stacking Ni and Au on a p-layer and subjecting the stacked metals to an alloying treatment and consequently promoting decrease of the resistance of the p-layer and forming a positive electrode with transparent property and ohmic property, has been proposed (refer, for example, to Japanese Patent No. 2804742). For the purpose of acquiring bonding strength in the pad electrode, a structure which is enabled, by cutting off a portion of a transparent electrode and forming a pad electrode throughout on the transparent electrode and a straddle the cut-off portion, to acquire the bonding strength in the part directly contiguous to the GaN layer and at the same time attain current diffusion in the part contiguous to the transparent electrode, has been laid open to public inspection (refer, for example, to JP-A HEI 7-94782). Because a given metal ideally acquires ohmic contact, it does not necessarily follow that this metal shows a high mechanical-contact-strength. When a bonding pad is allowed to contact a semiconductor layer, the contact entails the problem that the part of this contact inevitably gives rise to an increase in the contact resistance and consequently suffers the forward voltage (VF) to rise. In short, the bonding pad is effective in lowering the operation voltage in the forward direction when the area of contact which it produces with the semiconductor layer is decreased. This invention has for an object the provision of a transparent electrode for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device, which transparent electrode produces excellent ohmic contact and current diffusion and abounds in contact strength of bonding pad as well. The term “transparent property” as used in this invention means that the pertinent electrode is transparent to the light of a wavelength in the range of 300 to 600 nm. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION This invention provides a transparent electrode for a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device, comprising a p-type semiconductor layer, a contact metal layer formed by ohmic contact on the p-type semiconductor layer, a current diffusion layer formed on the contact metal layer and possessing a lower value of resistivity on a plane of the transparent electrode than the contact metal layer, and a bonding pad formed on the current diffusion layer. In the transparent electrode, the bonding pad has an area of 90% or more held in contact with the current diffusion layer. The transparent electrode is formed solely of a metal. It can contain a layer of an electroconductive oxide. In the transparent electrode, the bonding pad has an area of contact with the p-type semiconductor layer that is 10% or less. It can avoid contacting the p-type semiconductor layer. The current diffusion layer has an uppermost layer covered with a layer formed of a metal. The contact metal layer is formed of a platinum group metal. The contact metal layer can be limited to that formed of platinum. The contact metal layer has a thickness in the range of 0.1 to 7.5 nm, preferably 5 nm or less, more preferably in the range of 0.5 to 2.5 nm. The current diffusion layer is formed of a metal selected from the group consisting of gold, silver and copper or an alloy containing at least one of these. The current diffusion layer can be limited to that formed of gold. The current diffusion layer has a thickness in the range of 1 to 20 nm, preferably 10 nm or less, more preferably in the range of 3 to 6 nm. The bonding pad contains a first layer contacting the current diffusion layer, and the first layer contains a layer containing at least one metal selected from the group consisting of Ti, Al, Au and Cr or an alloy thereof. The first layer of the bonding pad has a thickness in the range of 20 to 3000 nm. The bonding pad can have a second layer formed on the first layer, and the second layer contains a layer formed of at least one metal selected from Ti, Cr and an alloy thereof. The second layer of the bonding pad has a thickness in the range of 20 to 3000 nm. The bonding pad has an uppermost layer formed of Au. The present invention also provides a light-emitting device which uses the transparent electrode. The transparent electrode of this invention has a p-type semiconductor layer, a contact metal layer formed on the p-type semiconductor layer, a current diffusion layer formed on the contact metal layer and a bonding pad formed on the current diffusion layer. The contact metal layer is formed of a material possessing transparent property and acquiring excellent ohmic contact. The current diffusion layer is formed of a material possessing a lower magnitude of resistivity on the plane of the transparent electrode than the contact metal layer. The bonding pad is formed of a material giving rise to fast adhesion to the current diffusion layer. Therefore, the configuration obtained will bring an effect of enlarging the light-emitting plane in the semiconductor layer, decreasing the operation voltage in the forward direction and providing the bonding pad with excellent adhesive strength. The above and other objects, characteristic features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the description made herein below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention fabricated in Example 1. FIG. 3 is a schematic view illustrating the plan view of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device provided with a transparent electrode of this invention fabricated in Example 1. FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating the plan view of a transparent electrode part containing a cut-off portion in a transparent electrode fabricated in Comparative Example 1. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION The transparent electrode of this invention is made of a structure resulting from stacking a contact metal layer, a current diffusion layer and a bonding pad. It will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a light-emitting device furnished with a transparent electrode of this invention. In FIG. 1, reference numeral 11 denotes a contact metal layer, numeral 12 an current diffusion layer and numeral 13 a bonding pad layer that comprises three layers of a first layer 131, a second layer 132 and a third layer 133. The layers 11 to 13 jointly form a transparent electrode 10 of this invention. Though the bonding pad layer is depicted to be composed of three layers in FIG. 1, it may be composed of more than three layers. Reference numeral 1 denotes a substrate, numeral 2 a GaN-based compound semiconductor layer which is composed of an n-type semiconductor layer 3, a light-emitting layer 4 and a p-type semiconductor layer 5. Reference numeral 6 denotes a buffer layer and numeral 20 a negative electrode. As depicted in FIG. 1, the bonding pad has the whole lower surface thereof contact the current diffusion layer and not contacting the semiconductor layer. For the purpose of acquiring the effect of lowering the operation voltage in the forward direction as aimed at by this invention, it is necessary that the bonding pad have preferably 90% or more, more preferably 95% or more, most preferably the whole (100%), of the area of the lower surface thereof contact the current diffusion layer. The bonding pad layer which forms the bonding part has been known in various structures using various kinds of material. Any of these known bonding pads may be adopted herein without any particular restriction. The lowermost layer 131 of the bonding pad will be called a first layer. The first layer preferably uses a material which shows an excellent adhesive property to the current diffusion layer. Particularly preferably, it contains at least one metal selected from among Ti, Al, Au and Cr or an alloy thereof. The metal to be contained therein is more preferably Au or Cr and most preferably Au. The first layer of the bonding pad preferably has a thickness in the range of 20 to 3000 nm. If the first layer is unduly thin, it will fail to acquire an effect of thorough adhesion. If it is unduly thick, it will fail to give rise to any particular advantage but will elongate the time for the process and incur waste of material. It is normally advantageous to avoid any deviation from the range specified above. The thickness is more preferably in the range of 50 to 1000 nm and most preferably in the range of 100 to 500 nm. The second layer 132 which is formed on the first layer of the bonding pad plays the role of enhancing the strength of the whole bonding pad. It is, therefore, necessary to use a comparatively strong metallic material or increase the film thickness sufficiently. Ti and Cr are preferred materials therefor. Particularly, Ti proves favorable in terms of the strength of material. This layer preferably has a thickness in the range of 20 to 3000 nm. This layer fails to acquire satisfactory strength when it is unduly thin or produce any particular advantage when it is unduly thick. The thickness is more preferably in the range of 50 to 1000 nm and most preferably in the range of 100 to 500 nm The third layer 133 (the outermost layer) of the bonding pad is preferably made of a material which shows an excellent adhesiveness to a bonding electrode. The bonding electrode uses gold more frequently than not. Au and Al are known to be the metals which show excellent adhesiveness to the gold electrode. In the two metals, gold proves particularly advantageous. The transparent electrode may have all component layers thereof formed invariably of metals and may include layers of oxides among them. When the current diffusion layer has a structure which includes a layer formed of an oxide, the oxide layer may be so constructed as to have the surface thereof covered with a thin metal layer for the purpose of increasing the mechanical adhesive strength between the bonding pad and the current diffusion layer. The bonding pad is preferably formed of a plurality of layers. For the purpose of formation thereof, any of the known methods, such as the sputtering method and the vapor deposition method, may be adopted. The plurality of layers forming the bonding pad may be stacked invariably by the same method or by methods changed halfway in the total of component layers. From the viewpoint of the adhesiveness between the adjoining layers, however, it is preferable to have all the component layers stacked in the same chamber without allowing any of the component layers to be taken out into the ambient air. Further, for the purpose of forming the bonding pad in a prescribed shape, the lift-off method which has been known long heretofore may be adopted. When the bonding pad is formed on the current diffusion layer, the deposition of the bonding pad is preferred to be preceded by a treatment which is given to the current diffusion layer for the purpose of cleaning the surface thereof. For the purpose of this, treatment, the irradiation with ultraviolet light and the heat treatment may be adopted besides the wet cleaning using an acid or an alkali and the dry cleaning resorting to exposure to a sputter or a reactive gas. Among other methods mentioned above, the cleaning by the use of a reactive gas is advantageous and the method resorting to the irradiation with ultraviolet light and using ozone proves favorable because it provides facility and promises an effect. The material of the current diffusion layer is a metal of high electric conductivity, such as a metal selected from the group consisting of gold, silver and copper, or an alloy containing at least one of the metals enumerated above, for example. Gold proves most favorable because it shows a high light transmission when it is formed into a thin film. In this case, the thickness of the current diffusion layer is preferably in the range of 1 to 20 nm. If the thickness falls short of 1 nm, the shortage will prevent the effect of electric current diffusion from being manifested fully satisfactorily. If the thickness exceeds 20 nm, the overage will possibly result in markedly lowering the ability of the current diffusion layer to transmit light and degrading the light emitting output. The thickness is more preferably 10 nm or less. By fixing this thickness in the range of 3 to 6 nm, the current diffusion layer is enabled to improve best the balance between the ability to transmit light and the effect of electric current diffusion and, when joined with the contact metal layer, allow the entire surface on the positive electrode to emit light and acquire light emission of high output. The material of the current diffusion layer may be an oxide having high electric conductivity, such as an oxide selected from the group consisting of ITO and zinc oxide or a material containing at least one of such oxides, for example. In the oxides mentioned above, ITO proves most favorable because of high electric conductivity. In this case, the thickness of the current diffusion layer is preferably in the range of 1 to 5000 nm. If this thickness falls short of 1 nm, the shortage will result in preventing the effect of electric current diffusion from being fully manifested. If the thickness exceeds 5000 nm, the overage will possibly result in markedly lowering the ability of the current diffusion layer to transmit light and degrading the output of light emission. By fixing this thickness in the range of 100 to 1000 nm, the current diffusion layer is enabled to improve best the balance between the ability to transmit light and the effect of electric current diffusion and, when joined with the contact metal layer, allow the entire surface on the positive electrode to emit light and acquire light emission of high output. As regards the performance which the contact metal layer is required to possess, the small contact resistance between this layer and the p-layer constitutes an essential factor. Further, the face-up mount type light-emitting device in which the light from the light-emitting layer is taken out from the electrode face side is required to possess an excellent ability to transmit light. As the materials available for the contact metal layer, platinum group metals, such as platinum (Pt), ruthenium (Ru), osmium (Os), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir) and palladium (Pd), prove favorable from the viewpoint of the contact resistance with the p-layer. Among other materials enumerated above, Pt proves particularly advantageous because it possesses a high work function and an ability to acquire excellent ohmic contact in an unheated state with a p-type GaN compound semiconductor layer of comparatively high resistance which has not undergone a heat treatment at a high temperature. When the contact metal layer is formed of a platinum group metal, it is necessary from the viewpoint of the ability to transmit light that the thickness thereof be extremely small. The thickness of the contact metal layer is preferably in the range of 0.1 to 7.5 nm. If this thickness falls short of 0.1 nm, the shortage will render it difficult to obtain a stable thin film. If the thickness exceeds 7.5 nm, the overage will result in degrading the ability to transmit light. The thickness is more preferably 5 nm or less. It is particularly preferably in the range of 0.5 to 2.5 nm in consideration of the degradation of the ability to transmit light due to the subsequent deposition of the current diffusion layer and the stability of the formation of a film. When the current diffusion layer is absent and the contact metal layer has a small thickness, the contact metal layer suffers the electric resistance thereof in the plane direction to increase and the pad layer, namely an electric current injecting part, in combination with the p layer of comparatively high resistance, is barely allowed to diffuse electric current in the peripheral part thereof. As a result, the pattern of light emission is rendered uneven and the output of light emission is lowered. Thus, by disposing on the contact metal layer the current diffusion layer formed of a highly electroconductive metal thin film or metal oxide having a high coefficient of light transmission as a means to compensate for the electric current diffusing property of the contact metal layer, it is made possible to uniformly widen the electric current without appreciably impairing the low contact resistance or the light transmission of the platinum group metal and consequently enable acquisition of a light-emitting device of high output of light emission. At this time, the current diffusion layer has no meaning of its own entity unless the magnitude of resistivity in the plane of the electrode is smaller than the contact metal. The magnitude of the resistivity is decided by the magnitude of the resistance inherent in the material and the thickness of the film to be deposited thereon. In short, when a metal is used, the current diffusion layer can be formed in a small thickness because the metal has a small coefficient of resistance. When an electroconductive metal oxide is used, the current diffusion layer must be formed in a large thickness because the metal oxide has a large coefficient of resistance than the metal. The method for forming the contact metal layer and the current diffusion layer does not need to be particularly restricted but may be selected from among known methods, such as the vacuum deposition method and the sputtering method. The transparent electrode of this invention can be used without any restriction for the heretofore known gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device which, as illustrated in FIG. 1, has a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor deposited on a substrate through a buffer layer and has an n-type semiconductor layer, a light-emitting layer and a p-type semiconductor layer formed thereon. For the substrate, any of the known substrate materials including oxide single crystals, such as sapphire single crystal (Al2O3: A face, C face, M face and R face), spinel single crystal (MgAl2O4), ZnO single crystal, LiAlO2 single crystal, LiGaO2 single crystal and MgO single crystal, Si single crystal, SiC single crystal, GaAs single crystal, AlN single crystal and GaN single crystal, and boride single crystals, such as ZrB2 single crystal can be used without any restriction. Incidentally, the plane direction of the substrate is not particularly restricted. The substrate may be a just substrate or a substrate provided with an off angle. The n-type semiconductor layers, light-emitting layers and p-type semiconductor layers are widely known in various structures. These layers in such universally known structures may be used herein without any restriction. While an ordinary concentration is used particularly for the carrier concentration in the p-type semiconductor layer, the transparent electrode of this invention can be applied to a p-type semiconductor layer having a comparatively low carrier concentration approximating to 1×1017 cm−3. As the gallium nitride-based compound semiconductors available for forming these layers, the semiconductors of varying compositions which are represented by the general formula, AlxInyGa1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦y≦1 and 0≦x+y<1), are universally known. For the gallium nitride-based compound semiconductors which form the n-type semiconductor layer, the light-emitting layer and the p-type semiconductor contemplated by this invention, the semiconductors of varying compositions which are represented by the general formula, AlxInyGa1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦y≦1 and 0≦x+y<1), can be used without any restriction. The method for growing these gallium nitride-based compound semiconductors does not need to be particularly restricted. All the methods, such as HVPE (hydride vapor phase epitaxy) and MBE (molecular beam epitaxy), which are known to grow Group III nitride semiconductors may be applied. A preferred method of growth is the MOCVD method from the viewpoint of the film thickness controlling property and the mass-producing property. The MOCVD method uses hydrogen (H2) or nitrogen (N2) as a carrier gas, trimethyl gallium (TMG) or triethyl gallium (TEG) as a Ga source which is a Group III raw material, trimethyl aluminum (TMA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA) as an Al source, trimethyl indium (TMI) or triethyl indium (TEI) as an In source and ammonia (NH3) or hydrazine (N2H4) as an N source which is a Group V raw material. As the dopant, monosilane (SiH4) or disilane (Si2H6) is used as an Si raw material and germane (GeH4) is used as a Ge raw material in the n-type semiconductor, and biscyclopentadienyl magnesium (Cp2Mg) or bisethylcyclopentadienyl magnesium ((EtCp)2Mg) as a Mg raw material in the p-type semiconductor. For the purpose of forming a negative electrode contiguous to the n-type semiconductor layer of the gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor having the n-type semiconductor layer, the light-emitting layer, and the p-type semiconductor layer sequentially stacked on the substrate, the n-type semiconductor layer is exposed by partially removing the light-emitting layer and the p-type semiconductor layer. Thereafter, the transparent electrode of this invention is formed on the remaining p-type semiconductor layer and a negative electrode is formed on the exposed n-type semiconductor layer. As the negative electrode, negative electrodes of various compositions and structures have been universally known and any of them may be used without any particular restriction. When the light-emitting device is fabricated by using this invention, the produced device is enabled to possess a low operation voltage. Further, electronic devices, such as portable telephones, displays and panels, which incorporate chips produced by this procedure and mechanical devices, such as automobiles, computers and game machines, which incorporate such electronic devices are enabled to be operated with low electric power and are enabled to materialize high characteristic properties. Particularly in battery-operated devices, such as portable telephones, portable game machines, toys, digital cameras and automobile parts, the effect of reducing electric power and the elongation of available time can be materialized. Now, this invention will be described more specifically below with reference to examples. This invention, however, is not limited to these examples. EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 2 is a schematic view illustrating the cross section of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device fabricated in this example and FIG. 3 is a schematic view illustrating the plan view thereof. On a substrate 1 made of sapphire, an under layer 3a made of undoped GaN and measuring 8 μm in thickness, an Si-doped n-type GaN contact layer 3b measuring 2 μm in thickness, an n-type In0.1Ga0.9N cladding layer 3c measuring 250 nm in thickness, a Si-doped GaN barrier layer measuring 16 nm and an In0.2Ga0.8N well layer measuring 1.5 nm in thickness were stacked through a buffer layer 6 made of AlN up to five repetitions. Finally, a positive electrode 10 of this invention formed of a bonding pad layer 13 of a five-layer structure consisting of a Pt contact metal layer 11 measuring 1.5 nm in thickness, an Au current diffusion layer 12 measuring 5 nm in thickness, an Au layer 13a measuring 50 nm in thickness, a Ti layer 13b measuring 20 nm in thickness, an Al layer 13c measuring 10 nm in thickness, a Ti layer 13d measuring 100 nm in thickness and an Au layer 13e measuring 200 nm in thickness was formed on the p-type AlGaN contact layer of a gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor resulting from sequentially stacking a light-emitting layer 4 of a multiple quantum well structure provided with a barrier layer, an Mg-doped p-type Al0.07Ga0.93N cladding layer 5a measuring 0.01 μm in thickness, and an Mg-doped p-type Al0.02Ga0.98N contact layer 5b measuring 0.15 μm in thickness. Of the five layers forming the bonding pad, the Au layer 13a of 50 nm constituted the first layer, the Ti layer 13b of 50 nm the second layer, the Al layer 13c of 10 nm the barrier layer, the Ti layer 13d of 100 nm the layer for preventing Al and Au from being alloyed and the Au layer 13e of 200 nm the uppermost layer. Then, a negative electrode 20 of a Ti/Au two-layer structure was formed on the n-type GaN contact layer to give rise to a light-emitting device having a fetching surface on the semiconductor layer side. The positive electrode and the negative electrode were shaped as illustrated in FIG. 3. In this structure, the carrier concentration in the n-type GaN contact layer was 1×1019 cm−3, the amount of Si doped in the GaN barrier layer was 1×1018 cm−3, the carrier concentration in the p-type GaN contact layer was 5×1018 cm−3, and the amount of Mg doped in the p-type AlGaN cladding layer was 5×1019 cm3. The gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor layer was deposited by the MOCVD method under the ordinary conditions well known in the pertinent technical field. Then, the positive electrode and the negative electrode were formed by the following procedure. In the beginning, the part of the n-type GaN contact layer for forming the negative electrode by the reactive ion etching method was exposed by the following procedure. First, an etching mask was formed on the p-type semiconductor layer. This formation was carried out by the following procedure. The resist was uniformly applied to the whole surface, and the resist was removed by the known technique of lithography from the region one margin larger than the region of the positive electrode. The resultant layer was set in a vacuum deposition device and Ni and Ti were deposited in respective approximate thicknesses of 50 nm and 300 nm by the electron beam method under pressure of 4×10−4 Pa or less. Thereafter, the metal films outside the region of the positive electrode were removed together with the resist by the lift-off technique. Then, a substrate for depositing a semiconductor was mounted on the electrode inside the etching chamber of a reactive ion etching device. The substrate, with the etching chamber vacuumed to 10−4 Pa and Cl2 supplied as an etching gas, was etched till the n-type GaN contact layer was exposed. The etched substrate was withdrawn from the reactive ion etching device and was denuded of the etching mask with sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid. Then, exclusively in the region for forming the positive electrode on the p-type GaN contact layer, a contact metal layer of Pt and a current diffusion layer of Au were formed by using the known photolithography technique and lift-off technique. The formation of the contact metal layer and the current diffusion layer was implemented by first placing in the vacuum deposition device the substrate having the gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor layer deposited thereon and depositing first Pt in a thickness of 1.5 nm and then Au in a thickness of 5 nm on the p-type GaN contact layer. Subsequently, the resultant stacked structure was withdrawn from the vacuum chamber and processed by the universally known procedure generally called a lift-off technique. By the same procedure, the first layer 13a of Au, the second layer 13b of Ti, the barrier layer 13c of Al, the layer 13d of Ti for preventing Al and Au from being alloyed and the fifth layer 13e of Au were sequentially deposited on part of the current diffusion layer to give rise to the bonding pad layer 13. In this case, the region destined to form the pad electrode was cleaned by being irradiated with the ultraviolet light and swept with an ozone gas. The positive electrode contemplated by this invention was formed on the p-type GaN contact layer as described above. The positive electrode formed by this method showed transparency and possessed light transmission of 60% in the wavelength region of 470 nm. Incidentally, the light transmission was measured with a sample obtained by forming the contact metal layer and the current diffusion layer in a size for the measurement of light transmission. Then, the negative electrode was formed on the exposed n-type GaN contact layer in accordance with the following procedure. The resist was uniformly applied to the whole surface and it was removed by the known lithography technique from the part for forming the negative electrode on the exposed n-type GaN contact layer and the negative electrode consisting of Ti of a thickness of 100 nm and Au of a thickness of 200 nm sequentially from the semiconductor layer side was formed by the vacuum deposition method usually employed in the situation. Thereafter, the resist was removed by the known method. The wafer having the positive electrode and the negative electrode formed thereon as described above was shaved and polished on the second surface of the substrate till the thickness of the substrate decreased to 80 μm. After mark-off lines were inscribed in the wafer from the semiconductor deposited layer side by the use of a laser scriber, the wafer was severed under pressure into chips each of the square of 350 μm. When these chips were tested for voltage in the forward direction at 20 mA of an electric current applied by electrification with a probe coil, the voltage was found to be 2.9 V. Thereafter, the chips were mounted on a TO-18 can package and tested for the output of light emission by the use of an LED tester. They showed an output of light emission of 5 mW at an applied electric current of 20 mA. By the distribution of light emission on the light-emitting surface, it could be confirmed that the whole surface on the positive electrode was emitting light. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 1 A bonding pad having a first layer made of Ti was formed by imparting a cut-off portion 30 to part of a transparent electrode and causing a p-type semiconductor to contact the cut-off portion directly. The transparent electrode provided with the cut-off portion 30 and used in this comparative example was shaped as illustrated in FIG. 4. A gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device was fabricated by following the procedure of Example 1 while forming the transparent electrode as described above. When this light-emitting device was tested similarly for the voltage in the forward direction, the voltage was found to be 3.3 V, which indicates an increase from the sample of Example 1. The cause for this increase may be explained by a supposition that the formation of the bonding pad in the cut-off portion not destined to form a transparent electrode resulted in elevating the contact resistance of this part and consequently decreasing the area capable of obtaining excellent contact resistance. EXAMPLE 2 In Example 2, an electrode was formed in the following structure with a substrate having the same stacked structure as in Example 1. Specifically, a positive electrode 10 of this invention was formed of a bonding pad 13 in a five-layer structure consisting of a Pt contact metal layer 11 measuring 1.5 nm in thickness, an ITO current diffusion layer 12 measuring 100 nm in thickness and a Cr layer 13a measuring 50 nm in thickness, a Ti layer 13b measuring 20 nm in thickness, an Al layer 13c measuring 10 nm in thickness, a Ti layer 13d measuring 100 nm in thickness and an Au layer 13e measuring 200 nm in thickness. In the five layers which formed the bonding pad, the Cr layer 13a measuring 50 nm in thickness constituted a first layer, the Ti layer 13b measuring 20 nm in thickness a second layer, the Al layer 13c measuring 10 nm in thickness a barrier layer, the Ti layer 13d measuring 100 nm in thickness a layer for preventing Al and Au from being alloyed, and the Au layer 13e measuring 200 nm in thickness the uppermost layer. Then, a negative electrode 20 having a Ti/Au two-layer structure was formed on the n-type GaN contact layer to give rise to a light-emitting device having a light fetching surface on the semiconductor layer side. The positive electrode and the negative electrode were shaped in the same forms as in Example 1. A gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device was fabricated by following the procedure of Example 1 while forming the positive electrode and the negative electrode as described above. When this light-emitting device was tested similarly for the voltage in the forward direction, the voltage was found to be 2.9 V, i.e. a magnitude identical with that of Example 1. Thereafter, the chips were mounted on a TO-18 can package and tested for the output of light emission by the use of an LED tester. They showed an output of light emission of 5 mW at an applied electric current of 20 mA similarly to Example 1. By the distribution of light emission on the light-emitting surface, it could be confirmed that the whole surface on the positive electrode was emitting light. Though the current diffusion layer was made of ITO in Example 2, a thin layer of metal may be deposited thereon with the object of enhancing the adhesive property. A layer of tin or indium, for example, may be used for this purpose. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The electrode provided by this invention for use in the gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device is useful as a positive electrode for a transparent gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor light-emitting device.
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33
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00
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11749898
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US20080284021A1-20081120
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Method for FEOL and BEOL Wiring
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ACCEPTED
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20081105
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20081120
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[]
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H01L2144
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["H01L2144", "H01L2348"]
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7790611
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20070517
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20100907
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438
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653000
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76490.0
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PAYEN
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MARVIN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Anderson", "inventor_name_first": "Brent A.", "inventor_city": "Jerhico", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ellis-Monaghan", "inventor_name_first": "John J.", "inventor_city": "Grand Isle", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nowak", "inventor_name_first": "Edward J.", "inventor_city": "Essex Junction", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rankin", "inventor_name_first": "Jed H.", "inventor_city": "South Burlington", "inventor_state": "VT", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A method for forming a conductive structure of sub-lithographic dimension suitable for FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications. The method includes forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on a substrate; forming a dielectric cap on the topographic feature; applying a mask structure to expose a pattern on a sidewall of the topographic feature, the exposed pattern corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at the exposed portions of the sidewall and forming one or more metal silicide conductive structures at the exposed sidewall portions; removing the dielectric cap layer; and removing the silicon-containing topographic feature. The result is the formation of one or more metal silicide conductor structures formed for a single lithographically defined feature. In example embodiments, the formed metal silicide conductive structures have a high aspect ratio, e.g., ranging from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension).
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1. A method for forming a conductive structure of sub-lithographic dimension comprising: forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on a substrate; forming a dielectric cap on the topographic feature; applying a mask structure to expose a pattern on a sidewall of said topographic feature, said exposed pattern corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at said exposed portions of said sidewall; forming one or more metal silicide conductive structures at said exposed sidewall portions; removing said dielectric cap layer; and removing said silicon-containing topographic feature, wherein one or more metal silicide conductor structures are formed for a single lithographically defined feature. 2. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said metal silicide conductor structure is of high aspect ratio. 3. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said high aspect ratio ranges from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension). 4. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said silicon-containing topographic feature is formed on an insulator structure. 5. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said silicon-containing topographic feature is formed on a silicon-containing substrate. 6. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said silicon-containing material includes polysilicon, polySiGe, or doped polysilicon. 7. The method as claimed in claim 2, wherein the deposited metal includes one of Ti, Ta, Al, W, Co, Mo, Ni, Pt, Pd, or alloys thereof. 8. The method as claimed in claim 2, wherein said forming one or more metal silicide conductive structures at said exposed sidewall portions includes: reacting said deposited metal with said polysilicon topographic feature under temperature and time conditions sufficient for forming said metal silicide conductive structures; and, stripping away any unreacted metal. 9. The method as claimed in claim 1, applicable for forming wire structures for FEOL and BEOL semiconductor processing applications. 10. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein prior to forming said silicon-containing topographic feature, forming a metal diffusion barrier layer of material underneath said silicon-containing topographic feature. 11. The method as claimed in claim 10, wherein said metal silicide conductor material structure is formed to encircle said topographic feature and contact said metal diffusion barrier layer of material. 12. The method as claimed in claim 11, wherein said steps of removing said silicon-containing topographic feature and said dielectric cap layer form a trench comprising said metal diffusion barrier layer at a bottom and said formed silicide encircled sidewalls, said method further comprising: filling said trench with a conductor material. 13. The method as claimed in claim 9, further comprising: implementing an electroplating technique for forming metal plates out of said one or more metal silicide conductor structures for thickening or reinforcing said one or more metal silicide conductors. 14. The method as claimed in claim 13, further comprising: forming a dielectric material between said formed metal plates to result in a capacitor device. 15. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said formed metal silicide conductor structure encircles all said sidewalls of said topographic feature, said steps of removing said silicon-containing mandrel and said dielectric cap layer forming a trench, said method further comprising: depositing a liner material to form a metal diffusion barrier layer on an inside surface sidewalls and bottom of said trench, and filling said diffusion barrier-lined trench with a conductor material. 16. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said steps of forming a trench utilizing a damascene technique for forming a damascene trench structure within said formed trench, and forming conductive metal silicide sidewall structures for said formed damascene structure. 17. A method of forming a conductor structure for use in FEOL and BEOL semiconductor processing applications comprising: providing a first structure of material; forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on top said first structure and, a dielectric cap layer on top said topographic feature; applying a mask to expose a sidewall portion of said topographic feature corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at said exposed sidewall portion; forming a metal silicide structure that encircles said topographic feature; removing said topographic feature and said dielectric cap layer to form a trench; forming a metal diffusion barrier liner layer conforming to bottom and sidewall surface; and depositing a metal conductor material in said trench. 18. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein said diffusion barrier liner layer for a bottom trench surface is formed beneath said silicon-containing topographic feature prior to forming said topographic feature, said formed metal silicide structure in electrical contact with said prior formed bottom trench diffusion barrier liner layer. 19. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein said metal conductor material is selected from the group of Cu, Ti, Ta, W, Co, Ni, Pt, Pd or Al. 20. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein said depositing metal for forming said silicide comprises: Ti, Ta, Al, W, Co, Mo, Ni, Pt, Pd or allow thereof. 21. The method as claimed in claim 17, used for forming complex metal silicide conductor structures. 22. A vertically oriented conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, said wire structure exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension). 23. The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension as claimed in claim 22, having a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. 24. The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension as claimed in claim 22, comprising an outer material component and inner material component, wherein said inner material component is a silicide and the outside material is plated with a conductive material. 25. A structure consisting of a pair of vertically oriented conductive wires of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, said wire structure exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 0.5:1 to 10:1 (height to width dimension). 26. A conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension as claimed in claim 25, having a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. 27. A pair of conductive wire structures of sub lithographic dimension as claimed in claim 25, each of said pair having a first vertical silicide growth front facing each other and a second vertical silicide non-growth fronts facing to the outside of the structure. 28. The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension as claimed in claim 25, comprising an outer material component and inner material component, wherein said outside material component is said metal silicide material and said inner material component is a conductive material.
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<SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to semiconductor devices and structures generally, and particularly, to a novel conductive structure that can be used for Front End of Line (FEOL) and Back End of Line (BEOL) applications.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to semiconductor conductive structures and a method for forming the conductive structures. The present invention is directed to semiconductor conductive structures and a method for forming the conductive structures that is applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications. The conductive structures comprise one or more wire structures that are small and spaced close together. The semiconductor conductive structures applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications comprise one or more wire structures that are small and spaced close together and, in an exemplary embodiment, comprises a metal silicide material of sub-lithographic feature size dimensions. The semiconductor conductive structure that is applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications, and that comprises a silicide wire structure, is of a high aspect ratio. The conductive structure itself comprises one or more conductive wire structures, and, in one embodiment, two or more parallel wires are created for single lithography defined features. Thus, by using sidewall formed wiring, two or more thin wire structure can be created for a single lithography defined feature. In this example a polysilicon structure with a dielectric cap is silicided, the cap is removed, and the polysilicon is removed—resulting in at least two parallel silicide wires. These structures can be used in the FEOL for dense arrays, local interconnects, strapping, etc. they can also be used in the early wiring levels as standalone wires. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a conductive structure and, a method for forming a conductive structure of sub-lithographic dimensions. The method includes forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on a substrate; forming a dielectric cap on the topographic feature; applying a mask structure to expose a pattern on a sidewall of the topographic feature, the exposed pattern corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at the exposed portions of the sidewall and forming one or more metal silicide conductive structures at the exposed sidewall portions; removing the dielectric cap layer; and removing the silicon-containing topographic feature. The result is the formation of one or more metal silicide conductor structures formed for a single lithographically defined feature. In example embodiments, the formed metal silicide conductor structures can support a range of aspect ratio's (e.g., 1:1 to 20:1; 0.5:1 to 10:1). Furthermore, conductive structures can be formed that are later filled with conductive material, e.g., to form a via, or, used to define a feature by selective plating of the conductive structures. According to a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a vertically oriented conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, the wire structure exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension). The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension includes a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. In one embodiment, the conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension may further comprise an outer material component and inner material component, wherein the inner material component is a silicide and the outside material is plated with a conductive material. In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a structure comprising a pair of vertically oriented conductive wires of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, the wire structures exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 0.5:1 to 10:1 (height to width dimension). The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension includes a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. In one embodiment, the vertical silicide growth fronts of both wires are facing each other and vertical silicide non-growth fronts are facing to the outside of the structure. Moreover, the conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension comprises an outer material component and inner material component, wherein the outside material component is the silicide material and the inner material component is a conductive material. In all embodiments, there is provided a method of forming a conductor structure for use in FEOL and BEOL semiconductor processing applications comprising: providing a first structure of material; forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on top the first structure and, a dielectric cap layer on top the topographic feature; applying a mask to expose a sidewall portion of the topographic feature corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at the exposed sidewall portion; forming a metal silicide structure that encircles the topographic feature; removing the topographic feature and the dielectric cap layer to form a trench; forming a metal diffusion barrier liner layer conforming to bottom and sidewall surface; and depositing a metal conductor material in the trench. Advantageously, the method for forming the conductive structures as described can be used to form structures of complex shapes using standard semiconductor and lithographic processing techniques.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to semiconductor devices and structures generally, and particularly, to a novel conductive structure that can be used for Front End of Line (FEOL) and Back End of Line (BEOL) applications. Description of the Prior Art Techniques for forming small conductive structures in semiconductor devices abound in the patent literature, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,349,229 and 6,989,323 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0098683 A1 being representative. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,349,229 is directed to formation of a local interconnect, defined in a polycrystalline silicon layer. Openings to underlying conducting regions are made through an insulating layer after the local interconnect conductor definition. A thin extra polycrystalline silicon layer is then deposited over the device and etched back to form polycrystalline silicon sidewall elements. These sidewalls connect the polycrystalline silicon local interconnect conductors to the underlying conductive regions. Standard silicidation techniques are then used to form a refractory metal silicide on the exposed underlying conductive regions, the polycrystalline silicon sidewall elements, and the polycrystalline silicon local interconnect conductors. This results in a complete silicided connection between features connected by the local interconnect conductors. U.S. Pat. No. 6,989,323 describes a gate structure for a semiconductor device formed by defining a conductive sacrificial structure on a substrate; forming a reacted metal film on sidewalls of the conductive sacrificial structure; and removing unreacted portions of the conductive sacrificial structure. The uniformity of the gate conductor is largely determined by the uniformity of the growth of the reacted metal film (e.g., cobalt silicide), which does not suffer from the large through-pitch variations that are typically observed with conventional optical lithographic methods. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0098683 A1 describes a wiring of silicon formed on a surface of a semiconductor substrate. Part of the wiring is covered with a resist pattern. Ion implantation is conducted on the substrate using the resist pattern as a mask and then the resist pattern is removed. An upper section of the wiring with a thickness of at least 5 nm is removed to minimize thickness of the wiring. Reaction is caused between a surface section of the wiring of which thickness is thus reduced and a metal which reacts with silicon to thereby form a metal silicide film on a surface of the wiring. Resistance of the wiring can be reduced with good reproducibility. Particular techniques described in the patent literature that require first a patterning polysilicon, depositing and patterning dielectric film, depositing metal and react metal to form silicide; and removing the unreated metal and polysilicon to leave the conducting metal-silicide structure are described to some extent in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,427,981 and 6,569,767 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0106859 A1. U.S. Pat. No. 5,427,981, for example, teaches a process for fabricating a metal plug having a uniform surface capable of preventing a junction consumption reaction. The process includes preparing a semiconductor substrate which includes a first wiring layer, an insulating film formed over the first wiring layer and a contact hole formed in the insulating film such that the surface of the insulating film is exposed through the contact hole, forming a polysilicon film to a predetermined thickness over the entire exposed surface of the resulting structure after the formation of the contact hole, forming a photoresist pattern at a bottom portion of the contact hole on which the polysilicon film is disposed, removing an exposed portion of the polysilicon film not hidden by the photoresist pattern and then removing the photoresist pattern, forming a first metal film over the entire exposed surface of the resulting structure after the removal of the photoresist pattern, reacting the first metal film with the polysilicon film by a thermal treatment, thereby forming a metallic silicide film at the bottom portion of the contact hole, removing the remaining first metal film not reacted with the polysilicon film and filling the contact hole with a second metal material for forming a metal plug buried in the contact hole formed with the metallic silicide film. U.S. Pat. No. 6,569,767 for example, teaches a process for producing a semiconductor device comprising the steps of: forming a metal wiring layer containing copper as the main component on a semiconductor substrate; forming an insulating film on the entire surface of the resulting semiconductor substrate; removing the insulating film only from a place where a wire of gold or aluminum is to be bonded, in order to expose a part of the metal wiring layer; forming a layer of copper silicide or a layer of a compound of copper and boron in a surface layer of the exposed part of the metal wiring layer; and bonding a wire to a surface of the layer of copper silicide or the layer of the compound of copper and boron. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0106859 A1 teaches a method of forming a silicide film which can include forming a first metal film on a silicon substrate and forming a second metal film on the first metal film at a temperature sufficient to react a first portion of the first metal film in contact with the silicon substrate to form a metal-silicide film. The second metal film and a second portion of the first metal film can be removed so that a thin metal-silicide film remains on the silicon substrate. Currently, each of these techniques for forming small conductive structures such as local interconnects, plugs, strappings, wires, and other conducting structures in semiconductor devices are increasing in cost and complexity at a faster rate than most other processes. This is primarily due to the reason that features sizes continue to shrink while lithography does not advance at the same rate. Additionally, as features scale, resistance of the conductive structures is becoming a greater detractor to performance. It would thus be highly desirable to provide a conductive structure comprising one or more wire structures, and, in one embodiment, two parallel wires that can be created for single lithography defined features. It would further be highly desirable to provide a technique for forming one or more conductive structures, e.g., wires, on silicon containing structures, that exhibit good resistance characteristics and can be formed during FEOL and BEOL applications. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to semiconductor conductive structures and a method for forming the conductive structures. The present invention is directed to semiconductor conductive structures and a method for forming the conductive structures that is applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications. The conductive structures comprise one or more wire structures that are small and spaced close together. The semiconductor conductive structures applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications comprise one or more wire structures that are small and spaced close together and, in an exemplary embodiment, comprises a metal silicide material of sub-lithographic feature size dimensions. The semiconductor conductive structure that is applicable for both FEOL and BEOL semiconductor fabrication applications, and that comprises a silicide wire structure, is of a high aspect ratio. The conductive structure itself comprises one or more conductive wire structures, and, in one embodiment, two or more parallel wires are created for single lithography defined features. Thus, by using sidewall formed wiring, two or more thin wire structure can be created for a single lithography defined feature. In this example a polysilicon structure with a dielectric cap is silicided, the cap is removed, and the polysilicon is removed—resulting in at least two parallel silicide wires. These structures can be used in the FEOL for dense arrays, local interconnects, strapping, etc. they can also be used in the early wiring levels as standalone wires. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a conductive structure and, a method for forming a conductive structure of sub-lithographic dimensions. The method includes forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on a substrate; forming a dielectric cap on the topographic feature; applying a mask structure to expose a pattern on a sidewall of the topographic feature, the exposed pattern corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at the exposed portions of the sidewall and forming one or more metal silicide conductive structures at the exposed sidewall portions; removing the dielectric cap layer; and removing the silicon-containing topographic feature. The result is the formation of one or more metal silicide conductor structures formed for a single lithographically defined feature. In example embodiments, the formed metal silicide conductor structures can support a range of aspect ratio's (e.g., 1:1 to 20:1; 0.5:1 to 10:1). Furthermore, conductive structures can be formed that are later filled with conductive material, e.g., to form a via, or, used to define a feature by selective plating of the conductive structures. According to a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a vertically oriented conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, the wire structure exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension). The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension includes a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. In one embodiment, the conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension may further comprise an outer material component and inner material component, wherein the inner material component is a silicide and the outside material is plated with a conductive material. In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a structure comprising a pair of vertically oriented conductive wires of sub lithographic dimension having a metal silicide material as a component, the wire structures exhibiting a high aspect ratio ranging from 0.5:1 to 10:1 (height to width dimension). The conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension includes a first vertical side being a silicide growth front and a second vertical side being a silicide non-growth front. In one embodiment, the vertical silicide growth fronts of both wires are facing each other and vertical silicide non-growth fronts are facing to the outside of the structure. Moreover, the conductive wire structure of sub lithographic dimension comprises an outer material component and inner material component, wherein the outside material component is the silicide material and the inner material component is a conductive material. In all embodiments, there is provided a method of forming a conductor structure for use in FEOL and BEOL semiconductor processing applications comprising: providing a first structure of material; forming a topographic feature of silicon-containing material on top the first structure and, a dielectric cap layer on top the topographic feature; applying a mask to expose a sidewall portion of the topographic feature corresponding to a conductive structure to be formed; depositing a metal at the exposed sidewall portion; forming a metal silicide structure that encircles the topographic feature; removing the topographic feature and the dielectric cap layer to form a trench; forming a metal diffusion barrier liner layer conforming to bottom and sidewall surface; and depositing a metal conductor material in the trench. Advantageously, the method for forming the conductive structures as described can be used to form structures of complex shapes using standard semiconductor and lithographic processing techniques. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to one skilled in the art, in view of the following detailed description taken in combination with the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates, through a cross-sectional view, a wiring structure 10 according to a first embodiment of the invention formed during either FEOL and BEOL processes; FIGS. 2A-2B illustrate, through cross-sectional views, exemplary processing steps according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2C illustrates the interface between the silicide and the silicon (e.g., polysilicon) where contacted which may be referred to herein as a silicide “growth front”; the outer vertical side may also be referred to as a silicide “non-growth front”; FIGS. 3A-3C, through cross-sectional views, depict similar processing steps as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, that result in a conductive structure 50 shown in FIG. 3C according to a second embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 4A-4C, through cross-sectional views, depict similar processing steps as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in silicided wiring structures 75 as shown in FIG. 4C according to a further embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5, through cross-sectional view, depicts a formed structure comprising two silicide wire structures formed in the manner described herein having either a low-k dielectric material formed therebetween for wiring applications or, a high-k dielectric material formed therebetween for use as a capacitor structure 90 according to a further embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 6A-6C, through cross-sectional views, depict similar processing steps as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in a structure 100 that does not constitute image doubling by silicide or replacement according to a further embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 7A-7C, through cross-sectional views, depict similar processing steps as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in a structure 160; FIGS. 8A and 8B, through top plan views, show the complex wire shapes 170, 180 respectively, formed according to the techniques of the present invention; FIG. 9 depicts a top plan-view of the formed silicided sidewall portion 15′ encircling the polysilicon topographic feature 25 according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth, such as particular structures, components, materials, dimensions, processing steps and techniques, in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, it will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art that the invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures or processing steps have not been described in detail in order to avoid obscuring the invention. The present invention provides a method for forming small silicide wires spaced close together at or coupled to device regions contained by a semiconductor substrate. The resulting structure contains metal silicide structures characterized as having a substantially high aspect ratio. FIG. 1 illustrates, through a cross-sectional view, a wiring structure 10 according to a first embodiment of the invention formed as a result of either FEOL and BEOL processes. In FIG. 1, the example wire structure 10 includes one or more vertically oriented high aspect ratio silicide structures 15, formed atop a Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) structure 12 as shown in FIG. 1. The silicide structures 15 may additionally be formed atop a semiconductor (e.g., Silicon-containing) substrate 10. Preferably, the height to width ratio of the silicide structure 15 is in the range from 1:1 to 20:1, but this is configurable. In one example embodiment, a silicide wire structure is about 150 nm in height and about 30 nm wide. The exemplary processing steps of the present invention will now be described in greater detail by referring to the accompanying FIGS. 2A-2B. In FIG. 2A, there is shown a topographic feature, e.g., a silicon containing structure 25, having a dielectric cap material 30 formed on top of the STI structure 12 previously formed utilizing a conventional trench isolation process well known to those skilled in the art. For example, lithography, etching and filling of the trench with a trench dielectric material may be used in forming the trench isolation structure 12. The STI may comprise an oxide, nitride, or oxynitride of silicon. Optionally, a liner may be formed in the trench prior to trench fill, a densification step may be performed after the trench fill and a planarization process may follow the trench fill as well. In still alternate embodiments, the silicon containing structure 25 may be formed atop a silicon-containing substrate with or without a thin dielectric liner deposited on the surface thereof underneath the silicon containing structure 25. In one exemplary embodiment, the silicon containing topographic feature 25 is polysilicon or polysilicongermanium (polySi or polySiGe) and formed as an upstanding vertical structure formed in accordance with conventional techniques now described. The polySi structure 25 shown in FIG. 2A may be formed as a layer utilizing a known deposition process such as: CVD, plasma-assisted CVD, sputtering, plating, evaporation and other like deposition processes (e.g., a low pressure CVD). A thin protective dielectric material cap layer 30 is then deposited on top of the thin poly layer surface. Preferably, the dielectric material comprises an oxide, e.g., SiO2, a nitride, or oxynitride material or any combination thereof In one embodiment, a nitride such as, for example, Si3N4, is employed as the dielectric cap layer. The polysilicon structure layer and top dielectric cap layer may then be patterned and etched at the same time by conventional photolithographic techniques to form the structure 20 including silicon containing structure 25 having a top dielectric cap 30 shown in FIG. 2A. It is understood that the layer of polysilicon may be doped or undoped. If doped, an in-situ doping deposition process may be employed in forming the same. Alternatively, a doped polySi layer can be formed by deposition, ion implantation and annealing. The sidewall regions of the polysilicon structure 25 of FIG. 2A are patterned by lithographically forming a mask and etching to expose a pattern on the sides of the polysilicon structure where the silicidation is desired to form the wire structures. The lithography step includes applying a layer of photoresist material to the polysilicon and formed cap, exposing the photoresist to a desired pattern of radiation and developing the exposed photoresist utilizing a conventional resist developer. The pattern in the photoresist is then transferred to the polysilicon structure sidewalls utilizing one or more dry etching steps. Suitable dry etching processes that can be used in the present invention in forming the patterned sidewalls include, but are not limited to: reactive ion etching, ion beam etching, plasma etching or laser ablation. The dry etching process employed should not remove the dielectric cap layer 30 atop the polySi structure 25. Alternatively, a second dielectric layer may be formed and lithographically patterned over the polysilicon feature sidewalls whereby portions of the dielectric layer may be removed to expose the polysilicon sidewalls where a metal may be deposited to react and form the silicide. This second dielectric film enables control over where a formed wire will stop and start. Thus, as a result of etching away the second dielectric covering the polySi structure sidewalls, a pattern of exposed polySi structure sidewall portions is provided that correspond to the desired silicide wire structure 15 to be formed. In one embodiment, one or more exposed sidewall portions are formed on opposite sidewalls of the topographic feature 25 that will result in two upstanding parallel metal silicide wire structures of sub-lithographic feature dimensions. As shown in FIG. 1, the high aspect ratio metal silicide wire structures are formed on opposite sidewalls of the topographic feature. It is understood, however, that many vertically oriented parallel silicide wire structures may be formed according to the process described herein. Moreover, as is understood by a person skilled in the art, the formed silicided sidewall portion 15′ may encircle the polysilicon topographic feature 25 when viewed in plan-view as shown in FIG. 9. Thus, the entire polySi structure sidewall may be exposed which results in a thin hollowed silicide conductive structure that may be further filled with conductor material, as will be described in greater detail hereinbelow. The next step involves forming the silicide wire structures 15 in the exposed polySi structure sidewalls by blanket depositing a metal on the exposed polySi sidewall surfaces, and then performing one or more annealing steps to form a silicide, and then, selectively etching any non-reacted metal and the capping layer. More particularly, the pattern of exposed polySi structure sidewall portions becomes reacted with the silicide metal, i.e., any metal that is capable of reacting with silicon to form a metal silicide. Examples of such metals include, but are not limited to: Ti, Ta, Al, W, Co, Mo, Ni, Pt, Pd or alloys thereof. The metal material used to form the silicide may be deposited using any conventional deposition process including, for example, sputtering, chemical vapor deposition, a physical vapor deposition (PVD) of the silicide evaporation, chemical solution deposition, plating and the like. It should be understood that if the silicide wires are to be formed on a silicon containing substrate and not STI, a thin dielectric layer may be formed on the top surface either prior to or after forming the polysilicon structure 25 so that the silicide is not formed at the underlying silicon substrate. In some embodiment, however, it may be advantageous to remove a portion of any thin dielectric layer in order to form a silicided conductive structure on the substrate surface that may be attached to the formed wires 15. After deposition of the silicide metal on the exposed polysilicon sidewall portions defining dimensions of the silicide wire structures 15, a thermal anneal process is employed to form a silicide phase in the structure; preferably, the silicide representing the lowest resistivity phase of a metal silicide. The anneal is performed utilizing the ambients and temperatures well known in the art that cause the silicide metal to react with the underlying polysilicon to form the metal silicide layer 15 as shown in FIG. 2B. It is understood that the depth of the blanket silicide metal deposition and anneal (temperature and timing) conditions are carefully controlled according to conventional techniques to ensure that the silicide wires 15 are formed of desired dimensions, i.e., aspect ratios achieved. In one embodiment, the silicide metal may comprise Co noting that CoSi2 forms using a two step annealing process as known in the art. In another embodiment of the present invention, the silicide metal is Ni or Pt; NiSi and PtSi being formed using a single annealing step. Then, a selective wet etch step may be employed to remove any non-reactive silicide metal from the structure. In one exemplary embodiment, the structure is annealed at approximately 600° C. to about 800° C. for approximately 30 seconds in a nitrogen environment to react with the portions of the polysilicon 25 to form the conductive silicide wire structures 15 along the sidewalls of the topographic polySi feature 25 as shown in FIG. 2B. FIG. 2B particularly depicts the resulting intermediate structure showing one of two silicide wire structures 15 formed on the polySi structure 25 as a result of said salicidation process. Preferably, the silicide wire structures so formed to have an aspect ratio from 1:1 to 20:1 (height to width dimension), or, for example, 0.5:1 to 10:1 (height to width dimension). FIG. 2C illustrates the interface between the silicide and the silicon (e.g., polysilicon) where contacted (prior to the silicon being removed) that may be referred to as a silicide “growth front”. The outer vertical side of the silicide wire structure may also be referred to as a silicide “non-growth front”. Then, a next step involves removing the dielectric cap 30 from the polySi structure 25. First, the dielectric cap is stripped from the structure using an etching process that is selective to the Si containing material, i.e., polySi. Although any chemical etchant may be used in removing the dielectric cap layer materials 30 in one embodiment dilute hydrofluoric acid (DHF) is used. Next, the underlying polySi structure 25 is removed to leave the remaining upstanding silicide wire structures 15 in tact as shown in FIG. 1. That is, an etching process is performed selective to the silicide and underlying STI to remove the polysilicon from the intermediate structure shown in FIG. 2B. In one embodiment, a chemical etching, e.g., potassium hydroxide (KOH) etch is performed stopping atop the STI layer oxide layer 18. Other techniques including an isotropic etching of the polySi structure using a chlorine-containing wet or dry etch, or alternatively, an anisotropic etch including a KOH or NH4OH based wet solution, may be implemented. Thus, in the example depicted in FIGS. 2A-2B, a polySi line with a dielectric cap is silicided, the cap is removed, and the polySi is removed—resulting in two parallel silicide wires shown in FIG. 1. These structures can be used in the FEOL for dense array wiring, local interconnects, strapping, etc. These structures can also be used in the early wiring levels as standalone wires. These structures can be used in the BEOL as dense pitch metal lines or can be used to define a feature which is later filled or used to define a feature by selective plating. By using sidewall formed wiring, two wires of high aspect ratio can be created for a single lithography defined feature. Thus, what is presented as shown in the example embodiments shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B is effectively an image doubling technique to fabricate high density conductors without complex/expensive lithography. These silicide conductors have lower resistance than polysilicon and the technique offers flexibility to create wires exactly where desired without major changes to existing semiconductor processing techniques. The methods of the present invention enables the fabrication of a variety of alternative silicide conductive structures. For instance as shown in FIGS. 3A-3C, through cross-sectional views, similar steps are performed as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, that result in a conductive structure 50 shown in FIG. 3C having thin silicide sidewall structures 45 filled with a conductor material 60. In the process of forming the structure of FIG. 3C, however, it is understood that a thin silicide structure, or, preferably any material that acts as a metal (e.g., Copper) diffusion barrier 40 is first formed on top the STI 12 or Si-containing substrate above which is formed the polySi structure 25. Example metal diffusion barrier materials include, but are not limited to Ti, Ta, TiTa, TiN, TaN, TiSiN, W. Then, the steps of forming the polysilicon material layer and top surface dielectric cap layer and etching the same to enable formation of a thin sidewall silicidation 45 of a resultant polysilicon structure 25 as shown in FIG. 3A is performed according to the process as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A-2B. Although not shown in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 3A, the whole polysSi topographic feature sidewall is encircled with silicide. That is, the whole polySi sidewall structure 25 may be blanket deposited with a metal at a sufficient thickness that, when annealed, forms a thin silicide structure 45 around (encircling) the polySi structure 25, the silicide 45 being in electrical contact with the bottom diffusion barrier 40. After forming the thin silicidation 45, a protective dielectric material layer 55, e.g., oxide, nitride, or oxynitride, is blanket deposited to encapsulate the silicided sidewalls and inner polySi structure 25 such as shown in FIG. 3B, and a chemical-mechanical polish (CMP) step is thereafter formed to planarize the top surface 56 of the structure to the polySi level. With the top surface of the polySi structure 25 exposed, utilizing the chemical etching techniques described herein, an etch process may then be performed to remove the polySi structure leaving a trench 65 defined by the encircled silicided sidewall structure 45 and bottom diffusion barrier layer 40 that prevents diffusion of the copper material as shown in FIG. 3B. Then, the trench may be filled with a conductor material, e.g., Copper, to result in the conductive structure 50 encapsulated with the diffusion barrier 40, 45 or copper cladding as shown in FIG. 3C. Thus, for instance, the resulting conductive structure 50 may function as a conducting via formed in accordance with the invention, rather than formed according to the typical dual damascene techniques currently implemented in the art. In an alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A-4C, through cross-sectional views, similar steps are performed as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in a silicided wiring structures 75 as shown in FIG. 4C. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 4A, the steps of forming the polysilicon topographic feature include forming a polysilicon layer and a top surface dielectric cap layer on top and etching the same to enable formation of a thin sidewall silicidation 15 of the resultant polysilicon line 25 as shown is performed according to the process as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A-2B. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4A and 4B, two thin sidewall silicidations 15 are formed on opposite sidewall portions. Then, the dielectric cap layer 30 is removed and the polySi 25 is removed to result in the two upstanding silicide wire structures shown in FIG. 4B. Then, using techniques known in the art, these two upstanding silicide wire structures 15 shown in FIG. 4B are plated or coated with another material 70 to stiffen or enlarge the structures 15. In still a further alternative embodiment, as shown in FIG. 5, the two silicide wire structures as formed in the manner described herein after the polySi strip, may have a low-k dielectric material formed therebetween for wiring applications or, may have a high-k dielectric material formed therebetween for use as a capacitor structure 90. The methodology for forming such a structure 90, as shown in FIG. 5, is as follows: first, forming the thin sidewall silicidations 85 along the polySi structure sidewall in the manner as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A-2C, and then depositing a dielectric material 55 that encircles (surrounds) the structure. Then, a CMP polishing step is performed to remove the dielectric cap previously formed on top of the polySi. Then, the polySi is removed from the selective polySi etch process described herein. Finally, a dielectric material 95, e.g., a low-k or high-k dielectric material, is deposited between the thin sidewall silicidations 85 which is wholly surrounded by the dielectric material 55. In an alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 6A-6C, through cross-sectional views, similar steps are performed as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in a structure 100 that does not constitute image doubling by silicide or replacement, i.e., it is a one-dimension structure used to create a structure of the original dimension. This process however implements steps similar to the methodology described hereinabove, namely: first, as shown in FIG. 6A, forming the thin sidewall silicidations 105 along the polySi structure sidewall in the manner as described herein with respect to FIGS. 2A-2C, and then depositing a dielectric material 55 that surrounds the structure. Then, a CMP polishing step is performed to remove the dielectric cap 30 previously formed on top of the polySi. Then, the polySi 25 is removed by the selective polySi etch process described herein as shown in FIG. 6B thus forming a trench structure 115. Then, a standard metal liner, e.g., of a refractory metal or alloy thereof such as Ti, Ta, TiTa, TiN, TaN, TiSiN, W is deposited to form a metal liner layer 125 that conforms along the inner surfaces including the bottom surface of the trench 115. The resultant lined trench structure is then filled with a conductor material to result in the structure 100 shown in FIG. 6C. In a further alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 7A-7C, through cross-sectional views, similar steps are performed as described with respect to FIGS. 2A and 2B, to result in a structure 160 that does not constitute image doubling by silicide or replacement, i.e., it is a one-dimension structure used to create a structure of the original dimension. The steps shown in FIG. 7A include the formation of a thin sidewall silicadation 140 of a damascene structure 130 formed out of the silicon-containing topographic feature, and in FIG. 7B, the deposition of a conductor material 145, e.g. a metal, and the subsequent CMP step and etch back step to recess the height of the metal material to below the surface to result in the structure shown in FIG. 7B. Subsequently, using chemical deposition techniques as described herein, a dielectric cap layer is formed above the conductive material formed in the recess, e.g., and a polishing step is formed to flatten the resulting surface topography. Then, a dielectric fill step is performed wherein a further dielectric material 150 is formed around the formed conductive structure followed by a CMP step to result in the structure 160 shown in FIG. 7C. Still other embodiments depicted in FIGS. 8A and 8B, through top plan views, show how complex wire shapes 170, 180 respectively can be created by careful sizing of polysilicion structure shape and dielectric coverings according to the processes described herein to prevent undesired silicide formations according to the invention. While there has been shown and described what is considered to be preferred embodiments of the invention, it will, of course, be understood that various modifications and changes in form or detail could readily be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. It is therefore intended that the invention be not limited to the exact forms described and illustrated, but should be constructed to cover all modifications that may fall within the scope of the appended claims.
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Semiconductor apparatus
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["H01L2352"]
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Azuma", "inventor_name_first": "Shoji", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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In a semiconductor apparatus having a plurality of wiring layers, the semiconductor apparatus includes a bonding pad formed by an uppermost wiring layer, a first-layer plug wire formed by a first lower wiring layer in a region under the bonding pad, and a first conductive plug connecting the bonding pad and the first-layer plug wire. The first-layer plug wire may include a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern.
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1. A semiconductor apparatus having a plurality of wiring layers, the semiconductor apparatus comprising a bonding pad formed by an uppermost wiring layer, a first-layer plug wire formed by a first lower wiring layer in a region under the bonding pad, and a first conductive plug connecting the bonding pad and the first-layer plug wire. 2. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern. 3. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first conductive plug is made of a conductive material harder than aluminum. 4. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 3, wherein the conductive material includes tungsten. 5. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 2, further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires and in parallel to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. 6. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 2, the plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in the region under the bonding pad has a pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 50%. 7. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the plurality of first-layer plug wires and the first-layer pass-through wires in the region under the bonding pad have a total pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 60%. 8. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a second-layer plug wire formed by a second lower wiring layer under the first lower wiring layer, and a second conductive plug connecting the first-layer plug wire and the second-layer plug wire. 9. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the first and the second conductive plugs are formed at the same position in plan view to overlap each other. 10. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern, the second-layer plug wire comprising a plurality of second-layer plug wires arranged in a stripe pattern to be orthogonal to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. 11. The semiconductor apparatus according to claim 10, further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires, and second-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of second-layer plug wires, the first-layer pass-through wires being connected to the second-layer pass-through wires.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to a semiconductor apparatus and, in particular, to a semiconductor apparatus having a wiring pattern formed in a region under a bonding pad. Following development of a highly-integrated semiconductor apparatus, a device pattern is more and more miniaturized and a design rule thereof becomes finer year after year. However, in comparison with the progress of miniaturization of the device pattern, the progress in miniaturization of a bonding pad of the semiconductor apparatus is little due to limitation imposed upon a bonding technique and an accuracy of a bonding apparatus. In the semiconductor apparatus, for example, in a dynamic random access memory (DRAM), reduction in chip size has a significant influence upon cost reduction in order that mass production is carried out. In order to reduce the chip size, it is necessary to reduce a bonding pad area and to effectively use a region under the bonding pad area. As one approach for effectively using the bonding pad area, it is considered to form the bonding pad on a device region or a wiring region while the bonding pad is traditionally formed in a region except the device region and the wiring region. A related bonding pad comprising a two-layer aluminum wiring structure is shown in FIG. 1 . In a region under the bonding pad formed by a #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 as an upper wiring layer, a #1 aluminum wiring 10 as a lower wiring layer similar in size to the bonding pad is disposed. At both ends of the bonding pad, #1 aluminum pad connecting wirings 13 as internal wirings and the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 are connected to each other by #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 40 . The #1 aluminum wiring 10 is, throughout a substantially entire area thereof, connected to the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 via another #1-#2 layer conductive plug 40 . The #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 40 serve as piles (or anchor bolts) for preventing the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 from being peeled off after bonding. With the above-mentioned structure, since the #1 aluminum wiring 10 is present in the region under the bonding pad, the lower wiring layer can not be used as a signal wiring, resulting in an increase in chip size. In FIG. 1 , a polyimide 5 is provided with an opening. Referring to FIG. 2 , description will be made of a case where the #1 aluminum wiring 10 and the #1-#2 layer conductive plug 40 formed throughout the substantially entire area under the bonding pad are not used. In FIG. 2 , instead of the #1 aluminum wiring 10 under the bonding pad in FIG. 1 , a #1 aluminum pass-through wiring 12 as a signal wiring can be arranged. Thus, in case where the bonding pad of the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 is not peeled off from an interlayer insulating film by a mechanical shock during bonding, the #1 aluminum pass-through wiring 12 can be disposed under the bonding pad. However, if the pass-through wiring 12 is extended under the bonding pad, the pass-through wiring 12 may be broken due to the mechanical shock during bonding. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP S59-181041 A discloses such a technique of forming the lower wiring layer in the region under the bonding pad. In the above-mentioned publication, however, the wiring under the bonding pad is limited to a wiring having a large wiring width in order to prevent breakage due to the mechanical shock during bonding. In addition, in the structure disclosed in the above-mentioned publication, the bonding pad of the #2 aluminum wiring is easily peeled off after bonding. In an etching step or a CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) step, an optimum production condition is different depending upon the density of the pattern. In FIG. 1 , a pattern as the lower wiring layer similar in size to the bonding pad is disposed in the region under the bonding pad. Therefore, the pattern is dense as compared with an internal circuit portion. In FIG. 2 , depending upon the number of wirings extended in the region under the bonding pad, the pattern may be sparse as compared with the internal circuit portion. Therefore, the density of the lower wiring pattern under the bonding pad in FIG. 1 or 2 is considerably different as compared with that of the internal circuit portion. This results in a difficulty in determining etching or CMP conditions during a diffusion process. Another approach for effectively using the bonding pad area is disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP 2005-166959 A. Specifically, a gate region under the bonding pad is protected by a strengthening via. In Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP 2005-116788 A, a via is formed in order to relax a stress of an insulating film under the bonding pad. However, these publications do not disclose a technique of arranging a fine wiring in the region under the bonding pad. Further, no disclosure is made of a technique of arranging a striped plug wiring in the region under the bonding pad and providing a conductive plug on the plug wiring in order to achieve a density same as that in the internal circuit portion. As described above, in the semiconductor apparatus, it is desired to reduce the chip size for the purpose of cost reduction. In order to reduce the chip size, it is effective to utilize the region under the bonding pad. Accordingly, it is desired to develop a technique of arranging a fine wiring in the region under the bonding pad so as to effectively use the region under the bonding pad. However, because the pad wiring is peeled off or the pass-through wiring is broken due to the mechanical shock during bonding, it is impossible to arrange the fine pass-through wiring in the region under the bonding pad. Therefore, it is impossible to effectively utilize the region under the bonding pad.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore an object of this invention to provide a semiconductor apparatus having a bonding pad which is capable of preventing a wiring from being peeled off or broken due to a mechanical shock during bonding and which allows a fine pass-through wiring to be arranged under the bonding pad. Semiconductor apparatuses according to this invention are as follows: (1) A semiconductor apparatus having a plurality of wiring layers, the semiconductor apparatus comprising a bonding pad formed by an uppermost wiring layer, a first-layer plug wire formed by a first lower wiring layer in a region under the bonding pad, and a first conductive plug connecting the bonding pad and the first-layer plug wire. (2) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern. (3) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), wherein the first conductive plug is made of a conductive material harder than aluminum. (4) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (3), wherein the conductive material includes tungsten. (5) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (2), further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires and in parallel to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. (6) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (2), the plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in the region under the bonding pad has a pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 50%. (7) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (5), wherein the plurality of first-layer plug wires and the first-layer pass-through wires in the region under the bonding pad have a total pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 60%. (8) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), further comprising a second-layer plug wire formed by a second lower wiring layer under the first lower wiring layer, and a second conductive plug connecting the first-layer plug wire and the second-layer plug wire. (9) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (8), wherein the first and the second conductive plugs are formed at the same position in plan view to overlap each other. (10) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (8), wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern, the second-layer plug wire comprising a plurality of second-layer plug wires arranged in a stripe pattern to be orthogonal to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. (11) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (10), further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires, and second-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of second-layer plug wires, the first-layer pass-through wires being connected to the second-layer pass-through wires. In this invention, the striped plug wiring is arranged in the region under the bonding pad. The plug wiring and the pad wiring are connected to each other by the conductive plug. The plug wiring as a lower layer and the pad wiring as an upper layer are connected by the conductive plug. The conductive plug serves as a pile for preventing the bonding pad from being easily peeled off. Therefore, it is possible to prevent the pad wiring from being peeled off. Since a mechanical shock during bonding is absorbed by the conductive plug, it is possible to prevent breakage of a thin wiring under the bonding pad. Furthermore, a pattern rate is assured by the plug wiring. As the density of a pattern is approximate to the pattern rate of an internal circuit portion, it is easy to determine etching and CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) conditions and so on in a diffusion process. The wiring of a fine pattern equivalent in fineness to the internal circuit portion can be used as a pass-through wiring under the bonding pad. In addition, a diffusion yield is improved.
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This application claims priority to prior Japanese patent application JP 2006-49625, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a semiconductor apparatus and, in particular, to a semiconductor apparatus having a wiring pattern formed in a region under a bonding pad. Following development of a highly-integrated semiconductor apparatus, a device pattern is more and more miniaturized and a design rule thereof becomes finer year after year. However, in comparison with the progress of miniaturization of the device pattern, the progress in miniaturization of a bonding pad of the semiconductor apparatus is little due to limitation imposed upon a bonding technique and an accuracy of a bonding apparatus. In the semiconductor apparatus, for example, in a dynamic random access memory (DRAM), reduction in chip size has a significant influence upon cost reduction in order that mass production is carried out. In order to reduce the chip size, it is necessary to reduce a bonding pad area and to effectively use a region under the bonding pad area. As one approach for effectively using the bonding pad area, it is considered to form the bonding pad on a device region or a wiring region while the bonding pad is traditionally formed in a region except the device region and the wiring region. A related bonding pad comprising a two-layer aluminum wiring structure is shown in FIG. 1. In a region under the bonding pad formed by a #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 as an upper wiring layer, a #1 aluminum wiring 10 as a lower wiring layer similar in size to the bonding pad is disposed. At both ends of the bonding pad, #1 aluminum pad connecting wirings 13 as internal wirings and the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 are connected to each other by #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 40. The #1 aluminum wiring 10 is, throughout a substantially entire area thereof, connected to the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 via another #1-#2 layer conductive plug 40. The #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 40 serve as piles (or anchor bolts) for preventing the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 from being peeled off after bonding. With the above-mentioned structure, since the #1 aluminum wiring 10 is present in the region under the bonding pad, the lower wiring layer can not be used as a signal wiring, resulting in an increase in chip size. In FIG. 1, a polyimide 5 is provided with an opening. Referring to FIG. 2, description will be made of a case where the #1 aluminum wiring 10 and the #1-#2 layer conductive plug 40 formed throughout the substantially entire area under the bonding pad are not used. In FIG. 2, instead of the #1 aluminum wiring 10 under the bonding pad in FIG. 1, a #1 aluminum pass-through wiring 12 as a signal wiring can be arranged. Thus, in case where the bonding pad of the #2 aluminum pad wiring 20 is not peeled off from an interlayer insulating film by a mechanical shock during bonding, the #1 aluminum pass-through wiring 12 can be disposed under the bonding pad. However, if the pass-through wiring 12 is extended under the bonding pad, the pass-through wiring 12 may be broken due to the mechanical shock during bonding. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP S59-181041 A discloses such a technique of forming the lower wiring layer in the region under the bonding pad. In the above-mentioned publication, however, the wiring under the bonding pad is limited to a wiring having a large wiring width in order to prevent breakage due to the mechanical shock during bonding. In addition, in the structure disclosed in the above-mentioned publication, the bonding pad of the #2 aluminum wiring is easily peeled off after bonding. In an etching step or a CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) step, an optimum production condition is different depending upon the density of the pattern. In FIG. 1, a pattern as the lower wiring layer similar in size to the bonding pad is disposed in the region under the bonding pad. Therefore, the pattern is dense as compared with an internal circuit portion. In FIG. 2, depending upon the number of wirings extended in the region under the bonding pad, the pattern may be sparse as compared with the internal circuit portion. Therefore, the density of the lower wiring pattern under the bonding pad in FIG. 1 or 2 is considerably different as compared with that of the internal circuit portion. This results in a difficulty in determining etching or CMP conditions during a diffusion process. Another approach for effectively using the bonding pad area is disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP 2005-166959 A. Specifically, a gate region under the bonding pad is protected by a strengthening via. In Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication JP 2005-116788 A, a via is formed in order to relax a stress of an insulating film under the bonding pad. However, these publications do not disclose a technique of arranging a fine wiring in the region under the bonding pad. Further, no disclosure is made of a technique of arranging a striped plug wiring in the region under the bonding pad and providing a conductive plug on the plug wiring in order to achieve a density same as that in the internal circuit portion. As described above, in the semiconductor apparatus, it is desired to reduce the chip size for the purpose of cost reduction. In order to reduce the chip size, it is effective to utilize the region under the bonding pad. Accordingly, it is desired to develop a technique of arranging a fine wiring in the region under the bonding pad so as to effectively use the region under the bonding pad. However, because the pad wiring is peeled off or the pass-through wiring is broken due to the mechanical shock during bonding, it is impossible to arrange the fine pass-through wiring in the region under the bonding pad. Therefore, it is impossible to effectively utilize the region under the bonding pad. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of this invention to provide a semiconductor apparatus having a bonding pad which is capable of preventing a wiring from being peeled off or broken due to a mechanical shock during bonding and which allows a fine pass-through wiring to be arranged under the bonding pad. Semiconductor apparatuses according to this invention are as follows: (1) A semiconductor apparatus having a plurality of wiring layers, the semiconductor apparatus comprising a bonding pad formed by an uppermost wiring layer, a first-layer plug wire formed by a first lower wiring layer in a region under the bonding pad, and a first conductive plug connecting the bonding pad and the first-layer plug wire. (2) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern. (3) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), wherein the first conductive plug is made of a conductive material harder than aluminum. (4) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (3), wherein the conductive material includes tungsten. (5) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (2), further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires and in parallel to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. (6) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (2), the plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in the region under the bonding pad has a pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 50%. (7) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (5), wherein the plurality of first-layer plug wires and the first-layer pass-through wires in the region under the bonding pad have a total pattern rate not smaller than 20% and not greater than 60%. (8) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (1), further comprising a second-layer plug wire formed by a second lower wiring layer under the first lower wiring layer, and a second conductive plug connecting the first-layer plug wire and the second-layer plug wire. (9) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (8), wherein the first and the second conductive plugs are formed at the same position in plan view to overlap each other. (10) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (8), wherein the first-layer plug wire comprises a plurality of first-layer plug wires arranged in parallel to one another in a stripe pattern, the second-layer plug wire comprising a plurality of second-layer plug wires arranged in a stripe pattern to be orthogonal to the plurality of first-layer plug wires. (11) The semiconductor apparatus according to the paragraph (10), further comprising first-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of first-layer plug wires, and second-layer pass-through wires arranged between adjacent ones of the plurality of second-layer plug wires, the first-layer pass-through wires being connected to the second-layer pass-through wires. In this invention, the striped plug wiring is arranged in the region under the bonding pad. The plug wiring and the pad wiring are connected to each other by the conductive plug. The plug wiring as a lower layer and the pad wiring as an upper layer are connected by the conductive plug. The conductive plug serves as a pile for preventing the bonding pad from being easily peeled off. Therefore, it is possible to prevent the pad wiring from being peeled off. Since a mechanical shock during bonding is absorbed by the conductive plug, it is possible to prevent breakage of a thin wiring under the bonding pad. Furthermore, a pattern rate is assured by the plug wiring. As the density of a pattern is approximate to the pattern rate of an internal circuit portion, it is easy to determine etching and CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) conditions and so on in a diffusion process. The wiring of a fine pattern equivalent in fineness to the internal circuit portion can be used as a pass-through wiring under the bonding pad. In addition, a diffusion yield is improved. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a plan view of a related bonding pad using a plug formed throughout an entire area of the bonding pad; FIG. 2 is a plan view of another related bonding pad with a pass-through wiring; FIG. 3 is a plan view for describing a bonding pad in a first embodiment of this invention; FIG. 4 is a sectional view taken along a line 4-4 in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a sectional view taken along a line 5-5 in FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is a layout view of a semiconductor chip; FIG. 7 is a view showing wires passing through a region under the bonding pad in an X direction; FIG. 8 is a view showing wires passing through a space between the bonding pads in a Y direction; FIG. 9 is a view showing wires passing through the region under the bonding pad in the Y direction; FIG. 10 is a view showing connection between pass-through wires in the X direction and the Y direction under the bonding pad; FIG. 11 is a view for describing dimensions of wires in the bonding pad; FIG. 12 is a view showing dimensions between the bonding pads; FIG. 13 is a plan view of a bonding pad according to a second embodiment of this invention in which #2 aluminum wires and #1 aluminum wires are arranged in parallel; FIG. 14 is a sectional view taken along a line 14-14 in FIG. 13; FIG. 15 is a plan view of a modification of the bonding pad in the second embodiment without the #1 aluminum wires; and FIG. 16 is a sectional view taken along a line 16-16 in FIG. 15. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Now, description will be made of embodiments of this invention with reference to the drawing. First Embodiment Referring to FIGS. 3 to 12, a first embodiment of this invention will be described in detail. Referring to FIGS. 3 through 5, a bonding pad in the first embodiment will be described. In this embodiment, a three-layer aluminum product is described by way of example. The bonding pad comprises a #3 aluminum wiring layer as an uppermost wiring layer, a #2 aluminum wiring layer, and a #1 aluminum wiring layer as a lowermost wiring layer. The #1 aluminum wiring layer has #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 both of which extend in a Y direction. The #2 aluminum wiring layer has #2 aluminum plug wires 21, #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22, and #2 aluminum pad connection wires 23, all of which extend in an X direction. The #3 aluminum wiring layer has a #3 aluminum pad wire 30 to become the bonding pad. The #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 are connected by #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41. The #2 aluminum plug wires 21 and the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 are connected by #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42. The #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41 and the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42 are formed on substantially same positions in plan view and overlap each other. The conductive plugs 41 and 42 serve as piles to prevent the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 from being peeled off during bonding and to protect the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 and the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22. On an upper surface of a first interlayer insulating film 2, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 are patterned as a #1 aluminum pattern. The #1 aluminum plug wires 11 are aluminum wires for forming the conductive plugs. The #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 pass through a region under the bonding pad and are connected to internal circuits. Further, a second interlayer insulating film 3 is deposited. The second interlayer insulating film 3 is provided with the #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41 connecting the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21. On an upper surface of the second interlayer insulating film 3, the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22, and the #2 aluminum pad connection wires 23 are patterned as a #2 aluminum pattern. The #2 aluminum plug wires 21 are aluminum wires for forming the conductive plugs. The #2 aluminum plug wires 22 pass through the region under the bonding pad and are connected to the internal circuits. The #2 aluminum pad connection wires 23 serve to connect signals from the bonding pad to the internal circuits. Further, a third interlayer insulating film 4 is deposited. The third interlayer insulating film 4 is provided with the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42 connecting the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 and the #3 aluminum pad wire 30. On an upper surface of the interlayer insulating film 4, the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 is patterned as a #3 aluminum pattern. On the #3 aluminum pad wire 30, a polyimide 5 is applied. The polyimide 5 on the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 is provided with an opening portion to serve as the bonding pad 1. The bonding pad 1 basically is an area of the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 corresponding to the opening portion formed in the polyimide 5. However, the bonding pad 1 also represents a region including related wires substantially similar in size, such as an outer shape of the #1 aluminum plug wires and the #2 aluminum plug wires or a whole of the #3 aluminum pad wire 30. In a bonding pad region, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 are patterned in a stripe fashion and extend in the Y direction and the X direction, respectively, to be orthogonal to each other. At intersection points of the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 are connected to each other by the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 41. Further, at the intersection points of the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 and the #3 aluminum pad wire 30, the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 and the #3 aluminum pad wire 30 are connected to each other by the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42. The #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41 and the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42 are formed at substantially same positions in plan view and overlap each other. Although the #2 aluminum layer is interposed therebetween, these plugs serve as a single plug. By such overlapping arrangement, the function as the pile is more effective. The area (or size) and the number of the conductive plugs are selected so as to prevent peeling of the bonding pad and breakage of the pass-through wires. Generally, tungsten is used as a material of the conductive plugs. Tungsten is harder than aluminum so that a mechanical shock from upside during bonding is absorbed by the conductive plugs. Therefore, even if the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 and the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22 which are thin wires are arranged through a space between the #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 and the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22 are not broken under the mechanical shock during bonding. The material of the conductive plugs is not specifically limited and any material harder than aluminum (for example, having a high Young's modulus), including tungsten, may be used. Further, an alloy comprising a plurality of kinds of such materials or a laminated structure comprising a plurality of layers of such materials may be used. The #1 aluminum plug wires 11 and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21 arranged in an area slightly wider than the area of the bonding pad 1 corresponding to the opening portion formed in the polyimide 5. Herein, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11, five in number, are disposed in a stripe pattern. Likewise, the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, five in number, are disposed in a stripe pattern. By presence of the #1 aluminum plug wires and the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the pattern rates of the #1 aluminum layer and the #2 aluminum layer can be optimized. In the related bonding pad in FIG. 1 or 2, a solid pattern or a substantial no pattern is formed in the region under the bonding pad. On the other hand, in this embodiment, the pattern has a density similar to that of an internal circuit portion by presence of the #1 aluminum plug wires 11, the #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12, and the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22. Therefore, it is easy to determine etching and CMP conditions in a diffusion process. Since the optimum conditions are obtained, a diffusion yield is improved. Next, description will be made of a case where this embodiment is applied to an actual semiconductor apparatus. Herein, a DRAM chip of a center bonding type is described as the semiconductor apparatus. The DRAM chip of a center bonding type illustrated in FIG. 6 comprises four memory cell portions 6 disposed upper left, upper right, lower left, and lower right, respectively. At a center portion between the upper and the lower memory cell portions 6, a plurality of the bonding pads 1 are arranged in a single row. Signals from the respective bonding pads 1 are connected to the memory cell portions 6 by the use of a space in the center portion. A layout width (H) of a region including the bonding pads is often determined by the limit number of signal lines (or wires) extending in a longitudinal direction of the chip. In this invention, wires to be generally extended in a signal line region other than the bonding pad region can be extended in the bonding pad region. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the layout width (H) which has been determined by the limit number of the signal lines extending in the longitudinal direction of the chip. Thus, it is possible to reduce the chip size. For example, it is possible to lay a power supply line under the bonding pad as illustrated in FIG. 7. If it is desired to extract two power supply lines from a power supply pad, it is possible to connect a power supply for a reference circuit and a power supply for an ordinary circuit through different power supply lines, respectively. In FIG. 7, three bonding pads are shown as a VDD pad 1-1, a GND pad 1-2, and a signal pad 1-3. From each of the VDD pad 1-1 and the GND pad 1-2, a power supply line is extended in the Y direction in the figure as a power supply line for the ordinary circuit. From each of the VDD pad 1-1 and the GND pad 1-2, two power supply lines are extended in the X direction in the figure as power supply lines for the reference circuit. A special power supply for feeding the reference circuit requiring a stable power supply with less fluctuation can be extracted through the region under the bonding pad to a position near a region where the reference circuit is disposed. Therefore, it is possible to reserve a region for signal lines correspondingly. This structure is effective in reducing the chip size. In FIG. 7, for simplicity of illustration, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11, #2 aluminum plug wires 21, the #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41, and the #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42 are not illustrated. Hereinafter, illustration of the aluminum plug wires and the layer conductive plugs may similarly be omitted. Description will be made of a case where signal lines or power supply lines must be laid between the bonding pad regions. Referring to FIG. 8, in a conventional related bonding pad, a pad pitch must be widened to a pitch L2 to reserve a signal line region. This results in an increase in chip size. On the other hand, in a bonding pad structure of this invention, signal lines or power supply lines can be laid in the region under the bonding pad as illustrated in FIG. 9. Therefore, a number of wires or a thick power supply line can be laid without widening the pitch L1 of the bonding pads. Thus, this invention is effective in reducing the chip size in the longitudinal direction. In the bonding pad structure of this invention, as shown in FIG. 10, the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12 and the #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22 as vertical and horizontal wires of a lower wiring layer passing through the region under the bonding pad can be connected via the #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41 in the bonding pad region. The size and the various standards of the bonding pad are slightly different depending upon the type of a package and the performance of the bonding apparatus. Referring to FIG. 11, description will be made of the dimensions of the bonding pad in connection with the case where a typical bonding apparatus for a TSOP (Thin Small Outline Package) package is used. The #1 aluminum plug wires and the #2 aluminum plug wires have an outer shape having one side (a) equal to 85 μm. Each of the #2 and the #1 aluminum plug wires has a pattern width (b) equal to 5 μm. Then, an interval (c) between every two adjacent ones of the aluminum plug wires is equal to 15 μm. Therefore, one region allowing the pass-through wires in the lower layer to pass through has a size of 15 μm. In this region of 15 μm, 13 pass-through wires are allowed to pass through if each pass-through wire has a width of 0.5 μm, the interval is 0.5 μm, and the pitch is 1 μm. Therefore, in the bonding pad region as a whole, 52 (13×4) pass-through wires are allowed to pass through. In the chip illustrated in FIG. 6, the layout width (H) around the bonding pad is determined by the limit number of the signal lines extending in the longitudinal direction of the chip. In this case, 52 signal lines to be generally extended in the signal line region except the bonding pad region are allowed to pass through the bonding pad region. Therefore, the layout width (H) can be reduced by about 52 μm at maximum. In FIG. 11, the power supply lines are allowed to pass through the region of the interval (c) between the aluminum plug wires. In this event, assuming that an interval margin of 1 μm is secured on opposite sides of each region of 15 μm, the power supply line of 13 μm wide is allowed to pass through. In one bonding pad region as a whole, 4 power supply lines each having a width of 13 μm are allowed to pass through. Therefore, the layout width (H) can be reduced by about 52 μm at maximum. By forming the plug wires in the bonding pad region, the pattern rate of the #1 aluminum and the #2 aluminum layers can be optimized. In case where 5 plug wires each having a width of 5 μm are arranged in the region of 85 μm, the pattern rate is about 30%. If 13 wires each having a width of 0.5 μm are arranged between the plug wires, the pattern rate is about 37%. In case where 52 wires as the maximum number are arranged, the pattern rate is about 60%. At such pattern rate, excellent etching and CMP conditions can be obtained so that a fine pattern can be formed. Therefore, a fine pattern can be used as the aluminum pass-through wires. Generally, the pattern rate at which the excellent etching and CMP conditions are obtained is 20% to 60%, more preferably, 40% to 50%. Therefore, a plug wiring pattern is determined so that the pattern rate is not smaller than the minimum pattern rate. For example, it is assumed that the bonding pad has one side of 100 μm and the plug wires are stripe lines, five in number, each having a width of 4 μm. Then, the pattern rate is 20%. Thus, the minimum pattern rate is assured by the striped plug wiring pattern. Further, the pass-through wires each having a width of 0.5 μm are arranged at a pitch of 1 μm. In this case, 78 pass-through wires can be arranged at maximum. If the maximum number of the pass-through wires are arranged, the pattern rate is 59% (5×4 μm for the plug wires and 0.5×78 μm for the pass-through wires). Thus, the minimum pattern rate is assured by the plug wiring pattern and the pattern rate approaches that of the internal circuit region by presence of the pass-through wires. By making the pattern rate be nearer to that of the internal circuit region, the pass-through wires can be finer. Referring to FIG. 12, in case where a plurality of pads are arranged adjacent to one another, the pitch of the pads is about 98 μm at minimum. The pad size is 85 μm and a space of 13 μm is left between two adjacent pads. Traditionally, by the use of this space, signal lines can be laid between upside and downside of the layout on opposite sides of the bonding pad region. However, if a number of wires or a thick power supply line must be laid and the space of 13 μm is insufficient, the pitch between the two adjacent pads must be widened. This results in an increase in chip size in the longitudinal direction. According to this invention, the signal lines between upside and downside of the layout on opposite sides of the pad region can be extended in the region under the bonding pad as shown in FIG. 9. Therefore, without widening the pitch between two adjacent pads, a number of wires or a thick power supply line can be laid. This is effective in reducing the chip size in the longitudinal direction. As shown in FIG. 10, it is possible to connect, by the conductive plugs, the vertical and the horizontal pass-through wires in the region under the bonding pad. Thus, the signal lines can be freely laid even if the signal lines pass through the region under the bonding pad. In this embodiment, the plug wires are arranged under the bonding pad and connected to the pad wires by the conductive plugs. By the use of a hard material as the conductive plugs, a mechanical shock during bonding is absorbed by the conductive plugs. With this structure, it is possible to prevent peeling of the bonding pad and breakage of the pass-through wires under the bonding pad due to the mechanical shock during bonding. The plug wiring pattern is determined so as to achieve the pattern rate not smaller than the minimum pattern rate. By maintaining the minimum pattern rate by the plug wiring pattern and making the pattern rate be nearer to that of the internal circuit region, the pass-through wires can be finer. Second Embodiment Referring to FIGS. 13 to 16, description will be made of a second embodiment of this invention. In this embodiment, the pass-through wires are laid in the same direction. Like in the first embodiment, a three-layer aluminum product will be described by way of example. As shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, #1 aluminum plug wires 11, #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12, #2 aluminum plug wires 21, and #2 aluminum pass-through wires 22 are arranged to extend in the X direction in the figures. #2 aluminum pad connection wires 23, a #3 aluminum pad wire 30, interlayer insulating films 2, 3, and 4, and polyimide 5 are similar to those in the first embodiment. Therefore, each of #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 41 and #2-#3 layer conductive plugs 42 is formed in a rectangular shape along the respective plug wires. This embodiment is applied in case where a large number of signal wires are arranged in the X direction in the DRAM illustrated in FIG. 6. Referring to FIGS. 15 and 16, a #2 aluminum pattern as a single wiring layer is arranged in a region under a bonding pad without a #1 aluminum pattern. As compared with the example illustrated in FIGS. 13 and 14, the #1 aluminum plug wires 11, the #1 aluminum pass-through wires 12, the #1-#2 layer conductive plugs 21 are omitted. The remaining parts are similar to those in FIGS. 13 and 14 and will not be described. Thus, the #1 aluminum and the #2 aluminum wires are freely arranged without limitation. In this embodiment also, the plug wires are arranged under the bonding pad and connected to the pad wires by the conductive plugs. By the use of a hard material as the conductive plugs, a mechanical shock during bonding is absorbed by the conductive plugs. With this structure, it is possible to prevent peeling of the bonding pad and breakage of the pass-through wires under the bonding pad due to the mechanical shock during bonding. The plug wiring pattern is determined so as to achieve the pattern rate not smaller than the minimum pattern rate. By maintaining the minimum pattern rate by the plug wiring pattern and making the pattern rate be nearer to that of the internal circuit region, the pass-through wires can be finer. While the present invention has thus far been described in connection with the preferred embodiments thereof, the present invention is not limited thereto. It will readily be possible for those skilled in the art to put this invention into practice in various other manners within the scope of the present invention.
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H
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23
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52
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11683023
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US20070232034A1-20071004
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METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE
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ACCEPTED
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20070920
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20071004
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[]
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H01L2120
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["H01L2120"]
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7514306
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20070307
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20090407
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438
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584000
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97291.0
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PARKER
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JOHN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "UTSUNOMIYA", "inventor_name_first": "Sumio", "inventor_city": "Suwa-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, includes: a) spraying a combusted gas onto a member containing a metal element, the combusted gas being obtained by combusting a mixed gas that at least includes a gas containing a hydrogen atom and an oxygen gas; b) spraying the combusted gas onto the amorphous semiconductor film placed on a substrate having an insulating surface thereof; and c) adding the metal element to at least a vicinity of a surface of the amorphous semiconductor film to enhance recrystallization of a semiconductor.
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1. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device, comprising: a) spraying a combusted gas onto a member containing a metal element, the combusted gas being obtained by combusting a mixed gas that at least includes a gas containing a hydrogen atom and an oxygen gas; b) spraying the combusted gas onto the amorphous semiconductor film placed on a substrate having an insulating surface thereof; and c) adding the metal element to at least a vicinity of a surface of the amorphous semiconductor film to enhance re-crystallization of a semiconductor. 2. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, further comprising: d) modifying the amorphous semiconductor film into a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating the amorphous semiconductor film with the metal element added. 3. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the mixed gas is a gas having a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with a ratio of nearly two to one. 4. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the metal element is nickel. 5. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the member is net-shaped. 6. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the step d) includes; spraying a combusted gas onto the amorphous semiconductor film. 7. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, further comprising: e) forming a semiconductor oxide film containing the metal element by oxidizing a surface of the polycrystalline semiconductor film with the metal element added; and f) selectively removing the semiconductor oxide film. 8. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 7, wherein the step e) includes; spraying a combusted gas onto the amorphous semiconductor film. 9. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 8, wherein the combusted gas is a gas obtained by mixing and combusting a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas in such a ratio that the oxygen gas is greater than one-half of the hydrogen gas. 10. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein a direction of spraying the combusted gas is substantially identical to a gravitational direction. 11. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the combusted gas is sprayed substantially evenly within a long square having a length in a longitudinal direction greater than a width of the substrate on a surface perpendicular to a spraying direction, the substrate being located on the surface, the substrate and the combusted gas moving relatively to each other at constant speed. 12. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to claim 1, wherein the semiconductor is silicon.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field Several aspects of the present invention relate to a method for manufacturing a semiconductor thin film and a semiconductor device using the semiconductor thin film. 2. Related Art In displays of forming images using a thin film transistor (hereinafter referred to as a “TFT”) as the switching element, such as liquid crystal displays, achieving higher performance of TFT is demanded. Higher performance can be achieved by what has been referred to as a polysilicon TFT, which uses polycrystalline silicon for the active layer. For the purpose of reducing cost of displays, a method of recrystallizing (modifying) an amorphous silicon layer deposited on a low-cost glass substrate at temperatures equal to or less than the strain point of the glass substrate is generally used. JP-A-9-293687, a first example of related art, discloses a laser annealing method where an amorphous silicon layer is melt and re-crystallized by laser annealing as a technique of recrystallizing an amorphous silicon layer at low temperature. JP-A-9-156916, a second example of related art, discloses a method where a metal element is added onto an amorphous silicon layer to decrease the temperature required for re-crystallization by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) apparatus using electrodes made of a material containing a metal element to facilitate crystallization of silicon. However, the above-mentioned two methods involve the following problems. In the former, cost reduction is difficult because laser oscillators are expensive. In the latter, achieving higher performance of TFT is difficult, not only because the device is expensive but also because a metal element remaining in the recrystallized silicon film decreases mobility in a silicon film.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the invention includes adding a metal element to enhance recrystallization of a semiconductor to at least a vicinity of a surface of an amorphous semiconductor film by spraying a combusted gas onto a member containing the metal element and then onto the amorphous semiconductor film placed on a substrate having an insulating surface thereof, the combusted gas being obtained by combustion of a mixed gas, the mixed gas at least including a gas containing a hydrogen atom and an oxygen gas. According to the above-mentioned method, the combusted gas comes to contain the above-mentioned metal element in the form of hydroxide by being sprayed onto the above-mentioned member. The hydroxide is dissolved into water vapor, and is carried along the flow of the water vapor to the surface of an amorphous semiconductor film. As a result, a metal element to enhance crystallization of a semiconductor is added to at least the vicinity of the surface of the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film to reduce the temperature and heating time required to modify (crystallize) the amorphous semiconductor film into a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating. This manufacturing method therefore enables formation of a polycrystalline semiconductor film on a substrate made of a material having a low strain point such as glass, allowing formation of a semiconductor device on a large-area substrate at low cost. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the invention is a method for manufacturing a semiconductor device including the above-mentioned first step, the method further including, after the above-mentioned first step, a second step for modifying the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film to be a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film with the above-mentioned metal element added. In the above-mentioned first step, a flame is sprayed onto an amorphous semiconductor film, and therefore modification into a polycrystalline semiconductor film slightly proceeds. However, addition of a metal element differs from modification into a polycrystalline semiconductor film in terms of required conditions such as the temperature of a flame. Therefore, by performing separately the step for modifying an amorphous semiconductor film into a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating as the second step, the step for adding a metal element and the step for modifying an amorphous semiconductor film can each be practiced under the optimum conditions. Preferably, the above-mentioned mixed gas is a gas having a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with a ratio of nearly two to one. This structure causes most components of the combusted gas obtained by combustion of the above-mentioned mixed gas to become water vapor, allowing efficient addition of a metal element. Therefore, the amount of the above-mentioned mixed gas supplied can be reduced, thereby controlling the temperature increase of the above-mentioned substrate and the substrate deformation due to the temperature increase. Preferably, the above-mentioned metal element is nickel. Nickel has a particularly high effect to enhance crystallization of a semiconductor. Therefore, this structure can reduce the temperature in crystallizing the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film, thereby controlling the temperature increase of the above-mentioned substrate and the substrate deformation due to the temperature increase. Preferably, the above-mentioned member is net-shaped. Making the above-mentioned member net-shaped allows a combusted gas to be sprayed through the net-shaped member onto an amorphous semiconductor film. The net-shaped member allows increase of the contact area between the combusted gas and the above-mentioned member without blocking the flow of the combusted gas. This manufacturing method thus allows efficient addition of a metal element to an amorphous semiconductor film, and further allows formation of a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned second step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film. The above-mentioned first step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film. This manufacturing method enables the above-mentioned first and second steps to be continuously performed using the same or a similar device. As a result, a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film can be obtained at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned manufacturing method further includes a third step for forming a semiconductor oxide film containing the above-mentioned metal element by oxidizing the surface of the polycrystalline semiconductor film with the above-mentioned metal element added; and a fourth step for selectively removing the above-mentioned semiconductor oxide film. The above-mentioned metal element facilitates modification of an amorphous semiconductor film to a polycrystalline semiconductor film; however, manufacturing a semiconductor device using a polycrystalline semiconductor film obtained by the modification has adverse effects such as decreased mobility. The above-mentioned metal element remains in the modified polycrystalline semiconductor film, and the remaining concentration increases as the location approaches the surface of the film. On the other hand, a semiconductor oxide film can be selectively etched with respect to the polycrystalline semiconductor film. Accordingly, the surface of the modified polycrystalline semiconductor film is oxidized to form a semiconductor oxide film, and thereafter the semiconductor oxide film is selectively etched, allowing a polycrystalline semiconductor film containing the above-mentioned metal element to a lesser extent to be left on the substrate. This manufacturing method thus enables formation of a semiconductor device with high performance and reliability on a large-area substrate at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned third step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film. The above-mentioned first step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film, and the above-mentioned second step is practicable by spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film. This manufacturing method enables the above-mentioned first and third steps or the above-mentioned first to third steps to be continuously performed using the same or a similar device. As a result, a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film can be obtained at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned combusted gas is a gas obtained by combusting a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with a ratio of the oxygen gas to the hydrogen gas greater than one half. Combusting a gas having a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with the above ratio generates oxygen radical simultaneously with water vapor, causing improved oxidation rate. This manufacturing method therefore allows surface oxidation of the above-mentioned polycrystalline semiconductor film at further lower temperature for a short time period, and allows distortion of the above-mentioned substrate to be controlled. Preferably, the direction of spraying the above-mentioned combusted gas is substantially identical to the gravitational direction. This manufacturing method allows the above-mentioned combusted gas to be sprayed with a substrate having an amorphous semiconductor film formed thereon mounted on a plane surface. As compared to a manner of spraying a combusted gas from another direction, a mechanism for holding and transferring a substrate can be simplified, allowing formation of a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film at further low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned combusted gas is sprayed substantially evenly within a long square having a length in the longitudinal direction greater than a width of the substrate on a surface perpendicular to the spraying direction, the above-mentioned substrate being located on the surface, the substrate and the combusted gas moving relatively to each other at constant speed. This manufacturing method allows scanning of the substrate surface at constant speed with a combusted gas distributing in a curtain shape, thereby spraying the combusted gas evenly over the entire surface of the substrate. This therefore allows formation of a further even polycrystalline semiconductor film on a large-area substrate. Preferably, the above-mentioned semiconductor is silicon. A semiconductor device using silicon, which is generally used as a device for driving of a display, can be formed on a large-area substrate at low cost. BRFSUM description="Brief Summary" end="tail"?
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field Several aspects of the present invention relate to a method for manufacturing a semiconductor thin film and a semiconductor device using the semiconductor thin film. 2. Related Art In displays of forming images using a thin film transistor (hereinafter referred to as a “TFT”) as the switching element, such as liquid crystal displays, achieving higher performance of TFT is demanded. Higher performance can be achieved by what has been referred to as a polysilicon TFT, which uses polycrystalline silicon for the active layer. For the purpose of reducing cost of displays, a method of recrystallizing (modifying) an amorphous silicon layer deposited on a low-cost glass substrate at temperatures equal to or less than the strain point of the glass substrate is generally used. JP-A-9-293687, a first example of related art, discloses a laser annealing method where an amorphous silicon layer is melt and re-crystallized by laser annealing as a technique of recrystallizing an amorphous silicon layer at low temperature. JP-A-9-156916, a second example of related art, discloses a method where a metal element is added onto an amorphous silicon layer to decrease the temperature required for re-crystallization by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) apparatus using electrodes made of a material containing a metal element to facilitate crystallization of silicon. However, the above-mentioned two methods involve the following problems. In the former, cost reduction is difficult because laser oscillators are expensive. In the latter, achieving higher performance of TFT is difficult, not only because the device is expensive but also because a metal element remaining in the recrystallized silicon film decreases mobility in a silicon film. SUMMARY A method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the invention includes adding a metal element to enhance recrystallization of a semiconductor to at least a vicinity of a surface of an amorphous semiconductor film by spraying a combusted gas onto a member containing the metal element and then onto the amorphous semiconductor film placed on a substrate having an insulating surface thereof, the combusted gas being obtained by combustion of a mixed gas, the mixed gas at least including a gas containing a hydrogen atom and an oxygen gas. According to the above-mentioned method, the combusted gas comes to contain the above-mentioned metal element in the form of hydroxide by being sprayed onto the above-mentioned member. The hydroxide is dissolved into water vapor, and is carried along the flow of the water vapor to the surface of an amorphous semiconductor film. As a result, a metal element to enhance crystallization of a semiconductor is added to at least the vicinity of the surface of the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film to reduce the temperature and heating time required to modify (crystallize) the amorphous semiconductor film into a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating. This manufacturing method therefore enables formation of a polycrystalline semiconductor film on a substrate made of a material having a low strain point such as glass, allowing formation of a semiconductor device on a large-area substrate at low cost. The method for manufacturing a semiconductor device according to one aspect of the invention is a method for manufacturing a semiconductor device including the above-mentioned first step, the method further including, after the above-mentioned first step, a second step for modifying the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film to be a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film with the above-mentioned metal element added. In the above-mentioned first step, a flame is sprayed onto an amorphous semiconductor film, and therefore modification into a polycrystalline semiconductor film slightly proceeds. However, addition of a metal element differs from modification into a polycrystalline semiconductor film in terms of required conditions such as the temperature of a flame. Therefore, by performing separately the step for modifying an amorphous semiconductor film into a polycrystalline semiconductor film by heating as the second step, the step for adding a metal element and the step for modifying an amorphous semiconductor film can each be practiced under the optimum conditions. Preferably, the above-mentioned mixed gas is a gas having a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with a ratio of nearly two to one. This structure causes most components of the combusted gas obtained by combustion of the above-mentioned mixed gas to become water vapor, allowing efficient addition of a metal element. Therefore, the amount of the above-mentioned mixed gas supplied can be reduced, thereby controlling the temperature increase of the above-mentioned substrate and the substrate deformation due to the temperature increase. Preferably, the above-mentioned metal element is nickel. Nickel has a particularly high effect to enhance crystallization of a semiconductor. Therefore, this structure can reduce the temperature in crystallizing the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film, thereby controlling the temperature increase of the above-mentioned substrate and the substrate deformation due to the temperature increase. Preferably, the above-mentioned member is net-shaped. Making the above-mentioned member net-shaped allows a combusted gas to be sprayed through the net-shaped member onto an amorphous semiconductor film. The net-shaped member allows increase of the contact area between the combusted gas and the above-mentioned member without blocking the flow of the combusted gas. This manufacturing method thus allows efficient addition of a metal element to an amorphous semiconductor film, and further allows formation of a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned second step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film. The above-mentioned first step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film. This manufacturing method enables the above-mentioned first and second steps to be continuously performed using the same or a similar device. As a result, a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film can be obtained at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned manufacturing method further includes a third step for forming a semiconductor oxide film containing the above-mentioned metal element by oxidizing the surface of the polycrystalline semiconductor film with the above-mentioned metal element added; and a fourth step for selectively removing the above-mentioned semiconductor oxide film. The above-mentioned metal element facilitates modification of an amorphous semiconductor film to a polycrystalline semiconductor film; however, manufacturing a semiconductor device using a polycrystalline semiconductor film obtained by the modification has adverse effects such as decreased mobility. The above-mentioned metal element remains in the modified polycrystalline semiconductor film, and the remaining concentration increases as the location approaches the surface of the film. On the other hand, a semiconductor oxide film can be selectively etched with respect to the polycrystalline semiconductor film. Accordingly, the surface of the modified polycrystalline semiconductor film is oxidized to form a semiconductor oxide film, and thereafter the semiconductor oxide film is selectively etched, allowing a polycrystalline semiconductor film containing the above-mentioned metal element to a lesser extent to be left on the substrate. This manufacturing method thus enables formation of a semiconductor device with high performance and reliability on a large-area substrate at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned third step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto the above-mentioned amorphous semiconductor film. The above-mentioned first step is a step for spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film, and the above-mentioned second step is practicable by spraying a combusted gas onto an amorphous semiconductor film. This manufacturing method enables the above-mentioned first and third steps or the above-mentioned first to third steps to be continuously performed using the same or a similar device. As a result, a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film can be obtained at low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned combusted gas is a gas obtained by combusting a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with a ratio of the oxygen gas to the hydrogen gas greater than one half. Combusting a gas having a hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas mixed with the above ratio generates oxygen radical simultaneously with water vapor, causing improved oxidation rate. This manufacturing method therefore allows surface oxidation of the above-mentioned polycrystalline semiconductor film at further lower temperature for a short time period, and allows distortion of the above-mentioned substrate to be controlled. Preferably, the direction of spraying the above-mentioned combusted gas is substantially identical to the gravitational direction. This manufacturing method allows the above-mentioned combusted gas to be sprayed with a substrate having an amorphous semiconductor film formed thereon mounted on a plane surface. As compared to a manner of spraying a combusted gas from another direction, a mechanism for holding and transferring a substrate can be simplified, allowing formation of a large-area polycrystalline semiconductor film at further low cost. Preferably, the above-mentioned combusted gas is sprayed substantially evenly within a long square having a length in the longitudinal direction greater than a width of the substrate on a surface perpendicular to the spraying direction, the above-mentioned substrate being located on the surface, the substrate and the combusted gas moving relatively to each other at constant speed. This manufacturing method allows scanning of the substrate surface at constant speed with a combusted gas distributing in a curtain shape, thereby spraying the combusted gas evenly over the entire surface of the substrate. This therefore allows formation of a further even polycrystalline semiconductor film on a large-area substrate. Preferably, the above-mentioned semiconductor is silicon. A semiconductor device using silicon, which is generally used as a device for driving of a display, can be formed on a large-area substrate at low cost. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein like numbers reference like elements. FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a gas burner used in embodiments. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the outline of a heating device using the gas burner. FIGS. 3A to 3C are diagrams showing a first embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the first embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing the first embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a diagram showing a second embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing a third embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a diagram showing a fourth embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 9A to 9D are diagrams showing a method for manufacturing a semiconductor device. DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Embodiments in which the invention is practiced will be described below. The embodiments of the invention are characterized in that a combusted gas (hereinafter referred to as a “flame”) obtained by combusting a mixed gas is sprayed on a substrate. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the outline of a gas burner used in the embodiments, and the outline of a heating device including the gas burner, a holding base that holds a substrate, and the like will now be described. FIG. 1 is a diagram showing the outline of a gas burner used in the embodiments. A gas burner 1 includes an enclosure 10, a first gas supply source 102 that supplies an oxygen gas, a second gas supply source 104 that supplies a hydrogen gas, a first pipe 106 that introduces the oxygen gas into the enclosure 10, a second pipe 108 that introduces the hydrogen gas into the enclosure 10, and a gas controller 110 that can adjust the gas weight flow. The enclosure 10 includes, in the inside thereof, an igniter, which is not shown, and a combustion chamber, which is not shown, for combusting a mixed gas of hydrogen and oxygen. A plurality of nozzles 12 are also included that blow off flames obtained by combusting the mixed gas in one direction. The shapes of the nozzles 12 are identical, so that the shapes of flames blown off from the nozzles 12 are substantially identical to one another. Placing nozzles 12 lineally at regular intervals therefore allows the flames to make the shape of a curtain, that is, the shape of a long square on a plane surface perpendicular to the direction of the flame blown off. The gas controller 110 can arbitrarily adjust the shape and temperature of a flame 14 by adjusting the gas weight flow. By changing the flow ratio between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, the flame 14 can be composed of water vapor and an oxygen gas (specifically radicalized oxygen atoms), for example, instead of water vapor alone. Connecting three or more gas supply sources and combusting a gas other than a hydrogen gas can also be used. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the outline of a heating device using the above-described gas burner. The heating device 2 includes the gas burner 1, a metal member 24, which is produced by forming in a net shape a member made of metal that enhances crystallization of a semiconductor, (hereinafter referred to as a “net”), a net holder 25 that can hold the net 24 between the nozzles 12 and the substrate 20, and a substrate holding base 26 movable in the arrow direction at constant speed while holding the substrate 20 having an amorphous silicon film 22, as an amorphous semiconductor film, formed on the surface thereof. If a mixed gas is combusted while the net 24 is held, the flame 14 is sprayed through the net 24 onto the amorphous silicon film 22 formed on the surface of the substrate 20. By passing through the net 24, the flame 14 is sprayed onto the net 24 made of metal that enhances crystallization of a semiconductor, and then onto the amorphous semiconductor film 22. Note that some components such as the gas controller 110 are omitted in FIG. 2. As shown, the width of the gas burner 1 (the length in the direction perpendicular to the arrow direction or the gravitational direction in the drawing) is sufficiently larger than that of the substrate 20, so that the flames 14 can be sprayed evenly in the width direction of the substrate 20. Moving the substrate holding base 26, which holds the substrate 20 at constant speed, enables the flames 14 to be sprayed evenly onto the entire surface of the substrate 20. While only one gas burner 1 is shown in FIG. 2, a plurality of gas burners 1 may be provided in the arrow direction, allowing the flame 14 to be sprayed a plurality of times per movement of the substrate 20. Without the net 24, the flame 14 may also be sprayed onto the amorphous semiconductor film 22 not through the net 24 by moving the substrate 20. Embodiments in which the invention is practiced will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the embodiments described later, silicon is used as a semiconductor, and nickel is used as a metal element to facilitate crystallization of silicon as the semiconductor. First Embodiment FIGS. 3A to 3C, 4 and 5 are diagrams showing a first embodiment of the invention. The diagrams show a manner in which an amorphous silicon film formed on the substrate made of glass such as barium borosilicate glass or aluminoborosilicate glass (hereinafter referred to as “substrate”) is crystallized to be modified into a polycrystalline silicon film. FIG. 3A is a diagram showing a manner of a first step, that is, a step for adding a metal element that facilitates crystallization of a semiconductor to the vicinity of the surface of an amorphous semiconductor film. The substrate 20 having the amorphous silicon film 22 formed on the surface thereof is held on the substrate holding base 26 that moves in the direction of arrow in the diagram at constant speed. A first gas burner 31 is provided above the substrate holding base 26. A hydrogen gas and an oxygen gas are supplied from a gas supply source, which is not shown, through a pipe, which is not shown, to the first gas burner 31, and are combusted inside the enclosure 10 to be converted into water vapor. The net 24 made of nickel is provided between the first gas burner 31 and the substrate holding base 26. The flame 14 blown off downwards (in the gravitational direction) from the nozzle 12 by combustion impinges on the net 24, and then is sprayed onto the amorphous silicon film 22. When the flame 14 is sprayed, nickel is converted into nickel hydroxide through reaction represented by the following formula (1). Ni+2H2O→Ni(OH)2+H2 (1) Nickel hydroxide is dissolved in water vapor contained in the flame 14, and is carried to the surface of the amorphous silicon film 22 and is added to the surface. Here, the above-mentioned nickel hydroxide is not implanted into the amorphous silicon film 22 in such a manner as ion implantation method, and therefore does not deeply penetrate into the inside of the amorphous silicon film 22. Accordingly, the nickel element is distributed such that its concentration is high at the surface of the amorphous silicon film 22 and dramatically decreases as the location moves inwards (in the direction towards the interface with the substrate 20). The addition of nickel hydroxide causes the amorphous silicon film 22 in a state where crystallization proceeds easily and hence the film is modified into a polycrystalline silicon film 28 in the following second step (refer to FIG. 3B). In FIG. 3A, one first gas burner 31 and one net 24 are provided; however, embodiments of the first step are not limited to this manner. The plurality of nets 24 may be provided for each gas burner 1 such that they are placed one atop another or apart from one another. The plurality of first gas burners 31 may be placed in parallel such that the flame 14 is sprayed onto the substrate 20 a plurality of times. However, the number of gas burners and the temperature of the substrate 20 naturally affect the temperature of the flame 14, and the movement speed of the substrate holding base 26 also affects the temperature of the substrate 20 during operation. Accordingly, the setting conditions depend on heat resistance of the substrate 20. Corning 7059 glass used for liquid crystal displays and the like, for example, has a strain point of 593 degrees Celsius, and therefore preferably has a maximum temperature of 550 degrees Celsius or less, and more preferably a maximum temperature of 500 degrees Celsius or less. The number of gas burners is therefore preferably set within the range of temperatures of the substrate 20 not more than 500 degrees Celsius to add nickel element efficiently. While the first step is a step for adding nickel element to the amorphous silicon film 22, performing either or both of a second and a third step, which will be described later, without using the flame 14 is one of embodiments of the invention. As described above, addition of nickel element to the amorphous silicon film 22 causes the film to have properties of crystallizing at lower temperatures than the film without anything added. The film is thus crystallized at more lower temperature or for a more shorter time, if means generally used in semiconductor device manufacturing processes such as heating using a diffusion furnace, lamp annealing, laser annealing or the like is used. Hence, combining the above-described first step with conventional methods can form the polycrystalline silicon film 28 of a large area on a glass substrate at low cost. FIG. 3B is a diagram showing a manner of the second step, that is, a step for heating the amorphous silicon film 22 with nickel element added to modify the film into the polycrystalline silicon film 28. Similarly to the first step, the substrate 20 is held on the substrate holding base 26 that moves in the direction of arrow in the diagram at constant speed, and a second first gas burner 32 is provided above the substrate holding base 26. The flame 14 blown off from the second gas burner 32 heats the amorphous silicon film 22 with nickel element added, which is formed on the substrate 20. Different from the first step, no net 24 is provided. As described above, nickel element is added such that its concentration is high at the surface of the amorphous silicon film 22, and therefore modification of the surface starts at low temperature. Once part of the film is crystallized to grow a crystal grain, crystallization proceeds using the crystal grain as a seed crystal even at lower temperatures than those causing beginning crystallization. The amorphous silicon film 22 is therefore polycrystallized up to the inside where the concentration of nickel element is low, that is, the interface with the substrate 20, and thus is modified into the polycrystalline silicon film 28. In addition, the temperature of the flame 14 heating the substrate 20 depends on a glass strain point, just as in the first step. FIGS. 3C and 5 are diagrams showing a manner of the third step, that is, a step of heating the polycrystalline silicon film 28, which is obtained by modification, using the flame 14 to form an oxide film 30 at the surface of the polycrystalline silicon film 28. Similarly to the first and second steps, the substrate 20 is held on the substrate holding base 26 that moves in the direction of arrow in the diagram at constant speed, and a third gas burner 33 is provided above the substrate holding base 26. The flame 14 blown off from the nozzle 12 heats the polycrystalline silicon film 28 formed on the substrate 20, oxidizing the film from the surface to a predetermined depth to form the oxide film 30 that takes in the remaining nickel element. An enlarged diagram of the inside of a circle indicated by A in FIG. 3C is FIG. 5. The polycrystalline silicon film 28 is oxidized from the surface to a predetermined depth by water vapor and oxygen radical constituting the flame 14 to become the oxide film 30 containing nickel element. The polycrystalline silicon film 28 having a thickness less than that when formed remains underneath the oxide film 30. Since nickel element added to the amorphous silicon film 22 functions as a catalyst to enhance crystallization of silicon, the nickel element remains in the modified polycrystalline silicon film 28. Particularly in the vicinity of the surface of the film, the remaining nickel element has a high concentration. However, the nickel element remaining in the polycrystalline silicon film 28 has adverse effects such as decreased mobility as described above. Therefore, the polycrystalline silicon film 28 is initially formed on the substrate 20 in such a manner to have a film thickness equal to or larger than that required for forming a semiconductor device. The oxide film 30 that takes in the remaining nickel element described above is then formed. By selectively removing the oxide film 30 thereafter, the polycrystalline silicon film 28 that has the remaining nickel concentration within the acceptable range is obtained. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing a manner of a fourth step, that is, a step for selectively removing the oxide film 30 to expose the polycrystalline silicon film 28 underneath the oxide film 30. Hydrofluoric acid or an etchant 46 having hydrofluoric acid as its major component is injected into a liquid bath 42. The substrate 20 held by a carrier 44 made of Teflon® is immersed in the liquid bath 42, so that the oxide film 30 at the surface is selectively etched and removed. Thereafter, water washing and drying are performed thereby to obtain the polycrystalline silicon film 28 of a large area on the surface of the substrate 20. Next, required film thicknesses of the polycrystalline silicon film 28 and the oxide film 30 will be described. A concentration of about 1×1018 cm−3 or more is needed for nickel element to effectively decrease the temperature required for crystallization of silicon. If heat treatment is performed for t seconds with a layer containing nickel element of this concentration existing in the surface layer, nickel diffuses in the film thickness direction of the polycrystalline silicon film. The concentration distribution at that time can be calculated by the following equation (2). C/Co=1−erf(x/(2×(Dt)0.5)) (2) where Co is a concentration of the surface layer, X is a distance from the surface, and D is a diffusion coefficient of nickel at the heat treatment temperature. At a temperature of 500 degrees Celsius, the diffusion coefficient of nickel in silicon is about 3.5×10−14 cm2×s−1. On the other hand, given that the concentration of nickel acceptable in silicon that is an active layer of a transistor is 1×10−15 cm−3 (less than 1 ppm), C/Co<1×10−3 is required. Based on these factors, the distance from the surface of the polycrystalline silicon film that has a concentration equal to or less than the acceptable concentration is estimated to be about 50 nm, for example, if heat treatment time is 30 seconds. Accordingly, the nickel concentration of the remaining polycrystalline silicon film can be suppressed to be equal to or less than the acceptable value by applying heat treatment for 30 seconds and selectively removing, after oxidizing, the surface layer at least to a thickness of 50 nm. For example, a polycrystalline silicon film is deposited to a thickness of 100 nm and the surface layer of 50 nm is oxidized and then removed, whereby the remaining film of 50 nm can be obtained as a high-purity polycrystalline silicon film. Second Embodiment Next, a second embodiment of the invention will be described with reference to FIG. 6. This drawing is a diagram showing the state of the heating device 2 seen from the direction perpendicular to the moving direction of the substrate 20 as well as the gravitational direction, similarly to the first embodiment. As shown in FIG. 6, the first gas burner 31, the second gas burner 32 and the third gas burner 33 are placed in this order in the heating device 2. The net 24 made of nickel is placed between the first gas burner 31 and the substrate holding base 26. The steps of gas burners are the same as those in the first embodiment. Therefore, the first step for adding nickel element to the amorphous silicon film 22, the second step for crystallizing the amorphous silicon film 22 to obtain the polycrystalline silicon film 28, and the third step for oxidizing part that contains high concentration nickel element of the surface layer of the polycrystalline silicon film 28 to form the oxide film 30 can be carried out by transferring the substrate 20 one time. The step and device for etching and removing the oxide film 30 formed in the third step are needed separately. By the method used in the first embodiment of immersing the substrate 20 in the etchant 46 filled in the liquid bath 42, the oxide film 30 is removed, allowing the polycrystalline silicon film 28 of a large area to be formed on the surface of the substrate 20. The layout of the three kinds of gas burners mentioned above is not limited to that at the same height as shown, but can be set according to the need for each step. The number of gas burners is not limited to one for each step, but a plurality of gas burners can be used for one step. The height and the number of the foregoing gas burners can therefore be set freely unless the temperature of the substrate 20 exceeds the glass strain point, efficiently obtaining the polycrystalline silicon film 28 of a large area. Third Embodiment Next, the third embodiment of the invention will be described with reference to FIG. 7. This drawing is a diagram showing the state of the heating device 2 seen from the direction perpendicular to the moving direction of the substrate 20 as well as the gravitational direction, similarly to the first embodiment. As shown in FIG. 7, the first gas burner 31 and the third gas burner 33 are placed in this order in the heating device 2. The net 24 made of nickel is placed between the first gas burner 31 and the substrate holding base 26. The second gas burner 32 for performing recrystallization is not provided. By using the first gas burner 31, the first step for adding nickel element to the amorphous silicon film 22 and the second step for modifying (crystallizing) the amorphous silicon film 22 to form the polycrystalline silicon film 28 are performed simultaneously. The first step and the second step are different from each other in terms of the presence of the net 24, but are identical to each other in terms of heating the amorphous silicon film 22 by using the flame 14. The amorphous silicon film 22 starts recrystallization even during addition of nickel element, if the surface temperature and the amount of nickel element added to the surface meet predetermined requirements. Therefore, by determining the amount of nickel element added in consideration of the shape of the net 24, the number of nets 24 to be placed one atop another and the like and setting the temperature of the flame 14 and the like appropriate, the amorphous silicon film 22 can be recrystallized while receiving addition of nickel element. In addition, a step for selectively etching and removing the oxide film 30 formed in the third step needs be performed separately, which is the same as in the second embodiment. Fourth Embodiment Next, the fourth embodiment of the invention will be described with reference to FIG. 8. This drawing is a diagram showing the state of the heating device 2 seen from the direction perpendicular to the moving direction of the substrate 20 as well as the gravitational direction, similarly to the first embodiment. As shown in FIG. 8, only the first gas burner 31 and the net 24 are placed in the heating device 2. By using the first gas burner 31, the first to third steps are performed simultaneously. Similarly to the first and second steps, the third step is a step for heating by blowing off the flame 14 to the substrate 20. Polycrystallization of the amorphous silicon film 22 and oxidation of the surface of the polycrystalline silicon film 28 obtained by polycrystallization have a commonality in terms of heating. Once started, polycrystallization of the amorphous silicon film 22 proceeds not so much depending on an oxide film formed on the surface. In other words, regarding the amorphous silicon film 22, recrystallization towards the interface with the substrate 20 is compatible with oxidation of the surface. Therefore, by appropriately selecting the shape of the net 24 made of nickel, the number of nets 24 to be placed one atop another and the like, and the temperature of the flame 14 and the like, and further the film thickness of the amorphous silicon film 22 formed on the substrate, the polycrystalline silicon film 28 having a film thickness required for forming a semiconductor device and having a nickel element concentration within the acceptable range can be formed on the top surface of the substrate 20 using a single gas burner. In addition, a step for etching and removing the oxide film 30 formed on the polycrystalline silicon film 28 needs be performed separately, which is the same as in the third embodiment. Semiconductor Device Next, a method of manufacturing a TFT as a semiconductor device will be described with reference to FIGS. 9A to 9D. Initially, as shown in FIG. 9A, the polycrystalline silicon film 28 formed on the substrate 20 according to one of the above-described embodiments is patterned, so that a TFT element region (island-shaped region) is formed. Next, as shown in FIG. 9B, a gate insulating film 91 is formed. For example, by a CVD method using tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as the raw material, a silicon oxide film is formed to be the gate insulating film 91. Next, as shown in FIG. 9C, a metal thin film made of aluminum or the like, is formed over the entire surface of the substrate 20 by a sputtering method and then is patterned, thereby forming a gate electrode 92 above a channel region 95. Using the gate electrode 92 as a mask, impurities of high concentration are implanted into the TFT element region by an ion implantation method, thereby forming a source region 93 and a drain region 94. Finally, as shown in FIG. 9D, electrodes are formed. Specifically, a silicon oxide film is formed on the top surface of a TFT element region, forming an interlayer insulating film 96. Next, contact holes are opened in the interlayer insulating film 96 above the source region 93 and the drain region 94. An aluminum layer is formed over the entire surface of the substrate 20 by a sputtering method and the like, and thereafter is patterned, thereby forming the electrodes 97. This allows the TFT element to be electrically connected to outer circuits or other TFT elements. The above-mentioned aluminum layer may be formed after a conductive material has been embedded into the contact holes. First Modification While a substrate made of barium borosilicate glass, aluminoborosilicate glass or the like is used in the above-described embodiments, the invention is applicable to substrates made of quartz glass and the like which are highly resistant to heat. In this case, a polycrystalline silicon film can be formed using a relatively low cost device, allowing control of manufacturing cost, which is the same as in the above-described embodiments. Second Modification While an amorphous silicon film is used as a starting point to obtain a polycrystalline silicon film, a microcrystalline silicon film can be used instead of an amorphous silicon film. As in the case of using an amorphous silicon film, effects such as improvement of mobility can be obtained by recrystallizing the microcrystalline silicon film to be a polycrystalline silicon film. Third Modification While a flame is sprayed onto an amorphous silicon film through a net made of nickel in the above-described embodiments, nozzles of a gas burner used in the first step may be made of nickel. This makes it possible to add nickel without using a net or to improve efficiency of nickel addition by using the nozzles together with the net. Fourth Modification While nozzles are formed in a line in the above-described embodiments, the nozzles may be placed in two or more lines, or in a staggered fashion. The nozzles may also be formed in the shape of a long slit. This increases the density of the flame, leading to improved efficiency of nickel addition, efficiency of oxidation and the like.
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11688050
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US20080230905A1-20080925
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Power Semiconductor Module, Method for Producing a Power Semiconductor Module, and Semiconductor Chip
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ACCEPTED
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20080911
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20080925
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[]
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H01L2348
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["H01L2348", "H01L2144"]
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9214442
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20070319
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20151215
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257
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772000
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69783.0
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NGUYEN
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CUONG
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Guth", "inventor_name_first": "Karsten", "inventor_city": "Soest", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Torwesten", "inventor_name_first": "Holger", "inventor_city": "Regensburg", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]
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In a power semiconductor module, a copper-containing first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing second soldering partner are arranged successively and fixedly connected with one another. The connection layer has a portion of intermetallic copper-tin phases of at least 90% by weight. For producing such a power semiconductor module the soldering partners and the solder arranged there between are pressed against one another with a predefined pressure and the solder is melted. After termination of a predefined period of time the diffused copper and the tin from the liquid solder form a connection layer comprising intermetallic copper-tin phases, the portion of which is at least 90% by weight of the connection layer created from the solder layer.
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1. A semiconductor power module, in which a copper-containing first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing second soldering partner are arranged successively and fixedly connected with one another, wherein the first soldering partner has a first surface directly abutting against the connection layer; the second soldering partner has a second surface directly abutting against the connection layer; and the connection layer has a portion of intermetallic copper-tin phases of at least 90% by volume. 2. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first surface and/or the second surface have a surface roughness Rz, of less than or equal to 10 μm. 3. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first surface and/or the second surface have a surface roughness Rz, of less than 4 μm. 4. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first surface and/or the second surface have a surface roughness Rz, from 4 μm to 6 μm. 5. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first surface and/or the second surface have a surface roughness Rz, from 6 μm to 8 μm. 6. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first surface and/or the second surface have a surface roughness Rz, from 8 μm to 10 μm. 7. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the connection layer comprises at least one of the intermetallic copper-tin phases Cu6Sn5, Cu3Sn, Cu10Sn3, Cu41Sn11. 8. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the connection layer comprises intermetallic copper-tin phases which only comprise the intermetallic copper-tin phases Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn. 9. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the connection layer comprises intermetallic copper-tin phases which only comprise the intermetallic copper-tin phase Cu3Sn. 10. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein at least 90% by volume of the connection layer has a melting point of at least 415° C. 11. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein at least 90% by volume of the connection layer has a melting point of at least 676° C. 12. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the connection layer comprises a tin-based solder with a portion of 3.5% by weight of silver (Ag). 13. The power semiconductor module according to claim 8, wherein the connection layer comprises a tin-based solder with a portion of 0.1% by weight to 6% by weight of silver (Ag). 14. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the connection layer comprises a tin-based solder, which is alloyed with one of the substances silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge) or lead (Pb). 15. The power semiconductor module according to claim 10, wherein the connection layer comprises a tin-based solder, which is alloyed with at least two of the substances silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge) or lead (Pb). 16. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner comprises a copper portion of at least 70% by weight or is completely composed of copper. 17. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner is embodied as a metallization of a semiconductor chip, as a copper disk, as a copper ribbon, as a contact wire, as a coating of a contact wire, as a clip, as a coating of a clip, as a circuit carrier for a semiconductor chip or as a coating for a circuit carrier of a semiconductor chip, or as a base plate or a coating for a base plate. 18. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first soldering partner is embodied as base plate or as coating of a base plate of the power semiconductor module, and wherein the second soldering partner is a substrate or a coating of a substrate. 19. The power semiconductor module according to claim 1, wherein the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner are substantially made of metal and has a thickness from 1 μm to 5 μm. 20. A semiconductor chip having a semiconductor body with a first surface, on which, starting from said first surface, a buffer layer, a diffusion barrier layer, and a copper-containing metal layer are arranged successively. 21. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 22. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a thickness of less than or equal to 10 μm, directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer the solder layer. 23. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a thickness from 5 μm to 15 μm, directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 24. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a thickness from 4 μm to 13 μm, directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 25. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a thickness from 3 μm to 11 μm, directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 26. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a thickness from 2 μm to 9 μm, directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 27. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a solder layer made of pure tin directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 28. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a tin-based solder with a portion of 3.5% by weight of silver (Ag), directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 29. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer having a tin-based solder with a portion of 0.1% by weight to 6% by weight of silver (Ag), directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 30. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer being alloyed with one of the substances silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge) or lead (Pb), directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 31. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a tin-containing solder layer being alloyed with at least two of the substances silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge) or lead (Pb), directly abuts against the copper-containing metal layer. 32. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the metal layer is made of copper (Cu). 33. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the metal layer is made of copper (Cu) and has a thickness from 1 μm to 30 μm. 34. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the buffer layer comprises aluminum (Al) or is composed of aluminum (Al). 35. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the buffer layer comprises aluminum (Al) or is composed of aluminum (Al) and has a thickness from 200 nm to 700 nm. 36. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the buffer layer comprises aluminum (Al) or is composed of aluminum (Al) and has a thickness of 400 nm. 37. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the diffusion barrier layer comprises at least one of the materials titanium (Ti), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium tungsten (TiW), tantalum (Ta), tantalum nitride (TaN) or is composed of at least one of these materials, and has a thickness from 50 nm to 600 nm. 38. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the diffusion barrier layer comprises titanium (Ti) or is composed of titanium (Ti) and has a thickness from 300 nm to 500 nm. 39. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein the diffusion barrier layer comprises titanium (Ti) or is composed of titanium (Ti) and has a thickness of 400 nm. 40. The semiconductor chip according to claim 20, wherein a seed layer is arranged between the barrier layer and the metal layer. 41. The semiconductor chip according to claim 40, wherein the seed layer comprises a thickness from 50 nm to 200 nm, and comprises at least one of the materials silver (Ag), gold (Au), nickel (Ni), nickel vanadium (NiV), copper (Cu) or is composed of at least one of these materials. 42. The semiconductor chip according to claim 40, wherein the seed layer comprises copper (Cu) or is composed of copper (Cu) and has a thickness of 100 nm to 200 nm. 43. The semiconductor chip according to claim 40, wherein the seed layer comprises silver (Ag) or is composed of silver (Ag) and has a thickness from 50 nm to 100 mm. 44. A method for producing a power semiconductor module, in which a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner are arranged successively, with the following steps: providing a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a tin-containing (Sn) solder, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner; arranging the solder between the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner; melting the solder by heating it to a temperature above its original melting point and below or equal to 415° C.; pressing the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner, as well as the solder arranged between the soldering partners against one another with a predefined pressure from 0.5 N/mm2 to 5 N/mm2; and maintaining the temperature of the solder during pressing above its melting point and below or equal to 4000 for a period of at least 0.1 seconds to 10 seconds. 45. The method according to claim 44, wherein the period of at least 0.1 seconds to 10 seconds is followed by a step of tempering the soldering partners and the solder for more than 0 seconds to 120 seconds at a temperature above its original melting point and below or equal to 415° C. 46. The method according to claim 44, wherein the predefined pressure is more than 0 N/mm2 and less than or equal to 5 N/mm2. 47. The method according to claim 46, wherein the predefined pressure is more than or equal to 0.5 N/mm2 and less than or equal to 3 N/mm. 48. The method according to claim 44, wherein the solder is applied to the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner prior to the pressing of the first soldering partner and of the second soldering partner against one another. 49. The method according to claim 48, wherein the application of the solder takes place by means of vapor deposition, sputtering, or by galvanic deposition. 50. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner is a metallization of a semiconductor chip and the second soldering partner is a metallization of a substrate. 51. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner is a metallization of a semiconductor chip and the second soldering partner is a contact wire or a coating of a contact wire. 52. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner is a metallization of a semiconductor chip and the second soldering partner is a clip or a coating of a clip. 53. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner is a base plate or a coating of a base plate of the power semiconductor module and the second soldering partner is a substrate or a coating of a substrate. 54. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner has a first surface facing towards the respective other soldering partner, said first surface having a surface roughness Rz less than or equal to 10 μm. 55. The method according to claim 44, wherein the power semiconductor module comprises a semiconductor body, on which a metallization stack and the first soldering partner are arranged successively. 56. The method according to claim 55, wherein the metallization stack comprises a buffer layer and a diffusion barrier layer. 57. The method according to claim 56, wherein the buffer layer comprises aluminum or is composed of aluminum. 58. The method according to claim 56, wherein the buffer layer has a thickness from 200 nm to 700 nm. 59. The method according to claim 56, wherein the diffusion barrier layer comprises at least one of the materials titanium (Ti), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium tungsten (TiW), tantalum (Ta), tantalum nitride (TaN) or is composed of at least one of these materials. 60. The method according to claim 56, wherein the diffusion barrier layer has a thickness from 50 nm to 600 nm. 61. The method according to claim 44, wherein the first soldering partner and/or the second soldering partner have a thickness larger than 1 μm. 62. The method according to claim 44, wherein the solder consists of tin (Sn) or of pure tin (Sn). 63. The method according to claim 44, wherein the solder comprises tin (Sn), as well as at least one of the materials silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), lead (Pb), germanium (Ge). 64. The method according to claim 44, wherein, prior to the melting, the solder has a thickness of less than or equal to 15 μm. 65. The method according to claim 55, wherein a seed layer is arranged between the barrier layer and the first soldering partner. 66. The method according to claim 64, wherein the seed layer has a thickness from 50 nm to 200 nm and consists of at least one of the materials silver (Ag), gold (Au), nickel (N1), nickel vanadium (NiV), copper (Cu) or is composed of at least one of these materials.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Power semiconductor modules comprise a number of soldered connections, wherein the most various components must be fixedly and permanently joined with one another. Due to the high temperatures occurring during operation of the power semiconductor modules, as well as due to frequent temperature changes with high temperature shifts, the soldered joints are heavily used, which limits the service life of the power semiconductor modules. Especially if at least one of the soldering partners has large surface roughness, e.g. the metallization of a ceramic substrate, the respective soldering joints are sensitive to temperature cycling. To avoid problems arising with a large surface roughness in many cases the surface of a soldering partner needs to be polished.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to an embodiment, in a novel semiconductor power module a copper-containing first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing second soldering partner are arranged successively and fixedly connected with one another, wherein the first soldering partner has a first surface directly abutting against the connection layer; the second soldering partner has a second surface directly abutting against the connection layer; and the connection layer comprises a portion of intermetallic copper-tin phases of at least 90% by volume. Further, a novel semiconductor chip is disclosed; the semiconductor chip comprises a semiconductor body with a surface, on which, starting from the semiconductor chip, a buffer layer, a diffusion barrier layer, and a copper-containing metal layer are arranged successively. Further, a novel method for producing a power semiconductor module is disclosed; in the power semiconductor module a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner are arranged successively, with the following steps: providing a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a tin-containing (Sn) solder, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner; arranging the solder between the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner; melting the solder by heating it to a temperature above its original melting point and below or equal to 415° C.; pressing the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner, as well as the solder arranged between the soldering partners against one another with a predefined pressure from 0.5 N/mm 2 to 3 N/mm 2 ; and maintaining the temperature of the solder during pressing above its melting point and below or equal to 400° C. for a period of at least 0.1 seconds to 10 seconds.
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TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates to power semiconductor modules, to a method for producing a power semiconductor module and to semiconductor chips. BACKGROUND Power semiconductor modules comprise a number of soldered connections, wherein the most various components must be fixedly and permanently joined with one another. Due to the high temperatures occurring during operation of the power semiconductor modules, as well as due to frequent temperature changes with high temperature shifts, the soldered joints are heavily used, which limits the service life of the power semiconductor modules. Especially if at least one of the soldering partners has large surface roughness, e.g. the metallization of a ceramic substrate, the respective soldering joints are sensitive to temperature cycling. To avoid problems arising with a large surface roughness in many cases the surface of a soldering partner needs to be polished. SUMMARY According to an embodiment, in a novel semiconductor power module a copper-containing first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing second soldering partner are arranged successively and fixedly connected with one another, wherein the first soldering partner has a first surface directly abutting against the connection layer; the second soldering partner has a second surface directly abutting against the connection layer; and the connection layer comprises a portion of intermetallic copper-tin phases of at least 90% by volume. Further, a novel semiconductor chip is disclosed; the semiconductor chip comprises a semiconductor body with a surface, on which, starting from the semiconductor chip, a buffer layer, a diffusion barrier layer, and a copper-containing metal layer are arranged successively. Further, a novel method for producing a power semiconductor module is disclosed; in the power semiconductor module a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a connection layer, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner are arranged successively, with the following steps: providing a copper-containing (Cu) first soldering partner, a tin-containing (Sn) solder, and a copper-containing (Cu) second soldering partner; arranging the solder between the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner; melting the solder by heating it to a temperature above its original melting point and below or equal to 415° C.; pressing the first soldering partner and the second soldering partner, as well as the solder arranged between the soldering partners against one another with a predefined pressure from 0.5 N/mm2 to 3 N/mm2; and maintaining the temperature of the solder during pressing above its melting point and below or equal to 400° C. for a period of at least 0.1 seconds to 10 seconds. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention can be better understood with reference to the following drawings and description. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, instead emphasis being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. Moreover, in the figures, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a vertical cross-sectional view through a power semiconductor module with a plurality of soldered joints, which each comprise a connection layer with a portion of at least 90% by volume of intermetallic copper-tin phases; FIG. 2 is a vertical cross-sectional view through an enlarged section of a substrate of the power semiconductor module according to FIG. 1, fitted with a semiconductor chip; FIG. 3 is a vertical cross-sectional view through a section of a not yet installed semiconductor chip, on which a copper-containing metal layer and, directly abutting thereon, a tin-containing solder layer are arranged; FIG. 4 is a vertical cross-sectional view of a semiconductor chip being soldered to a substrate of a power semiconductor module according to FIGS. 1 and 2, at different steps of the soldering process; FIG. 5 is a phase diagram which illustrates the intermetallic copper-tin phases; FIG. 6 is a vertical cross-sectional view of two soldering partners being soldered to one another, at different steps of the soldering process; FIG. 7 is a diagram which illustrates a first example of a temporal characteristics of the temperature of a solder and of the pressure applied to the soldering partners during manufacturing a solder connection; FIG. 8 is a diagram which illustrates a second example of a temporal characteristics of the temperature of a solder and of the pressure applied to the soldering partners during manufacturing a solder connection; FIG. 9 is a diagram which illustrates different temporal characteristics of the pressure applied to the soldering partners during manufacturing a solder connection; and FIG. 10 is an illustration for explaining how to evaluate the surface roughness Rz, by example of a metallization of a substrate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a vertical cross-sectional view through a power semiconductor module 1 with a plurality of soldered joints, wherein pairs of copper-containing soldering partners 20b/12b, 12a/19, 119/9 are each joined by a connection layer 214, 14 or 114, respectively, located therebetween. The connection layers 214, 14 or 114, respectively, each comprise a portion of at least 90% by volume of intermetallic copper-tin phases. The power semiconductor module 1 comprises a base plate 20a with a copper-containing coating 20b, on which a substrate 12 is arranged. Instead of a copper-containing coating 20b, provision may also be made for a base plate comprising copper or being composed of copper. The substrate 12 comprises an electrically insulating, highly heat-conducting carrier 12c, for example a ceramic, such as Al2O3, on which a structured metal layer 12a comprising copper or being composed of copper, and a metal layer 12b comprising copper or being composed of copper, are arranged on sides located opposite one another. On each of these substrates 12, one or several semiconductor chips are arranged with a semiconductor body 18, which comprises chip metallizations 19, 119 at least on one of two sides located opposite one another. The semiconductor chips are contacted by means of contact wires 9 on the side facing away from the substrate 12. The contact wires 9 may be electrically connected and/or mechanically joined with sections of the structured metallization 12a, with the metallization of further semiconductor chips on the same or another substrate 12, with a metallic bus bar 7 for joining two or more substrates 12, with external load connections 2 or with external control connections 3. The base plate 20a with its coating 20b forms a housing of the power semiconductor module 1 together with side walls 20c, as well as with a front wall 20d. For protection against environmental influences, particularly against the permeation of humidity and dirt, as well as for increasing the insulation property, the power semiconductor module 1 optionally is cast as well with a soft sealing compound 6 as with a hard sealing compound 5. The soft sealing compound 6 extends, starting from the base plate 20a and its coating 20b, at least beyond the upper surface of the semiconductor chip. The hard sealing compound 5 is arranged above the soft sealing compound 6 on the side thereof facing away from the base plates 20a, 20b. An enlarged section of the power semiconductor module 1 according to FIG. 1 prior to the casting is shown in FIG. 2 in more detail. The production of a power semiconductor module 1 according to FIGS. 1 and 2 is effected in a plurality of steps. In a first step, a substrate 12 is fitted with one or a number of semiconductor chips. For this, provision is made for a respective connection layer 14, which abuts against a metallization 19 on the lower side of the semiconductor body 18 of the semiconductor chip, as well as against the metallization 12a at the upper side of the substrate 12. The substrates 12 fitted in such a manner each form a unit. To be electrically contacted, the semiconductor chips of the fitted substrates 12 may, in an optional second step, be connected at their upper side by means of contact wires 9. In a third step, one or more substrates 12 each optionally fitted with semiconductor chips are fixedly joined with the base plate 20a, 20b by means of a connection layer 214. Instead of a common connection layer 214 one or more substrates 12 may comprise individual connection layers. The connection layers 14, 114, 214 each comprises a portion of at least 90% by volume of intermetallic copper-tin phases. The copper for the formation of the intermetallic copper-tin phases thereby emanates at least substantially out of the soldering partners, which are to be joined with one another and which directly abut against the respective connection layer 14, 114, 214. In the case of the connection layer 14, these partners are the metallization 12a and the chip metallization 19. In the case of the connection layer 114, these partners are the chip metallization 119 at the upper side and the contact wires 9, and, in the case of the connection layer 214, the metallization 12b at the lower side of the substrate 12 and the base plate 20a, 20b. The contact wires 9 comprise copper, e.g. in the form of a copper coating, of an alloy, or may consist of copper. The production of connections by means of such connection layers 14, 114, 214 having at least 90% by volume of intermetallic copper-tin phases will be explained below in an exemplary manner by means of a semiconductor chip according to FIG. 3, which is mechanically joined with and electrically connected to a metallization 12a at the upper side of a substrate 12 according to FIGS. 1 and 2 in a number of steps illustrated in FIG. 4. FIG. 3 is a vertical cross-sectional view through a section of a semiconductor chip having a semiconductor body 18, which, starting at its lower side, is provided with a chip metallization 19 in which an optional buffer layer 15, an optional diffusion barrier layer 16, an optional seed layer 17, and a copper-containing metal layer 11 are arranged successively. The buffer layer 15 ensures that thermomechanical stresses are removed from the connection layer and relieved within the thickness of said layer. The diffusion barrier layer 16 ensures that an unwanted interdiffusion of atoms into the active area of the semiconductor leads to a change of its electrical parameters. Instead of a buffer layer 15 and a diffusion barrier layer 16 a single layer combining a buffer function and a diffusion barrier function may be provided. A tin-containing solder layer 13 is applied directly onto the copper-containing metal layer 11. Accordingly, the upper side of the semiconductor body 18, starting from the semiconductor chip, is provided with a chip metallization 119, in which an optional buffer layer 115, an optional diffusion barrier layer 116, an optional seed layer 117, and a copper-containing metal layer 111 are arranged successively. It shall be pointed out that except one of all copper-containing metal layers 11 and 111 of the semiconductor chip are optional. A tin-containing solder layer 113 is applied directly onto the copper-containing metal layer 111. Alternatively, at least one of the solder layers 13 or 113 may, instead of being applied to a metal layer 11, 111, respectively, or to a chip metallization 19 or 119, respectively, be applied to a predetermined soldering partner, e.g. as depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2, to a metal layer 12a of substrate 12 or to a bond wire 9. The solder layers 13, 113 may, for example, be created by means of vapor deposition, sputtering, or by galvanic deposition. The copper-containing metal layers 11, 111 are designated to provide copper, which diffuses from the metal layers 11, 111 into the fused solder layers 13 or 113, respectively, which directly abut on the metal layers 11, 111, for the purpose of forming intermetallic copper-tin phases. The semiconductor chip 18 has a thickness d18, the buffer layers 15, 115 have thicknesses d15 or d115, respectively, the diffusion barrier layers 16, 116 have thicknesses d16, d116, the seed layers 17, 117 have thicknesses d17, d117, the copper-containing metal layers 11, 111 have thicknesses d1 or d111, respectively, and the tin-containing solder layers 13, 113 have thicknesses d13 or d113, respectively. The buffer layer 15 and/or the buffer layer 115 may, for example, comprise aluminum (Al) or may be composed of aluminum (Al). The thickness d15 of the buffer layer 15 and/or the thickness d115 of the buffer layer 115 may be, for example, from 200 nm to 700 nm, e.g. about 400 nm. The diffusion barrier layer 16 and/or the diffusion barrier layer 116 may each comprise exactly one, exactly two, or a number of the substances titanium (Ti), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium tungsten (TiW), tantalum (Ta), tantalum nitride (TaN) or they may be composed of at least one of these materials. The thicknesses d16 of the diffusion barrier layer 16 and/or d116 of the diffusion barrier layer 116 may, e.g., be from 50 nm to 600 nm. For example, the diffusion barrier layer 16 and/or the diffusion barrier layer 116 may comprise titanium (Ti) or may be composed of titanium (Ti) and may have a thickness d16 or d116, respectively, from 300 nm to 500 nm, e.g. 400 nm. The optional seed layers 17 and 117 are each arranged between a barrier layer 16 and 116, respectively, and one of the metal layers 11 or 111, respectively, and may each comprise at least one of the materials silver (Ag), gold (Au), nickel (Ni), nickel vanadium (NiV) or copper (Cu) or they may be composed of at least one of these substances. The thicknesses d17 and/or d117 of the seed layers 17 or 117, respectively, may be, for example, from 50 nm to 200 nm. In particular, with thicknesses d17 or d117, respectively, from 100 nm to 200 nm, the seed layers 17 and/or 117 may comprise copper (Cu) or may be composed of copper (Cu). For example, the seed layer 17 and/or the seed layer 117 may comprise silver (Ag) or may be composed of silver (Ag) and thereby have a thickness from 50 nm to 100 nm. The metal layer 11 and/or the metal layer 111 comprise copper (Cu) or are composed of copper (Cu) and may thereby have a thickness d11 or d111, respectively, from 1 μm to 30 μm. The solder 13 and/or the solder 113 may, for example, be composed of pure tin (Sn) or may be embodied as tin-containing alloy, which comprises exactly one, exactly two, or more than two of the substances from the group silver (Ag), copper (Cu), nickel (N1), indium (In), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), antimony (Sb), germanium (Ge) or lead (Pb). In particular, the solder 13 and/or the solder 113 may be embodied as tin-containing alloy and may comprise a portion of silver (Ag) from 0.1% by weight to 6% by weight or from 1% by weight to 5% by weight, e.g., 3.5% by weight. For example, if the surface roughness of the metal layers 11 and/or 111, respectively, is small compared with 1 μm, the thickness d13 of the corresponding solder layer 13 and/or the thickness d113 of the solder layer 113 may be chosen to be less than or equal to 10 μm, e.g. from 5 μm to 15 μm, from 4 μm to 13 μm, from 3 μm to 11 μm or from 2 μm to 9 μm. Thicknesses d13 and/or d113 from 5 μm to 10 μm are suited, e.g., if the surface of a soldering partner, with which the respective solder layer 13 or 113 is to connect the semiconductor chip with, has a surface roughness Rz, from 8 μm to 10 μm. For example, for a surface roughness Rz, of the soldering partner from 6 μm to 8 μm, a thickness d13 or d113 of the solder layer 13 or 113, respectively, from 4 μm to 13 μm is particularly suitable, for a surface roughness Rz, of the soldering partner from 4 μm to 6 μm, a thickness d13 or d113 of the solder layer 13 or 113, respectively, from 2 μm to 9 μm is particularly suitable. The way how to determine the surface roughness Rz, will be described in more detail in FIG. 10. If a metal layer 11, 111 has a surface roughness Rz1 on its side facing to the respective solder layer 13, 113 of more than or equal to 1 μm, the thickness d13, d113 of the respective solder layer 13, 113 may be chosen thicker than in the above mentioned case of a substantially smooth metal layer. The following table shows, in μm, possible values for the thickness d13, d113 of a solder layer 13, 113 which is to be soldered to a solder partner, depending of the surface roughness Rz1 of the metal layer 11, 111 and the surface roughness Rz2 of the solder partner: Rz11 Rz2 <4 4 to 6 6 to 8 8 to 10 <4 4 to 18 5 to 20 6 to 22 7 to 24 4 to 6 5 to 20 6 to 22 7 to 24 8 to 26 6 to 8 6 to 22 7 to 24 8 to 26 9 to 28 8 to 10 7 to 24 8 to 26 9 to 28 10 to 30 FIG. 4a shows a section of the semiconductor chip of FIG. 3 comprising the semiconductor body 18 and the metallization 19 at the lower side thereof, as well as the solder layer 13 applied to the metallization 19. The solder layer 13 is arranged between the copper-containing metal layer 11 and the copper-containing metallization 12a of a substrate 12 according to FIGS. 1 and 2. The metallization 12a has a thickness d12 and has a large surface roughness Rz, on an upper surface facing towards the semiconductor body 18. The lower side of the metal layer 11 has a lower surface having a roughness which is low compared to the surface roughness Rz, of the metallization 12a. Therefore, the lower surface of the metal layer 11 is shown as substantially flat. To produce a fixed and permanent joint between the metallization 11 of the semiconductor body 18 and the metallization 12a, the substrate 12 with its metallizations 12a, 12b is heated, according to FIGS. 1 and 2, to a temperature, which is higher than the melting point of the solder layer 13. Subsequently, the solder layer 13 and the metallization 12a are contacted by applying an external, predefined pressure ps and are pressed against one another. The predefined pressure may be, for example, more than 0 N/mm2 and less than or equal to 5 N/mm2, or from 0.5 N/mm2 to 1 N/mm2, or from 0.5 N/mm2 to 3 N/mm2. This creates a thermal contact between the heated metallization 12a and the solder layer 13, as shown in FIG. 4b, so that the solder layer melts and fills trenches 12e formed by the surface roughness of the metallization 12a, which is shown in FIG. 4c. The thickness d13 of the original solder layer 13 according to FIG. 3 is chosen in such a manner that sufficient solder 13 is available to completely fill the trenches 12e under the predefined pressure ps and, at the same time, to avoid that, during the pressing process, too much excessive solder laterally escapes from the intermediate space formed between the metallizations 11 and 12a. As can further be seen from FIG. 4c, a diffusion process takes place at the interfaces between the solder 13 and the copper-containing metallizations 11, 12a, which abut thereon, whereby copper 8 escapes from the metallizations 11, 12a and diffuses into the liquid solder 13, so that one or more intermetallic copper-tin phases are formed in sections 13a of solder 13. By maintaining the external pressure ps as well as the heat supply from the metal layer 12a, the diffusion of copper continues, so that the regions 13a having intermetallic copper-tin phases increase, and, associated therewith, regions 13b of the solder, which do not comprise tin converted into an intermetallic copper-tin phase, decrease, as can be seen from FIGS. 4c to 4e. As shown in FIG. 4d, continuous bridges 13d consisting only of intermetallic copper-tin phases, will form at places where the local distance between the soldering partners 11, 12a is minimal. As soon as at two locations spaced apart from one another two continuous bridges 13d have established, the soldering partners 11, 12a are interconnected and the pressure p may be reduced or removed. To continue the diffusion process of the copper 8 into the solder, the temperature of the solder may be maintained, e.g. below 415° C. and above the melting point of the original solder, for a predetermined duration, until enough solder, e.g. at least 90% by volume, has been converted into intermetallic copper-tin phases. The melting point of the material in the regions 13a comprising intermetallic copper-tin phases is significantly determined by the melting point of that intermetallic copper-tin phase present in the regions 13a having the lowest melting point of all intermetallic copper-tin phases present in the regions 13a. Of all possible intermetallic copper-tin phases, the phase Cu6Sn5, with 415° C., has the lowest melting point, which can be seen from the phase diagram for intermetallic copper-tin phases according to FIG. 5. This means that the regions 13a with intermetallic phases according to FIGS. 4c to 4e have a melting point of at least 415° C., with a sufficiently high portion of the phase Cu6Sn5. Provided that the intermetallic phase Cu6Sn5 does not emerge, the melting point of the sections 13a according to FIGS. 4c and 4d actually lies at 676° C., which is the melting point of the intermetallic copper-tin phase Cu3Sn. If the melting of the solder 13 is effected at a temperature, which lies above the melting point of the solder 13 and below 415° C., due to the diffusion of copper and the formation of intermetallic copper-tin phases associated therewith, a solidification of the material in the sections 13a occurs. In so doing, it is possible to produce a connection layer 14 according to FIG. 4d, which has a melting point being higher than the temperature required for melting the solder layer 13. Once a portion of the tin contained in the liquid solder 13 is converted into one or more intermetallic copper-tin-phases at an amount being sufficient to produce a stable connection layer 14 at the temperature at hand, the external pressure ps may be decreased or withdrawn. Independent on whether or not a pressure ps is further exerted on the configuration, the diffusion and the formation of intermetallic copper-tin phases in the connection layer 14 associated therewith continues, until mostly all tin, e.g., at least 90% by volume, is converted into an intermetallic copper-tin phase. To achieve a sufficiently high degree of conversion of tin into an intermetallic copper-tin phase, the thickness of the solder layer 13 applied onto the lower side of the semiconductor chip may be chosen to match the surface roughness of the metal layer 12a in such a manner that, after the liquefaction of the solder layer 13, the distance d0 (see FIGS. 4c to 4e) between the metal layers 11 and 12a establishing under the influence of the pressure ps, is as short as possible, and that, nevertheless, all of the trenches 12e are basically completely filled. The shorter the distance d0, the smaller the section of the solder 13, through which the copper 8 escaping from the metallizations 11 and 12a must permeate, to effect the highest possible degree of conversion of the tin contained in the liquid solder 13 into an intermetallic copper-tin phase. The distance d0 may, e.g., be shorter than 1 μm, or, be equal to zero. Coming along with a high pressure ps and a short distance d0 the solder needs to be heated to a temperature above its melting point for a short duration only. Therefore, suitable pairs of such a duration and a pressure ps applied to the soldering partners, may be defined. For example, at the same time, when the solder is heated for a predefined duration above its original melting point, i.e. above the melting point the solder has before the formation of copper-tin-phases starts, the pressure ps may be applied to the soldering partners and the solder arranged therebetween, to effect a minimum distance d0 between the soldering partners 11, 12a and to effect the formation of bridges 12d. The pressure ps may be, e.g., less than 5 N/mm2 and the temperature of the solder, e.g., from above its original melting point to 415° C. In the ideal case, all tin from the original solder 13 has been converted into one or more intermetallic copper-tin-phases, which may be seen from FIG. 4e. FIGS. 6a to 6l generally show the production of a connection layer 14 between two copper-containing soldering partners 11, 12a of a power semiconductor module as a function of time t. According to FIG. 6a, copper-containing soldering partners 11a, 12a, as well as a tin-containing solder 13 are provided at a point in time t0. The solder 13 is arranged between the soldering partners 11 and 12a, and may be applied, for example, onto one or both of the sides of the soldering partners 11 and 12a, which are to be joined with one another, for example by means of vapor deposition, sputtering, or by galvanic deposition. At a point in time t0, the soldering partners 11, 12a, and the solder 13 are at ambient temperature, for example at room temperature. According to FIG. 6b, the soldering partner 12a is heated to a temperature T1, which is higher than the temperature t0 and higher than the melting point of the solder 13. According to FIG. 6c, the soldering partners 11 and 12a are subsequently, at a point in time t2, pressed against one another by means of a pressure ps, whereby a thermal contact between the solder 13 and the soldering partner 12a is formed, so that the solder 13 is heated due to the higher temperature T1 of the soldering partner 12a, and is liquefied at a point in time t3, the result of which is shown in FIG. 6d. As arises from FIG. 6e, the liquid solder 13, under the influence of the pressure ps, permeates into the trenches 12e, which are formed by the surface roughness of the soldering partner 12a. At the same time, a displacement of excessive liquid solder 13c takes place from the opening existing between the soldering partners 11 and 12a. Furthermore, in the course of time, the temperature of the soldering partner 11 conforms to the temperature T1 of the soldering partner 12a. Associated with the liquefaction of the solder 13, a diffusion process sets in, wherein copper 8 diffuses from the soldering partners 11 and 12a into the solder 13, so that the copper 8 with tin from the solder 13 forms one or a plurality of intermetallic copper-tin phases, the melting points of which being higher than the melting point of the original solder 13. As time t increases, more and more copper 8 diffuses into the solder layer 13, which can be seen from FIG. 6f to 6i, at points in time t5 to t8. In the configuration according to FIG. 6h, the original solder layer 13 was already converted into a sufficiently stable connection layer 14, so that it was possible to remove the external pressure ps according to FIGS. 6c to 6g. To further advance the diffusion of cooper into tin components contained in the solder 13, which have not yet been converted into an intermetallic copper-tin phase, the temperature of the connection layer 14 and/or of the soldering partners 11, 12a abutting against the connection layer 14 is optionally maintained or at least held at a value being higher than the melting point of the original solder 13. Once the connection layer 14 according to FIG. 6i has, at a point in time t8, a predefined portion of intermetallic copper-tin phases, e.g. of at least 90% per volume, the arrangement is cooled down to a temperature T2, which is lower than the temperature T1, the result of which can be seen from FIG. 6k at a point in time t9. After the further cooling of the configuration to ambient temperature T0, the soldering partners 11 and 12a are permanently joined with one another in a manner, which is stable to temperature changes at a point in time t10, as is shown in FIG. 6l. FIGS. 7 and 8 show examples of temporal characteristics of the temperature T of the solder and of the pressure p applied to the soldering partners during manufacturing a solder connection as described above. Starting from an ambient temperature T0, dependent on time t, the solder is heated to a predefined temperature T1. Further, pressure p is increased to a predefined pressure ps. The characteristics of temperature T and pressure p are coordinated such that within a predefined time ts the solder has a temperature of T1 and the pressure p with which the soldering partners are pressed against one another is ps. In the example according to FIG. 7, temperature T reaches the predefined temperature T1 before pressure p reaches the predefined pressure ps. Further, pressure p is reduced below the predefined pressure ps before temperature T is reduced below the predefined temperature T1. During a tempering time tt following the time ts, the soldering partners and the solder may be tempered without external pressure p or with an external pressure p below the predefined pressure ps for a predefined duration tt, e.g. from more than 0 sec to 120 sec, or 65 sec to 110 sec, at a temperature of less than 415° C., e.g., 400° C. In the example according to FIG. 8, pressure p reaches the predefined pressure ps before temperature T reaches the predefined temperature T1. Further, temperature T is reduced below the predefined temperature T1 before pressure p is reduced below the predefined pressure ps. Similarly, the temperature T may reach the predefined temperature T1 before pressure p reaches the predefined pressure ps and temperature T is may be reduced below the predefined temperature T1 before pressure p is reduced below the predefined pressure ps. Also, pressure p may reach the predefined pressure ps before temperature T reaches the predefined temperature T1 and pressure p may be reduced below the predefined pressure ps before temperature T is reduced below the predefined temperature T1 Within the time ts, temperature T shall not fall below the predefined temperature T1 and pressure p shall not fall below the predefined pressure ps. The predefined temperature T1 may be, e.g., from the original melting point of the used solder to 415° C. and the predefined pressure, e.g., from 0.5 N/mm2 to 5 N/mm2. The predefined time ts may be, e.g., from 0.1 sec to 5 sec. FIG. 9 shows different temporal characteristics of the pressure applied to the soldering partners during manufacturing a solder connection. The external pressure p applied to the soldering partners 11, 12a may start from 0 N/mm2 and rise to ps, e.g., with an almost vertical slope (1), linearly (2), curved right (3) or curved left (4). Over a period of time ts, in which both the temperature T is T1 and the pressure p is p1, first bridges 13d (see FIG. 4d) form. Then, a period of time tt follows, in which the temperature T is maintained below 415° C., e.g., between the solder's original melting point and below or equal to 415° C., and the diffusion process is continued. The pressure p1 may also be maintained after during the period of time tt, e.g. 0 sec to 120 sec. FIG. 10 illustrates how to evaluate the surface roughness Rz, which is defined according to DIN EN ISO 1302 (06/02) by example of a metallization of a substrate as described above. First, a predefined measuring length l along the surface of the metallization is subdivided into five sections 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 having equal lengths. Then, within each of these five consecutive sections 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 the peak-to-valley difference Rz1, Rz2, Rz3, Rz4 and Rz5, respectively, is determined. The surface roughness Rz is the average of the five peak-to-valley differences Rz1, Rz2, Rz3, Rz4 and Rz5. The present invention allows for the first time a unique technology to mount a semiconductor chip onto a metallization of a substrate, e.g. a ceramic substrate, the metallization having a large surface roughness Rz of, e.g., 10 μm, for a reliable application at an ambient temperature of about 200° C. or above. In addition, this technology leads to a reduction of the heat transmission resistance of the connection layer. Although various examples to realize the invention have been disclosed, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made which will achieve some of the advantages of the invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It will be obvious to those reasonably skilled in the art that other components performing the same functions may be suitably substituted. Such modifications to the inventive concept are intended to be covered by the appended claims.
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23
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48
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11952755
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US20080173905A1-20080724
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SOLID STATE IMAGING DEVICE AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THE SAME
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ACCEPTED
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20080709
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20080724
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[]
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H01L27148
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["H01L27148", "H01L3118"]
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7714401
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20071207
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20100511
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257
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431000
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59162.0
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LAM
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CATHY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "NAGASE", "inventor_name_first": "Masanori", "inventor_city": "Kurokawa-gun", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Matsuda", "inventor_name_first": "Jiro", "inventor_city": "Kurokawa-gun", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sasamoto", "inventor_name_first": "Tsuneo", "inventor_city": "Kurokawa-gun", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hayakawa", "inventor_name_first": "Toshiaki", "inventor_city": "Kurokawa-gun", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A solid state imaging device comprises: a photoelectric converting portion provided on a semiconductor substrate; a charge transfer path, formed in an adjacent position to the photoelectric converting portion, that receives a signal charge generated in the photoelectric converting portion and transfers the signal charge in a predetermined direction; and a gate electrode that transfers the signal charge from the photoelectric converting portion to the charge transfer path, wherein the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a different conductive type from that of a semiconductor region forming a charge storing portion of the charge transfer path.
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1. A solid state imaging device comprising: a photoelectric converting portion provided on a semiconductor substrate; a charge transfer path, formed in an adjacent position to the photoelectric converting portion, that receives a signal charge generated in the photoelectric converting portion and transfers the signal charge in a predetermined direction; and a gate electrode that transfers the signal charge from the photoelectric converting portion to the charge transfer path, wherein the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a different conductive type from that of a semiconductor region forming a charge storing portion of the charge transfer path. 2. The solid state imaging device according to claim 1, wherein the semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path has an N conductive type, and the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a P conductive type. 3. The solid state imaging device according to claim 2, further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that transfers the signal charge received through the vertical charge transfer path in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. 4. The solid state imaging device according to claim 2, further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; a line memory, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that executes to hold and transfer the signal charge received from the vertical charge transfer path; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the line memory, that transfers the signal charge received through the line memory in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the line memory and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. 5. The solid state imaging device according to claim 3, wherein the photoelectric converting portions and the vertical charge transfer paths form a plurality of columns, in which each of the columns comprises: a set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions: and one of the vertical charge transfer paths adjacent to the set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions, a first one of the columns comprises: a set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and first one of the vertical charge transfer paths, a second one of the columns comprises: a set of second ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the first and second ones of the columns are adjacent to each other, a device isolating region is formed between the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions and the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, and the charge transfer electrode controls signal charge transfer of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths and is formed to be protruded to an intermediate position of the device isolating region from a position of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths toward the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions which is adjacent thereto. 6. The solid state imaging device according to claim 4, wherein the photoelectric converting portions and the vertical charge transfer paths form a plurality of columns, in which each of the columns comprises: a set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions: and one of the vertical charge transfer paths adjacent to the set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions, a first one of the columns comprises: a set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and first one of the vertical charge transfer paths, a second one of the columns comprises: a set of second ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the first and second ones of the columns are adjacent to each other, a device isolating region is formed between the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions and the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, and the charge transfer electrode controls signal charge transfer of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths and is formed to be protruded to an intermediate position of the device isolating region from a position of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths toward the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions which is adjacent thereto. 7. A method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device according to claim 1, the method comprising: forming a first conductive type layer for forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path on the semiconductor substrate; and forming a gate electrode having a second conductive type which is different from the first conductive type layer on the first conductive type layer through an insulating layer.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a solid state imaging device and a method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to a solid state imaging device to be used in a digital camera, particularly, a solid state imaging device using a CCD (Charge Coupled Devices), it is necessary to suppress the generation of a smear to be a peculiar noise. In the case in which an object includes a light or sun having a high luminance, the smear easily appears. Actually, the noise seems to be whitish like a stripe or a band in upper and lower parts of a portion having a high luminance in an image which is picked up. It is supposed that the smear appears by a mixture of a charge generated in a pixel portion having a high luminance in an imaging portion provided on the solid state imaging device into charges of other pixels which have been subjected to a photoelectric conversion and are being transferred. For a specific mechanism to generate the smear, four causes shown in (1) to (4) of FIG. 14 can be supposed. In other words, the smear is generated by at least one of the four causes in the following (1) to (4). (1) A photoelectric conversion in a peripheral portion of a photodiode (PD): A light which is incident from an opening of a photodiode is not restricted to a component having a perpendicular incident angle to a surface. Moreover, the light has a property of a wave. For this reason, a light transmitted through the opening spreads and a photoelectric conversion is also carried out in a gate region provided on the periphery of the photodiode so that a charge corresponding to a noise is generated and mixed into a vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD). (2) A diffusion current in a P-type region of an embedded photodiode: an electron generated in a P + region is diffused over a surface of the embedded photodiode and is mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) in an adjacent column. (3) A reflection and diffraction of a light incident from an opening portion of a shielding film (W or Al): an incident light is reflected or scattered at a boundary having a different refractive index, for example, a surface of a silicon substrate in an edge of the opening of the photodiode, and a charge is generated by the influence of the light and is mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD). (4) A transmission of the light through the shielding film (Al): If the shielding film (W or Al) which shields the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) has a defect, a light leaking out of the defect is incident on the vertical charge transfer portion to generate a charge so that a smear is generated. In a recent solid state imaging device, however, the shielding is sufficiently carried out in many cases. For the actual cause of the smear, a diffusing component of a carrier subjected to the photoelectric conversion in (2) is dominant. A current solid state imaging device of a CCD type is constituted by using an NMOS process as disclosed in JP-A-2005-209714, for example. More specifically, an electron having a high mobility is used as a carrier in the NMOS process. Therefore, a high speed operation can be carried out and the NMOS process is suitable for a device performance in the case in which a solid state imaging device is manufactured. In the NMOS process, each circuit element is basically constituted by using an NMOS transistor having a structure shown in FIG. 15A . In FIG. 15A , an insulating layer 302 is formed on a surface of a substrate (a base material) 301 constituted by a P-type semiconductor (silicon), and a gate electrode 303 is formed on the insulating layer 302 . Moreover, a source region 304 and a drain region 305 are constituted by an N-type semiconductor (silicon), respectively. Furthermore, in the example, N-type polysilicon (N-Poly) to be a general material is used as the gate electrode 303 . In other words, when a positive voltage is applied to the gate electrode 303 by a capacitor formed between the substrate 301 and the gate electrode 303 , an electron is pulled toward a boundary surface between the substrate 301 and the insulating layer 302 so that an inverting layer (N type) is formed between the source region 304 and the drain region 305 . A region (channel) having a high conductivity is formed between the source region 304 and the drain region 305 by the inverting layer, and the electron to be the carrier is moved therebetween. The movement of the electron can be controlled by the voltage to be applied to the gate electrode 303 . Referring to the NMOS transistor, it is necessary to employ a surface channel structure in order to reduce an interference (a short channel effect) generated when a distance between the source and the drain is short (2 μm or less). In the case in which it is necessary to reduce a threshold voltage, moreover, an electric potential distribution shown in FIG. 15B is generally formed by using N-type polysilicon as the gate electrode 303 in such a manner that a slight depletion state is generated even if the voltage to be applied to the gate electrode 303 is 0V, for example. The related-art solid state imaging device of a CCD type using the NMOS process is constituted as shown in FIG. 16 . FIG. 16 shows a sectional structure of an imaging cell corresponding to one pixel and a peripheral portion thereof. More specifically, in the imaging cell for generating signal charges corresponding to respective pixels, an N-type semiconductor region 402 provided in a P-type semiconductor region 401 constitutes a photodiode (PD). A P + region 403 is formed on the N-type semiconductor region 402 . Moreover, an N-type semiconductor region 404 for forming a vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) to transfer the signal charge in a vertical direction is disposed on a side of the N-type semiconductor region 402 . In order to transfer, to the vertical charge transfer portion, the signal charge generated and stored by the N-type semiconductor region 402 to be the photodiode, a gate electrode 406 is provided above the N-type semiconductor region 404 . The gate electrode 406 and the N-type semiconductor region 404 are isolated from each other through an insulating layer 405 . The gate electrode 406 is constituted by using N-type polysilicon (N-Poly) in the same manner as in a general NMOS transistor. A two-dimensional solid state imaging device includes a large number of imaging cells which are arranged at a regular interval in directions of a row and a column. Therefore, another imaging cell is disposed in an adjacent position to one imaging cell. In the example shown in FIG. 16 , an N-type semiconductor region 404 ( 1 ) on a right side constitutes a vertical charge transfer portion in a column to which the imaging cell belongs, and an N-type semiconductor region 404 ( 2 ) on a left side constitutes a vertical charge transfer portion belonging to another column which is adjacent to the imaging cell. Moreover, a gate electrode 406 ( 1 ) is provided to transfer the signal charge from a photodiode of the imaging cell to the N-type semiconductor region 404 ( 1 ) to be the vertical charge transfer portion in the column to which the imaging cell belongs, and a gate electrode 406 ( 2 ) is provided to transfer the signal charge from a photodiode of the imaging cell belonging to the adjacent column to the N-type semiconductor region 404 ( 2 ) of the column to which the imaging cell belongs. Moreover, the imaging cell and the imaging cell in the adjacent column are isolated from each other thorough the P + region 403 . By the influence of a diffusion current in the P-type region ( 403 ) of the embedded photodiode, however, a part of the signal charges generated in the photodiode of the imaging cell are mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion ( 404 ( 2 )) belonging to the imaging cells in other adjacent columns in some cases. Consequently, the smear is caused. In other words, the signal charge leaks into the other adjacent columns through a path of ( 2 ) shown in FIG. 14 . In order to reduce the cause of the smear, in the related art, a surface shielding layer (corresponding to the P + region 403 in FIG. 16 ) of the embedded photodiode is mainly shallowed as a countermeasure. When the surface shielding layer is excessively shallowed, however, it is impossible to obtain a structure of an embedded photodiode which is an original object. For this reason, there is a problem in that an interface generating current to cause a dark current or a white flaw is increased. Accordingly, the actual shallowness of the surface shielding layer is to be determined by a trade-off of the smear and the interface generating current. In the related-art solid imaging device, a surface shielding layer is shallowed as a countermeasure for decreasing diffusing components of a carrier generated by a photoelectric conversion of a photodiode. Therefore, restrictions are imposed due to an increase in the interface generating current. Therefore, it is hard to effectively suppress a smear. When the photodiode is exposed, moreover, the smear is generated. At this time, either a medium potential (VM) or a low potential (VL) is applied to a gate electrode for controlling an electric potential between the photodiode and the vertical charge transfer portion. When the medium potential (VM) is applied to the gate electrode so that the electric potential of the vertical charge transfer portion is reduced, the smear is generated. By applying a negative bias as the medium potential (VM), accordingly, it is possible to form a potential barrier on an entrance of the vertical charge transfer portion. Therefore, it is possible to prevent the diffusing component of the carrier from flowing into the other adjacent columns, thereby suppressing the generation of the smear. In the case of the solid state imaging device to be particularly used in a household product, however, it is necessary to reduce a consumed power and to decrease the number of power supplies. Under the actual circumstances, therefore, a ground potential (GND) is to be applied as the medium potential (VM) to the gate electrode. For this reason, the negative bias cannot be applied as the medium potential (VM) in the related-art solid state imaging device so that the potential barrier cannot be formed on the entrance of the vertical charge transfer portion.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the invention to provide a solid state imaging device and a method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device which can effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage to a gate electrode. The object according to the invention can be achieved by the following structure. (1) A solid state imaging device comprising: a photoelectric converting portion provided on a semiconductor substrate; a charge transfer path, formed in an adjacent position to the photoelectric converting portion, that receives a signal charge generated in the photoelectric converting portion and transfers the signal charge in a predetermined direction; and a gate electrode that transfers the signal charge from the photoelectric converting portion to the charge transfer path, wherein the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a different conductive type from that of a semiconductor region forming a charge storing portion of the charge transfer path. According to the solid state imaging device, it is possible to effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from an outside of the gate electrode. For example, in the case in which a solid state imaging device using an NMOS process is constituted, a semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by a semiconductor region having an N conductive type (which implies a doping polarity). In that case, therefore, the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the N conductive type. On the contrary, in the case in which the solid state imaging device using a PMOS process is constituted, the semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by a semiconductor region having a P conductive type. In that case, therefore, the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the P conductive type. In other words, while the gate electrode is formed of the N-type polysilicon in the related-art solid state imaging device using the NMOS process, the gate electrode is formed of the P-type polysilicon having a different conductive type in the invention. A work function has a great difference between the N-type polysilicon and the P-type polysilicon which can be utilized as a material for the gate electrode. For example, the work function has almost a difference in an amount corresponding to a band gap difference (approximately 1.1 V) between N + type polysilicon and P + type polysilicon, for example. The “work function” represents the lowest energy which is required for an electron to get out of a metal. In other words, if the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, an electric potential distribution between the photoelectric converting portion and the charge transfer path is varied depending on a difference between their work functions so that a movement of a carrier generated by the photodiode is changed greatly. More specifically, when the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, the same result as that in an application of a potential of (VM-1.1(V)) is obtained effectively. Even if a negative bias is not applied as the medium potential (VM), therefore, it is possible to obtain the same result as that in the application of the negative bias. The related-art general solid state imaging device is constituted by using an NMOS process, and the N-type polysilicon is used as the gate electrode in the same manner as in a general device using the NMOS process. More specifically, it is also possible to produce an advantage that a high speed operation can be carried out in a fine structure having a line width of approximately 0.25 μm, for example, by using the h-type polysilicon as a material for the gate electrode. For this reason, the N-type polysilicon is generally used as the gate electrode in the solid state imaging device constituted by using the related-art NMOS process. However, it is also possible to constitute the solid state imaging device by using the P-type polysilicon. If the advantage is produced, the P-type polysilicon can be utilized properly. (2) The solid state imaging device according to (1) wherein the semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path has an N conductive type, and the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, it is assumed that the solid state imaging device is constituted in the NMOS process. Therefore, the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by the semiconductor region having the N-type conductive type and the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the P-type conductive type. In the same manner as in (1), accordingly, the same result as that in the effective application of the potential of (VM-1.1(V)) as the medium potential (VM) is obtained and the same result as that in the application of a negative bias is obtained even if the negative bias is not applied as the middle potential (VM) as compared with the case in which the N-type polysilicon is used for the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to effectively reduce the smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from an outside to the gate electrode. (3) The solid state imaging device according to (2) further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that transfers the signal charge received through the vertical charge transfer path in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the transfer of the signal charge through the vertical charge transfer path or the horizontal charge transfer path is also formed by the P-type polysilicon in addition to a gate electrode. More specifically, the charge transfer electrode of the vertical charge transfer path or the horizontal charge transfer path is formed by using the same material as the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to prevent a manufacturing process from being complicated. (4) The solid state imaging device according to (2) further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; a line memory, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that executes to hold and transfer the signal charge received from the vertical charge transfer path; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the line memory, that transfers the signal charge received through the line memory in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the line memory and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the transfer of the signal charge through the vertical charge transfer path, the line memory or the horizontal charge transfer path is also formed by the P-type polysilicon in addition to a gate electrode. More specifically, the charge transfer electrode of the vertical charge transfer path, the line memory or the horizontal charge transfer path is formed by using the same material as the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to prevent a manufacturing process from being complicated. (5) The solid state imaging device according to (3) or (4), wherein the photoelectric converting portions and the vertical charge transfer paths form a plurality of columns, in which each of the columns comprises: a set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions: and one of the vertical charge transfer paths adjacent to the set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions, a first one of the columns comprises: a set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and first one of the vertical charge transfer paths, a second one of the columns comprises: a set of second ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the first and second ones of the columns are adjacent to each other, a device isolating region is formed between the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions and the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, and the charge transfer electrode controls signal charge transfer of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths and is formed to be protruded to an intermediate position of the device isolating region from a position of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths toward the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions which is adjacent thereto. According to the solid state imaging device, it is possible to further enhance the effect of preventing the carrier generated by the photodiode (the first photoelectric converting portion) in each pixel position from leaking as a diffusion current into the vertical charge transfer portion (the second vertical charge transfer path) in another adjacent column. With a general structure, a charge transfer electrode for controlling a signal charge transfer of each vertical charge transfer path is constituted in such a dimension and shape that a width and a position are equal to those of the semiconductor region (channel) of the vertical charge transfer path. In the solid state imaging device in (5), however, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the signal charge transfer of the second vertical charge transfer path is formed to be protruded to the intermediate position of the device isolating region from the position of the second vertical charge transfer path toward the first photoelectric converting portion which is adjacent thereto. Consequently, it is possible to increase the effect of preventing the diffusion current from flowing from the first photoelectric converting portion to the second vertical charge transfer path in the adjacent column. Thus, it is possible to enhance the effect of suppressing a smear. When the charge transfer electrode in the adjacent column is caused to excessively approach the first photoelectric converting portion, conversely, there is a higher possibility that the signal charge is read from the first photoelectric converting portion to the adjacent column. For this reason, it is necessary to hold an amount of the protrusion of the charge transfer electrode up to the intermediate position of the device isolating region. (6) A method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device according to any of (1) to (5), the method comprising: forming a first conductive type layer for forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path on the semiconductor substrate; and forming a gate electrode having a second conductive type which is different from the first conductive type layer on the first conductive type layer through an insulating layer. According to the method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device, it is possible to manufacture any of the solid state imaging devices in (1) to (5).
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a solid state imaging device and a method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to a solid state imaging device to be used in a digital camera, particularly, a solid state imaging device using a CCD (Charge Coupled Devices), it is necessary to suppress the generation of a smear to be a peculiar noise. In the case in which an object includes a light or sun having a high luminance, the smear easily appears. Actually, the noise seems to be whitish like a stripe or a band in upper and lower parts of a portion having a high luminance in an image which is picked up. It is supposed that the smear appears by a mixture of a charge generated in a pixel portion having a high luminance in an imaging portion provided on the solid state imaging device into charges of other pixels which have been subjected to a photoelectric conversion and are being transferred. For a specific mechanism to generate the smear, four causes shown in (1) to (4) of FIG. 14 can be supposed. In other words, the smear is generated by at least one of the four causes in the following (1) to (4). (1) A photoelectric conversion in a peripheral portion of a photodiode (PD): A light which is incident from an opening of a photodiode is not restricted to a component having a perpendicular incident angle to a surface. Moreover, the light has a property of a wave. For this reason, a light transmitted through the opening spreads and a photoelectric conversion is also carried out in a gate region provided on the periphery of the photodiode so that a charge corresponding to a noise is generated and mixed into a vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD). (2) A diffusion current in a P-type region of an embedded photodiode: an electron generated in a P+ region is diffused over a surface of the embedded photodiode and is mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) in an adjacent column. (3) A reflection and diffraction of a light incident from an opening portion of a shielding film (W or Al): an incident light is reflected or scattered at a boundary having a different refractive index, for example, a surface of a silicon substrate in an edge of the opening of the photodiode, and a charge is generated by the influence of the light and is mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD). (4) A transmission of the light through the shielding film (Al): If the shielding film (W or Al) which shields the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) has a defect, a light leaking out of the defect is incident on the vertical charge transfer portion to generate a charge so that a smear is generated. In a recent solid state imaging device, however, the shielding is sufficiently carried out in many cases. For the actual cause of the smear, a diffusing component of a carrier subjected to the photoelectric conversion in (2) is dominant. A current solid state imaging device of a CCD type is constituted by using an NMOS process as disclosed in JP-A-2005-209714, for example. More specifically, an electron having a high mobility is used as a carrier in the NMOS process. Therefore, a high speed operation can be carried out and the NMOS process is suitable for a device performance in the case in which a solid state imaging device is manufactured. In the NMOS process, each circuit element is basically constituted by using an NMOS transistor having a structure shown in FIG. 15A. In FIG. 15A, an insulating layer 302 is formed on a surface of a substrate (a base material) 301 constituted by a P-type semiconductor (silicon), and a gate electrode 303 is formed on the insulating layer 302. Moreover, a source region 304 and a drain region 305 are constituted by an N-type semiconductor (silicon), respectively. Furthermore, in the example, N-type polysilicon (N-Poly) to be a general material is used as the gate electrode 303. In other words, when a positive voltage is applied to the gate electrode 303 by a capacitor formed between the substrate 301 and the gate electrode 303, an electron is pulled toward a boundary surface between the substrate 301 and the insulating layer 302 so that an inverting layer (N type) is formed between the source region 304 and the drain region 305. A region (channel) having a high conductivity is formed between the source region 304 and the drain region 305 by the inverting layer, and the electron to be the carrier is moved therebetween. The movement of the electron can be controlled by the voltage to be applied to the gate electrode 303. Referring to the NMOS transistor, it is necessary to employ a surface channel structure in order to reduce an interference (a short channel effect) generated when a distance between the source and the drain is short (2 μm or less). In the case in which it is necessary to reduce a threshold voltage, moreover, an electric potential distribution shown in FIG. 15B is generally formed by using N-type polysilicon as the gate electrode 303 in such a manner that a slight depletion state is generated even if the voltage to be applied to the gate electrode 303 is 0V, for example. The related-art solid state imaging device of a CCD type using the NMOS process is constituted as shown in FIG. 16. FIG. 16 shows a sectional structure of an imaging cell corresponding to one pixel and a peripheral portion thereof. More specifically, in the imaging cell for generating signal charges corresponding to respective pixels, an N-type semiconductor region 402 provided in a P-type semiconductor region 401 constitutes a photodiode (PD). A P+ region 403 is formed on the N-type semiconductor region 402. Moreover, an N-type semiconductor region 404 for forming a vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) to transfer the signal charge in a vertical direction is disposed on a side of the N-type semiconductor region 402. In order to transfer, to the vertical charge transfer portion, the signal charge generated and stored by the N-type semiconductor region 402 to be the photodiode, a gate electrode 406 is provided above the N-type semiconductor region 404. The gate electrode 406 and the N-type semiconductor region 404 are isolated from each other through an insulating layer 405. The gate electrode 406 is constituted by using N-type polysilicon (N-Poly) in the same manner as in a general NMOS transistor. A two-dimensional solid state imaging device includes a large number of imaging cells which are arranged at a regular interval in directions of a row and a column. Therefore, another imaging cell is disposed in an adjacent position to one imaging cell. In the example shown in FIG. 16, an N-type semiconductor region 404(1) on a right side constitutes a vertical charge transfer portion in a column to which the imaging cell belongs, and an N-type semiconductor region 404(2) on a left side constitutes a vertical charge transfer portion belonging to another column which is adjacent to the imaging cell. Moreover, a gate electrode 406(1) is provided to transfer the signal charge from a photodiode of the imaging cell to the N-type semiconductor region 404(1) to be the vertical charge transfer portion in the column to which the imaging cell belongs, and a gate electrode 406(2) is provided to transfer the signal charge from a photodiode of the imaging cell belonging to the adjacent column to the N-type semiconductor region 404(2) of the column to which the imaging cell belongs. Moreover, the imaging cell and the imaging cell in the adjacent column are isolated from each other thorough the P+ region 403. By the influence of a diffusion current in the P-type region (403) of the embedded photodiode, however, a part of the signal charges generated in the photodiode of the imaging cell are mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (404(2)) belonging to the imaging cells in other adjacent columns in some cases. Consequently, the smear is caused. In other words, the signal charge leaks into the other adjacent columns through a path of (2) shown in FIG. 14. In order to reduce the cause of the smear, in the related art, a surface shielding layer (corresponding to the P+ region 403 in FIG. 16) of the embedded photodiode is mainly shallowed as a countermeasure. When the surface shielding layer is excessively shallowed, however, it is impossible to obtain a structure of an embedded photodiode which is an original object. For this reason, there is a problem in that an interface generating current to cause a dark current or a white flaw is increased. Accordingly, the actual shallowness of the surface shielding layer is to be determined by a trade-off of the smear and the interface generating current. In the related-art solid imaging device, a surface shielding layer is shallowed as a countermeasure for decreasing diffusing components of a carrier generated by a photoelectric conversion of a photodiode. Therefore, restrictions are imposed due to an increase in the interface generating current. Therefore, it is hard to effectively suppress a smear. When the photodiode is exposed, moreover, the smear is generated. At this time, either a medium potential (VM) or a low potential (VL) is applied to a gate electrode for controlling an electric potential between the photodiode and the vertical charge transfer portion. When the medium potential (VM) is applied to the gate electrode so that the electric potential of the vertical charge transfer portion is reduced, the smear is generated. By applying a negative bias as the medium potential (VM), accordingly, it is possible to form a potential barrier on an entrance of the vertical charge transfer portion. Therefore, it is possible to prevent the diffusing component of the carrier from flowing into the other adjacent columns, thereby suppressing the generation of the smear. In the case of the solid state imaging device to be particularly used in a household product, however, it is necessary to reduce a consumed power and to decrease the number of power supplies. Under the actual circumstances, therefore, a ground potential (GND) is to be applied as the medium potential (VM) to the gate electrode. For this reason, the negative bias cannot be applied as the medium potential (VM) in the related-art solid state imaging device so that the potential barrier cannot be formed on the entrance of the vertical charge transfer portion. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to provide a solid state imaging device and a method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device which can effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage to a gate electrode. The object according to the invention can be achieved by the following structure. (1) A solid state imaging device comprising: a photoelectric converting portion provided on a semiconductor substrate; a charge transfer path, formed in an adjacent position to the photoelectric converting portion, that receives a signal charge generated in the photoelectric converting portion and transfers the signal charge in a predetermined direction; and a gate electrode that transfers the signal charge from the photoelectric converting portion to the charge transfer path, wherein the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a different conductive type from that of a semiconductor region forming a charge storing portion of the charge transfer path. According to the solid state imaging device, it is possible to effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from an outside of the gate electrode. For example, in the case in which a solid state imaging device using an NMOS process is constituted, a semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by a semiconductor region having an N conductive type (which implies a doping polarity). In that case, therefore, the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the N conductive type. On the contrary, in the case in which the solid state imaging device using a PMOS process is constituted, the semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by a semiconductor region having a P conductive type. In that case, therefore, the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the P conductive type. In other words, while the gate electrode is formed of the N-type polysilicon in the related-art solid state imaging device using the NMOS process, the gate electrode is formed of the P-type polysilicon having a different conductive type in the invention. A work function has a great difference between the N-type polysilicon and the P-type polysilicon which can be utilized as a material for the gate electrode. For example, the work function has almost a difference in an amount corresponding to a band gap difference (approximately 1.1 V) between N+ type polysilicon and P+ type polysilicon, for example. The “work function” represents the lowest energy which is required for an electron to get out of a metal. In other words, if the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, an electric potential distribution between the photoelectric converting portion and the charge transfer path is varied depending on a difference between their work functions so that a movement of a carrier generated by the photodiode is changed greatly. More specifically, when the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, the same result as that in an application of a potential of (VM-1.1(V)) is obtained effectively. Even if a negative bias is not applied as the medium potential (VM), therefore, it is possible to obtain the same result as that in the application of the negative bias. The related-art general solid state imaging device is constituted by using an NMOS process, and the N-type polysilicon is used as the gate electrode in the same manner as in a general device using the NMOS process. More specifically, it is also possible to produce an advantage that a high speed operation can be carried out in a fine structure having a line width of approximately 0.25 μm, for example, by using the h-type polysilicon as a material for the gate electrode. For this reason, the N-type polysilicon is generally used as the gate electrode in the solid state imaging device constituted by using the related-art NMOS process. However, it is also possible to constitute the solid state imaging device by using the P-type polysilicon. If the advantage is produced, the P-type polysilicon can be utilized properly. (2) The solid state imaging device according to (1) wherein the semiconductor region forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path has an N conductive type, and the gate electrode comprises polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, it is assumed that the solid state imaging device is constituted in the NMOS process. Therefore, the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path is formed by the semiconductor region having the N-type conductive type and the gate electrode is formed of polysilicon having the P-type conductive type. In the same manner as in (1), accordingly, the same result as that in the effective application of the potential of (VM-1.1(V)) as the medium potential (VM) is obtained and the same result as that in the application of a negative bias is obtained even if the negative bias is not applied as the middle potential (VM) as compared with the case in which the N-type polysilicon is used for the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to effectively reduce the smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from an outside to the gate electrode. (3) The solid state imaging device according to (2) further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that transfers the signal charge received through the vertical charge transfer path in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the transfer of the signal charge through the vertical charge transfer path or the horizontal charge transfer path is also formed by the P-type polysilicon in addition to a gate electrode. More specifically, the charge transfer electrode of the vertical charge transfer path or the horizontal charge transfer path is formed by using the same material as the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to prevent a manufacturing process from being complicated. (4) The solid state imaging device according to (2) further comprising, as the charge transfer path: a plurality of vertical charge transfer paths that transfers a signal charge received from the photoelectric converting portion in a vertical direction; a line memory, formed on a downstream side of the vertical charge transfer path, that executes to hold and transfer the signal charge received from the vertical charge transfer path; and a horizontal charge transfer path, formed on a downstream side of the line memory, that transfers the signal charge received through the line memory in a horizontal direction, wherein the solid state imaging device further comprises a charge transfer electrode that controls transfer of the signal charge for at least one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the line memory and the horizontal charge transfer path, the charge transfer electrode comprising polysilicon having a P conductive type. According to the solid state imaging device, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the transfer of the signal charge through the vertical charge transfer path, the line memory or the horizontal charge transfer path is also formed by the P-type polysilicon in addition to a gate electrode. More specifically, the charge transfer electrode of the vertical charge transfer path, the line memory or the horizontal charge transfer path is formed by using the same material as the gate electrode. Therefore, it is possible to prevent a manufacturing process from being complicated. (5) The solid state imaging device according to (3) or (4), wherein the photoelectric converting portions and the vertical charge transfer paths form a plurality of columns, in which each of the columns comprises: a set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions: and one of the vertical charge transfer paths adjacent to the set of ones of the photoelectric converting portions, a first one of the columns comprises: a set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and first one of the vertical charge transfer paths, a second one of the columns comprises: a set of second ones of the photoelectric converting portions; and second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, the first and second ones of the columns are adjacent to each other, a device isolating region is formed between the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions and the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths, and the charge transfer electrode controls signal charge transfer of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths and is formed to be protruded to an intermediate position of the device isolating region from a position of the second one of the vertical charge transfer paths toward the set of first ones of the photoelectric converting portions which is adjacent thereto. According to the solid state imaging device, it is possible to further enhance the effect of preventing the carrier generated by the photodiode (the first photoelectric converting portion) in each pixel position from leaking as a diffusion current into the vertical charge transfer portion (the second vertical charge transfer path) in another adjacent column. With a general structure, a charge transfer electrode for controlling a signal charge transfer of each vertical charge transfer path is constituted in such a dimension and shape that a width and a position are equal to those of the semiconductor region (channel) of the vertical charge transfer path. In the solid state imaging device in (5), however, the charge transfer electrode for controlling the signal charge transfer of the second vertical charge transfer path is formed to be protruded to the intermediate position of the device isolating region from the position of the second vertical charge transfer path toward the first photoelectric converting portion which is adjacent thereto. Consequently, it is possible to increase the effect of preventing the diffusion current from flowing from the first photoelectric converting portion to the second vertical charge transfer path in the adjacent column. Thus, it is possible to enhance the effect of suppressing a smear. When the charge transfer electrode in the adjacent column is caused to excessively approach the first photoelectric converting portion, conversely, there is a higher possibility that the signal charge is read from the first photoelectric converting portion to the adjacent column. For this reason, it is necessary to hold an amount of the protrusion of the charge transfer electrode up to the intermediate position of the device isolating region. (6) A method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device according to any of (1) to (5), the method comprising: forming a first conductive type layer for forming the charge storing portion of the charge transfer path on the semiconductor substrate; and forming a gate electrode having a second conductive type which is different from the first conductive type layer on the first conductive type layer through an insulating layer. According to the method of manufacturing the solid state imaging device, it is possible to manufacture any of the solid state imaging devices in (1) to (5). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing an imaging portion of a solid state imaging device according to the invention, FIG. 2 is a plan view showing an example of a structure of a main part in a solid state imaging device according to a first embodiment, FIG. 3 is an enlarged sectional view showing a structure of a section taken along a B1-B2 line in the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2, FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing a structure in the vicinity of an output terminal of the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2, FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view showing a sectional structure related to an imaging cell and a periphery thereof in the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2, FIGS. 6A and 6B are typical charts representing a result of a simulation related to the imaging cell and the periphery illustrated in FIG. 5, in which FIG. 6A is a chart showing a model of a structure and FIG. 6B is a chart showing an electric potential and a flow of a diffusion current, FIG. 7 is a graph representing a result of a simulation related to the imaging cell and the periphery illustrated in FIG. 5, FIGS. 8A to 8E is an explanatory view (No. 1) showing an example of a process for manufacturing the solid state imaging device, FIGS. 9A to 9E is an explanatory view (No. 2) showing an example of the process for manufacturing the solid state imaging device, FIG. 10 is an enlarged sectional view showing a sectional structure related to an imaging cell and a periphery thereof in a solid state imaging device according to a second embodiment, FIG. 11 is a plan view showing a structure of a solid state imaging device according to a third embodiment, FIG. 12 is a typical view showing an example of a structure of an electrode in the case of a two-layer polysilicon structure, FIG. 13 is a typical view showing an example of a structure of an electrode in the case of a polycide structure, FIG. 14 is a longitudinal sectional view showing a sectional structure related to an imaging cell and a periphery thereof in a solid state imaging device having a general structure and a smear generating mechanism, FIG. 15A is a longitudinal sectional view showing a structure of an NMOS transistor having a general structure and FIG. 15B is an explanatory diagram showing an electric potential distribution on a D1-D2 line, and FIG. 16 is a sectional view showing a structure of a solid state imaging device using an NMOS process with a general structure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION First Embodiment A preferred embodiment of a solid state imaging device according to the invention will be described below in detail with reference to the drawings. FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing an imaging portion of the solid state imaging device according to the invention and FIG. 2 is an enlarged plan view showing a main part of the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 1. FIG. 1 shows a structure of an A1-A2 section of the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2. The solid state imaging device shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 constitutes a two-dimensional CCD image sensor. More specifically, there is provided an imaging portion 110 in which a large number of imaging cells 120 are two-dimensionally disposed in a row direction (a direction of an arrow X) and a column direction (a direction of an arrow Y) over a plane. Each of the imaging cells 120 includes a photodiode (PD) constituted by a semiconductor and generates a signal charge corresponding to a light quantity determined by an intensity of a light which is incident on each light receiving surface and a length of an exposure time. In order to fetch a signal charge output from each of the large number of imaging cells 120 which are two-dimensionally disposed as a signal per frame in time series from an output terminal of the solid state imaging device, a plurality of vertical charge transfer portions (VCCDs) 130, a line memory 52, a horizontal charge transfer portion (HCCD) 54 and an output amplifier 55 are provided in the solid state imaging device. Each of the vertical charge transfer portions 130 is provided in an adjacent position to the imaging cell 120 and is extended in a longitudinal direction (the direction of the arrow Y), and receives signal charges from each of the imaging cells 120 corresponding to one column and then transfers the signal charges per column sequentially in the direction of the arrow Y. The line memory 52 is disposed on an output side of the vertical charge transfer portion 130 in each column. The signal charges corresponding to one row which are output from the respective vertical charge transfer portions 130 at the same time are temporarily stored on the line memory 52. The signal charges corresponding to one column which are stored on the line memory 52 are transferred from the line memory 52 toward the horizontal charge transfer portion 54. As a result, the signal charges corresponding to one row appear over the horizontal charge transfer portion 54. The horizontal charge transfer portion 54 sequentially transfers the signal charges corresponding to one row held by itself on a pixel unit in a horizontal direction (the direction of the arrow X). The signal charges appearing on an output of the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 in order is amplified by the output amplifier 55 and appears on an output terminal OUT. Control signals required for implementing the reading operation, that is, a vertical transfer control signal φV (usually, a signal having a plurality of phases), a transfer control signal φLM and a horizontal transfer control signal φH (usually a signal having a plurality of phases) are generated by a timing signal generating circuit (not shown) respectively, and are applied to each of the vertical charge transfer portions 130, the line memory 52 and the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 in the solid state imaging device respectively. In some cases, the line memory 52 is omitted from the structure. In the example shown in FIG. 2, moreover, a large number of imaging cells 120 are disposed to form a honeycomb-shaped pattern (a pattern obtained by shifting positions of the imaging cells to be arranged by a half pitch every row in the horizontal direction). Furthermore, color components to be detected are predetermined for each of the imaging cells 120 as shown in “G1”, “G2”, “B” and “R” in FIG. 2. More specifically, the imaging cells 120 for “G1” and “G2” detect a brightness having a green component, the imaging cells 120 for “B” detect a brightness having a blue component, and the imaging cells 120 for “R” detect a brightness having a red component. The detecting colors are set by spectral characteristics of an optical filter disposed on a front surface of a light receiving plane of the imaging cell 120. In the example shown in FIG. 2, four types of filter columns FC1, FC2, FC3 and FC4 are disposed through a division every column of the imaging cell 120. The optical filter has a so-called array obtained by inclining a Bayer pattern by 45 degrees. As shown in FIG. 2, the vertical charge transfer portion 130 is formed to take a meandering shape in an adjacent position to each of the columns of the imaging cells 120 every column. The vertical charge transfer portion 130 includes a vertical charge transfer channel 37 formed on a semiconductor substrate 35 and large numbers of first vertical transfer electrodes 41, second vertical transfer electrodes 43, first auxiliary transfer electrodes 45, second auxiliary transfer electrodes 46 and third auxiliary transfer electrodes 47 for a charge transfer which are disposed on the semiconductor substrate 35 through an electrical insulating film (not shown). More specifically, by applying a predetermined voltage to each of the electrodes 41, 43, 45, 46 and 47 to form a predetermined potential distribution over the vertical charge transfer channel 37 and sequentially switching the voltage to be applied to the electrode, it is possible to sequentially transfer a signal charge of each pixel in a target direction in the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) 130. The first vertical transfer electrodes 41 and the second vertical transfer electrodes 43 are formed one by one every row of the imaging cell 120. Each of the first vertical transfer electrodes 43 also functions as a reading gate for controlling a transfer of a signal charge from the imaging cell 120 to the vertical charge transfer channel 37 of the vertical charge transfer portion 130. Any of the vertical transfer control signals having four phases (which are also referred to as driving pulses) φV1, φV2, φV3 and φV4 is applied to each of the second vertical transfer electrodes 43 and the first vertical transfer electrodes 41 which are alternately arranged in the direction of the arrow Y depending on a positional relationship of the arrangement of the second vertical transfer electrodes 43 and the first vertical transfer electrodes 41 as shown in FIG. 2. Similarly, the vertical transfer control signal φV2 is applied to the first auxiliary transfer electrode 45, the vertical transfer control signal φV3 is applied to the second auxiliary transfer electrode 46, and the vertical transfer control signal φV4 is applied to the third auxiliary transfer electrode 47. As shown in FIG. 2, the line memory 52 is formed in an adjacent position (a downstream side with respect to the direction of the transfer of the signal charge) to a position of a final transfer stage of the vertical charge transfer portion 130 (the electrode 47 for controlling the signal charge on a lower side in FIG. 2). In order to control the transfer of the signal charge in the line memory 52, transfer control electrodes LM1 and LM2 are provided. The transfer control signal φLM is applied to the transfer control electrodes LM1 and LM2. In a section of one of the imaging cells 120 in the solid state imaging device, as shown in FIG. 1, a photodiode (PD) 103 constituted by an N-type region, the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) 130 formed by an N-type region, a charge reading region 104 and a channel stop region 105 are formed in an N-type silicon substrate (N-sub corresponding to the semiconductor substrate 35) 101 on which a P-type semiconductor layer 102 is formed. Moreover, a thin P-type region 106 is formed on a surface side of the photodiode 103. Agate electrode 107 is formed above the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) 130. The vertical charge transfer portion 130 and the gate electrode 107 are electrically isolated through an insulating layer which is not shown. A vertical charge transfer portion 130(1) shown in FIG. 1 belongs to the same column as the photodiode 103 and a vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) belongs to another adjacent column. In other words, a signal charge generated by a photoelectric conversion of the photodiode 103 shown in FIG. 1 is moved onto a channel of the vertical charge transfer portion 130(1) through the charge reading region 104 by an electric potential control depending on a voltage to be applied to the gate electrode 107 and is not moved to the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) in an adjacent column. The photodiode 103 and the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) in the adjacent column are isolated from each other through a channel stop region 105(2). There is a possibility that an electron generated in the P+ region (106) might be diffused over the surface of the embedded photodiode (103) and be mixed into the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) 130 (2) in the adjacent column. Consequently, a smear is caused. In order to suppress the influence of the diffusion current, in the solid state imaging device shown in FIG. 1, each of the gate electrodes 107 is formed by using P+-type polysilicon. In the solid state imaging device having the NMOS structure shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, N+-type polysilicon is usually utilized as a material. Herein, the P+-type polysilicon is particularly used. The reason is as follows. A work function has a great difference between the N-type polysilicon and the P-type polysilicon which can be utilized as a material for the gate electrode. For example, the work function has almost a difference in an amount corresponding to a band gap difference (approximately 1.1 V) between N+-type polysilicon and P+-type polysilicon, for example. The “work function” represents the lowest energy which is required for an electron to get out of a metal. In other words, if the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, an electric potential distribution between the photodiode 103 to be a photoelectric converting portion and the vertical charge transfer portion 130 is varied depending on a difference between their work functions so that a movement of a carrier generated by the photodiode is changed greatly. More specifically, when the material of the gate electrode is changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, the same result as that in an effective application of a potential of (VM-1.1(V)) is obtained. Even if a negative bias is not applied as the medium potential (VM) from an outside, therefore, it is possible to obtain the same result as that in the application of the negative bias. Therefore, it is possible to effectively reduce the smear while maintaining a characteristic of the embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from the outside to the gate electrode. As shown in FIG. 1, a surface side of the silicon substrate 101 is covered with a shielding film 111 except for a region of a light receiving surface of the photodiode 103 in order to prevent an extra light from being incident. Moreover, the filter columns FC2, FC3 and FC4 provided every column are disposed above the light receiving surface of the photodiode 103 so as to be opposed thereto, and a microlens 112 which is independent every cell is further disposed on their upper surfaces. A structure (a section taken along a B1-B2 line) in the vicinity of the line memory 52 and the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 in the solid state imaging device shown in FIG. 2 is illustrated in an enlarging state in FIG. 3. As shown in FIG. 3, the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 has one horizontal charge transfer channel 56 extended like a band in the direction of the arrow X and horizontal transfer electrodes Ha and Hb formed above the horizontal charge transfer channel 56. Large numbers of horizontal transfer electrodes Ha and Hb are provided and disposed alternately. The respective horizontal transfer electrodes Ha are formed to take a rectangular shape seen on a plane, and the respective horizontal transfer electrodes Hb have ends to take an inverted L shape seen on a plane. A pair of horizontal transfer electrodes Ha and Hb present in adjacent positions are electrically connected in common, and any of horizontal transfer control signals (which are also referred to as driving pulses) φH1, φH2, φH3 and φH4 having four phases is applied to the horizontal transfer electrodes Ha and Hb arranged in order depending on positions in which the horizontal transfer electrodes Ha and Hb are arranged. As shown in FIG. 3, the vertical charge transfer channel 37 for the vertical charge transfer portion 130, charge transfer channels 52a and 52b for the line memory 52 and the horizontal charge transfer channel 56 for the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 are formed in the N-type silicon substrate 101 on which the P-type semiconductor layer 102 is formed. The signal charge read from the photodiode 103 of the imaging cell 120 is transferred to the output portion OUT (see FIG. 2) through the vertical charge transfer channel 37, the charge transfer channels 52a and 52b, and the horizontal charge transfer channel 56 in order. Vertical transfer electrodes V2, V3 and V4 are provided above the vertical charge transfer channel 37 in order from an upstream to a downstream in a direction of the charge transfer (the direction of the arrow Y). The vertical transfer electrodes V1, V2, V3 and V4 shown in FIG. 3 correspond to the second vertical transfer electrode 43 on a most downstream, the first auxiliary transfer electrode 45, the second auxiliary transfer electrode 46 and the third auxiliary transfer electrode 47 in FIG. 2, respectively. The vertical charge transfer channel 37 of the vertical charge transfer portion 130 is formed as an N-type impurity region. Referring to the line memory 52, moreover, the charge transfer channel 52a is formed in an N-type impurity region and the charge transfer channel 52b is formed in an N-type impurity region. The horizontal charge transfer channel 56 of the horizontal charge transfer portion 54 is constituted by the N-type impurity region and the N−-type impurity region which are arranged alternately. Each of the horizontal transfer electrodes Ha is disposed in a position placed above the N-type impurity region and each of the horizontal transfer electrodes Hb is disposed in a position placed above the N-type impurity region. The horizontal transfer electrode Hb is provided around a region between the transfer control electrode LM2 of the line memory 52 and the horizontal transfer electrode Ha. The N-type impurity region is also provided below the wraparound portion. FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing a structure in the vicinity of an output terminal of the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2. As shown in FIG. 4, an N− region 126 and N+ regions 128 and 131 are formed on a surface of the P-type semiconductor layer 102. The N+ region 128 constitutes a floating diffusion layer. The output amplifier 55 is connected to the floating diffusion layer 128. A source follower using an MOCS transistor is utilized for the output amplifier 55. In FIG. 4, VFD represents a potential of the floating diffusion layer 128. Moreover, the N+ region 131 constitutes a reset drain (RD). The reset drain (RD) 131 is set to a reset drain potential VRD. In FIG. 4, 151 to 155 denote an electrode. A driving pulse φ1 is applied to the electrodes 151 and 153 and a driving pulse φ2 is applied to the electrode 152. Moreover, the electrode 154 denotes a horizontal transfer output gate, and a predetermined DC voltage VOC is always applied to the electrode 154. Furthermore, the electrode 155 constitutes a reset gate, and a reset gate clock φRG is applied to the reset gate 155. In FIG. 4, Q shown in a dotted line indicates a charge and an arrow shows a state of a movement (transfer) of the charge Q. Voltages to be applied as the signals (φ1, φ2, φRG, VFD) from the outside to the solid state imaging device are sequentially switched in accordance with a predetermined control procedure so that the charge Q is moved from a position placed under the electrode to which φ1 is applied to a position placed under the electrode to which φ2 is applied, and furthermore, a position placed under the electrode to which φ1 is applied, and subsequently, a position of the floating diffusion layer 128 and is output as a voltage corresponding to an amount of the charge from the output amplifier 55 as shown in an arrow of FIG. 4. As described above, a detected light is converted into the charge and is output as a voltage signal. Next, description will be given to a simulation carried out by using a computer in order to confirm an effect produced by changing the material of the gate material 107 from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon in the solid state imaging device having the NMOS structure as in the solid state imaging device illustrated in FIG. 2. FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view showing a sectional structure related to an imaging cell and a periphery thereof in the solid state imaging device shown in FIG. 2, and FIGS. 6A and 6B are typical views illustrating a result of the simulation related to the imaging cell and the periphery thereof shown in FIG. 5. In the simulation, there were examined a most surface potential distribution and a diffusion current thus flowing between adjacent cells for a region 160 in the vicinity of a boundary between an imaging cell 120(1) and another imaging cell 120(2) which is adjacent thereto as shown in FIG. 5. More specifically, FIG. 6A shows a model of a structure, illustrating the region 160 of FIG. 5 in the solid state imaging device using the P-type polysilicon as the gate electrode 107 which is enlarged. In FIG. 6B, an electric potential is represented as a contour line and a flow of a diffusion current is shown in a small arrow. Conditions assumed in the simulation are as follows. A size of each imaging cell: 2 μm×2 μm A difference in a work function between P-poly and N-poly: 1.1 V If the material of the gate electrode 107 is simply changed from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon, moreover, a potential of the vertical charge transfer portion (VCCD) 130 is shallowed so that a saturation capacity of the VCCD is decreased and a signal charge is also read in the reading portion with difficulty. In the simulation, therefore, a VCCD (BC) dose is regulated (an impurity concentration is increased) in such a manner that a saturation capacity of the VCCD is not changed, and furthermore, a channel dose (TGI) is regulated (the impurity concentration is reduced) in such a manner that a reading characteristic is not varied in addition to the change of the material for the gate electrode 107 from the N-type polysilicon to the P-type polysilicon. With reference to FIG. 6B, a diffusion current flowing downward from the gate electrode 107 appears in a portion of a circled region 161. A smear is caused by the diffusion current. FIG. 7 shows a result obtained by examining the diffusion current in detail. FIG. 7 is a graph showing a surface potential distribution for each of the case in which the P-type polysilicon (P-poly) is used as the material of the gate electrode 107 and the case in which the N-type polysilicon (N-poly) is used as the material of the gate electrode 107. With reference to the graph of FIG. 7, a curve shown in a solid line represents the case in which the P-type polysilicon (P-poly) is used as the material of the gate electrode 107 and a curve shown in a dotted line represents the case in which the N-type polysilicon (N-poly) is used as the material of the gate electrode 107. In their comparison, a clear difference is made in the surface potential distribution, and a region having a small gradient of an electric potential is longer in the P-type polysilicon than that in the N-type polysilicon. Consequently, the generation of the smear is suppressed. In other words, when a carrier (an electron) generated by a photoelectric conversion is dropped into the photodiode 103 or the vertical charge transfer portion 130 by a diffusion in the thin P-type region 106 provided on the surface side of the photodiode 103, the carrier contributes to a sensitivity if it is dropped to the photodiode 103 side and the smear is generated if the carrier is dropped to the vertical charge transfer portion 130 side. At this time, referring to the diffusion of the carrier, a rate of the drop to the photodiode 103 is increased if the region having a small potential gradient is comparatively longer. In the P-type polysilicon, accordingly, the sensitivity can be enhanced more highly and the smear can be suppressed more greatly. More specifically, it is possible to produce an advantage that the smear caused by the diffusion current can be reduced by approximately 15% because of the difference. Referring to the cause of the smear, most of the diffusion current (95% or more based on a calculation) flows into an adjacent pixel VCCD forming a thick device isolating region. When the VCCD dose is regulated, therefore, the effect of reducing the smear is reduced. However, the effect is rarely influenced by the regulation of the channel dose. Moreover, the extent of the smear caused by the foregoing is determined depending on a distance between an open end of the photodiode 103 and the vertical charge transfer portion 130 in an adjacent column. Therefore, it can be anticipated that the extent will be further remarkable in the future by a further microprocessing of each imaging cell. Next, description will be given to a specific example of a process for manufacturing the solid state imaging device. FIGS. 8A to 8E and 9A to 9E show an example of the process for manufacturing the solid state imaging device according to the embodiment. First of all, as shown in FIG. 8A, a silicon oxide film 81a, a silicon nitride film 81b and a silicon oxide film 81c are formed on a surface of the n-type silicon substrate 101 so that a gate oxide film 81 having a three-layer structure is formed. Subsequently, P-type polysilicon doped with B (boron) is formed on the gate oxide film 81 by low pressure CVD using SiH4 and BCl3 or B2H6. Alternatively, non-doped polysilicon may be formed and B (boron) ions may be implanted to obtain a P type. As shown in FIG. 8B, then, a desirable mask is used to carry out exposure, development and washing by photolithograly so that a resist pattern R1 is formed. As shown in FIG. 8C, thereafter, a polycrystalline silicon film 83 is selectively etched and removed by using the silicon nitride film 81b of the gate oxide film 81 as an etching stopper through reactive ion etching using a mixed gas of HBr and O2 utilizing the resist pattern R1 as a mask. Thus, an electrode is formed. It is desirable to use an etching apparatus such as a high density plasma. By using the resist pattern R1 as a mask, subsequently, an ion implantation for compensating for a transfer efficiency is carried out. A boron ion is implanted on a predetermined condition. Then, the resist pattern R1 is then removed by ashing. Thereafter, an interelectrode insulating film 85 constituted by a silicon oxide film is formed on a surface of an electrode pattern by the low pressure CVD (FIG. 8D). Next, a resist is applied to form a resist pattern R2 having an opening in a photodiode formation region to be a photoelectric converting portion by the photolithography (FIG. 8E). Subsequently, the polycrystalline silicon film 83 is selectively etched and removed by using the silicon nitride film 81b of the gate oxide film 81 as an etching stopper through the reactive ion etching using a mixed gas of HBr and O2 utilizing the resist pattern R2 as a mask. Thus, the photodiode formation region is opened (FIG. 9A). As shown in FIG. 9B, then, the resist pattern R2 is exactly left and an ion implantation for forming a pn junction of the photodiode is carried out by using the resist pattern R2 as a mask so that a diffusion region 87 for forming the pn junction with the substrate 101 is formed as shown in FIG. 9C. As shown in FIG. 9D, thereafter, a sidewall of the electrode 83 is oxidized so that a silicon oxide film is also formed on the sidewall of the electrode 83. As shown in FIG. 9E, subsequently, the silicon nitride film 81b is removed by etching to form a solid state imaging device having a single layer electrode structure which includes the P-type gate electrode 83. The manufacturing process is an example of the formation of the P-type gate electrode 83. In addition, various changes can be made. Second Embodiment Next, description will be given to a second embodiment of the solid state imaging device according to the invention. FIG. 10 is an enlarged sectional view showing a sectional structure related to an imaging cell and a periphery thereof in the solid state imaging device according to the second embodiment. The structure of the solid state imaging device according to the embodiment is the same as the structure shown in FIG. 5 except for a shape of a gate electrode 107. In FIG. 10, therefore, elements corresponding to the contents shown in FIG. 5 have the same reference numerals. The structure shown in FIG. 10 has a great feature that a gate electrode 107(2) in an adjacent column is protruded from an end position on a photodiode 103 side of a vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) toward the photodiode 103 side. More specifically, an end 171 of the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) is not coincident with an end 172 of the gate electrode 107(2) differently from FIG. 5 but their positions are shifted from each other in a horizontal direction and the end 172 of the gate electrode 107(2) is protruded by a distance L toward an imaging cell in an adjacent column. With the structure, it is possible to increase the effect of suppressing the flow of a diffusion current to the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) in another adjacent column from the photodiode 103 through a surface of a P-type region 106, and the smear can be suppressed more effectively. When the amount (L) of the protrusion of the end 172 of the gate electrode 107(2) is excessively large, there is a high possibility that a signal charge of the photodiode 103 might be read into the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2) in the adjacent column when the signal charge is to be read. Referring to the amount of the protrusion of the end 172, accordingly, it is necessary to determine the amount (L) of the protrusion in a position of an isolating region 106a for partitioning a portion from an end 103a of the photodiode 103 to the end 171 of the vertical charge transfer portion 130(2). Third Embodiment Next, description will be given to a third embodiment related to the solid state imaging device according to the invention. FIG. 11 is a plan view showing a structure of the solid state imaging device according to the third embodiment. The embodiment is a variant of the first embodiment. The solid state imaging device shown in FIG. 11 is also constituted by using an NMOS process in the same manner as in the first embodiment, and comprises an imaging portion 110A, a line memory 52A, a horizontal charge transfer portion 54A and an output amplifier 55. While only the gate electrode 107 is constituted by P+-type polysilicon in the first embodiment, other electrodes are also constituted by the P+-type polysilicon in the solid state imaging device shown in FIG. 11. More specifically, referring to the imaging portion 110A, charge transfer electrodes to be used for transferring a signal charge over a channel of each vertical charge transfer portion 130 (which correspond to the first vertical transfer electrode 41, the second vertical transfer electrode 43, the first auxiliary transfer electrode 45, the second auxiliary transfer electrode 46 and the third auxiliary transfer electrode 47 in FIG. 2) as well as the gate electrode 107 are constituted by the P+-type polysilicon. Referring to the line memory 52A, moreover, charge transfer electrodes (corresponding to LM1 and LM2 in FIG. 3) are also constituted by the P+-type polysilicon. Referring to the horizontal charge transfer portion 54A, furthermore, charge transfer electrodes (corresponding to Ha and Hb in FIGS. 3 and 151 to 154 and 155 in FIG. 4) are constituted by the P+-type polysilicon. Electrodes of the output amplifier 55 and the other circuits are constituted by N-type polysilicon in the same manner as in a general device having an NMOS structure. According to the solid state imaging device, the whole charge transfer electrode is formed by P-type polysilicon so that N- and P-type polysilicon electrodes are not partially mixed in the device. Thus, it is possible to simplify a device structure and a manufacturing process. A specific structure related to the gate electrode 107 provided in the solid state imaging device may be a general two-layer polysilicon layer structure, a dummy single layer structure, a single layer structure or a polycide structure. FIG. 12 typically shows an example of a structure of an electrode in the case of the two-layer polysilicon structure. As shown in FIG. 12, referring to the electrode of a two-phase polysilicon structure, a gate electrode 107A has such a structure that a first electrode 91 and a second electrode 93 partially overlap each other in a vertical direction. Moreover, FIG. 13 typically shows an example of a structure of an electrode in the case of the polycide structure. As shown in FIG. 13, referring to the electrode of the polycide structure, a gate electrode 107B constituted by tungsten polycide is formed by laminating a polycrystalline silicon layer 95 and a tungsten polycide layer 97 provided thereon. The structure of the electrode using the polycide of this type has also been disclosed in JP-A-2005-353766, for example. By forming the gate electrode as a P-type polysilicon electrode, similarly, it is possible to obtain the same advantages. While the solid state imaging device is constituted by using the NMOS process in each of the embodiments, it is a matter of course that the solid state imaging device can also be constituted by using a PMOS process. In the case in which the solid state imaging device is constituted by using the PMOS process, it is preferable to use the N-type polysilicon as the material of the gate electrode 107. Consequently, it is possible to reduce a smear in the same manner as in each of the embodiments. According to the invention, it is possible to effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negate bias) from an outside to a gate electrode. As described above, the solid state imaging device according to the invention can effectively reduce a smear while maintaining a characteristic of an embedded photodiode without applying a special voltage (a negative bias) from an outside to a gate electrode. By applying the invention to a two-dimensional CCD image sensor such as a digital camera, accordingly, it is possible to suppress the smear generated in the case in which a subject having a high luminance is to be photographed. The entire disclosure of each and every foreign patent application from which the benefit of foreign priority has been claimed in the present application is incorporated herein by reference, as if fully set forth.
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H
| 67H01
| 185H01L
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271
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48
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11911886
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US20080152603A1-20080626
|
Antioxidants
|
ACCEPTED
|
20080612
|
20080626
|
[]
|
A61K844
|
["A61K844", "C07C21554", "A61Q1700", "A61Q1908", "A61Q1904", "C07C6984", "C07C22938"]
|
8106233
|
20071018
|
20120131
|
560
|
075000
|
75275.0
|
CUTLIFF
|
YATE
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Rudolph", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas", "inventor_city": "Darmstadt", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Buchholz", "inventor_name_first": "Herwig", "inventor_city": "Frankfurt", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]
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The present invention relates to the use of compounds of the formula (I), with radicals defined in the description, as antioxidants, to corresponding novel compounds and compositions, and to corresponding processes for the preparation of compounds and compositions.
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1. A method of achieving an antioxidant effect comprising employing on an antioxidant, compounds of the formula I where Ar stands for an unsubstituted or mono- or polysubstituted aromatic ring or condensed ring systems having 6 to 18 C atoms, at least one ring of which has an aromatic character and in which one or two CH groups per ring may be replaced by C═O, N, O or S and one or two CH2 groups in a condensed ring system may be replaced by C═O or C═CH2, R1 stands for H or a branched or unbranched C1-30-alkyl or C1-30-hydroxyalkyl radical or a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 30, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for a benzyl radical or a —(CH2O)n(CH2)o(O)pH radical, where m and o each, independently of one another, stand for an integer from the range from 0 to 30, and p stands for 0 or 1, X stands for a group selected from —H, —CN, —C(═O)—R1 and —C(═O)-Z2-R1, Y stands for H or Ar, Z1 and Z2 each, independently of one another, stand for O, S, CR7R8, NR7 or a single bond, R7 and R8 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, or salts of the compounds of the formula I, as antioxidants. 2. A method according to claim 1, characterised in that the compounds of the formula I are compounds of the formula Ia where R1, R7 and R8, Z1 and Z2, X and Y have the meaning given in claim 5, R2 to R6 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where one of the radicals R2 to R6 may also stand for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain via an Si atom, or salts of the compounds of the formula Ia. 3. A method according to claim 1 for the preparation of cosmetic or pharmaceutical, in particular dermatological compositions or of foods or food supplements or for the preparation of domestic products. 4. A method of claim 2, characterised in that R3 and R5 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where R3 and R5 are each, independently of one another, preferably selected from straight-chain or branched C1- to C4-alkoxy groups, in particular methoxy, isopropoxy and tert-butoxy, and straight-chain or branched C1- to C6-alkyl groups, in particular methyl, isopropyl and tert-butyl, and R2, R4 and R6 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where R2, R4 and R6 are preferably selected from H and OH, and where one of the radicals R2 to R6 may also stand for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded via an Si atom to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain, which in turn contains one or more compounds of the formula I. 5. A method of claim 2, characterised in that at least one group from R2, R4 and R6 stands for OH. 6. A method of claim 2, characterised in that Z2 stands for a single bond. 7. A method of claim 1, characterised in that R1 stands for a branched or unbranched C7-30-alkyl or C6-30-hydroxyalkyl radical. 8. A method of claim 2, characterised in that R4 stands for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded via an Si atom to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain which contains one or more compounds of the formula I, where R4 preferably stands for a propanyloxy, isopropanyloxy, propenyloxy, isopropenyloxy or in particular an allyloxy spacer, where a silicon atom is preferably bonded to the 1-C or 2-C of the spacer double bond. 9. A method of claim 1, characterised in that X stands for —C(═O)-Z1-R1, where the two radicals -Z1-R1 are identical and R2 to R6 each, independently of one another, preferably stand for H, hydroxyl or methoxy. 10. A method of claim 1, characterised in that the at least one compound is selected from 4-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, phenethyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionate and oligo- and polysiloxanes which contain benzylmalonic acid derivatives or phenylpropionic acid derivatives, such as, preferably, diethyl p-benzylmalonate, bonded via propanyloxy, isopropanyloxy, propenyloxy, isopropenyloxy or allyloxy spacers. 11. A method of claim 1, characterised in that Z1 stands for NH, and R1 stands for a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 3, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for H or a radical —(CH2)o(O)pH, where o stands for 1, 2 or 3, and p stands for 0 or 1. 12. A method according to claim 11, characterised in that the compound is selected from compounds Ib to Iah and salts thereof, in particular chlorides thereof, 13. Compound of the formula I where Ar stands for an unsubstituted or mono- or polysubstituted aromatic ring or condensed ring systems having 6 to 18 C atoms, at least one ring of which has an aromatic character and in which one or two CH groups per ring may be replaced by C═O, N, O or S and one or two CH2 groups in a condensed ring system may be replaced by C═O or C═CH2, R1 stands for H or a branched or unbranched C1-30-alkyl or C1-30-hydroxyalkyl radical or a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 30, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for a benzyl radical or a —(CH2O)n(CH2)o(O)pH radical, where m and o each, independently of one another, stand for an integer from the range from 0 to 30, and p stands for 0 or 1, X stands for a group selected from —H, —CN, —C(═O)—R and —C(═O)-Z2-R1, Y stands for H or Ar, Z1 and Z2 each, independently of one another, stand for O, S, CR7R8, NR7 or a single bond, R7 and R8 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, or salts of the compounds of the formula I. 14. Compound according to claim 13, characterised in that the compounds of the formula I are compounds of the formula Ia where R1, R7 and R8, Z1 and Z2, X and Y have the meaning given in claim 5, R2 to R6 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where one of the radicals R2 to R6 may also stand for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain via an Si atom, or salts of the compounds of the formula Ia. 15. Compound of the formula I or Ia according to claim 13, characterised in that Z1 stands for a single bond. 16. Compound of the formula Ia according to claim 14, characterised in that R3 and R5 are each, independently of one another, selected from straight-chain or branched C1- to C4-alkoxy groups, in particular methoxy, isopropoxy and tert-butoxy, and straight-chain or branched C1- to C6-alkyl groups, in particular methyl, isopropyl and tert-butyl, and R2, R4 and R6 are selected from H and OH. 17. Compound of the formula Ia according to claim 14, characterised in that at least one group from R2, R4 and R6 stands for OH. 18. Compound of the formula I or Ia according to claim 13, characterised in that R1 stands for a branched or unbranched C7-30-alkyl or C6-30-hydroxyalkyl radical. 19. Compound of the formula I or Ia according to claim 13, characterised in that X stands for —C(═O)-Z2-R1, where the two radicals -Z2-R1 are identical, and R2 to R6 each, independently of one another, preferably stand for H, hydroxyl or methoxy. 20. Composition comprising at least one vehicle which is suitable for cosmetic or pharmaceutical, in particular dermatological compositions, foods or food supplements or domestic products, and at least one compound of the formula I or Ia containing radicals according to claim 1. 21. Composition according to claim 20, characterised in that the compositions comprise one or more compounds of formula I or Ia in an amount of 0.01 to 20% by weight, preferably in an amount of 0.1 to 10% by weight. 22. Composition according to claim 1 for the protection of body cells against oxidative stress, in particular for reducing skin ageing, characterised in that it preferably comprises one or more further antioxidants and/or vitamins, preferably selected from vitamin A palmitate, retinol, vitamin C and derivatives thereof, DL-α-tocopherol, tocopherol E acetate, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid and biotin. 23. Composition according to claim 1, characterised in that the composition comprises at least one self-tanning agent, where the at least one self-tanning agent is preferably selected from trioses and tetroses, and at least one self-tanning agent is particularly preferably dihydroxyacetone. 24. Use of compounds of formula I or Ia containing radicals according to claim 1 for product protection, in particular for the protection of oxidation-sensitive formulation constituents, such as organic or inorganic dyes, antioxidants, vitamins, perfume components, oil components or matrix constituents, such as emulsifiers, thickeners, film formers and surfactants. 25. Use of compounds of formula I or Ia containing radicals according to claim 1 for pigmentation control, in particular for lightening skin areas. 26. Process for the preparation of a composition, characterised in that a compound of the formula I or Ia containing radicals according to claim 1 is mixed with a vehicle which is suitable cosmetically or pharmaceutically or for foods or food supplements or for domestic products. 27. Process for the preparation of a compound of the formula I according to claim 5, characterised in that at least one compound of the formula I ena or I enb where the radicals Ar, X, Y, Z1 and Z2 and R1 correspond to those of the desired formula I, is hydrogenated.
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The present invention relates to the use of compounds as antioxidants or for product protection or for pigmentation control, to corresponding novel compounds and compositions, and to corresponding processes for the preparation of compounds and compositions. One area of application of the compounds according to the invention is, for example, cosmetics. The object of care cosmetics is wherever possible to obtain the impression of youthful skin. In principle, there are various ways of achieving this object. For example, existing skin damage, such as irregular pigmentation or the formation of wrinkles, can be compensated for by covering powders or creams. Another approach is to protect the skin against environmental influences which lead to permanent damage and thus ageing of the skin. The idea is therefore to intervene in a preventative manner and thus to delay the ageing process. An example of this are UV filters, which, as a result of absorption of certain wavelength ranges, pre-vent or at least reduce skin damage. Whereas in the case of UV filters the damaging event, the UV radiation, is screened off by the skin, another route involves attempting to support the skin's natural defence or repair mechanisms against the damaging event. Finally, a further approach involves compensating for the weakening defence functions of the skin against harmful influences with increasing age by externally supplying substances which are able to replace this diminishing defence or repair function. For example, the skin has the ability to scavenge free radicals generated by external or internal stress factors. This ability diminishes with increasing age, causing the ageing process to accelerate with increasing age. A further difficulty in the preparation of cosmetics is that active ingredients which are intended to be incorporated into cosmetic compositions are frequently unstable and can be damaged in the composition. The damage may be caused, for example, by a reaction with atmospheric oxygen or by absorption of UV rays. The molecules damaged in this way may, for example, change their colour and/or lose their activity through their structural change. Corresponding difficulties generally occur in the preparation, storage or use of compositions comprising oxidation-sensitive ingredients. A known way of dealing with the problems described consists in adding antioxidants to the compositions. According to CD Römpp Chemie Lexikon [CD Römpp Lexicon of Chemistry]—Version 1.0, Stuttgart/New York: Georg Thieme Verlag 1995, antioxidants are compounds which inhibit or prevent undesired changes in the substances to be protected caused by the action of oxygen, inter alia oxidative processes. Areas of application are, for example, in plastics and rubber for protection against ageing; in fats for protection against rancidity, in oils, cattle feeds, automotive gasoline and jet fuels for protection against gumming, in transformer and turbine oil against sludge formation, and in flavours against odour impairment. Compounds that are effective as antioxidants are, inter alia, phenols, hydroquinones, pyrocatechols, aromatic compounds and amines, each of which are substituted by sterically hindering groups, and metal complexes thereof. According to Römpp, the action of the antioxidants usually consists in that they act as free-radical scavengers for the free radicals which arise during autoxidation. However, there continues to be a demand for skin-tolerated antioxidants which are also suitable for use in skin-care compositions. The object of the invention is therefore to provide a composition which has a protective action against UV rays and/or exerts a protective action against oxidative stress on body cells and/or counters skin ageing. The present invention therefore relates firstly to the use of compounds of the formula I where Ar stands for an unsubstituted or mono- or polysubstituted aromatic ring or condensed ring systems having 6 to 18 C atoms, at least one ring of which has an aromatic character and in which one or two CH groups per ring may be replaced by C═O, N, O or S and one or two CH2 groups in a condensed ring system may be replaced by C═O or C═CH2, R1 stands for H or a branched or unbranched C1-30-alkyl or C1-30-hydroxyalkyl radical or a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 30, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for a benzyl radical or a —(CH2O)n(CH2)o(O)pH radical, where m and o each, independently of one another, stand for an integer from the range from 0 to 30, and p stands for 0 or 1, X stands for a group selected from —H, —CN, —C(═O)—R1 and —C(═O)-Z2-R1, Y stands for H or Ar, Z1 and Z2 each, independently of one another, stand for O, S, CR7R8, NR7 or a single bond, R7 and R8 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, or salts of the compounds of the formula I. Preference is given in accordance with the invention to the use of compounds of the formula Ia where R1, R7 and R8, Z1 and Z2, X and Y have the meaning given in claim 5, R2 to R6 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where one of the radicals R2 to R6 may also stand for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain via an Si atom, or salts of the compounds of the formula Ia. In a particularly preferred embodiment of the present invention, Z1 in the compound of the formula Ia stands for a single bond. In this case, the formula Ia is simplified to It may furthermore be particularly preferred in accordance with the invention for Counterions which can be employed here for salts according to the invention are all anions which are acceptable for the corresponding application. Salts of strong acids are advantageous here. It is particularly preferred in accordance with the invention for the salts to be chlorides or bromides. The compounds described can be used in accordance with the invention as active ingredient for topical application or for the preparation of cosmetic or dermatological compositions or for the preparation of domestic products. The compounds described can be employed for product protection. For the purposes of this application, product protection means, in particular, the protection of oxidation-sensitive formulation constituents, such as organic or inorganic dyes, antioxidants, vitamins, perfume components, oil components or matrix constituents, such as emulsifiers, thickeners, film formers and surfactants. This application relates to the corresponding use. The invention also relates to the use of the compounds for the preparation of cosmetic or pharmaceutical, in particular dermatological compositions or of foods or food supplements or for the preparation of domestic products. The present invention furthermore relates to the novel compounds of the formula I or Ia. Preference is given here to the use of compounds of the formula I or Ia in which R3 and R5 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where R3 and R5 are each, independently of one another, preferably selected from straight-chain or branched C1- to C4-alkoxy groups, in particular methoxy, isopropoxy and tert-butoxy, and straight-chain or branched C1- to C6-alkyl groups, in particular methyl, isopropyl and tert-butyl, and R2, R4 and R6 are each, independently of one another, selected from H, OH, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkyl groups, straight-chain or branched C3- to C20-alkenyl groups, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkyl groups, where the hydroxyl group may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-hydroxyalkoxy groups, where the hydroxyl group(s) may be bonded to a primary or secondary carbon atom of the chain and furthermore the alkyl chain may also be interrupted by oxygen, where R2, R4 and R6 are preferably selected from H and OH, and where one of the radicals R2 to R6 may also stand for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded via an Si atom to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain, which in turn contains one or more compounds of the formula I. In a variant of the invention, particular preference may be given to the use of at least one compound of the formula I which is characterised in that at least one group from R2, R4 and R6 stands for OH. These compounds exhibit a particularly pronounced antioxidative performance. In a further variant of the invention, particular preference may be given to the use of at least one compound of the formula I which is characterised in that at least one group from R3 and R5 stands for t-butyl. These compounds exhibit a particularly pronounced antioxidative performance. Preference may furthermore be given in accordance with the invention to the use of at least one compound of the formula I or Ia containing long-chain hydrocarbon radicals, in particular branched long-chain hydrocarbon radicals. These compounds are often particularly readily miscible with vehicles, such as, in particular, oils, and can thus be employed particularly easily in formulations. It is particularly preferred in this variant of the invention for R1 to stand for a branched or unbranched C7-30-alkyl or C6-30-hydroxyalkyl radical. In a further variant of the invention, it may be preferred to use compounds of the formula I or Ia which are characterised in that R4 stands for a branched or unbranched C1-20-alkoxy or branched or unbranched C2-20-alkyleneoxy spacer which is bonded via an Si atom to an oligo- or polysiloxane chain which contains one or more compounds of the formula I, where R4 preferably stands for a propanyloxy, isopropanyloxy, propenyloxy, isopropenyloxy or in particular an allyloxy spacer, where a silicon atom is preferably bonded to the 1-C or 2-C of the spacer double bond. It may furthermore be preferred in accordance with the invention to use at least one compound of the formula I in which X stands for —C(═O)-Z2-R1, where the two radicals -Z2-R1 are identical and R2 to R6 each, independently of one another, preferably stand for H, hydroxyl or methoxy. Particular preference is given here to the use of at least one compound of the formula I which is selected from 4-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-methoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, phenethyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionate and oligo- and polysiloxanes which contain benzylmalonic acid derivatives or phenylpropionic acid derivatives, such as, preferably, diethyl p-benzylmalonate, bonded via propanyloxy, isopropanyloxy, propenyloxy, isopropenyloxy or allyloxy spacers. It may be particularly preferred here for the compounds 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylphenylpropionate, methyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-t-butylphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3-t-butylphenylpropionate, methyl 4-hydroxy-3-t-butylphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, methyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, methyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, diethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylbenzylmalonate, dimethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylbenzylmalonate not to be used in accordance with the invention. It may furthermore be preferred in accordance with the invention for at least one compound of the formula I in which Z1 stands for NH, and X stands for —C(═O)-Z2-R1, where the two radicals -Z2-R1 are identical, and R2 to R6 each, independently of one another, preferably stand for H, hydroxyl or methoxy, to be used. Preference is furthermore given to the use of compounds of the formula I in which Z1 stands for NH, and R1 stands for a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 3, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for a radical —(CH2)o(O)pH, where o stands for 1, 2 or 3, and p stands for 0 or 1. Particular preference is furthermore given in accordance with the invention to the use of compounds selected from compounds Ib to Iah and salts thereof, in particular chlorides thereof, The invention furthermore relates to compositions comprising at least one compound of the formula I. The compositions are usually either compositions which can be applied topically, for example cosmetic or dermatological formulations, or foods or food supplements or domestic products. In this case, the compositions comprise a cosmetically or dermatologically, food-suitable or domestic product-suitable vehicle and, depending on the desired property profile, optionally further suitable ingredients. Advantages of the compounds according to the invention or the use of compounds according to the invention or the compositions according to the invention may, in particular, be the following: an antioxidant action against free radicals, which are induced, for example, by UV light or thermolytic processes, such as smoking, such as, for example, against the superoxide free-radical anion or the NO free radical, or against reactive oxygen species, such as, for example, against singlet oxygen and peroxides, preferred compounds combine a strong antioxidant activity with high molecular stability, a product-stabilising action on cosmetic, pharmaceutical, in particular dermatological products or domestic products or foods and food supplements, in particular those which comprise dyes, consistency sub-stances or odour substances, preferred compounds of the formula I are suitable as oil component in compositions, preferred compounds of the formula I are suitable for improving pharmaceutical properties, such as, for example, the skin feel, of compositions, preferred compounds of the formula I exhibit good solubility and solvent properties, preferably, for example, as solvents for crystalline components, a preferred group of compounds according to the invention can also cause skin tanning or improve the action of skin-tanning substances, such as dihydroxyacetone, well tolerated by the skin, in particular in the case of the ammonium compounds of the formula I, the adsorption behaviour onto keratinic fibres, such as, in particular, hair, is excellent, a product-stabilising action on pigments and surface coatings, preferred compounds of the formula I are suitable for the production or boosting of light protection factors, such as LSF, SPF, PPD or IPD, or free-radical protection factors, a stabilising action on autooxidisable polyethylene glycol (PEG) or polyglycerin (PG) derivatives, such as, in particular, PEG- or PG-containing emulsifiers, as mentioned below in this application, or a reduction in the damaging action of the degradation products of autooxidisable polyethylene glycol (PEG) or polyglycerin (PG) derivatives, a stabilising action on colorants, consistency substances or odour substances, or on antioxidants or vitamins, and UV filters as well as titanium dioxide-containing pigments, in particular in cosmetic, pharmaceutical, in particular dermatological products or domestic products or foods and food supplements, while most antioxidants become ineffective after reaction with free radicals, preferred compounds of the formula I exhibit a UV-filtering action after this reaction and thus continue their protective function, preferred compounds according to the invention having antioxidant properties can also be employed for pigmentation control since they can have a lightening action on skin areas. In addition, preferred compounds of those described here are colourless or only weakly coloured and thus do not result in discoloration of the compositions, or only do so to a minor extent. As already stated above, the present invention furthermore relates to compositions comprising at least one vehicle which is suitable for cosmetic or dermatological compositions or domestic products and at least one compound of the above-mentioned formula I or Ia. It may be particularly preferred in accordance with the invention for the composition to comprise at least one compound of the formula I ena or I enb where the radicals Ar, X, Y, Z1 and Z2 and R1 each, independently of one another and independently of the radicals of the compounds of the formula I, have the meaning indicated above for the compounds of the formula I. It is particularly preferred here for the composition to comprise at least one compound of the formula Ia ena or Ia enb where the radicals X, Y, Z1 and Z2 and R1-R6 each, independently of one another and independently of the radicals of the compounds of the formula Ia, have the meaning indicated above for the compounds of the formula Ia. It is particularly preferred here for the radicals X, Y, Z1 and Z2 and R1-R6 in the at least one compound of the formula I and the at least one compound of the formula I ena or I enb or the at least one compound of the formula Ia and the at least one compound of the formula Ia ena or Ia enb to be identical. In this case, the compound of the formula I or Ia can simultaneously serve as reservoir for the UV absorption potential of the compound of the formula I ena or I enb or Ia ena or Ia enb. In other words, the use of the compounds of the formula I or Ia thus facilitates a reduction in the use concentration of the UV filter of the formula I ena or I enb. The adjustment of the use concentration presents the person skilled in the art with absolutely no difficulties. It is particularly preferred here for at least one compound of the formula I ena or I enb or Ia ena or Ia enb to be a compound selected from 4 hydroxycinnamic acid, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxycinnamate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylidenemalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxybenzylidenemalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxycinnamate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidenemalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylidenemalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenemalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxycinnamate, 3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid, phenethyl 3,4-dihydroxycinnamate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3-phenylcinnamate and oligo- and polysiloxanes which contain benzylidene-malonic acid derivatives or cinnamic acid derivatives, such as, preferably, diethyl p-benzylidenemalonate, bonded via propanyloxy, isopropanyloxy, propenyloxy, isopropenyloxy or allyloxy spacers. The compounds of the formula Ii or Ia are typically employed in accordance with the invention in amounts of 0.01 to 20% by weight, preferably in amounts of 0.1% by weight to 10% by weight and particularly preferably in amounts of 1 to 8% by weight. The person skilled in the art is presented with absolutely no difficulties in selecting the amounts appropriately depending on the intended action of the composition. In order that the compounds according to the invention are able to develop their positive action as free-radical scavengers on the skin particularly well, it may be preferred to allow the compounds according to the invention to penetrate into deeper skin layers. Several possibilities are available for this purpose. Firstly, the compounds according to the invention can have an adequate lipophilicity in order to be able to penetrate through the outer skin layer into epidermal layers. As a further possibility, corresponding transport agents, for example liposomes, which enable transport of the compounds according to the invention through the outer skin layers may also be provided in the composition. Finally, systemic transport of the compounds according to the invention is also conceivable. The composition is then designed, for example, in such a way that it is suitable for oral administration. In general, the substances of the formula I act as free-radical scavengers. Free radicals of this type are not generated exogenously only by sunlight, but also by the action of reactive substances, such as ozone, nitrogen oxides (for example cigarette smoke) or exposure to heavy metals (for example in the food). Further examples are anoxia, which blocks the flow of electrons upstream of the cytochrome oxidases and causes the formation of superoxide free-radical anions; inflammation associated, inter alia, with the formation of superoxide anions by the membrane NADPH oxidase of the leucocytes, but also associated with the formation (through disproportionation in the presence of iron(II) ions) of the hydroxyl free radicals and other reactive species which are normally involved in the phenomenon of phagocytosis; and lipid autoxidation, which is generally initiated by a hydroxyl free radical and produces lipidic alkoxy free radicals and hydroperoxides. Owing to these properties, the compounds and compositions according to the invention are, in general, suitable for immune protection and for the protection of DNA and RNA. In particular, the compounds and compositions are suitable for the protection of DNA and RNA against oxidative attack, against free radicals and against damage due to radiation, in particular UV radiation. A further advantage of the compounds and compositions according to the invention is cell protection, in particular protection of Langerhans cells against damage due to the above-mentioned influences. All these uses and the use of the compounds according to the invention for the preparation of compositions which can be employed correspondingly are expressly also a subject-matter of the present invention. In particular, preferred compounds and compositions according to the invention are also suitable for the treatment of skin diseases associated with a defect in keratinisation which affects differentiation and cell proliferation, in particular for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne comedonica, polymorphic acne, acne rosaceae, nodular acne, acne conglobata, age-induced acne, acne which arises as a side effect, such as acne solaris, medicament-induced acne or acne professionalis, for the treatment of other defects in keratinisation, in particular ichthyosis, ichthyosiform states, Darier's disease, keratosis palmoplantaris, leukoplakia, leukoplakiform states, herpes of the skin and mucous membrane (buccal) (lichen), for the treatment of other skin diseases associated with a defect in keratinisation and which have an inflammatory and/or immunoallergic component and in particular all forms of psoriasis which affect the skin, mucous membranes and fingers and toenails, and psoriatic rheumatism and skin atopy, such as eczema or respiratory atopy, or hypertrophy of the gums, it furthermore being possible for the compounds to be used for some inflammation which is not associated with a defect in keratinisation, for the treatment of all benign or malignant excrescence of the dermis or epidermis, which may be of viral origin, such as verruca vulgaris, verruca plana, epidermodysplasia verruciformis, oral papillomatosis, papillomatosis florida, and excrescence which may be caused by UV radiation, in particular epithelioma baso-cellulare and epithelioma spinocellulare, for the treatment of other skin diseases, such as dermatitis bullosa and diseases affecting the collagen, for the treatment of certain eye diseases, in particular corneal diseases, for overcoming or combating light-induced skin ageing associated with ageing, for reducing pigmentation and keratosis actinica and for the treatment of all diseases associated with normal ageing or light-induced ageing, for the prevention or healing of wounds/scars of atrophy of the epidermis and/or dermis caused by locally or systemically applied corticosteroids and all other types of skin atrophy, for the prevention or treatment of defects in wound healing, for the prevention or elimination of stretch marks caused by pregnancy or for the promotion of wound healing, for combating defects in sebum production, such as hyperseborrhoea in acne or simple seborrhoea, for combating or preventing cancer-like states or pre-carcinogenic states, in particular promyelocytic leukaemia, for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, for the treatment of all virus-induced diseases of the skin or other areas of the body, for the prevention or treatment of alopecia, for the treatment of skin diseases or diseases of other areas of the body with an immunological component, for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, such as arteriosclerosis or hypertension, and of non-insulin-dependent diabetes, for the treatment of skin problems caused by UV radiation. The antioxidant actions of the compounds according to the invention can be demonstrated, for example, by means of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl is a free radical which is stable in solution. The unpaired electron results in a strong absorption band at 515 nm, and the solution has a dark-violet colour. In the presence of a free-radical scavenger, the electron is paired, the absorption disappears, and the decoloration proceeds stoichiometrically taking into account the electrons taken up. The absorbance is measured in a photometer. The anti-free-radical property of the substance to be tested is determined by measuring the concentration at which 50% of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl employed has reacted with the free-radical scavenger. This concentration is expressed as EC50, a value which should be regarded as a property of the substance under the given measurement conditions. The substance investigated is compared with a standard (for example tocopherol). The EC50 value here is a measure of the capacity of the respective compound to scavenge free radicals. The lower the EC50 value, the higher the capacity to scavenge free radicals. For the purposes of this invention, the expression “a large or high capacity to scavenge free radicals” is used if the EC50 value is lower than that of tocopherol. A further important aspect for the action of the antioxidants is the time in which this EC50 value is achieved. This time, measured in minutes, gives the TEC50 value, which allows a conclusion to be drawn on the rate at which these antioxidants scavenge free radicals. For the purposes of this invention, antioxidants which achieve this value within less than 60 minutes are regarded as fast, those which only achieve the EC50 value after more than 120 minutes are regarded as having a delayed action. The anti-free-radical efficiency (AE) (described in C. Sanchez-Moreno, J. A. Larrauri and F. Saura-Calixto in J. Sci. Food Agric. 1998, 76(2), 270-276) is given by the above-mentioned quantities in accordance with the following relationship: AE = 1 EC 50 T EC 50 A low AE (×103) is in the range up to about 10, a moderate AE is in the range from 10 to 20 and a high AE has in accordance with the invention values above 20. It may be particularly preferred in accordance with the invention to combine fast-acting antioxidants with those having a slow or time-delayed action. Typical weight ratios of the fast-acting antioxidants to time-delayed antioxidants are in the range from 10:1 to 1:10, preferably in the range from 10:1 to 1:1, and for skin-protecting compositions particularly preferably in the range from 5:1 to 2:1. In other compositions which are likewise preferred in accordance with the invention, it may, however, be advantageous for the purposes of action optimisation for more time-delayed anti-oxidants than fast-acting antioxidants to be present. Typical compositions then exhibit weight ratios of the fast-acting antioxidants to time-delayed antioxidants in the range from 1:1 to 1:10, preferably in the range from 1:2 to 1:8. The protective action against oxidative stress or against the effect of free radicals can thus be further improved if the compositions comprise one or more further antioxidants, the person skilled in the art being presented with absolutely no difficulties in selecting suitably fast-acting or time-delayed anti oxidants. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the composition is therefore a composition for the protection of body cells against oxidative stress, in particular for reducing skin ageing, characterised in that it preferably comprises one or more further antioxidants besides the one or more compounds of the formula I. There are many proven substances known from the specialist literature which can be used as antioxidants, for example amino acids (for example glycine, histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan) and derivatives thereof, imidazoles (for example urocanic acid) and derivatives thereof, peptides, such as D,L-carnosine, D-carnosine, L-carnosine and derivatives thereof (for example anserine), carotinoids, carotenes (for example α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene) and derivatives thereof, chlorogenic acid and derivatives thereof, lipoic acid and derivatives thereof (for example dihydrolipoic acid), aurothioglucose, propylthiouracil and other thiols (for example thioredoxin, glutathione, cysteine, cystine, cystamine and the glycosyl, N-acetyl, methyl, ethyl, propyl, amyl, butyl and lauryl, palmitoyl, oleyl, γ-linoleyl, cholesteryl and glyceryl esters thereof) and salts thereof, dilauryl thiodipropionate, distearyl thiodipropionate, thiodipropionic acid and derivatives thereof (esters, ethers, peptides, lipids, nucleotides, nucleosides and salts), and sulfoximine compounds (for example buthionine sulfoximines, homocysteine sulfoximine, buthionine sulfones, penta-, hexa- and hepta-thionine sulfoximine) in very low tolerated doses (for example pmol to μmol/kg), and also (metal) chelating agents, (for example α-hydroxy fatty acids, palmitic acid, phytic acid, lactoferrin), α-hydroxy acids (for example citric acid, lactic acid, malic acid), humic acid, bile acid, bile extracts, bilirubin, biliverdin, EDTA, EGTA and derivatives thereof, unsaturated fatty acids and derivatives thereof, vitamin C and derivatives (for example ascorbyl palmitate, magnesium ascorbyl phosphate, ascorbyl acetate), tocopherols and derivatives (for example vitamin E acetate), vitamin A and derivatives (for example vitamin A palmitate), and coniferyl benzoate of benzoin resin, rutinic acid and derivatives thereof, α-glycosyl rutin, ferulic acid, furfurylideneglucitol, carnosine, butylhydroxytoluene, butylhydroxyanisole, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, trihydroxybutyrophenone, quercetin, uric acid and derivatives thereof, mannose and derivatives thereof, zinc and derivatives thereof (for example ZnO, ZnSO4), selenium and derivatives thereof (for example selenomethionine), stilbenes and derivatives thereof (for example stilbene oxide, trans-stilbene oxide). Mixtures of antioxidants are likewise suitable for use in the cosmetic compositions according to the invention. Known and commercial mixtures are, for example, mixtures comprising, as active ingredients, lecithin, L-(+)-ascorbyl palmitate and citric acid (for example Oxynex® AP), natural tocopherols, L-(+)-ascorbyl palmitate, L-(+)-ascorbic acid and citric acid (for example Oxynex® K LIQUID), tocopherol extracts from natural sources, L-(+)-ascorbyl palmitate, L-(+)-ascorbic acid and citric acid (for example Oxynex® L LIQUID), DL-α-tocopherol, L-(+)-ascorbyl palmitate, citric acid and lecithin (for example Oxynex® LM) or butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), L-(+)-ascorbyl palmitate and citric acid (for example Oxynex® 2004). Anti-oxidants of this type are usually employed in such compositions with compounds according to the invention in ratios in the range from 1000:1 to 1:1000, preferably in amounts of 100:1 to 1:100. The compositions according to the invention may comprise vitamins as further ingredients. The cosmetic compositions according to the invention preferably comprise vitamins and vitamin derivatives selected from vitamin A, vitamin A propionate, vitamin A palmitate, vitamin A acetate, retinol, vitamin B, thiamine chloride hydrochloride (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), nicotinamide, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D, ergocalciferol (vitamin D2), vitamin E, DL-α-tocopherol, tocopherol E acetate, tocopherol hydrogensuccinate, vitamin K1, esculin (vitamin P active ingredient), thiamine (vitamin B1), nicotinic acid (niacin), pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine (vitamin B6), pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and cobalamine (vitamin B12), particularly preferably vitamin A palmitate, retinol, vitamin C and derivatives thereof, DL-α-tocopherol, tocopherol E acetate, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid and biotin. Vitamins are usually employed here with compounds according to the invention in ratios in the range from 1000:1 to 1:1000, preferably in amounts of 100:1 to 1:100. It has been found here that antioxidants, such as, for example, beta-carotene and tocopherol, can accelerate the conversion of the compounds according to the invention into UV-filtering compounds. The present application therefore furthermore relates to the use of antioxidants for activating the compounds according to the invention. Compounds preferably to be employed in accordance with the invention have—after irradiation—a UV absorption in the UV-A and/or UV-B region. The compounds to be employed in accordance with the invention include precursors of broadband UV filters, which can be employed alone or in combination with further UV filters. Other compounds according to the invention which are likewise preferred are precursors of UV filters having an absorption maximum in the boundary region between UV-B and UV-A radiation. As UV-A II filters, they can therefore advantageously supplement the absorption spectrum of commercially available UV-B and UV-A I filters. Furthermore, preferred compounds have advantages on incorporation into the compositions: straight-chain or branched C1- to C20-alkoxy groups, in particular the long-chain alkoxy functions, such as ethylhexyloxy groups, increase the oil solubility of the compounds, in some cases, compounds of this type are in the form of oil components and can easily be incorporated into the composition or can function as solvent for other formulation constituents. In likewise preferred embodiments of the invention, however, the compositions according to the invention may also comprise compounds according to the invention which have low solubility or are insoluble in the composition matrix. In this case, the compounds are preferably dispersed in the cosmetic composition in finely divided form. Compositions which are particularly preferred in accordance with the invention can also serve as sunscreens and then also comprise UV filters in addition to the compounds according to the invention. On use of the dibenzoylmethane derivatives, which are particularly preferred as UV-A filters, but are also used as UV-B filters, or the cinnamic acid derivatives, which are employed, in particular, as UV-B filters, in combination with the compounds according to the invention, an additional advantage arises: the UV-sensitive dibenzoylmethane derivatives and cinnamic acid derivatives are additionally stabilised by the presence of the compounds according to the invention. The present invention therefore furthermore relates to the use of the compounds according to the invention for the stabilisation of dibenzoylmethane derivatives and/or cinnamic acid derivatives in compositions. In principle, all UV filters are suitable for combination with the compounds according to the invention. Particular preference is given to UV filters whose physiological acceptability has already been demonstrated. Both for UV-A and UV-B filters, there are many proven substances known from the specialist literature, for example benzylidenecamphor derivatives, such as 3-(4′-methylbenzylidene)-dl-camphor (for example Eusolex® 6300), 3-benzylidenecamphor (for example Mexoryl® SD), polymers of N-{(2 and 4)-[(2-oxoborn-3-ylidene)methyl]-benzyl}acrylamide (for example Mexoryl® SW), N,N,N-trimethyl-4-(2-oxoborn-3-ylidenemethyl)anilinium methylsulfate (for example Mexoryl® SK) or (2-oxoborn-3-ylidene)toluene-4-sulfonic acid (for example Mexoryl® SL), benzoyl- or dibenzoylmethanes, such as 1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione (for example Eusolex® 9020) or 4-isopropyldibenzoylmethane (for example Eusolex® 8020), benzophenones, such as 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (for example Eusolex® 4360) or 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone-5-sulfonic acid and its sodium salt (for example Uvinul® MS-40), methoxycinnamic acid esters, such as octyl methoxycinnamate (for example Eusolex® 2292), isopentyl 4-methoxycinnamate, for example as a mixture of the isomers (for example Neo Heliopan® E 1000), salicylate derivatives, such as 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (for example Eusolex® OS), 4-isopropylbenzyl salicylate (for example Megasol®) or 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexyl salicylate (for example Eusolex® HMS), 4-aminobenzoic acid and derivatives, such as 4-aminobenzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl 4-(dimethylamino)benzoate (for example Eusolex® 6007), ethoxylated ethyl 4-aminobenzoate (for example Uvinul® P25), phenylbenzimidazolesulfonic acids, such as 2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid and potassium, sodium and triethanolamine salts thereof (for example Eusolex® 232), 2,2-(1,4-phenylene)bisbenzimidazole-4,6-disulfonic acid and salts thereof (for example Neoheliopan® AP) or 2,2-(1,4-phenylene)bisbenzimidazole-6-sulfonic acid; and further substances, such as 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate (for example Eusolex® OCR), 3,3′-(1,4-phenylenedimethylene)bis(7,7-dimethyl-2-oxobicyclo[2.2.1]hept-1-ylmethanesulfonic acid and salts thereof (for example Mexoryl® SX) and 2,4,6-trianilino-(p-carbo-2′-ethylhexyl-1′-oxy)-1,3,5-triazine (for example Uvinul® T 150) hexyl 2-(4-diethylamino-2-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoate (for example Uvinul®UVA Plus, BASF). The compounds mentioned in the list should only be regarded as examples. It is of course also possible to use other UV filters. These organic UV filters are generally incorporated into cosmetic formulations in an amount of 0.5 to 10 percent by weight, preferably 1-8%. Further suitable organic UV filters are, for example, 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4-methyl-6-(2-methyl-3-(1,3,3,3-tetramethyl-1-(trimethylsilyloxy)disiloxanyl)propyl)phenol (for example Silatrizole®), 2-ethylhexyl 4,4′-[(6-[4-((1,1-dimethylethyl)aminocarbonyl)phenylamino]-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diyl)diimino]bis(benzoate) (for example Uvasorb®HEB), α-(trimethylsilyl)-ω-[trimethylsilyl)oxy]poly[oxy(dimethyl [and approximately 6% of methyl[2-[p-[2,2-bis(ethoxycarbonyl]vinyl]phenoxy]-1-methyleneethyl] and approximately 1.5% of methyl[3-[p-[2,2-bis(ethoxycarbonyl)vinyl)phenoxy)propenyl) and 0.1 to 0.4% of (methylhydrogen]-silylene]] (n≈60) (CAS No. 207 574-74-1) 2,2′-methylenebis(6-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenol) (CAS No. 103 597-45-1) 2,2′-(1,4-phenylene)bis(1H-benzimidazole-4,6-disulfonic acid, monosodium salt) (CAS No. 180 898-37-7) and 2,4-bis{[4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-2-hydroxy]phenyl}-6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,3,5-triazine (CAS No. 103 597-45-, 187 393-00-6). 2-ethylhexyl 4,4′-[(6-[4-((1,1-dimethylethyl)aminocarbonyl)phenylamino]-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diyl)diimino]bis(benzoate) (for example Uvasorb® HEB), Further suitable UV filters are also methoxyflavones corresponding to the earlier German patent application DE-A-1 0232595. Organic UV filters are generally incorporated into cosmetic formulations in an amount of 0.5 to 20 percent by weight, preferably 1-15%. Conceivable inorganic UV filters are those from the group of the titanium dioxides, such as, for example, coated titanium dioxide (for example Eusolex® T-2000, Eusolex® T-AQUA, Eusolex® T-AVO), zinc oxides (for example Sachtotec®), iron oxides or also cerium oxides. These inorganic UV filters are generally incorporated into cosmetic compositions in an amount of 0.5 to 20 percent by weight, preferably 2-10%. Preferred compounds having UV-filtering properties are 3-(4′-methylbenzylidene)-dl-camphor, 1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione, 4-isopropyldibenzoylmethane, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, octyl methoxycinnamate, 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexyl salicylate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-(dimethylamino)benzoate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate, 2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid and the potassium, sodium and triethanolamine salts thereof. Combination of one or more compounds according to the invention with further UV filters enables the protective action against damaging effects of UV radiation to be optimised. Optimised compositions may comprise, for example, the combination of the organic UV filters 4′-methoxy-6-hydroxyflavone with 1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione and 3-(4′-methylbenzylidene)-dl-camphor. This combination gives rise to broad-band protection, which can be supplemented by the addition of inorganic UV filters, such as titanium dioxide microparticles. All the said UV filters and the compounds according to the invention can also be employed in encapsulated form. In particular, it is advantageous to employ organic UV filters in encapsulated form. In detail, the following advantages arise: The hydrophilicity of the capsule wall can be set independently of the solubility of the UV filter or the compound of the formula I. Thus, for example, it is also possible to incorporate hydrophobic UV filters or compounds according to the invention into purely aqueous compositions. In addition, the oily impression on application of the composition comprising hydrophobic UV filters, which is frequently regarded as unpleasant, is suppressed. Certain UV filters, in particular dibenzoylmethane derivatives, exhibit only reduced photostability in cosmetic compositions. Encapsulation of these filters or compounds which impair the photostability of these filters, such as, for example, cinnamic acid derivatives, enables the photostability of the entire composition to be increased. Skin penetration by organic UV filters and the associated potential for irritation on direct application to the human skin is repeatedly being discussed in the literature. The encapsulation of the corresponding sub-stances which is proposed here suppresses this effect. In general, encapsulation of individual UV filters or compounds according to the invention or other ingredients enables composition problems caused by the interaction of individual composition constituents with one another, such as crystallisation processes, precipitation and agglomerate formation, to be avoided since the interaction is suppressed. It is therefore preferred in accordance with the invention for one or more of the above-mentioned UV filters or compounds according to the invention to be in encapsulated form. It is advantageous here for the capsules to be so small that they cannot be viewed with the naked eye. In order to achieve the above-mentioned effects, it is furthermore necessary for the capsules to be sufficiently stable and the encapsulated active ingredient (UV filter) only to be released to the environment to a small extent, or not at all. Suitable capsules can have walls of inorganic or organic polymers. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,242,099 B1 describes the production of suitable capsules with walls of chitin, chitin derivatives or polyhydroxylated polyamines. Capsules which can particularly preferably be employed in accordance with the invention have walls which can be obtained by a sol-gel process, as described in the applications WO 00/09652, WO 00/72806 and WO 00/71084. Preference is again given here to capsules whose walls are built up from silica gel (silica; undefined silicon oxide hydroxide). The production of corresponding capsules is known to the person skilled in the art, for example from the cited patent applications, whose contents expressly also belong to the subject-matter of the present application. The capsules in compositions according to the invention are preferably present in amounts which ensure that the encapsulated UV filters are pre-sent in the composition in the above-indicated amounts. The compositions according to the invention may in addition comprise further conventional skin-protecting or skin-care active ingredients. These may in principle be any active ingredients known to the person skilled in the art. Particularly preferred active ingredients are pyrimidinecarboxylic acids and/or aryl oximes. Pyrimidinecarboxylic acids occur in halophilic microorganisms and play a role in osmoregulation of these organisms (E. A. Galinski et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 149 (1985) pages 135-139). Of the pyrimidinecarboxylic acids, particular mention should be made here of ectoin ((S)-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinecarboxylic acid) and hydroxyectoin ((S,S)-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-5-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinecarboxylic acid and derivatives thereof. These compounds stabilise enzymes and other biomolecules in aqueous solutions and organic solvents. Furthermore, they stabilise, in particular, enzymes against denaturing conditions, such as salts, extreme pH values, surfactants, urea, guanidinium chloride and other compounds. Ectoin and ectoin derivatives, such as hydroxyectoin, can advantageously be used in medicaments. In particular, hydroxyectoin can be employed for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of skin diseases. Other areas of application of hydroxyectoin and other ectoin derivatives are typically in areas in which, for example, trehalose is used as additive. Thus, ectoin derivatives, such as hydroxyectoin, can be used as protectant in dried yeast and bacterial cells. Pharmaceutical products, such as non-glycosylated, pharmaceutically active peptides and proteins, for example t-PA, can also be protected with ectoin or its derivatives. Of the cosmetic applications, particular mention should be made of the use of ectoin and ectoin derivatives for the care of aged, dry or irritated skin. Thus, European patent application EP-A-0 671 161 describes, in particular, that ectoin and hydroxyectoin are employed in cosmetic compositions, such as powders, soaps, surfactant-containing cleansing products, lipsticks, rouge, make-up, care creams and sunscreen preparations. Preference is given here to the use of a pyrimidinecarboxylic acid of the following formula in which R1 is a radical H or C1-8-alkyl, R2 is a radical H or C1-4-alkyl, and R3, R4, R5 and R6 are each, independently of one another, a radical from the group H, OH, NH2 and C1-4-alkyl. Preference is given to the use of pyrimidinecarboxylic acids in which R2 is a methyl or ethyl group, and R1 or R5 and R6 are H. Particular preference is given to the use of the pyrimidinecarboxylic acids ectoin ((S)-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinecarboxylic acid) and hydroxyectoin ((S,S)-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-5-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinecarboxylic acid). The compositions according to the invention preferably comprise pyrimidinecarboxylic acids of this type in amounts of up to 15% by weight. The pyrimidinecarboxylic acids are preferably employed here in ratios of 100:1 to 1:100 with respect to the compounds according to the invention, with ratios in the range 1:10 to 10:1 being particularly preferred. Of the aryl oximes, preference is given to the use of 2-hydroxy-5-methyllaurophenone oxime, which is also known as HMLO, LPO or F5. Its suitability for use in cosmetic compositions is disclosed, for example, in DE-A-41 16 123. Compositions which comprise 2-hydroxy-5-methyllaurophenone oxime are accordingly suitable for the treatment of skin diseases which are accompanied by inflammation. It is known that compositions of this type can be used, for example, for the therapy of psoriasis, various forms of eczema, irritative and toxic dermatitis, UV dermatitis and further allergic and/or inflammatory diseases of the skin and skin appendages. Compositions according to the invention which, in addition to the compound of the formula I, additionally comprise an aryl oxime, preferably 2-hydroxy-5-methyllaurophenone oxime, exhibit surprising antiinflammatory suitability. The compositions here preferably comprise 0.01 to 10% by weight of the aryl oxime, it being particularly preferred for the composition to comprise 0.05 to 5% by weight of aryl oxime. In a further, likewise preferred embodiment of the present invention, the composition according to the invention comprises at least one self-tanning agent. Advantageous self-tanning agents which can be employed are, inter alia, trioses and tetroses, such as, for example, the following compounds: Mention should also be made of 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (juglone), which can be extracted from the shells of fresh walnuts, and 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (lawsone), which occurs in henna leaves. The flavonoid diosmetin and its glycosides or sulfates can also be employed. These compounds can be employed here in the form of pure substances or plant extracts. Diosmetin can preferably be employed, for example, in the form of a chrysanthemum extract. Very particular preference is given to 1,3-dihydroxyacetone (DHA), a tri-functional sugar which occurs in the human body, and derivatives thereof. The said self-tanning agents can be employed alone or as a mixture. It is particularly preferred here for DHA to be employed in a mixture with a further self-tanning agent of those mentioned above. It has been found that the combination of self-tanning agents with the compounds according to the invention results in accelerated tanning compared with the use of the self-tanning agents alone. The present invention therefore furthermore relates to the corresponding use of the compounds according to the invention for accelerating the tanning action of self-tanning agents. All compounds or components which can be used in the compositions are either known and commercially available or can be synthesised by known processes. The one or more compounds according to the invention can be incorporated into cosmetic or dermatological compositions in the customary manner. Suitable compositions are those for external use, for example in the form of a cream, lotion, gel or as a solution which can be sprayed onto the skin. Suitable for internal use are administration forms such as capsules, coated tablets, powders, tablet solutions or solutions. Examples which may be mentioned of application forms of the compositions according to the invention are: solutions, suspensions, emulsions, PIT emulsions, pastes, ointments, gels, creams, lotions, powders, soaps, surfactant-containing cleansing preparations, oils, aerosols and sprays. Examples of other application forms are sticks, shampoos and shower compositions. Any desired customary vehicles, auxiliaries and, if desired, further active ingredients may be added to the composition. Preferred auxiliaries originate from the group of the preservatives, antioxidants, stabilisers, solubilisers, vitamins, colorants, odour improvers. Ointments, pastes, creams and gels may comprise the customary vehicles, for example animal and vegetable fats, waxes, paraffins, starch, tragacanth, cellulose derivatives, polyethylene glycols, silicones, bentonites, silica, talc and zinc oxide, or mixtures of these substances. Powders and sprays may comprise the customary vehicles, for example lactose, talc, silica, aluminium hydroxide, calcium silicate and polyamide powder, or mixtures of these substances. Sprays may additionally comprise the customary propellants, for example chlorofluorocarbons, propane/butane or dimethyl ether. Solutions and emulsions may comprise the customary vehicles, such as solvents, solubilisers and emulsifiers, for example water, ethanol, isopropanol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butyl glycol, oils, in particular cottonseed oil, peanut oil, wheatgerm oil, olive oil, castor oil and sesame oil, glycerol fatty acid esters, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, or mixtures of these substances. Suspensions may comprise the customary vehicles, such as liquid diluents, for example water, ethanol or propylene glycol, suspension media, for example ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols, polyoxyethylene sorbitol esters and polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters, microcrystalline cellulose, aluminium metahydroxide, bentonite, agar-agar and tragacanth, or mixtures of these substances. Soaps may comprise the customary vehicles, such as alkali metal salts of fatty acids, salts of fatty acid monoesters, fatty acid protein hydrolysates, isothionates, lanolin, fatty alcohol, vegetable oils, plant extracts, glycerol, sugars, or mixtures of these substances. Surfactant-containing cleansing products may comprise the customary vehicles, such as salts of fatty alcohol sulfates, fatty alcohol ether sulfates, sulfosuccinic acid monoesters, fatty acid protein hydrolysates, isothionates, imidazolinium derivatives, methyl taurates, sarcosinates, fatty acid amide ether sulfates, alkylamidobetaines, fatty alcohols, fatty acid glycerides, fatty acid diethanolamides, vegetable and synthetic oils, lanolin derivatives, ethoxylated glycerol fatty acid esters, or mixtures of these substances. Face and body oils may comprise the customary vehicles, such as synthetic oils, such as fatty acid esters, fatty alcohols, silicone oils, natural oils, such as vegetable oils and oily plant extracts, paraffin oils, lanolin oils, or mixtures of these substances. Further typical cosmetic application forms are also lipsticks, lip-care sticks, mascara, eyeliner, eye shadow, rouge, powder make-up, emulsion make-up and wax make-up, and sunscreen, pre-sun and after-sun preparations. The preferred composition forms according to the invention include, in particular, emulsions. Emulsions according to the invention are advantageous and comprise, for example, the said fats, oils, waxes and other fatty substances, as well as water and an emulsifier, as usually used for a composition of this type. The lipid phase may advantageously be selected from the following group of substances: mineral oils, mineral waxes; oils, such as triglycerides of capric or caprylic acid, furthermore natural oils, such as, for example, castor oil; fats, waxes and other natural and synthetic fatty substances, preferably esters of fatty acids with alcohols having a low carbon number, for example with isopropanol, propylene glycol or glycerol, or esters of fatty alcohols with alkanoic acids having a low carbon number or with fatty acids; silicone oils, such as dimethylpolysiloxanes, diethylpolysiloxanes, diphenylpolysiloxanes and mixed forms thereof. For the purposes of the present invention, the oil phase of the emulsions, oleogels or hydrodispersions or lipodispersions is advantageously selected from the group of the esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 3 to 30 C atoms and saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alcohols having a chain length of 3 to 30 C atoms, or from the group of the esters of aromatic carboxylic acids and saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alcohols having a chain length of 3 to 30 C atoms. Ester oils of this type can then advantageously be selected from the group isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, isopropyl stearate, isopropyl oleate, n-butyl stearate, n-hexyl laurate, n-decyl oleate, isooctyl stearate, isononyl stearate, isononyl isononanoate, 2-ethylhexyl palmitate, 2-ethylhexyl laurate, 2-hexyldecyl stearate, 2-octyldodecyl palmitate, oleyl oleate, oleyl erucate, erucyl oleate, erucyl erucate and synthetic, semi-synthetic and natural mixtures of esters of this type, for example jojoba oil. The oil phase may furthermore advantageously be selected from the group of the branched and unbranched hydrocarbons and waxes, silicone oils, dialkyl ethers, the group of the saturated or unsaturated, branched or unbranched alcohols, and fatty acid triglycerides, specifically the triglycerol esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18, C atoms. The fatty acid triglycerides may advantageously be selected, for example, from the group of the synthetic, semi-synthetic and natural oils, for example olive oil, sunflower oil, soya oil, peanut oil, rapeseed oil, almond oil, palm oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil and the like. Any desired mixtures of oil and wax components of this type may also advantageously be employed for the purposes of the present invention. It may also be advantageous to employ waxes, for example cetyl palmitate, as the only lipid component of the oil phase. The oil phase is advantageously selected from the group 2-ethylhexyl isostearate, octyldodecanol, isotridecyl isononanoate, isoeicosane, 2-ethylhexyl cocoate, C12-15-alkyl benzoate, caprylic/capric acid triglyceride and dicapryl ether. Particularly advantageous are mixtures of C12-15-alkyl benzoate and 2-ethylhexyl isostearate, mixtures of C12-15-alkyl benzoate and isotridecyl isononanoate, as well as mixtures of C12-15-alkyl benzoate, 2-ethylhexyl isostearate and isotridecyl isononanoate. Of the hydrocarbons, paraffin oil, squalane and squalene may advantageously be used for the purposes of the present invention. Furthermore, the oil phase may also advantageously have a content of cyclic or linear silicone oils or consist entirely of oils of this type, although it is preferred to use an additional content of other oil-phase components in addition to the silicone oil or the silicone oils. The silicone oil to be used in accordance with the invention is advantageously cyclomethicone (octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane). However, it is also advantageous for the purposes of the present invention to use other silicone oils, for example hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane, polydimethylsiloxane or poly(methylphenylsiloxane). Also particularly advantageous are mixtures of cyclomethicone and isotridecyl isononanoate, of cyclomethicone and 2-ethylhexyl isostearate. The aqueous phase of the compositions according to the invention optionally advantageously comprises alcohols, diols or polyols having a low carbon number, and ethers thereof, preferably ethanol, isopropanol, propylene glycol, glycerol, ethylene glycol, ethylene glycol monoethyl or monobutyl ether, propylene glycol monomethyl, monoethyl or monobutyl ether, diethylene glycol monomethyl or monoethyl ether and analogous products, furthermore alcohols having a low carbon number, for example ethanol, isopropanol, 1,2-propanediol, glycerol, and, in particular, one or more thickeners, which may advantageously be selected from the group silicon dioxide, aluminium silicates, polysaccharides and derivatives thereof, for example hyaluronic acid, xanthan gum, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, particularly advantageously from the group of the polyacrylates, preferably a polyacrylate from the group of the so-called Carbopols, for example Carbopol grades 980, 981, 1382, 2984 or 5984, in each case individually or in combination. In particular, mixtures of the above-mentioned solvents are used. In the case of alcoholic solvents, water may be a further constituent. Emulsions according to the invention are advantageous and comprise, for example, the said fats, oils, waxes and other fatty substances, as well as water and an emulsifier, as usually used for a formulation of this type. In a preferred embodiment, the compositions according to the invention comprise hydrophilic surfactants. The hydrophilic surfactants are preferably selected from the group of the alkylglucosides, acyl lactylates, betaines and coconut amphoacetates. The alkylglucosides are themselves advantageously selected from the group of the alkylglucosides which are distinguished by the structural formula where R represents a branched or unbranched alkyl radical having 4 to 24 carbon atoms, and where DP denotes a mean degree of glucosylation of up to 2. The value DP represents the degree of glucosidation of the alkylglucosides used in accordance with the invention and is defined as DP _ = p 1 100 · 1 + p 2 100 · 2 + p 3 100 · 3 + … = ∑ p i 100 · i in which p1, p2, p3 . . . pi represent the proportion of mono-, di-, tri- . . . i-fold glucosylated products in percent by weight. Advantageous in accordance with the invention is the selection of products having degrees of glucosylation of 1-2, particularly advantageously of 1.1 to 1.5, very particularly advantageously of 1.2-1.4, in particular of 1.3. The value DP takes into account the fact that alkylglucosides are generally, as a consequence of their preparation, in the form of mixtures of mono- and oligoglucosides. A relatively high content of monoglucosides, typically in the order of 40-70% by weight, is advantageous in accordance with the invention. Alkylglycosides which are particularly advantageously used in accordance with the invention are selected from the group octyl glucopyranoside, nonyl glucopyranoside, decyl glucopyranoside, undecyl glucopyranoside, dodecyl glucopyranoside, tetradecyl glucopyranoside and hexadecyl glucopyranoside. It is likewise advantageous to employ natural or synthetic raw materials and auxiliaries or mixtures which are distinguished by an effective content of the active ingredients used in accordance with the invention, for example Plantaren® 1200 (Henkel KGaA), Oramix® NS 10 (Seppic). The acyllactylates are themselves advantageously selected from the group of the substances which are distinguished by the structural formula where R1 denotes a branched or unbranched alkyl radical having 1 to 30 carbon atoms, and M+ is selected from the group of the alkali metal ions and the group of ammonium ions which are substituted by one or more alkyl and/or one or more hydroxyalkyl radicals, or corresponds to half an equivalent of an alkaline earth metal ion. For example, sodium isostearyl lactylate, for example the product Pathionic® ISL from the American Ingredients Company, is advantageous. The betaines are advantageously selected from the group of the sub-stances which are distinguished by the structural formula where R2 denotes a branched or unbranched alkyl radical having 1 to 30 carbon atoms. R2 particularly advantageously denotes a branched or unbranched alkyl radical having 6 to 12 carbon atoms. For example, capramidopropylbetaine, for example the product Tego® Betain 810 from Th. Goldschmidt AG, is advantageous. A coconut amphoacetate which is advantageous in accordance with the invention is, for example, sodium coconut amphoacetate, as available under the name Miranol® Ultra C32 from Miranol Chemical Corp. The compositions according to the invention are advantageously characterised in that the hydrophilic surfactant(s) is (are) present in concentrations of 0.01-20% by weight, preferably 0.05-10% by weight, particularly preferably 0.1-5% by weight, in each case based on the total weight of the composition. For use, the cosmetic and dermatological compositions according to the invention are applied to the skin and/or the hair in an adequate amount in the usual manner for cosmetics. Cosmetic and dermatological compositions according to the invention may exist in various forms. Thus, they may be, for example, a solution, a water-free composition, an emulsion or microemulsion of the water-in-oil (W/O) type or of the oil-in-water (O/W) type, a multiple emulsion, for example of the water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) type, a gel, a solid stick, an ointment or an aerosol. It is also advantageous to administer active ingredients in encapsulated form, for example in collagen matrices and other conventional encapsulation materials, for example as cellulose encapsulations, in gelatine, wax matrices or liposomally encapsulated. In particular, wax matrices, as described in DE-A 43 08 282, have proven favourable. Preference is given to emulsions. O/W emulsions are particularly preferred. Emulsions, W/O emulsions and O/W emulsions are obtainable in a conventional manner. Emulsifiers that can be used are, for example, the known W/O and O/W emulsifiers. It is advantageous to use further conventional co-emulsifiers in the preferred O/W emulsions according to the invention. Co-emulsifiers which are advantageous in accordance with the invention are, for example, O/W emulsifiers, principally from the group of the sub-stances having HLB values of 11-16, very particularly advantageously having HLB values of 14.5-15.5, so long as the O/W emulsifiers have saturated radicals R and R′. If the O/W emulsifiers have unsaturated radicals R and/or R′ or in the case of isoalkyl derivatives, the preferred HLB value of such emulsifiers may also be lower or higher. It is advantageous to select the fatty alcohol ethoxylates from the group of ethoxylated stearyl alcohols, cetyl alcohols, cetylstearyl alcohols (cetearyl alcohols). Particular preference is given to the following: polyethylene glycol (13) stearyl ether (steareth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) stearyl ether (steareth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) stearyl ether (steareth-15), polyethylene glycol (16) stearyl ether (steareth-16), polyethylene glycol (17) stearyl ether (steareth-17), polyethylene glycol (18) stearyl ether (steareth-18), polyethylene glycol (19) stearyl ether (steareth-19), polyethylene glycol (20) stearyl ether (steareth-20), polyethylene glycol (12) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-12), polyethylene glycol (13) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-15), polyethylene glycol (16) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-16), polyethylene glycol (17) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-17), polyethylene glycol (18) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-18), polyethylene glycol (19) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-19), polyethylene glycol (20) isostearyl ether (isosteareth-20), polyethylene glycol (13) cetyl ether (ceteth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) cetyl ether (ceteth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) cetyl ether (ceteth-15), polyethylene glycol (16) cetyl ether (ceteth-16), polyethylene glycol (17) cetyl ether (ceteth-17), polyethylene glycol (18) cetyl ether (ceteth-18), polyethylene glycol (19) cetyl ether (ceteth-19), polyethylene glycol (20) cetyl ether (ceteth-20), polyethylene glycol (13) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-15), polyethylene glycol (16) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-16), polyethylene glycol (17) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-17), polyethylene glycol (18) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-18), polyethylene glycol (19) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-19), polyethylene glycol (20) isocetyl ether (isoceteth-20), polyethylene glycol (12) oleyl ether (oleth-12), polyethylene glycol (13) oleyl ether (oleth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) oleyl ether (oleth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) oleyl ether (oleth-15), polyethylene glycol (12) lauryl ether (laureth-12), polyethylene glycol (12) isolauryl ether (isolaureth-12), polyethylene glycol (13) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-13), polyethylene glycol (14) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-14), polyethylene glycol (15) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-15), polyethylene glycol (16) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-16), polyethylene glycol (17) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-17), polyethylene glycol (18) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-18), polyethylene glycol (19) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-19), polyethylene glycol (20) cetylstearyl ether (ceteareth-20). It is furthermore advantageous to select the fatty acid ethoxylates from the following group: polyethylene glycol (20) stearate, polyethylene glycol (21) stearate, polyethylene glycol (22) stearate, polyethylene glycol (23) stearate, polyethylene glycol (24) stearate, polyethylene glycol (25) stearate, polyethylene glycol (12) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (13) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (14) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (15) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (16) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (17) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (18) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (19) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (20) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (21) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (22) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (23) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (24) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (25) isostearate, polyethylene glycol (12) oleate, polyethylene glycol (13) oleate, polyethylene glycol (14) oleate, polyethylene glycol (15) oleate, polyethylene glycol (16) oleate, polyethylene glycol (17) oleate, polyethylene glycol (18) oleate, polyethylene glycol (19) oleate, polyethylene glycol (20) oleate, An ethoxylated alkyl ether carboxylic acid or salt thereof which can advantageously be used is sodium laureth-11 carboxylate. An alkyl ether sulfate which can advantageously be used is sodium laureth-14 sulfate. An ethoxylated cholesterol derivative which can advantageously be used is polyethylene glycol (30) cholesteryl ether. Polyethylene glycol (25) soyasterol has also proven successful. Ethoxylated triglycerides which can advantageously be used are the polyethylene glycol (60) evening primrose glycerides. It is furthermore advantageous to select the polyethylene glycol glycerol fatty acid esters from the group polyethylene glycol (20) glyceryl laurate, polyethylene glycol (21) glyceryl laurate, polyethylene glycol (22) glyceryl laurate, polyethylene glycol (23) glyceryl laurate, polyethylene glycol (6) glyceryl caprate/caprinate, polyethylene glycol (20) glyceryl oleate, polyethylene glycol (20) glyceryl isostearate, polyethylene glycol (18) glyceryl oleate/cocoate. It is likewise favourable to select the sorbitan esters from the group polyethylene glycol (20) sorbitan monolaurate, polyethylene glycol (20) sorbitan monostearate, polyethylene glycol (20) sorbitan monoisostearate, polyethylene glycol (20) sorbitan monopalmitate, polyethylene glycol (20) sorbitan monooleate. Optional W/O emulsifiers, but ones which may nevertheless be advantageously employed in accordance with the invention are the following: fatty alcohols having 8 to 30 carbon atoms, monoglycerol esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms, diglycerol esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms, monoglycerol ethers of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alcohols having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms, diglycerol ethers of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alcohols having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms, propylene glycol esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms, and sorbitan esters of saturated and/or unsaturated, branched and/or unbranched alkanecarboxylic acids having a chain length of 8 to 24, in particular 12-18 C atoms. Particularly advantageous W/O emulsifiers are glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monoisostearate, glyceryl monomyristate, glyceryl monooleate, diglyceryl monostearate, diglyceryl monoisostearate, propylene glycol monostearate, propylene glycol monoisostearate, propylene glycol monocaprylate, propylene glycol monolaurate, sorbitan monoisostearate, sorbitan monolaurate, sorbitan monocaprylate, sorbitan monoisooleate, sucrose distearate, cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol, arachidyl alcohol, behenyl alcohol, isobehenyl alcohol, selachyl alcohol, chimyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol (2) stearyl ether (steareth-2), glyceryl monolaurate, glyceryl monocaprinate, glyceryl monocaprylate. Preferred compositions in accordance with the invention are particularly suitable for protecting human skin against ageing processes and against oxidative stress, i.e. against damage caused by free radicals, as are generated, for example, by solar irradiation, heat or other influences. In this connection, they are in the various administration forms usually used for this application. For example, it may, in particular, be in the form of a lotion or emulsion, such as in the form of a cream or milk (O/W, W/O, O/W/O, W/O/W), in the form of oily-alcoholic, oily-aqueous or aqueous-alcoholic gels or solutions, in the form of solid sticks or may be formulated as an aerosol. The composition may comprise cosmetic adjuvants which are usually used in this type of composition, such as, for example, thickeners, softeners, moisturisers, surface-active agents, emulsifiers, preservatives, antifoams, perfumes, waxes, lanolin, propellants, dyes and/or pigments which colour the composition itself or the skin, and other ingredients usually used in cosmetics. The dispersant or solubiliser used can be an oil, wax or other fatty substance, a lower monoalcohol or lower polyol or mixtures thereof. Particularly preferred monoalcohols or polyols include ethanol, isopropanol, propylene glycol, glycerol and sorbitol. A preferred embodiment of the invention is an emulsion in the form of a protective cream or milk which, apart from the compound(s) according to the invention, comprises, for example, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, fatty acid esters, in particular triglycerides of fatty acids, lanolin, natural and synthetic oils or waxes and emulsifiers in the presence of water. Further preferred embodiments are oily lotions based on natural or synthetic oils and waxes, lanolin, fatty acid esters, in particular triglycerides of fatty acids, or oily-alcoholic lotions based on a lower alcohol, such as ethanol, or a glycerol, such as propylene glycol, and/or a polyol, such as glycerol, and oils, waxes and fatty acid esters, such as triglycerides of fatty acids. The composition according to the invention may also be in the form of an alcoholic gel which comprises one or more lower alcohols or polyols, such as ethanol, propylene glycol or glycerol, and a thickener, such as siliceous earth. The oily-alcoholic gels also comprise natural or synthetic oil or wax. The solid sticks consist of natural or synthetic waxes and oils, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, fatty acid esters, lanolin and other fatty substances. If a composition is formulated as an aerosol, the customary propellants, such as alkanes, fluoroalkanes and chlorofluoroalkanes, are generally used. The cosmetic composition may also be used to protect the hair against photochemical damage in order to prevent colour changes, bleaching or damage of a mechanical nature. In this case, a suitable formulation is in the form of a rinse-out shampoo, lotion, gel or emulsion, the composition in question being applied before or after shampooing, before or after colouring or bleaching or before or after permanent waving. It is also possible to select a composition in the form of a lotion or gel for styling and treating the hair, in the form of a lotion or gel for brushing or blow-waving, in the form of a hair lacquer, permanent waving composition, colorant or bleach for the hair. Besides the compound(s) according to the invention, the composition having light-protection properties may comprise various adjuvants used in this type of composition, such as surface-active agents, thickeners, polymers, softeners, preservatives, foam stabilisers, electrolytes, organic solvents, silicone derivatives, oils, waxes, antigrease agents, dyes and/or pigments which colour the composition itself or the hair, or other ingredients usually used for hair care. If the composition according to the invention is a hair-care composition, it is preferred for this composition to comprise at least one compound of the formula I in which R1 stands for a radical Ra or Rb where m stands for an integer from the range from 1 to 3, and A1-A3 each, independently of one another, stand for a radical —(CH2)o(O)pH, where o stands for 1, 2 or 3, and p stands for 0 or 1, where it is very particularly preferred for the at least one compound of the formula I to be a compound selected from compounds Iah and Ib to Iv, as described above. The present invention furthermore relates to a process for the preparation of a composition which is characterised in that at least one compound which itself does not exhibit significant UV absorption in the UV-A or UV-B region, but is reactive under application conditions and produces UV-A or UV-B protection, is mixed with a vehicle which is suitable cosmetically or dermatologically or for foods or for domestic products, and to the use of a compound of the formula I for the preparation of a composition having antioxidant properties. The compositions according to the invention can be prepared with the aid of techniques which are well known to the person skilled in the art. The mixing can result in dissolution, emulsification or dispersion of the compound according to the invention in the vehicle. In a process which is preferred in accordance with the invention, the compound of the formula I is prepared by hydrogenation of at least one compound of the formula I ena or I enb where the radicals Ar, X, Y, Z1 and Z2 and R1 correspond to those of the desired formula I. Molecular hydrogen, for example, is suitable for the hydrogenation. If molecular hydrogen is used for the hydrogenation of the compounds of the formula I ena or I enb, the hydrogenation is preferably carried out in the presence of a catalyst or catalyst system. Suitable catalysts for the hydrogenation are all common homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, particularly preferably at least one noble metal, preferably selected from the elements Pt, Pd and Rh, or a transition metal, such as Mo, W, Cr, but particularly Fe, Co and Ni, either individually or in a mixture. The catalyst(s) or catalyst mixture(s) here may also be employed on supports, such as carbon, activated carbon, aluminium oxide, barium carbonate, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, strontium carbonate or kieselguhr. The metal here may also be employed in the form of the Raney compound, for example Raney nickel. If the catalysis is carried out in a homogeneous process, it is preferred for the catalyst employed to be one or more complex compounds of the said metals, such as, for example, Wilkinson's catalyst [chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium]. It is furthermore possible to employ salts of the said metals, which can be reduced in situ by a reducing agent and form a finely divided metal(0) species in situ. Suitable noble-metal salts are, for example, palladium acetate, palladium bromide and palladium chloride, suitable reducing agents are, for example, hydrogen, hydrazine, sodium borohydride and formates. In a preferred variant of the present invention, a heterogeneous catalyst is employed, it being particularly preferred for the catalyst employed in the process according to the invention to be Pd or Pt, preferably on activated-carbon support, for example 5% by weight of Pd or Pt on C. The hydrogenation is usually carried out at a temperature in the range from 20-150° C. The hydrogenation is furthermore advantageously carried out at a hydrogen pressure of 1 to 200 bar. Suitable solvents are protic solvents, in particular the usual protic solvents known to the person skilled in the art, such as water, lower alcohols, such as, for example, methanol, ethanol and isopropanol, and primary and secondary amines, and mixtures of protic solvents of this type, where it may be particularly preferred for the solvent employed to be water. Suitable solvents for this reaction are furthermore also conventional aprotic solvents. For example, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, benzene, toluene, acetonitrile, dimethoxyethane, dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide and N-methylpyrrolidone can be employed. In a likewise preferred embodiment of the preparation process according to the invention, the hydrogenation is carried out in the solid state, i.e. no additional solvent is necessary. When the reaction is complete, the work-up can be carried out by conventional methods. For example, the catalyst can be filtered off, the filtrate freed from solvent, for example by heating at reduced pressure compared with atmospheric pressure, and the resultant product purified further by conventional methods. The further purification of the reaction products can likewise be carried out by conventional methods, for example by recrystallisation from a suitable solvent, or by chromatographic methods. It has also been noted that compounds according to the invention can have a stabilising effect on the composition. When used in corresponding products, the latter thus also remain stable for longer and do not change their pharmaceutical and sensory nature. In particular, the effectiveness of the ingredients, for example vitamins, is retained even in the case of application over extended periods or extended storage. This is, inter alia, particularly advantageous in the case of compositions for protecting the skin against the effect of UV rays since these cosmetics are exposed to particularly high stresses by UV radiation. The positive effects of compounds according to the invention give rise to their particular suitability for use in cosmetic or pharmaceutical compositions. The properties of compounds of the formula I should likewise be regarded as positive for use in foods or as food supplements or as functional foods. The further explanations given for foods also apply correspondingly to food supplements and functional foods. The foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention include all materials which are suitable for consumption by animals or consumption by humans, for example vitamins and provitamins thereof, fats, minerals or amino acids. (The foods may be solid, but also liquid, i.e. in the form of a beverage). The present invention accordingly furthermore relates to the use of a compound of the formula I as food additive for human or animal nutrition, and to compositions which are foods or food supplements and comprise corresponding vehicles. Foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention are, for example, also foods which originate from a single natural source, such as, for example, sugar, unsweetened juice, squash or puree of a single plant species, such as, for example, unsweetened apple juice (for example also a mixture of different types of apple juice), grapefruit juice, orange juice, apple compote, apricot squash, tomato juice, tomato sauce, tomato puree, etc. Further examples of foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention are corn or cereals from a single plant species and materials produced from plant species of this type, such as, for example, cereal syrup, rye flour, wheat flour or oat bran. Mixtures of foods of this type are also suitable for being enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention, for example multivitamin preparations, mineral mixtures or sweetened juice. As further examples of foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention, mention may be made of food compositions, for example prepared cereals, biscuits, mixed drinks, foods prepared especially for children, such as yoghurt, diet foods, low-calorie foods or animal feeds. The foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention thus include all edible combinations of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, inorganic elements, trace elements, vitamins, water or active metabolites of plants and animals. The foods which can be enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention in accordance with the present invention are preferably administered orally, for example in the form of meals, pills, tablets, capsules, powders, syrup, solutions or suspensions. The foods according to the invention enriched with one or more compounds according to the invention can be prepared with the aid of techniques which are well known to the person skilled in the art. Due to their action as antioxidants or free-radical scavengers, compounds according to the invention are also suitable as medicament ingredient, where they support or replace natural mechanisms which scavenge free radicals in the body. The compounds according to the invention can in some cases be compared in their action with free-radical scavengers, such as vitamin C. Compounds according to the invention can be used, for example, for the preventative treatment of inflammation and allergies of the skin and in certain cases for preventing certain types of cancer. Compounds according to the invention are particularly suitable for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of inflammation, allergies and irritation, in particular of the skin. It is furthermore possible to prepare medicaments which act as vein tonic, as agent for increasing the strength of blood capillaries, as cuperose inhibitor, as inhibitor of chemical, physical or actinic erythemas, as agent for the treatment of sensitive skin, as decongestant, as dehydration agent, as slimming agent, as anti-wrinkle agent, as stimulators of the synthesis of components of the extracellular matrix, as strengthening agent for improving skin elasticity, and as anti-ageing agent. Furthermore, compounds according to the invention which are preferred in this connection exhibit anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory and anti-irritative actions. They are therefore suitable for the preparation of medicaments for the treatment of inflammation or allergic reactions. The invention is explained in greater detail below with reference to examples. The invention can be carried out throughout the scope claimed and is not restricted to the examples given here. EXAMPLES Example 1 Preparation of di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-benzylmalonate Di-2-ethylhexyl (4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylidene)malonate (the synthesis of this compound is described in WO-A-2003/007906, the disclosure content of which in this respect is expressly part of the subject-matter of the present application) is dissolved in methanol (14 ml/mmol), and 5% Pd/C (56% water; Merck: Art. No. 275175; 0.54 g/mmol) is added. The hydrogenation is subsequently carried out with hydrogen 3.0 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The catalyst is separated off by filtration. The filtrate is freed from solvent in vacuo, and the greenish oil remaining is taken up in tert-butyl methyl ether (MTBE) and extracted 2× with 1 N HCl, 1× with saturated, aqueous NaHCO3 solution and 1× with saturated, aqueous NaCl solution. The organic phase is dried over sodium sulfate, and the solvent is removed in vacuo. The purification is carried out by filtration through silica gel. To this end, the crude product is taken up in petroleum ether (PE) and eluted with PE/MTBE, giving analytically pure product as colourless oil. Example 2 Preparation of 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3,-diphenyl-propionate 2-Ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate (Eusolex® OCR; Merck) is dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (THF), and 5% Pd/C (56% water; Merck: Art. No. 275175) is added. The hydrogenation is subsequently carried out with hydrogen 3.0 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The catalyst is separated off by filtration. The filtrate is freed from solvent in vacuo, and the residue is washed. The organic phase is dried over sodium sulfate, and the solvent is removed in vacuo. The purification is carried out by filtration through silica gel, giving analytically pure product. In principle, all compounds of the formula I can be prepared analogously to Example 1 or 2. For example, the following compounds can be obtained from the respective corresponding benzylidene compounds: di-2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3-hydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3-hydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-hydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2-hydroxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,3-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 2,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 2,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, 2-ethylhexyl 3,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenylpropionate, di-2-ethylhexyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzylmalonate, 4-methoxybenzylmalonic acid, 4-methoxyphenylpropionic acid, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 4-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 4-hydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 3-hydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2-hydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3,4-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3,4-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3-dimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 3,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3,4-trihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,3-dihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 2,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 2,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 3,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonic acid, 3,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenylpropionic acid, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzylmalonic acid, diethyl 4-methoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 4-methoxyphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3,4-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3,4-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, ethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, diethyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3,4-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,3-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 2,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 3,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, ethyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenylpropionate, diethyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzylmalonate, diphenethyl 4-methoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 4-methoxyphenylpropionate, phenethyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3,4-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3,4-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3,5-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,4-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,5-dimethoxyphenylpropionate, phenethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylmalonate, diphenethyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,4,5-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3,4-trihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,3-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 2,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 2,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3,5-dihydroxybenzylmalonate, phenethyl 3,5-dihydroxyphenylpropionate, phenethyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenylpropionate, diphenethyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzylmalonate, ethyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionate, 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionate, 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionic acid, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(ethyldimethylammonium)propyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(ethyldimethylammonium)ethyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(trimethylammonium)propyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(trimethylammonium)ethyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(ethyldimethylammonium)propyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(ethyldimethylammonium)ethyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(trimethylammonium)propyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)malonamide, chloride of N,N′-bis[3-(trimethylammonium)ethyl]-2-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)malonamide, oligo- and polysiloxanes which contain benzylmalonic acid derivatives or phenylpropionic acid derivatives bonded via alkyleneoxy functions, such as, for example, diethyl 4-alkyleneoxybenzylmalonate. Example 3 Oxidation in UV Light FIG. 1 shows the change in the UV spectrum of di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate (from Example 1) on irradiation with UV light. The curves stand for the unirradiated substance (exposed to 0 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 15 min (exposure to 86 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 65 min (exposure to 373 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 235 min (exposure to 1349 kJ/m2) and after irradiation for 405 min (exposure to 2325 kJ/m2). The spectra are recorded on a Carry 300 bio spectrometer. The irradiation is carried out by means of an Atlas Sun Test CPS, xenon lamp with UV special-glass filter at a power of 95.69 W/m2 in the range 290-400 nm. After only 65 min, a significantly increased UV absorption by the compound in the UV-A region (Emax in the range 320-340 nm), which increases further on longer irradiation, is evident. Example 3a Oxidation in UV Light in the Presence of Further Antioxidants FIG. 2 shows the change in the UV/VIS spectrum of emulsions comprising 0.5% by weight of beta-carotene and 4% by weight of di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate (curves A and B) compared with an emulsion comprising 0.5% by weight of beta-carotene, but no di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate (curves C and D) on irradiation with UV light (cf. Example 3). The curves stand for the unirradiated emulsions (curves A and C) and the emulsions after irradiation for 90 min (curves B and D). The spectra are recorded on a Carry 50 spectrometer. The irradiation is carried out by means of an Atlas Sun Test CPS+ xenon lamp with UV special-glass filter. The results are from 4-fold determinations (n=4). For the irradiated sample (B) comprising di-2-ethylheyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate, the absorption of the reaction product in the UVA region (Emax in the range 320-340 nm) is again evident. In addition, however, it can be seen that the absorption of the beta-carotene (Emax in the range 440-480 nm) in this sample is significantly stronger compared with the irradiated sample D. Consequently, beta-carotene degradation in the emulsion according to the invention is reduced; di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate stabilises the beta-carotene. Example 3b DPPH Assay The free-radical-reducing action can be shown, for example, by means of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl is a free radical which is stable in solution. The unpaired electron results in a strong absorption band at 515 nm, and the solution has a dark-violet colour. In the presence of a free-radical scavenger, the electron is paired, the absorption disappears, and the decoloration proceeds stoichiometrically taking into account the electrons taken up. The absorbance is measured in a photometer. The anti-free-radical property of the substance to be tested is determined by measuring the concentration at which 50% of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl employed have reacted with the free-radical scavenger. This concentration is expressed as EC50, a value which should be regarded as a substance property under the given measurement conditions. The substance investigated is compared with a standard (for example tocopherol). The EC50 value here is a measure of the capacity of the respective compound to scavenge free radicals. The lower the EC50 value, the higher the capacity to scavenge free radicals. Procedure: A stock solution of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in ethanol is prepared (0.025 g/l of DPPH free radicals). Various concentrations of the compound to be tested are added to aliquots of this solution. The absorbance is measured in each case at 515 nm, 25° C. and 1 cm. The EC50 determined is the value at which 50% of the original DPPH free-radical concentration is still present. The lower this value, the higher the corresponding free-radical-reducing activity. The reaction time needed to achieve this value is indicated in the value TEC50 (in minutes). The table compares activities and stabilities of some common antioxidants (determined in accordance with the DPPH assay described above) with the antioxidants according to the invention. Activity Stability EC50 TEC50 [μmol/l] [min] Hydroxy dimethoxybenzyl malonate 0.30 600 Hydroxy dimethoxybenzylidene malonate 6.66 1200 Ascorbic acid 0.29 <5 Ascorbyl (2-O) phosphate 8.61 1200 alpha-Tocopherol 0.25 30 alpha-Tocopheryl acetate 5040 600 Example 4 Compositions Illustrative formulations of cosmetic compositions which comprise compounds according to Example 1 or 2 are indicated below. Corresponding compositions can be prepared in the same way with all compounds according to the invention. In addition, the INCI names of the commercially available compounds are indicated. UV-Pearl, OMC stands for the composition having the INCI name: Water (for EU: Aqua), Ethylhexyl Methoxycinnamate, Silica, PVP, Chlorphenesin, BHT; this composition is commercially available from Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, under the name Eusolex®UV Pearl™ OMC. The other UV-Pearls indicated in the tables each have an analogous composition, with OMC being replaced by the UV filters indicated. TABLE 1 W/O emulsions (numbers in % by weight) 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 Titanium Dioxide 2 5 3 Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy- 5 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl- malonate Zinc Oxide 5 2 UV-Pearl, OMC 30 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Polyglyceryl 3-Dimerate 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Cera Alba 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Paraffinium Liquidum 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Hexyl Laurate 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 PVP/Eicosene Copolymer 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Propylene Glycol 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Magnesium Sulfate 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Tocopherol 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Cyclomethicone 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 1-15 1-16 1-17 1-18 Titanium Dioxide 3 2 3 2 5 Benzylidene Malonate Polysiloxane 1 0.5 2-Ethylhexyl 4-hydroxyphenyl- 1 1 0.5 propionate Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5- 5 3 2 5 1 3 7 2 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Polyglyceryl 3-Dimerate 3 3 3 3 Cera Alba 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 2 2 2 2 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Paraffinium Liquidum 7 7 7 7 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 7 7 7 7 Hexyl Laurate 4 4 4 4 PVP/Eicosene Copolymer 2 2 2 2 Propylene Glycol 4 4 4 4 Magnesium Sulfate 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Tocopherol 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 Cyclomethicone 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Dicocoyl Pentyerythrityl Citrate (and) 6 6 6 6 Sorbitan Sesquioleate (and) Cera Alba (and) Aluminium Stearate PEG-7 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 1 1 1 1 Zinc Stearate 2 2 2 2 Oleyl Erucate 6 6 6 6 Decyl Oleate 6 6 6 6 Dimethicone 5 5 5 5 Tromethamine 1 1 1 1 Glycerin 5 5 5 5 Allantoin 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 1-19 1-20 1-21 1-22 1-23 1-24 1-25 1-26 1-27 1-28 1-29 Titanium Dioxide 2 5 3 3 Benzylidene Malonate Polysiloxane 1 1 1 Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl 1 2 1 1 Tetramethylbutylphenol Zinc Oxide 5 2 2-Ethylhexyl 4-hydroxyphenyl- 5 5 5 5 7 5 5 5 5 5 8 propionate UV-Pearl, OCR 10 5 UV-Pearl, EthylhexylDimethylPABA 10 Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5- 2 4 5 6 3 1 6 10 1 2 5 dimethoxybenzylmalonate UV-Pearl, Homosalate, BP-3 10 UV-Pearl, Ethylhexyl Salicylate, 10 BP-3 BMDBM 2 UV-Pearl OMC, 25 4-Methylbenzylidene Camphor Polyglyceryl 3-Dimerate 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Cera Alba 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Paraffinium Liquidum 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Hexyl Laurate 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 PVP/Eicosene Copolymer 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Propylene Glycol 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Magnesium Sulfate 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Tocopherol 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Phenethyl 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl- 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 propionate Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Water to 100 TABLE 2 O/W emulsions, numbers in % by weight 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 Titanium Dioxide 2 5 3 Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl 1 2 1 Tetramethylbutylphenol Phenethyl 3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl- 1 2 1 1 propionate 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenyl- 1 3 2 5 5 2 propionate Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3- 1 5 4 6 7 2 1 diphenylpropionate 4-Methylbenzylidene Camphor 2 3 4 3 2 BMDBM 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 Stearyl Alcohol (and) Steareth-7 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 (and) Steareth-10 Glyceryl Stearate (and) Ceteth- 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 20 Glyceryl Stearate 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Microwax 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Cetearyl Octanoate 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Oleyl Oleate 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Propylene Glycol 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Glyceryl Stearate SE Stearic Acid Persea Gratissima Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Tromethamine 1.8 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-18 Titanium Dioxide 3 2 2 5 Benzylidene Malonate Polysiloxane 1 0.5 Phenethyl 3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl- 1 1 0.5 propionate Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 1 2 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3- 1 3 2 5 5 diphenylpropionate 5,6,7-Trihydroxyflavone 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenyl- 1 5 4 6 7 propionate Zinc Oxide 2 UV-Pearl, OMC 15 15 15 30 30 30 15 15 4-Methylbenzylidene Camphor 3 BMDBM 1 Phenylbenzimidazole Sulfonic Acid 4 Stearyl Alcohol (and) Steareth-7 3 3 3 3 (and) Steareth-10 Glyceryl Stearate (and) Ceteth-20 3 3 3 3 Glyceryl Stearate 3 3 3 3 Microwax 1 1 1 1 Cetearyl Octanoate 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 6 6 6 6 14 14 14 14 Oleyl Oleate 6 6 6 6 Propylene Glycol 4 4 4 4 Glyceryl Stearate SE 6 6 6 6 Stearic Acid 2 2 2 2 Persea Gratissima 8 8 8 8 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Tromethamine 1.8 Glycerin 3 3 3 3 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 Titanium Dioxide 3 3 2 Benzylidene Malonate 1 2 1 1 1 0.5 Polysiloxane 7,8,3′,4′-Tetrahydroxyflavone 1 2 1 1 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenyl- 1 3 2 5 5 2 propionate Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 diphenylpropionate Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 1 5 4 6 7 2 1 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Phenethyl 3,4-Dihydroxy- 1 2 1 1 1 0.5 phenylpropionate Zinc Oxide 5 2 2 UV-Pearl, OMC 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 Oleyl Oleate Propylene Glycol Glyceryl Stearate SE 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Stearic Acid 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Persea Gratissima 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Glyceryl Stearate, Ceteareth- 20, Ceteareth-10, Cetearyl Alcohol, Cetyl Palmitate Ceteareth-30 Dicaprylyl Ether Glycerin 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 TABLE 3 Gels, numbers in % by weight 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 A = aqueous gel Titanium Dioxide 2 5 3 5,6,7-Trihydroxyflavone 1 2 1 1 Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 1 3 2 5 5 2 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 diphenylpropionate 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenyl- 1 5 4 6 7 2 1 propionate Benzylidene Malonate Polysiloxane 1 1 2 1 1 Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl 1 1 2 1 Tetramethylbutylphenol Zinc Oxide 2 5 2 UV-Pearl, Ethylhexyl 30 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Methoxycinnamate 4-Methylbenzylidene Camphor 2 Butylmethoxydibenzoylmethane 1 Phenylbenzimidazole Sulfonic Acid 4 Prunus Dulcis 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Octyldodecanol 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Decyl Oleate 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 PEG-8 (and) Tocopherol (and) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Ascorbyl Palmitate (and) Ascorbic Acid (and) Citric Acid Sorbitol 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Polyacrylamide (and) C13-14 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Isoparaffin (and) Laureth-7 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Tromethamine 1.8 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 a = aqueous gel A a a a a Titanium Dioxide 3 2 Benzylidene Malonate Polysiloxane 1 0.5 1 2 Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl 1 1 0.5 1 2 1 Tetramethylbutylphenol Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 1 2 dimethoxybenzylmalonate 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenylpropionate 1 3 2 5 5 Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3-diphenyl- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 propionate 6,3′,4′-Trihydroxyflavone 1 5 4 6 7 Zinc Oxide 2 UV-Pearl, Ethylhexyl Methoxycinnamate 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Prunus Dulcis 5 5 5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 3 3 3 Octyldodecanol 2 2 2 Decyl Oleate 2 2 2 PEG-8 (and) Tocopherol (and) Ascorbyl 0.05 0.05 0.05 Palmitate (and) Ascorbic Acid (and) Citric Acid Sorbitol 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 Polyacrylamide (and) C13-14 3 3 3 Isoparaffin (and) Laureth-7 Carbomer 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Allantoin 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Tromethamine 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-22 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 7,8,3′,4′-Tetrahydroxyflavone 1 2 1 1 Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5- 1 3 2 5 5 2 dimethoxybenzylmalonate Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 diphenylpropionate 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenyl- 1 5 4 6 7 2 1 propionate UV-Pearl, OMC 30 30 15 15 15 11 12 15 15 15 Phenylbenzimidazole Sulfonic 4 4 Acid Sorbitol 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Carbomer 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Propylparaben Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Allantoin 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Tromethamine 2.4 4.2 4.2 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 3-29 3-30 3-31 3-32 3-33 3-34 3-35 3-36 2-Ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxyphenylpropionate 1 2 Di-2-ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3-diphenylpropionate 1 3 2 5 5 Di-2-ethylhexyl 4-Hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyl- 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 malonate 5,6,7-Trihydroxyflavone 1 5 4 6 7 UV-Pearl, OMC 15 10 10 10 10 15 10 UV-Pearl, OCR 10 UV-Pearl, OMC, Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl 7 6 Tetramethylbutylphenol UV-Pearl, Ethylhexyl Salicylate, BMDBM 10 Disodium Phenyl Dibenzimidazole 3 3 3 Tetrasulfonate Phenylbenzimidazole Sulfonic Acid 2 2 3 3 Prunus Dulcis 5 5 5 Tocopheryl Acetate 0.5 0.5 0.5 Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride 3 3 3 Octyldodecanol 2 2 2 Decyl Oleate 2 2 2 PEG-8 (and) Tocopherol (and) Ascorbyl 0.05 0.05 0.05 Palmitate (and) Ascorbic Acid (and) Citric Acid Sorbitol 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 Polyacrylamide (and) C13-14 Isoparaffin (and) 3 3 3 Laureth-7 Carbomer 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Propylparaben 0.05 0.05 0.05 Methylparaben 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 Allantoin 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Tromethamine 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 Example 5 Hair Mascara Ingredients [%] A PEARLESCENT PIGMENT 20.00 B CETEARETH-25 1.80 CETEARYL ALCOHOL 5.00 DIMETHICONE 1.00 PHENOXYETHANOL, BUTYLPARABEN, 0.50 ETHYLPARABEN, PROPYLPARABEN, METHYLPARABEN C AQUA (WATER) to 100 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 3.0 PROPYLENE GLYCOL 1.80 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 0.5 D AQUA (WATER) 9.50 HYDROXYPROPYLCELLULOSE 0.50 E AQUA (WATER) 9.50 MAGNESIUM ALUMINIUM SILICATE 0.50 IMIDAZOLIDINYL UREA 0.30 Preparation Process: Heat phase B to 75° C., phase C to 80° C. Slowly add phase B to phase C with stirring. Cool to 65° C. with stirring, and homogenise. Cool to 40° C., and add phases D, E and F to phase B/C with stirring, and again homogenise. Now add the pearlescent pigment with stirring. Cool to room temperature, and adjust the pH to 6.0-6.5. Hair mascara compositions which have the following modifications can be prepared analogously: POLYQUATERNIUM-16 0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 4.0 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 0.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 1 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 1 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.5 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 2 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 1.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 2.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.5 POLYQUATERNIUM-16 1 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.5 Example 6 Conditioner Comprising IR3535® Ingredients [%] A ETHYLBUTYL ACETYLAMINOPROPIONATE 10.00 PVP/VA COPOLYMER 4.00 PERFUME 0.30 QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 PEG-40 HYDROGENATED CASTOR OIL 1.00 ALCOHOL 15.00 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.0% B CETRIMONIUM CHLORIDE 0.50 AQUA (WATER) To 100 C COCAMIDOPROPYL BETAINE 4.00 Preparation process: Mix phases A and B separately. Add phase B to phase A with stirring. Add phase C. Conditioner compositions which have the following modifications can be prepared analogously: QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.0 QUATERNIUM-80 0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.5 QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.5 QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 0.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.5 QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 2.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.5 QUATERNIUM-80 1.8 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.1 Example 7 Hair Conditioner Comprising Pearlescent Pigment Ingredients [%] A PEARLESCENT PIGMENT 3.00 DISODIUM EDTA 0.05 AQUA (WATER) to 100 B CETEARYL ALCOHOL, BEHENTRIMONIUM 5.00 METHOSULFATE OCTYLDODECANOL 1.10 CETYL ALCOHOL 1.00 GLYCERIN 1.00 BEHENTRIMONIUM CHLORIDE 0.70 METHOXY PEG/PPG-7/3 AMINOPROPYL 0.70 DIMETHICONE QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.0 C COCODIMONIUM HYDROXYPROPYLSILICAMINO 0.70 ACIDS PHENOXYETHANOL, BENZOIC ACID, 0.40 DEHYDROACETIC ACID CITRIC ACID 0.20 PERFUME 0.60 Preparation Process: Disperse the pearlescent pigment and Titriplex III in the water of phase A. Heat the constituents of phases A and B to 75° C. Add phase B to phase A with stirring, and homogenise. Cool to 40° C., and add the constituents of phase C. Cool to 30° C., and again homogenise for about 30 sec. Adjust the pH to 3.6-4.0. Notes: recommended pearlescent pigments are TIMIRON® silver pigments and TIMIRON® interference pigments from Merck. Conditioner compositions which have the following modifications can be prepared analogously to Example 7: QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.0 QUATERNIUM-80 0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.5 QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.5 QUATERNIUM-80 2.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 0.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.5 QUATERNIUM-80 1.0 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 3.0 QUATERNIUM-80 2.5 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 1.5 QUATERNIUM-80 1.8 COMPOUND OF FORMULA IB-IAH 2.1 Index of the Figures FIGS. 1a and 1b: FIG. 1 (FIG. 1b represents a detail of FIG. 1a) shows the change in the UV spectrum of di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate on irradiation with UV light (cf. Example 3): the curves stand for the unirradiated substance (exposed to 0 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 15 min (exposure to 86 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 65 min (exposure to 373 kJ/m2), after irradiation for 235 min (exposure to 1349 kJ/m2) and after irradiation for 405 min (exposure to 2325 kJ/m2). The spectra are recorded on a Carry 300 bio spectrometer. The irradiation is carried out by means of an Atlas Sun Test CPS, xenon lamp with UV special-glass filter at a power of 95.69 W/m2 in the range 290-400 nm. The results are from 4-fold determinations (n=4). FIG. 2: FIG. 2 shows the change in the UV/VIS spectrum of emulsions comprising 0.5% by weight of beta-carotene and 4% by weight of di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate (curves A and B) compared with an emulsion comprising 0.5% by weight of beta-carotene, but no di-2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzylmalonate (curves C and D) on irradiation with UV light (cf. Example 3a): the curves stand for the unirradiated emulsions (curves A and C) and the emulsions after irradiation for 90 min (curves B and D). The spectra are recorded on a Carry 300 bio spectrometer. The irradiation is carried out by means of an Atlas Sun Test CPS, xenon lamp with UV special-glass filter at a power of 95.69 W/m2 in the range 290-400 nm. The results are from 4-fold determinations (n=4).
|
A
| 7A61
| 22A61K
|
8
|
44
|
|||||
11658419
|
US20090202470A1-20090813
|
Phosphonate Analogs of Hiv Inhibitor Compounds
|
ACCEPTED
|
20090729
|
20090813
|
[]
|
A61K3820
|
["A61K3820", "C07H1919", "A61K317076", "A61P3118", "A61P3112", "C07H1920"]
|
8318701
|
20071119
|
20121127
|
514
|
081000
|
57788.0
|
BERCH
|
MARK
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Boojamra", "inventor_name_first": "Constantine G.", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lin", "inventor_name_first": "Kuei-Ying", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Mackman", "inventor_name_first": "Richard L.", "inventor_city": "Millbrae", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Markevitch", "inventor_name_first": "David Y.", "inventor_city": "Los Angeles", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Petrakosvsky", "inventor_name_first": "Oleg V.", "inventor_city": "San Mateo", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ray", "inventor_name_first": "Adrian S.", "inventor_city": "Redwood City", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhang", "inventor_name_first": "Lijun", "inventor_city": "Los Altos Hills", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
|
The invention is related to phosphorus substituted anti-viral inhibitory compounds, compositions containing such compounds, and therapeutic methods that include the administration of such compounds, as well as to processes and intermediates useful for preparing such compounds.
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1. A compound, including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3c, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, C(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 2. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 3. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 4. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2 is selected from selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 5. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1B 6. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1C 7. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1D 8. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1E 9. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1F 10. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1G 11. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1H 12. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1I wherein: Y4 is N or C(R3). 13. The compound of claim 1 that has the formula 1J 14. The compound of claim 1 wherein R2a is halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 15. The compound of claim 1 wherein Rx is a naturally occurring amino acid. 16. A compound, enantiomers thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that is of the general structure of formula I wherein B is Base; Z is O, S, or C(Rk)2; R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; A6k —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(Yk2A5k), —CH2p(Yk)(A5k)(A5k), or —CH2P(Yk)(Yk2A5k)(Yk2A5k), optionally substituted with Rk; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; Yk is O or S; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; and each Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 17. The compound of claim 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 18. The compound of claim 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 19. The compound of claim 1 selected from: a) Formula 1A wherein A0 is A3; b) Formula 1A wherein A0 is c) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H; d) Formula 1A wherein: A3 is R3 is —N(Rx)(Rx); each R2 and R2a is H. e) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H. 20. The compound of claim 1, wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 21. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 22. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 23. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 24. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 25. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 26. The compound of claim 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently H or alkyl. 27. The compound of claim 1 which is isolated and purified. 28. A compound of formula MBF I, or prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters thereof wherein each K1 and K2 are independently selected from the group consisting of A5k and Yk2A5k; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; B is Base; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; and Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that when B is adenine, then both K1 and K2 are not simultaneously both —OH or —OEt. 29. The compound of claim 28 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of 2,6-diaminopurine, guanine, adenine, cytosine, 5-fluoro-cytosine, monodeaza, and monoaza analogues thereof. 30. The compound of claim 28 wherein MBF I is of the formula 31. The compound of claim 1 wherein B is selected from the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, substituted triazole, and pyrazolo[3,4-D]pyrimidine. 32. The compound of claim 1 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, and 7-deazaguanine. 33. The compound of claim 1 that is selected from Table Y. 34. The compound of claim 28 wherein K1 and K2 are selected from Table 100 TABLE 100 K1 K2 Ester Ala OPh cPent Ala OCH2CF3 Et Ala OPh 3-furan-4H Ala OPh cBut Phe(B) OPh Et Phe(A) OPh Et Ala(B) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(S) Phe OPh cBu Phe OCH2CF3 iBu Ala(A) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(R) Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr Phe(B) OPh nBu Phe(A) OPh nBu Phe OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh CH2cBu Ala OPh 3-pent ABA(B) OPh Et ABA(A) OPh Et Ala OPh CH2cBu Met OPh Et Pro OPh Bn Phe(B) OPh iBu Phe(A) OPh iBu Phe OPh iPr Phe OPh nPr Ala OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh Et Ala OPh Et ABA OPh nPent Phe Phe nPr Phe Phe Et Ala Ala Et CHA OPh Me Gly OPh iPr ABA OPh nBu Phe OPh allyl Ala OPh nPent Gly OPh iBu ABA OPh iBu Ala OPh nBu CHA CHA Me Phe Phe Allyl ABA ABA nPent Gly Gly iBu Gly Gly iPr Phe OPh iBu Ala OPh nPr Phe OPh nBu ABA OPh nPr ABA OPh Et Ala Ala Bn Phe Phe nBu ABA ABA nPr ABA ABA Et Ala Ala nPr Ala OPh iPr Ala OPh Bn Ala Ala nBu Ala Ala iBu ABA ABA nBu ABA ABA iPr Ala OPh iBu ABA OPh Me ABA OPh iPr ABA ABA iBu wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). 35. A compound of formula B, and the salts and solvates thereof. wherein: A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, O, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; and when Y2 joins two phosphorous atoms Y2 can also be C(R2)(R2); Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c or R3d, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is F, Cl, Br, I, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is Y1; R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)((Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is R4 wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; wherein A3 is not —O—CH2—P(O)(OH)2 or —O—CH2—P(O)(OEt)2. 36. The compound of claim 35 wherein m2 is 0, Y1 is O, Y2 is O, M12b and M12a are 1, one Y3 is —ORx where Rx is W3 and the other Y3 is N(H)Rx where Rx is 37. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is selected from the group of esters in Table 100. 38. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a C1-C8 normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic alkylene, alkynylene or alkenylene. 39. The compound of claim 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a heterocycle containing 5 to 6 ring atoms and 1 or 2 N, O and/or S atoms in the ring. 40. The compound of claim 1 having the formula XX: 41. The compound of claim 1 having the formula XXX: 42. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutical excipient and an antivirally-effective amount of the compound of claim 1. 43. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 32 that further comprises a second active ingredient. 44. A combination comprising the compound of claim 1 and one or more antivirally active ingredients. 45. The combination of claim 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 98. 46. The combination of claim 45 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 47. The combination of claim 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 99. 48. The combination of claim 47 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 49. The combination of claim 46 for use in medical therapy. 50. The combination of claim 48 for use in medical therapy. 51. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 42 for use in medical therapy. 52. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 43 for use in medical therapy 53. The compound of claim 1 for use in antiretroviral or antihepadinaviral treatment. 54. A method of preparing the compound of claim 1 according to the Examples or Schemes. 55. Use of a compound of claim 1 for preparing a medicament for treating HIV or a HIV associated disorder. 56. A method of therapy for treating HIV or HIV-associated disorders with the compound of claim 1. 57. A method of treating disorders associated with HIV, said method comprising administering to an individual infected with, or at risk for HIV infection, a pharmaceutical composition which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of any of claims 1-28. 58. A compound of Table Y, provided the compound is not or its ethyl diester.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>AIDS is a major public health problem worldwide. Although drugs targeting HIV viruses are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Assay methods capable of determining the presence, absence or amounts of HIV viruses are of practical utility in the search for inhibitors as well as for diagnosing the presence of HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related disease is a major public health problem worldwide. The retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a member of the primate lentivirus family (DeClercq E (1994) Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 724:438-456; Barre-Sinoussi F (1996) Lancet, 348:31-35), is generally accepted to be the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Tarrago et al. FASEB Journal 1994, 8:497-503). AIDS is the result of repeated replication of HIV-1 and a decrease in immune capacity, most prominently a fall in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes. The mature virus has a single stranded RNA genome that encodes 15 proteins (Frankel et al. (1998) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 67:1-25; Katz et al. (1994) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 63:133-173), including three key enzymes: (i) protease (Prt) (von der Helm K (1996) Biological Chemistry, 377:765-774); (ii) reverse transcriptase (RT) (Hottiger et al. (1996) Biological Chemistry Hoppe - Seyler, 377:97-120), an enzyme unique to retroviruses; and (iii) integrate (Asante et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:351-369; Wlodawer A (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:335-350; Esposito et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:319-333). Protease is responsible for processing the viral precursor polyproteins, integrase is responsible for the integration of the double stranded DNA form of the viral genome into host DNA and RT is the key enzyme in the replication of the viral genome. In viral replication, RT acts as both an RNA- and a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, to convert the single stranded RNA genome into double stranded DNA. Since virally encoded Reverse Transcriptase (RT)-mediates specific reactions during the natural reproduction of the virus, inhibition of HIV RT is an important therapeutic target for treatment of HIV infection and related disease. Sequence analysis of the complete genomes from several infective and non-infective HIV-isolates has shed considerable light on the make-up of the virus and the types of molecules that are essential for its replication and maturation to an infective species. The HIV protease is essential for the processing of the viral gag and gag-pol polypeptides into mature virion proteins. L. Ratner, et al., Nature, 313:277-284 (1985); L. H. Pearl and W. R. Taylor, Nature, 329:351 (1987). HIV exhibits the same gag/pol/env organization seen in other retroviruses. L. Ratner, et al., above; S. Wain-Hobson, et al., Cell, 40:9-17 (1985); R. Sanchez-Pescador, et al., Science, 227:484-492 (1985); and M. A. Muesing, et al., Nature, 313:450-458 (1985). Drugs approved in the United States for AIDS therapy include nucleoside inhibitors of RT (Smith et al (1994) Clinical Investigator, 17:226-243), protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI), (Johnson et al (2000) Advances in Internal Medicine, 45 (1-40; Porche D J (1999) Nursing Clinics of North America, 34:95-112). Inhibitors of HIV protease are useful to limit the establishment and progression of infection by therapeutic administration as well as in diagnostic assays for HIV. Protease inhibitor drugs approved by the FDA include: saquinavir (Invirase®, Fortovase®, Hoffman-La Roche, EP-00432695 and EP-00432694) ritonavir (Norvir®, Abbott Laboratories) indinavir (Crixivan®, Merck & Co.) nelfinavir (Viracept®, Pfizer) amprenavir (Agenerase®, GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra®, Abbott Laboratories) Experimental protease inhibitor drugs include: fosamprenavir (GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) tipranavir (Boehringer Ingelheim) atazanavir (Bristol-Myers Squibb). There is a need for anti-HIV therapeutic agents, i.e. drugs having improved antiviral and pharmacokinetic properties with enhanced activity against development of HIV resistance, improved oral bioavailability, greater potency and extended effective half-life in vivo. New HIV antivirals should be active against mutant HIV strains, have distinct resistance profiles, fewer side effects, less complicated dosing schedules, and orally active. In particular, there is a need for a less onerous dosage regimen, such as one pill, once per day. Although drugs targeting HIV RT are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, particularly when employed in combination, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Combination therapy of HIV antivirals has proven to be highly effective in suppressing viral replication to unquantifiable levels for a sustained period of time. Also, combination therapy with RT and other HIV inhibitors have shown synergistic effects in suppressing HIV replication. Unfortunately, many patients currently fail combination therapy due to the development of drug resistance, non-compliance with complicated dosing regimens, pharmacokinetic interactions, toxicity, and lack of potency. Therefore, there is a need for new HIV RT inhibitors that are synergistic in combination with other HIV inhibitors. Improving the delivery of drugs and other agents to target cells and tissues has been the focus of considerable research for many years. Though many attempts have been made to develop effective methods for importing biologically active molecules into cells, both in vivo and in vitro, none has proved to be entirely satisfactory. Optimizing the association of the inhibitory drug with its intracellular target, while minimizing intercellular redistribution of the drug, e.g. to neighboring cells, is often difficult or inefficient. Most agents currently administered to a patient parenterally are not targeted, resulting in systemic delivery of the agent to cells and tissues of the body where it is unnecessary, and often undesirable. This may result in adverse drug side effects, and often limits the dose of a drug (e.g., cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer or anti-viral drugs) that can be administered. By comparison, although oral administration of drugs is generally recognized as a convenient and economical method of administration, oral administration can result in either (a) uptake of the drug through the cellular and tissue barriers, e.g. blood/brain, epithelial, cell membrane, resulting in undesirable systemic distribution, or (b) temporary residence of the drug within the gastrointestinal tract. Accordingly, a major goal has been to develop methods for specifically targeting agents to cells and tissues. Benefits of such treatment includes avoiding the general physiological effects of inappropriate delivery of such agents to other cells and tissues, such as uninfected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides novel compounds with HIV activity, i.e. novel human retroviral RT inhibitors. Therefore, the compounds of the invention may inhibit retroviral RT and thus inhibit the replication of the virus. They are useful for treating human patients infected with a human retrovirus, such as human immunodeficiency virus (strains of HIV-1 or HIV-2) or human T-cell leukemia viruses (HTLV-I or HTLV-II) which results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or related diseases. The present invention includes novel phosphonate HIV RT inhibitor compounds and phosphonate analogs of known approved and experimental protease inhibitors. The compounds of the invention optionally provide cellular accumulation as set forth below. The present invention relates generally to the accumulation or retention of therapeutic compounds inside cells. The invention is more particularly related to attaining high concentrations of phosphonate-containing molecules in HIV infected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. Such effective targeting may be applicable to a variety of therapeutic formulations and procedures. Compositions of the invention include new RT compounds having at least one phosphonate group. The invention includes all known approved and experimental protease inhibitors with at least one phosphonate group. In one aspect, the invention includes compounds; including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:
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This non-provisional application claims the benefit of Provisional Application No. 60/591,811, filed Jul. 27, 2004, and all of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to compounds with antiviral activity and more specifically with anti-HIV properties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AIDS is a major public health problem worldwide. Although drugs targeting HIV viruses are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Assay methods capable of determining the presence, absence or amounts of HIV viruses are of practical utility in the search for inhibitors as well as for diagnosing the presence of HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related disease is a major public health problem worldwide. The retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a member of the primate lentivirus family (DeClercq E (1994)Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 724:438-456; Barre-Sinoussi F (1996) Lancet, 348:31-35), is generally accepted to be the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Tarrago et al. FASEB Journal 1994, 8:497-503). AIDS is the result of repeated replication of HIV-1 and a decrease in immune capacity, most prominently a fall in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes. The mature virus has a single stranded RNA genome that encodes 15 proteins (Frankel et al. (1998) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 67:1-25; Katz et al. (1994) Annual Review of Biochemistry, 63:133-173), including three key enzymes: (i) protease (Prt) (von der Helm K (1996) Biological Chemistry, 377:765-774); (ii) reverse transcriptase (RT) (Hottiger et al. (1996) Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler, 377:97-120), an enzyme unique to retroviruses; and (iii) integrate (Asante et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:351-369; Wlodawer A (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:335-350; Esposito et al. (1999) Advances in Virus Research 52:319-333). Protease is responsible for processing the viral precursor polyproteins, integrase is responsible for the integration of the double stranded DNA form of the viral genome into host DNA and RT is the key enzyme in the replication of the viral genome. In viral replication, RT acts as both an RNA- and a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, to convert the single stranded RNA genome into double stranded DNA. Since virally encoded Reverse Transcriptase (RT)-mediates specific reactions during the natural reproduction of the virus, inhibition of HIV RT is an important therapeutic target for treatment of HIV infection and related disease. Sequence analysis of the complete genomes from several infective and non-infective HIV-isolates has shed considerable light on the make-up of the virus and the types of molecules that are essential for its replication and maturation to an infective species. The HIV protease is essential for the processing of the viral gag and gag-pol polypeptides into mature virion proteins. L. Ratner, et al., Nature, 313:277-284 (1985); L. H. Pearl and W. R. Taylor, Nature, 329:351 (1987). HIV exhibits the same gag/pol/env organization seen in other retroviruses. L. Ratner, et al., above; S. Wain-Hobson, et al., Cell, 40:9-17 (1985); R. Sanchez-Pescador, et al., Science, 227:484-492 (1985); and M. A. Muesing, et al., Nature, 313:450-458 (1985). Drugs approved in the United States for AIDS therapy include nucleoside inhibitors of RT (Smith et al (1994) Clinical Investigator, 17:226-243), protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI), (Johnson et al (2000) Advances in Internal Medicine, 45 (1-40; Porche D J (1999) Nursing Clinics of North America, 34:95-112). Inhibitors of HIV protease are useful to limit the establishment and progression of infection by therapeutic administration as well as in diagnostic assays for HIV. Protease inhibitor drugs approved by the FDA include: saquinavir (Invirase®, Fortovase®, Hoffman-La Roche, EP-00432695 and EP-00432694) ritonavir (Norvir®, Abbott Laboratories) indinavir (Crixivan®, Merck & Co.) nelfinavir (Viracept®, Pfizer) amprenavir (Agenerase®, GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra®, Abbott Laboratories) Experimental protease inhibitor drugs include: fosamprenavir (GlaxoSmithKline, Vertex Pharmaceuticals) tipranavir (Boehringer Ingelheim) atazanavir (Bristol-Myers Squibb). There is a need for anti-HIV therapeutic agents, i.e. drugs having improved antiviral and pharmacokinetic properties with enhanced activity against development of HIV resistance, improved oral bioavailability, greater potency and extended effective half-life in vivo. New HIV antivirals should be active against mutant HIV strains, have distinct resistance profiles, fewer side effects, less complicated dosing schedules, and orally active. In particular, there is a need for a less onerous dosage regimen, such as one pill, once per day. Although drugs targeting HIV RT are in wide use and have shown effectiveness, particularly when employed in combination, toxicity and development of resistant strains have limited their usefulness. Combination therapy of HIV antivirals has proven to be highly effective in suppressing viral replication to unquantifiable levels for a sustained period of time. Also, combination therapy with RT and other HIV inhibitors have shown synergistic effects in suppressing HIV replication. Unfortunately, many patients currently fail combination therapy due to the development of drug resistance, non-compliance with complicated dosing regimens, pharmacokinetic interactions, toxicity, and lack of potency. Therefore, there is a need for new HIV RT inhibitors that are synergistic in combination with other HIV inhibitors. Improving the delivery of drugs and other agents to target cells and tissues has been the focus of considerable research for many years. Though many attempts have been made to develop effective methods for importing biologically active molecules into cells, both in vivo and in vitro, none has proved to be entirely satisfactory. Optimizing the association of the inhibitory drug with its intracellular target, while minimizing intercellular redistribution of the drug, e.g. to neighboring cells, is often difficult or inefficient. Most agents currently administered to a patient parenterally are not targeted, resulting in systemic delivery of the agent to cells and tissues of the body where it is unnecessary, and often undesirable. This may result in adverse drug side effects, and often limits the dose of a drug (e.g., cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer or anti-viral drugs) that can be administered. By comparison, although oral administration of drugs is generally recognized as a convenient and economical method of administration, oral administration can result in either (a) uptake of the drug through the cellular and tissue barriers, e.g. blood/brain, epithelial, cell membrane, resulting in undesirable systemic distribution, or (b) temporary residence of the drug within the gastrointestinal tract. Accordingly, a major goal has been to develop methods for specifically targeting agents to cells and tissues. Benefits of such treatment includes avoiding the general physiological effects of inappropriate delivery of such agents to other cells and tissues, such as uninfected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides novel compounds with HIV activity, i.e. novel human retroviral RT inhibitors. Therefore, the compounds of the invention may inhibit retroviral RT and thus inhibit the replication of the virus. They are useful for treating human patients infected with a human retrovirus, such as human immunodeficiency virus (strains of HIV-1 or HIV-2) or human T-cell leukemia viruses (HTLV-I or HTLV-II) which results in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or related diseases. The present invention includes novel phosphonate HIV RT inhibitor compounds and phosphonate analogs of known approved and experimental protease inhibitors. The compounds of the invention optionally provide cellular accumulation as set forth below. The present invention relates generally to the accumulation or retention of therapeutic compounds inside cells. The invention is more particularly related to attaining high concentrations of phosphonate-containing molecules in HIV infected cells. Intracellular targeting may be achieved by methods and compositions which allow accumulation or retention of biologically active agents inside cells. Such effective targeting may be applicable to a variety of therapeutic formulations and procedures. Compositions of the invention include new RT compounds having at least one phosphonate group. The invention includes all known approved and experimental protease inhibitors with at least one phosphonate group. In one aspect, the invention includes compounds; including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3e, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3c is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to certain embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying structures and formulas. While the invention will be described in conjunction with the enumerated embodiments, it will be understood that they are not intended to limit the invention to those embodiments. On the contrary, the invention is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents, which may be included within the scope of the present invention as defined by the embodiments. DEFINITIONS Unless stated otherwise, the following terms and phrases as used herein are intended to have the following meanings: When tradenames are used herein, applicants intend to independently include the tradename product and the active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) of the tradename product. “Base” is a term of art in the nucleoside and nucleotide fields. It is frequently abbreviated as “B.” Within the context of the present invention, “Base” or “B” mean, without limitation, at least those bases know to the ordinary artisan or taught in the art. Exemplary definitions 1) to 10) below are illustrative. Preferable “Bases” or “Bs” include purines, more preferably purines of 1) to 10) below. More preferably yet, “Base” or “B” means the purines of 4) to 10) below. Most preferably “Base” or “B” means 10) below. In embodiments of this invention, Base or B is a group having structure (1) below wherein R2c is halo, NH2, R2b or H; R2b is —(R9)m1(X)m4(R9)m2(X)m5(R9)m3(N(R2c)2)n; X independently is O or S; M1-m3 independently are 0-1; M4-m5 independently are 0-1 n is 0-2; R9 independently is unsubstituted C1-C15 alkyl, C2-C15 alkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkynyl, C2-C15 alkynyl, C1-C6-alkylamino-C1-C6 alkyl, C5-C15 aralkyl, C6-C15 heteroaralkyl, C5-C6 aryl or C2-C6 heterocycloalkyl, or said groups optionally substituted with 1 to 3 of halo, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, OH, ═O, haloalkyl, CN, R10 or N3; R10 independently is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C15 alkyl, C2-C15 alkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkenyl, C6-C15 arylalkynyl, C2-C15 alkynyl, C1-C6-alkylamino-C1-C6 alkyl, C5-C15 aralkyl, C6-C15 heteroaralkyl, C5-C6 aryl, —C(O)R9, —C(O)OR9 and C2-C6 heterocycloalkyl, optionally both R10 of N(R10)2 are joined together with N to form a saturated or unsaturated C5-C6 heterocycle containing one or two N heteroatoms and optionally an additional O or S heteroatom, and the foregoing R10 groups which are substituted with 1 to 3 of halo, alkoxy, alkythio, nitro, OH, ═O, haloalkyl, CN or N3; and Z is N or C(R3), provided that the heterocyclic nucleus varies from purine by no more than two Z. Alkyl, alkynyl and alkenyl groups in the formula (1) groups are normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic. Ordinarily, n is 1, m1 is 0 or 1, R9 is C1-C3 alkyl, R2b is H, m2-m5 are all 0; one or two R10 groups are not H; R10 is C1-C6 alkyl (including C3-C6 cycloalkyl, particularly cyclopropyl), and one R10 is H. If Z is C(R3) at the 5 and/or 7 positions, R3 is halo, usually fluoro. The compounds of this invention are noteworthy in their ability to act effectively against HIV which bears resistance mutations in the polymerase gene, in particular, HIV which is resistant to tenofovir, FTC and other established anti-HIV agents. 1) B is a Heterocyclic Amine Base. In the specification “Heterocyclic amine base” is defined as a monocyclic, bicyclic, or polycyclic ring system comprising one or more nitrogens. For example, B includes the naturally-occurring heterocycles found in nucleic acids, nucleotides and nucleosides, and analogs thereof. 2) B is Selected from the Group Consisting of wherein: U, G, and J are each independently CH or N; D is N, CH, C—CN, C—NO2, C—C1-3alkyl, C—NHCONH2, C—CONT11T11, C—CSNT11T11, C—COOT11, C—C(═NH)NH2, C-hydroxy, C—C1-3 alkoxy, C-amino, C—C1-4alkylamino, C-di(C1-4alkyl)amino, C-halogen, C-(1,3-oxazol-2-yl), C-(1,3thiazol-2-yl), or C-(imidazol-2-yl); wherein alkyl is unsubstituted or substituted with one to three groups independently selected from halogen, amino, hydroxy, carboxy, and C1-3 alkoxy; E is N or CT5; W is O or S; T1 is H, C1-6alkyl, C2-6alkenyl, C2-6alkynyl, C1-4alkylamino, CF3, or halogen; T2 is H, OH, SH, NH2, C1-4alkylamino, di(C1-4alkyl)amino, C3-6 cycloalkylamino, halo, C1-4alkyl, C1-4alkoxy, or CF3; T3 is H, amino, C1-4alkylamino, C3-6 cycloalkylamino, or di(C1-4alkyl)amino; T4 is H, halo, CN, carboxy, C1-4alkyloxycarbonyl, N3, amino, C1-4alkylamino, di(C1-4alkyl)amino, hydroxy, C1-6alkoxy, C1-6alkylthio, C1-6alkylsulfonyl, or (C1-4alkyl)0-2aminomethyl; T5 is independently H or C1-6alkyl; and T6 is H, CF3, C1-4alkyl, amino, C1-4alkylamino, C3-6cycloalkylamino, or di(C1-4alkyl)amino; 3). B is Selected from wherein: T10 is H, OH, F, Cl, Br, I, OT17, SH, ST17, NH2, or NHT18; T11 is N, CF, CCl, CBr, CI, CT19, CST19, or COT19; T12 is N or CH; T13 is N, CH, CCN, CCF3, CC≡≡CH or CC(O)NH2; T14 is H, OH, NH2, SH, SCH3, SCH2CH3, SCH2C≡CH, SCH2CH═CH2, SC3H7, NH(CH3), N(CH3)2, NH(CH2CH3), N(CH2CH3)2, NH(CH2C≡CH), NH(CH2 CH═CH2), NH(C3H7) or halogen (F, Cl, Br or I); T15 is H, OH, F, Cl, Br, I, SCH3, SCH2CH3, SCH2C≡CH, SCH2CH═CH2, SC3H7, OT17, NH2, or NHT18; and T16 is O, S or Se. T17 is C1-6alkyl (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, and C3H7); T18 is C1-6alkyl (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, and C3H7); T19 is H, C1-9alkyl, C2-9alkenyl, C2-9alkynyl or C7-9aryl-alkyl unsubstituted or substituted by OH, O, N, F, Cl, Br or I (including CH3, CH2CH3, CH═CH2, CH═CHBr, CH2CH2Cl, CH2CH2F, CH2C≡CH, CH2CH═CH2, C3H7, CH2OH, CH2OCH3, CH2OC2H5, CH2OC≡CH, CH2OCH2CH═CH2, CH2C3H7, CH2CH2OH, CH2CH2OCH3, CH2CH2OC2H5, CH2CH2OC≡CH, CH2CH2OCH2CH═CH2, CH2CH2OC3H7; 4) B is adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, or pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine; 5) B is hypoxanthine, inosine, thymine, uracil, xanthine, an 8-aza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 7-deaza-8-aza derivative of adenine, guanine, 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 1-deaza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 7-deaza derivative of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; a 3-deaza derivatives of 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, hypoxanthine, inosine or xanthine; 6-azacytosine; 5-fluorocytosine, 5-chlorocytosine; 5-iodocytosine; 5-bromocytosine; 5-methylcytosine; 5-bromovinyluracil; 5-fluorouracil; 5-chlorouracil; 5-iodouracil; 5-bromouracil; 5-trifluoromethyluracil; 5-methoxymethyluracil; 5-ethynyluracil; or 5-propynyluracil 6) B is a guanyl, 3-deazaguanyl, 1-deazaguanyl, 8-azaguanyl, 7-deazaguanyl, adenyl, 3-deazaadenyl, 1-dezazadenyl, 8-azaadenyl, 7-deazaadenyl, 2,6-diaminopurinyl, 2-aminopurinyl, 6-chloro-2-aminopurinyl 6-thio-2-aminopurinyl, cytosinyl, 5-halocytosinyl, or 5-(C1-C3alkyl)cytosinyl. 7) B is wherein T7 and T8 are each independently O or S and T9 is H, amino, hydroxy, Cl, or Br. 8) B is thymine, adenine, uracil, a 5-halouracil, a 5-alkyluracil, guanine, cytosine, a 5-halocytosine, a 5-alkylcytosine, or 2,6-diaminopurine. 9) B is guanine, cytosine, uracil, or thymine. 10) B is adenine. “Bioavailability” is the degree to which the pharmaceutically active agent becomes available to the target tissue after the agent's introduction into the body. Enhancement of the bioavailability of a pharmaceutically active agent can provide a more efficient and effective treatment for patients because, for a given dose, more of the pharmaceutically active agent will be available at the targeted tissue sites. The terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to a heteroatom, 3) single-bonded to a heteroatom, and 4) single-bonded to another heteroatom, wherein each heteroatom can be the same or different. The terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” also include functional groups or moieties that comprise a phosphorous in the same oxidation state as the phosphorous described above, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having the characteriatics described above. For example, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include phosphonic acid, phosphonic monoester, phosphonic diester, phosphonamidate, and phosphonthioate functional groups. In one specific embodiment of the invention, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to an oxygen, 3) single-bonded to an oxygen, and 4) single-bonded to another oxygen, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having such characteriatics. In another specific embodiment of the invention, the terms “phosphonate” and “phosphonate group” include functional groups or moieties within a molecule that comprises a phosphorous that is 1) single-bonded to a carbon, 2) double-bonded to an oxygen, 3) single-bonded to an oxygen or nitrogen, and 4) single-bonded to another oxygen or nitrogen, as well as functional groups or moieties that comprise a prodrug moiety that can separate from a compound so that the compound retains a phosphorous having such characteriatics. The term “prodrug” as used herein refers to any compound that when administered to a biological system generates the drug substance, i.e. active ingredient, as a result of spontaneous chemical reaction(s), enzyme catalyzed chemical reaction(s), photolysis, and/or metabolic chemical reaction(s). A prodrug is thus a covalently modified analog or latent form of a therapeutically-active compound. “Prodrug moiety” refers to a labile functional group which separates from the active inhibitory compound during metabolism, systemically, inside a cell, by hydrolysis, enzymatic cleavage, or by some other process (Bundgaard, Hans, “Design and Application of Prodrugs” in A Textbook of Drug Design and Development (1991), P. Krogsgaard-Larsen and H. Bundgaard, Eds. Harwood Academic Publishers, pp. 113-191). Enzymes which are capable of an enzymatic activation mechanism with the phosphonate prodrug compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to, amidases, esterases, microbial enzymes, phospholipases, cholinesterases, and phosphases. Prodrug moieties can serve to enhance solubility, absorption and lipophilicity to optimize drug delivery, bioavailability and efficacy. A prodrug moiety may include an active metabolite or drug itself. Exemplary prodrug moieties include the hydrolytically sensitive or labile acyloxymethyl esters —CH2C(═O)R9 and acyloxymethyl carbonates —CH2C(═O)OR9 where R9 is C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 substituted alkyl, C6-C20 aryl or C6-C20 substituted aryl. The acyloxyalkyl ester was first used as a prodrug strategy for carboxylic acids and then applied to phosphates and phosphonates by Farquhar et al. (1983) J. Pharm. Sci. 72: 324; also U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,816,570, 4,968,788, 5,663,159 and 5,792,756. Subsequently, the acyloxyalkyl ester was used to deliver phosphonic acids across cell membranes and to enhance oral bioavailability. A close variant of the acyloxyalkyl ester, the alkoxycarbonyloxyalkyl ester (carbonate), may also enhance oral bioavailability as a prodrug moiety in the compounds of the combinations of the invention. An exemplary acyloxymethyl ester is pivaloyloxymethoxy, (POM) —CH2C(═O)C(CH3)3. An exemplary acyloxymethyl carbonate prodrug moiety is pivaloyloxymethylcarbonate (POC) —CH2C(═O)OC(CH3)3. The phosphonate group may be a phosphonate prodrug moiety. The prodrug moiety may be sensitive to hydrolysis, such as, but not limited to a pivaloyloxymethyl carbonate (POC) or POM group. Alternatively, the prodrug moiety may be sensitive to enzymatic potentiated cleavage, such as a lactate ester or a phosphonamidate-ester group. Aryl esters of phosphorus groups, especially phenyl esters, are reported to enhance oral bioavailability (De Lombaert et al. (1994) J. Med. Chem. 37: 498). Phenyl esters containing a carboxylic ester ortho to the phosphate have also been described (Khamnei and Torrence, (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39:4109-4115). Benzyl esters are reported to generate the parent phosphonic acid. In some cases, substituents at the ortho- or para-position may accelerate the hydrolysis. Benzyl analogs with an acylated phenol or an alkylated phenol may generate the phenolic compound through the action of enzymes, e.g., esterases, oxidases, etc., which in turn undergoes cleavage at the benzylic C—O bond to generate the phosphoric acid and the quinone methide intermediate. Examples of this class of prodrugs are described by Mitchell et al. (1992) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II 2345; Glazier WO 91/19721. Still other benzylic prodrugs have been described containing a carboxylic ester-containing group attached to the benzylic methylene (Glazier WO 91/19721). Thio-containing prodrugs are reported to be useful for the intracellular delivery of phosphonate drugs. These proesters contain an ethylthio group in which the thiol group is either esterified with an acyl group or combined with another thiol group to form a disulfide. Deesterification or reduction of the disulfide generates the free thio intermediate which subsequently breaks down to the phosphoric acid and episulfide (Puech et al. (1993) Antiviral Res., 22: 155-174; Benzaria et al. (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39: 4958). Cyclic phosphonate esters have also been described as prodrugs of phosphorus-containing compounds (Erion et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,312,662). “Protecting group” refers to a moiety of a compound that masks or alters the properties of a functional group or the properties of the compound as a whole. Chemical protecting groups and strategies for protection/deprotection are well known in the art. See e.g., Protective Groups in Organic Chemistry, Theodora W. Greene, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1991. Protecting groups are often utilized to mask the reactivity of certain functional groups, to assist in the efficiency of desired chemical reactions, e.g., making and breaking chemical bonds in an ordered and planned fashion. Protection of functional groups of a compound alters other physical properties besides the reactivity of the protected functional group, such as the polarity, lipophilicity (hydrophobicity), and other properties which can be measured by common analytical tools. Chemically protected intermediates may themselves be biologically active or inactive. Protected compounds may also exhibit altered, and in some cases, optimized properties in vitro and in vivo, such as passage through cellular membranes and resistance to enzymatic degradation or sequestration. In this role, protected compounds with intended therapeutic effects may be referred to as prodrugs. Another function of a protecting group is to convert the parental drug into a prodrug, whereby the parental drug is released upon conversion of the prodrug in vivo. Because active prodrugs may be absorbed more effectively than the parental drug, prodrugs may possess greater potency in vivo than the parental drug. Protecting groups are removed either in vitro, in the instance of chemical intermediates, or in vivo, in the case of prodrugs. With chemical intermediates, it is not particularly important that the resulting products after deprotection, e.g., alcohols, be physiologically acceptable, although in general it is more desirable if the products are pharmacologically innocuous. Any reference to any of the compounds of the invention also includes a reference to a physiologically acceptable salt thereof. Examples of physiologically acceptable salts of the compounds of the invention include salts derived from an appropriate base, such as an alkali metal (for example, sodium), an alkaline earth (for example, magnesium), ammonium and NX4+ (wherein X is C1-C4 alkyl). Physiologically acceptable salts of an hydrogen atom or an amino group include salts of organic carboxylic acids such as acetic, benzoic, lactic, fumaric, tartaric, maleic, malonic, malic, isethionic, lactobionic and succinic acids; organic sulfonic acids, such as methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic and p-toluenesulfonic acids; and inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric and sulfamic acids. Physiologically acceptable salts of a compound of an hydroxy group include the anion of said compound in combination with a suitable cation such as Na+ and NX4+ (wherein X is independently selected from H or a C1-C4 alkyl group). For therapeutic use, salts of active ingredients of the compounds of the invention will be physiologically acceptable, i.e. they will be salts derived from a physiologically acceptable acid or base. However, salts of acids or bases which are not physiologically acceptable may also find use, for example, in the preparation or purification of a physiologically acceptable compound. All salts, whether or not derived form a physiologically acceptable acid or base, are within the scope of the present invention. “Alkyl” is C1-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms. Examples are methyl (Me, —CH3), ethyl (Et, —CH2CH3), 1-propyl (n-Pr, n-propyl, —CH2CH2CH3), 2-propyl (i-Pr, i-propyl, —CH(CH3)2), 1-butyl (n-Bu, n-butyl, —CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-methyl-1-propyl (i-Bu, i-butyl, —CH2CH(CH3)2), 2-butyl (s-Bu, s-butyl, —CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 2-methyl-2-propyl (t-Bu, t-butyl, —C(CH3)3), 1-pentyl (n-pentyl, —CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH3), 3-pentyl (—CH(CH2CH3)2), 2-methyl-2-butyl (—C(CH3)2CH2CH3), 3-methyl-2-butyl (—CH(CH3)CH(CH3)2), 3-methyl-1-butyl (—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2), 2-methyl-1-butyl (—CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 1-hexyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3), 2-hexyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH2CH3), 3-hexyl (—CH(CH2CH3)(CH2CH2CH3)), 2-methyl-2-pentyl (—C(CH3)2CH2CH2CH3), 3-methyl-2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH2CH3), 4-methyl-2-pentyl (—CH(CH3)CH2CH(CH3)2), 3-methyl-3-pentyl (—C(CH3)(CH2CH3)2), 2-methyl-3-pentyl (—CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)2), 2,3-dimethyl-2-butyl (—C(CH3)2CH(CH3)2), 3,3-dimethyl-2-butyl (—CH(CH3)C(CH3)3. “Alkenyl” is C2-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e. a carbon-carbon, sp2 double bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, ethylene or vinyl (—CH═CH2), allyl (—CH2CH═CH2), cycloperitenyl (—C5H7), and 5-hexenyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2CH—CH2). “Alkynyl” is C2-C18 hydrocarbon containing normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic carbon atoms with at least one site of unsaturation, i.e. a carbon-carbon, sp triple bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, acetylenic (—C≡CH) and propargyl (—CH2C≡CH), “Alkylene” refers to a saturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 1-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkane. Typical alkylene radicals include, but are not limited to, methylene (—CH2—) 1,2-ethyl (—CH2CH2—), 1,3-propyl (—CH2CH2CH2—), 1,4-butyl (—CH2CH2CH2CH2—), and the like. “Alkenylene” refers to an unsaturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 2-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkene. Typical alkenylene radicals include, but are not limited to, 1,2-ethylene (—CH═CH—). “Alkynylene” refers to an unsaturated, branched or straight chain or cyclic hydrocarbon radical of 2-18 carbon atoms, and having two monovalent radical centers derived by the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the same or two different carbon atoms of a parent alkyne. Typical alkynylene radicals include, but are not limited to, acetylene (—C≡C—), propargyl (—CH2C≡C—), and 4-pentynyl (—CH2CH2CH2C≡CH—). “Aryl” means a monovalent aromatic hydrocarbon radical of 6-20 carbon atoms derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of a parent aromatic ring system. Typical aryl groups include, but are not limited to, radicals derived from benzene, substituted benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, biphenyl, and the like. “Arylalkyl” refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp3 carbon atom, is replaced with an aryl radical. Typical arylalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, benzyl, 2-phenylethan-1-yl, naphthylmethyl, 2-naphthylethan-1-yl, naphthobenzyl, 2-naphthophenylethan-1-yl and the like. The arylalkyl group comprises 6 to 20 carbon atoms, e.g., the alkyl moiety, including alkanyl, alkenyl or alkynyl groups, of the arylalkyl group is 1 to 6 carbon atoms and the aryl moiety is 5 to 14 carbon atoms. “Substituted alkyl”, “substituted aryl”, and “substituted arylalkyl” mean alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl respectively, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are each independently replaced with a non-hydrogen substituent. Typical substituents include, but are not limited to, -X, -R, —O—, —OR, —SR, —S−, —NR2, —NR3, ═NR, —CX3, —CN, —OCN, —SCN, —N═C═O, —NCS, —NO, —NO2, ═N2, —N3, NC(═O)R, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)NRR—S(═O)2O−, —S(═O)2OH, —S(═O)R, —OS(═O)2OR, —S(═O)2NR, —S(═O)R, —OP(═O)O2RR, —P(═O)O2RR—P(═O)(O—)2, —P(═O)(OH)2, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)X, —C(S)R, —C(O)OR, —C(O)O−, —C(S)OR, —C(O)SR, —C(S)SR, —C(O)NRR, —C(S)NRR, —C(NR)NRR, where each X is independently a halogen: F, Cl, Br, or I; and each R is independently —H, alkyl, aryl, heterocycle, protecting group or prodrug moiety. Alkylene, alkenylene, and alkynylene groups may also be similarly substituted. “Heterocycle” as used herein includes by way of example and not limitation these heterocycles described in Paquette, Leo A.; Principles of Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry (W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1968), particularly Chapters 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9; The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, A Series of Monographs” (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1950 to present), in particular Volumes 13, 14, 16, 19, and 28; and J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1960) 82:5566. In one specific embodiment of the invention “heterocycle” includes a “carbocycle” as defined herein, wherein one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) carbon atoms have been replaced with a heteroatom (e.g. O, N, or S). Examples of heterocycles include by way of example and not limitation pyridyl, dihydroypyridyl, tetrahydropyridyl (piperidyl), thiazolyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, sulfur oxidized tetrahydrothiophenyl, pyrimidinyl, furanyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, benzofuranyl, thianaphthalenyl, indolyl, indolenyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, benzimidazolyl, piperidinyl, 4-piperidonyl, pyrrolidinyl, 2-pyrrolidonyl, pyrrolinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, octahydroisoquinolinyl, azocinyl, triazinyl, 6H-1,2,5-thiadiazinyl, 2H,6H-1,5,2-dithiazinyl, thienyl, thianthrenyl, pyranyl, isobenzofuranyl, chromenyl, xanthenyl, phenoxathinyl, 2H-pyrrolyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, indolizinyl, isoindolyl, 3H-indolyl, 1H-indazoly, purinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, phthalazinyl, naphthyridinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinazolinyl, cinnolinyl, pteridinyl, 4aH-carbazolyl, carbazolyl, β-carbolinyl, phenanthridinyl, acridinyl, pyrimidinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, furazanyl, phenoxazinyl, isochromanyl, chromanyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, piperazinyl, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, quinuclidinyl, morpholinyl, oxazolidinyl, benzotriazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, oxindolyl, benzoxazolinyl, isatinoyl, and bis-tetrahydrofuranyl: By way of example and not limitation, carbon bonded heterocycles are bonded at position 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridine, position 3, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyridazine, position 2, 4, 5, or 6 of a pyrimidine, position 2, 3, 5, or 6 of a pyrazine, position 2, 3, 4, or 5 of a furan, tetrahydrofuran, thiofuran, thiophene, pyrrole or tetrahydropyrrole, position 2, 4, or 5 of an oxazole, imidazole or thiazole, position 3, 4, or 5 of an isoxazole, pyrazole, or isothiazole, position 2 or 3 of an aziridine, position 2, 3, or 4 of an azetidine, position 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of a quinoline or position 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 of an isoquinoline. Still more typically, carbon bonded heterocycles include 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 4-pyridyl, 5-pyridyl, 6-pyridyl, 3-pyridazinyl, 4-pyridazinyl, 5-pyridazinyl, 6-pyridazinyl, 2-pyrimidinyl, 4-pyrimidinyl, 5-pyrimidinyl, 6-pyrimidinyl, 2-pyrazinyl, 3-pyrazinyl, 5-pyrazinyl, 6-pyrazinyl, 2-thiazolyl, 4-thiazolyl, or 5-thiazolyl. By way of example and not limitation, nitrogen bonded heterocycles are bonded at position 1 of an aziridine, azetidine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, 2-pyrroline, 3-pyrroline, imidazole, imidazolidine, 2-imidazoline, 3-imidazoline, pyrazole, pyrazoline, 2-pyrazoline, 3-pyrazoline, piperidine, piperazine, indole, indoline, 1H-indazole, position 2 of a isoindole, or isoindoline, position 4 of a morpholine, and position 9 of a carbazole, or β-carboline. Still more typically, nitrogen bonded heterocycles include 1-aziridyl, 1-azetedyl, 1-pyrrolyl, 1-imidazolyl, 1-pyrazolyl, and 1-piperidinyl. “Carbocycle” refers to a saturated, unsaturated or aromatic ring having 3 to 7 carbon atoms as a monocycle, 7 to 12 carbon atoms as a bicycle, and up to about 20 carbon atoms as a polycycle. Monocyclic carbocycles have 3 to 6 ring atoms, still more typically 5 or 6 ring atoms. Bicyclic carbocycles have 7 to 12 ring atoms, e.g., arranged as a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6] or [6,6] system, or 9 or 10 ring atoms arranged as a bicyclo [5,6] or [6,6] system. Examples of monocyclic carbocycles include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, 1-cyclopent-1-enyl, 1-cyclopent-2-enyl, 1-cyclopent-3-enyl, cyclohexyl, 1-cyclohex-1-enyl, 1-cyclohex-2-enyl, 1-cyclohex-3-enyl, phenyl, spiryl and naphthyl. “Linker” or “link” refers to a chemical moiety comprising a covalent bond or a chain or group of atoms that covalently attaches a phosphonate group to a drug. Linkers include portions of substituents A1 and A3, which include moieties such as: repeating units of alkyloxy (e.g., polyethylenoxy, PEG, polymethyleneoxy) and alkylamino (e.g., polyethyleneamino, Jeffamine™); and diacid ester and amides including succinate, succinamide, diglycolate, malonate, and caproamide. The term “chiral” refers to molecules which have the property of non-superimposability of the mirror image partner, while the term “achiral” refers to molecules which are superimposable on their mirror image partner. The term “stereoisomers” refers to compounds which have identical chemical constitution, but differ with regard to the arrangement of the atoms or groups in space. “Diastereomer” refers to a stereoisomer with two or more centers of chirality and whose molecules are not mirror images of one another. Diastereomers have different physical properties, e.g., melting points, boiling points, spectral properties, and reactivities. Mixtures of diastereomers may separate under high resolution analytical procedures such as electrophoresis and chromatography. “Enantiomers” refer to two stereoisomers of a compound which are non-superimposable mirror images of one another. The term “treatment” or “treating,” to the extent it relates to a disease or condition includes preventing the disease or condition from occurring, inhibiting the disease or condition, eliminating the disease or condition, and/or relieving one or more symptoms of the disease or condition. Stereochemical definitions and conventions used herein generally follow S. P. Parker, Ed., McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms (1984) McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York; and Eliel, E. and Wilen, S., Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds (1994) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Many organic compounds exist in optically active forms, i.e., they have the ability to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light. In describing an optically active compound, the prefixes D and L or R and S are used to denote the absolute configuration of the molecule about its chiral center(s). The prefixes d and l or (+) and (−) are employed to designate the sign of rotation of plane-polarized light by the compound, with (−) or l meaning that the compound is levorotatory. A compound prefixed with (+) or d is dextrorotatory. For a given chemical structure, these stereoisomers are identical except that they are mirror images of one another. A specific stereoisomer may also be referred to as an enantiomer, and a mixture of such isomers is often called an enantiomeric mixture. A 50:50 mixture of enantiomers is referred to as a racemic mixture or a racemate, which may occur where there has been no stereoselection or stereospecificity in a chemical reaction or process. The terms “racemic mixture” and “racemate” refer to an equimolar mixture of two enantiomeric species, devoid of optical activity. Protecting Groups In the context of the present invention, protecting groups include prodrug moieties and chemical protecting groups. Protecting groups are available, commonly known and used, and are optionally used to prevent side reactions with the protected group during synthetic procedures, i.e. routes or methods to prepare the compounds of the invention. For the most part the decision as to which groups to protect, when to do so, and the nature of the chemical protecting group “PG” will be dependent upon the chemistry of the reaction to be protected against (e.g., acidic, basic, oxidative, reductive or other conditions) and the intended direction of the synthesis. The PG groups do not need to be, and generally are not, the same if the compound is substituted with multiple PG. In general, PG will be used to protect functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, thio, or amino groups and to thus prevent side reactions or to otherwise facilitate the synthetic efficiency. The order of deprotection to yield free, deprotected groups is dependent upon the intended direction of the synthesis and the reaction conditions to be encountered, and may occur in any order as determined by the artisan. Various functional groups of the compounds of the invention may be protected. For example, protecting groups for —OH groups (whether hydroxyl, carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid, or other functions) include “ether- or ester-forming groups”. Ether- or ester-forming groups are capable of functioning as chemical protecting groups in the synthetic schemes set forth herein. However, some hydroxyl and thio protecting groups are neither ether- nor ester-forming groups, as will be understood by those skilled in the art, and are included with amides, discussed below. A very large number of hydroxyl protecting groups and amide-forming groups and corresponding chemical cleavage reactions are described in Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, Theodora W. Greene (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New. York, 1991, ISBN 0-471-62301-6) (“Greene”). See also Kocienski, Philip J.; Protecting Groups (Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart, New York, 1994), which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. In particular Chapter 1, Protecting Groups: An Overview, pages 1-20, Chapter 2, Hydroxyl Protecting Groups, pages 21-94, Chapter 3, Diol Protecting Groups, pages 95-117, Chapter 4, Carboxyl Protecting Groups, pages 118-154, Chapter 5, Carbonyl Protecting Groups, pages 155-184. For protecting groups for carboxylic acid, phosphonic acid, phosphonate, sulfonic acid and other protecting groups for acids see Greene as set forth below. Such groups include by way of example and not limitation, esters, amides, hydrazides, and the like. Ether- and Ester-Forming Protecting Groups Ester-forming groups include: (1) phosphonate ester-forming groups, such as phosphonamidate esters, phosphorothioate esters, phosphonate esters, and phosphon-bis-amidates; (2) carboxyl ester-forming groups, and (3) sulphur ester-forming groups, such as sulphonate, sulfate, and sulfinate. The optional phosphonate moieties of the compounds of the invention may or may not be prodrug moieties, i.e. they may or may be susceptible to hydrolytic or enzymatic cleavage or modification. Certain phosphonate moieties are stable under most or nearly all metabolic conditions. For example, a dialkylphosphonate, where the alkyl groups are two or more carbons, may have appreciable stability in vivo due to a slow rate of hydrolysis. Within the context of phosphonate prodrug moieties, a large number of structurally-diverse prodrugs have been described for phosphonic acids (Freeman and Ross in Progress in Medicinal Chemistry 34: 112-147 (1997) and are included within the scope of the present invention. An exemplary phosphonate ester-forming group is the phenyl carbocycle in substructure A3 having the formula: wherein R1 may be H or C1-C12 alkyl; m1 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8, and the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups. Where Y1 is O, a lactate ester is formed, and where Y1 is N(R2), N(OR2) or N(N(R2)2, a phosphonamidate ester results. In its ester-forming role, a protecting group typically is bound to any acidic group such as, by way of example and not limitation, a —CO2H or —C(S)OH group, thereby resulting in —CO2Rx where Rx is defined herein. Also, Rx for example includes the enumerated ester groups of WO 95/07920. Examples of protecting groups, include: C3-C12 heterocycle (described above) or aryl. These aromatic groups optionally are polycyclic or monocyclic. Examples include phenyl, spiryl, 2- and 3-pyrrolyl, 2- and 3-thienyl, 2- and 4-imidazolyl, 2-, 4- and 5-oxazolyl, 3- and 4-isoxazolyl, 2-, 4- and 5-thiazolyl, 3-, 4- and 5-isothiazolyl, 3- and 4-pyrazolyl, 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-pyridinyl, and 1-, 2-, 4- and 5-pyrimidinyl, C3-C12 heterocycle or aryl substituted with halo, R1, R1—O—C1-C12 alkylene, C1-C12 alkoxy, CN, NO2, OH, carboxy, carboxyester, thiol, thioester, C1-C12 haloalkyl (1-6 halogen atoms), C2-C12 alkenyl or C2-C12 alkynyl. Such groups include 2-, 3- and 4-alkoxyphenyl (C1-C12 alkyl), 2-, 3- and 4-methoxyphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-ethoxyphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-diethoxyphenyl, 2- and 3-carboethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-5-hydroxyphenyl, 2- and 3-ethoxy-6-hydroxyphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-O-acetylphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-dimethylaminophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-methylmercaptophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-halophenyl (including 2-, 3- and 4-fluorophenyl and 2-, 3- and 4-chlorophenyl), 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-biscarboxyethylphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2,6-, 3,4- and 3,5-dihalophenyl (including 2,4-difluorophenyl and 3,5-difluorophenyl), 2-, 3- and 4-haloalkylphenyl (1 to 5 halogen atoms, C1-C12 alkyl including 4-trifluoromethylphenyl), 2-, 3- and 4-cyanophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-nitrophenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-haloalkylbenzyl (1 to 5 halogen atoms, C1-C12 alkyl including 4-trifluoromethylbenzyl and 2-, 3- and 4-trichloromethylphenyl and 2-, 3- and 4-trichloromethylphenyl), 4-N-methylpiperidinyl, 3-N-methylpiperidinyl, 1-ethylpiperazinyl, benzyl, alkylsalicylphenyl (C1-C4 alkyl, including 2-, 3- and 4-ethylsalicylphenyl), 2-,3- and 4-acetylphenyl, 1,8-dihydroxynaphthyl (—C10H6—OH) and aryloxy ethyl [C6-C9 aryl (including phenoxy ethyl)], 2,2′-dihydroxybiphenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-N,N-dialkylaminophenol, —C6H4CH2—N(CH3)2, trimethoxybenzyl, triethoxybenzyl, 2-alkyl pyridinyl (C1-4 alkyl); C8 esters of 2-carboxyphenyl; and C1-C4 alkylene-C3-C6 aryl (including benzyl, —CH2-pyrrolyl, —CH2-thienyl, —CH2-imidazolyl, —CH2-oxazolyl, —CH2-isoxazolyl, —CH2-thiazolyl, —CH2-isothiazolyl, —CH2-pyrazolyl, —CH2-pyridinyl and —CH2-pyrimidinyl) substituted in the aryl moiety by 3 to 5 halogen atoms or 1 to 2 atoms or groups selected from halogen, C1-C12 alkoxy (including methoxy and ethoxy), cyano, nitro, OH, C1-C12 haloalkyl (1 to 6 halogen atoms; including —CH2CCl3), C1-C12 alkyl (including methyl and ethyl), C2-C12 alkenyl or C2-C12 alkynyl; alkoxy ethyl [C1-C6 alkyl including —CH2—CH2—O—CH3 (methoxy ethyl)]; alkyl substituted by any of the groups set forth above for aryl, in particular OH or by 1 to 3 halo atoms (including —CH3, —CH(CH3)2, —C(CH3)3, —CH2CH3, —(CH2)2CH3, —(CH2)3CH3, —(CH2)4CH3, —(CH2)5CH3, —CH2CH2F, —CH2CH2Cl, —CH2CF3, and —CH2CCl3); —N-2-propylmorpholino, 2,3-dihydro-6-hydroxyindene, sesamol, catechol monoester, —CH2—C(O)—N(R1)2, —CH2—S(O)(R1), —CH2—S(O)2(R1), —CH2—CH(OC(O)CH2R1)—CH2(OC(O)CH2R1), cholesteryl, enolpyruvate (HOOC—C(═CH2)—), glycerol; a 5 or 6 carbon monosaccharide, disaccharide or oligosaccharide (3 to 9 monosaccharide residues); triglycerides such as α-D-β-diglycerides (wherein the fatty acids composing glyceride lipids generally are naturally occurring saturated or unsaturated C6-26, C6-18 or C6-10 fatty acids such as linoleic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, palmitoleic, linolenic and the like fatty acids) linked to acyl of the parental compounds herein through a glyceryl oxygen of the triglyceride; phospholipids linked to the carboxyl group through the phosphate of the phospholipid; phthalidyl (shown in FIG. 1 of Clayton et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemo. (1974) 5(6):670-671); cyclic carbonates such as (5-Rd-2-oxo-1,3-dioxolen-4-yl)methyl esters (Sakamoto et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. (1984) 32(6)2241-2248) where Rd is R1, R4 or aryl; and The hydroxyl groups of the compounds of this invention optionally are substituted with one of groups III, IV or V disclosed in WO 94/21604, or with isopropyl. Table A lists examples of protecting group ester moieties that for example can be bonded via oxygen to —C(O)O— and —P(O)(O—)2 groups. Several amidates also are shown, which are bound directly to —C(O)— or —P(O)2. Esters of structures 1-5, 8-10 and 16, 17, 19-22 are synthesized by reacting the compound herein having a free hydroxyl with the corresponding halide (chloride or acyl chloride and the like) and N,N-dicyclohexyl-N-morpholine carboxamidine (or another base such as DBU, triethylamine, CsCO3, N,N-dimethylaniline and the like) in DMF (or other solvent such as acetonitrile or N-methylpyrrolidone). When the compound to be protected is a phosphonate, the esters of structures 5-7, 11, 12, 21, and 23-26 are synthesized by reaction of the alcohol or alkoxide salt (or the corresponding amines in the case of compounds such as 13, 14 and 15) with the monochlorophosphonate or dichlorophosphonate (or another activated phosphonate). TABLE A 1. —CH2—C(O)—N(R1)2* 10. —CH2—O—C(O)—C(CH3)3 2. —CH2—S(O)(R1) 11. —CH2—CCl3 3. —CH2—S(O)2(R1) 12. —C6H5 4. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH2—C6H5 13. —NH—CH2—C(O)O—CH2CH3 5. 3-cholesteryl 14. —N(CH3)—CH2—C(O)O—CH2CH3 6. 3-pyridyl 15. —NHR1 7. N-ethylmorpholino 16. —CH2—O—C(O)—C10H15 8. —CH2—O—C(O)—C6H5 17. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH(CH3)2 9. —CH2—O—C(O)—CH2CH3 18. —CH2—C#H(OC(O)CH2R1)—CH2— —(OC(O)CH2R1)* 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. # - chiral center is (R), (S) or racemate. Other esters that are suitable for use herein are described in EP 632048. Protecting groups also includes “double ester” forming profunctionalities such as —CH2OC(O)OCH3, —CH2SCOCH3, —CH2OCON(CH3)2, or alkyl- or aryl-acyloxyalkyl groups of the structure —CH(R1 or W5)O((CO)R37) or —CH(R1 or W5)((CO)OR38) (linked to oxygen of the acidic group) wherein R37 and R38 are alkyl, aryl, or alkylaryl groups (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,968,788). Frequently R37 and R38 are bulky groups such as branched alkyl, ortho-substituted aryl, meta-substituted aryl, or combinations thereof, including normal, secondary, iso- and tertiary alkyls of 1-6 carbon atoms. An example is the pivaloyloxymethyl group. These are of particular use with prodrugs for oral administration. Examples of such useful protecting groups are alkylacyloxymethyl esters and their derivatives, including—CH(CH2CH2OCH3)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH2OC(O)C10H15, —CH2OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH(CH2OCH3)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH(CH(CH3)2)OC(O)C(CH3)3, —CH2OC(O)CH2CH(CH3)2, —CH2OC(O)C6H11, —CH2OC(O)C6H5, —CH2OC(O)C10H15, —CH2OC(O)CH2CH3, —CH2OC(O)CH(CH3)2, —CH2OC(O)C(CH3)3 and —CH2OC(O)CH2C6H5. In some embodiments the protected acidic group is an ester of the acidic group and is the residue of a hydroxyl-containing functionality. In other embodiments, an amino compound is used to protect the acid functionality. The residues of suitable hydroxyl or amino-containing functionalities are set forth above or are found in WO 95/07920. Of particular interest are the residues of amino acids, amino acid esters, polypeptides, or aryl alcohols. Typical amino acid, polypeptide and carboxyl-esterified amino acid residues are described on pages 11-18 and related text of WO 95/07920 as groups L1 or L2. WO 95/07920 expressly teaches the amidates of phosphonic acids, but it will be understood that such amidates are formed with any of the acid groups set forth herein and the amino acid residues set forth in WO 95/07920. Typical esters for protecting acidic functionalities are also described in WO 95/07920, again understanding that the same esters can be formed with the acidic groups herein as with the phosphonate of the '920 publication. Typical ester groups are defined at least on WO 95/07920 pages 89-93 (under R31 or R35), the table on page 105, and pages 21-23 (as R). Of particular interest are esters of unsubstituted aryl such as phenyl or arylalkyl such benzyl, or hydroxy-, halo-, alkoxy-, carboxy- and/or alkylestercarboxy-substituted-aryl or alkylaryl, especially phenyl, ortho-ethoxyphenyl, or C1-C4 alkylestercarboxyphenyl (salicylate C1-C12 alkylesters). The protected acidic groups, particularly when using the esters or amides of WO 95/07920, are useful as prodrugs for oral administration. However, it is not essential that the acidic group be protected in order for the compounds of this invention to be effectively administered by the oral route. When the compounds of the invention having protected groups, in particular amino acid amidates or substituted and unsubstituted aryl esters are administered systemically or orally they are capable of hydrolytic cleavage in vivo to yield the free acid. One or more of the acidic hydroxyls are protected. If more than one acidic hydroxyl is protected then the same or a different protecting group is employed, e.g., the esters may be different or the same, or a mixed amidate and ester may be used. Typical hydroxy protecting groups described in Greene (pages 14-118) include substituted methyl and alkyl ethers, substituted benzyl ethers, silyl ethers, esters including sulfonic acid esters, and carbonates. For example: Ethers (methyl, t-butyl, allyl); Substituted Methyl Ethers (Methoxymethyl, Methylthiomethyl, t-Butylthiomethyl, (Phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl, Benzyloxymethyl, p-Methoxybenzyloxymethyl, (4-Methoxyphenoxy)methyl, Guaiacolmethyl, t-Butoxymethyl, 4-Pentenyloxymethyl, Siloxymethyl, 2-Methoxyethoxymethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethoxymethyl, Bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl, Tetrahydropyranyl, 3-Bromotetrahydropyranyl, Tetrahydropthiopyranyl, 1-Methoxycyclohexyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydropyranyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-Methoxytetrahydropthiopyranyl S,S-Dioxido, 1-[(2-Chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl, 1,4-Dioxan-2-yl, Tetrahydrofuranyl, Tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-Octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl)); Substituted Ethyl Ethers (1-Ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-Chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-Methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-Methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-Methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethyl, 2-Trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(Phenylselenyl)ethyl, p-Chlorophenyl, p-Methoxyphenyl, 2,4-Dinitrophenyl, Benzyl); Substituted Benzyl Ethers (p-Methoxybenzyl, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl, o-Nitrobenzyl, p-Nitrobenzyl, p-Halobenzyl, 2,6-Dichlorobenzyl, p-Cyanobenzyl, p-Phenylbenzyl, 2- and 4-Picolyl, 3-Methyl-2-picolyl N-Oxido, Diphenylmethyl, p,p′-Dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-Dibenzosuberyl, Triphenylmethyl, α-Naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, Di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, Tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-Bromophenacyloxy)phenyldiphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-Tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(Imidazol-1-ylmethyl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-Bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-Anthryl, 9-(9-Phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-Phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-Benzodithiolan-2-yl, Benzisothiazolyl S,S-Dioxido); Silyl Ethers (Trimethylsilyl, Triethylsilyl, Triisopropylsilyl, Dimethylisopropylsilyl, Diethylisopropylsilyl, Dimethylthexylsilyl, t-Butyldimethylsilyl, t-Butyldiphenylsilyl, Tribenzylsilyl, Tri-p-xylylsilyl, Triphenylsilyl, Diphenylmethylsilyl, t-Butylmethoxyphenylsilyl); Esters (Formate, Benzoylformate, Acetate, Choroacetate, Dichloroacetate, Trichloroacetate, Trifluoroacetate, Methoxyacetate, Triphenylmethoxyacetate, Phenoxyacetate, p-Chlorophenoxyacetate, p-poly-Phenylacetate, 3-Phenylpropionate, 4-Oxopentanoate (Levulinate), 4,4-(Ethylenedithio)pentanoate, Pivaloate, Adamantoate, Crotonate, 4-Methoxycrotonate, Benzoate, p-Phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-Trimethylbenzoate (Mesitoate)); Carbonates (Methyl, 9-Fluorenylmethyl, Ethyl, 2,2,2-Trichloroethyl, 2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethyl, 2-(Phenylsulfonyl)ethyl, 2-(Triphenylphosphonio)ethyl, Isobutyl, Vinyl, Allyl, p-Nitrophenyl, Benzyl, p-Methoxybenzyl, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzyl, o-Nitrobenzyl, p-Nitrobenzyl, S-Benzyl Thiocarbonate, 4-Ethoxy-1-naphthyl, Methyl Dithiocarbonate); Groups With Assisted Cleavage (2-Iodobenzoate, 4-Azidobutyrate, 4-Nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(Dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-Formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(Methylthiomethoxy)ethyl Carbonate, 4-(Methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(Methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate); Miscellaneous Esters (2,6-Dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6-Dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3 tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4-Bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, Chlorodiphenylacetate, Isobutyrate, Monosuccinate, (E)-2-Methyl-2-butenoate (Tigloate), o-(Methoxycarbonyl)benzoate, p-poly-Benzoate, α-Naphthoate, Nitrate, Alkyl N,N,N′,N′-Tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, N-Phenylcarbamate, Borate, Dimethylphosphinothioyl, 2,4-Dinitrophenylsulfenate); and Sulfonates (Sulfate, Methanesulfonate (Mesylate), Benzylsulfonate, Tosylate). Typical 1,2-diol protecting groups (thus, generally where two OH groups are taken together with the protecting functionality) are described in Greene at pages 118-142 and include Cyclic Acetals and Ketals (Methylene, Ethylidene, 1-t-Butylethylidene, 1-Phenylethylidene, (4-Methoxyphenyl)ethylidene, 2,2,2-Trichloroethylidene, Acetonide (Isopropylidene), Cyclopentylidene, Cyclohexylidene, Cycloheptylidene, Benzylidene, p-Methoxybenzylidene, 2,4-Dimethoxybenzylidene, 3,4-Dimethoxybenzylidene, 2-Nitrobenzylidene); Cyclic Ortho Esters (Methoxymethylene, Ethoxymethylene, Dimethoxymethylene, 1-Methoxyethylidene, 1-Ethoxyethylidine, 1,2-Dimethoxyethylidene, α-Methoxybenzylidene, 1-(N,N-Dimethylamino)ethylidene Derivative, α-(N,N-Dimethylamino)benzylidene Derivative, 2-Oxacyclopentylidene); Silyl Derivatives (Di-t-butylsilylene Group, 1,3-(1,1,3,3-Tetraisopropyldisiloxanylidene), and Tetra-t-butoxydisiloxane-1,3-diylidene), Cyclic Carbonates, Cyclic Boronates, Ethyl Boronate and Phenyl Boronate. More typically, 1,2-diol protecting groups include those shown in Table B, still more typically, epoxides, acetonides, cyclic ketals and aryl acetals. TABLE B wherein R9 is C1-C6 alkyl. Amino Protecting Groups Another set of protecting groups include any of the typical amino protecting groups described by Greene at pages 315-385. They include: Carbamates: (methyl and ethyl, 9-fluorenylmethyl, 9(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluorenylmethyl, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl, 4-methoxyphenacyl); Substituted Ethyl: (2,2,2-trichoroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-phenylethyl, 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methyl ethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl, 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl, 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl, t-butyl, 1-adamantyl, vinyl, allyl, 1-isopropylallyl, cinnamyl, 4-nitrocinnamyl, 8-quinolyl, N-hydroxypiperidinyl, alkyldithio, benzyl, p-methoxybenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-bromobenzyl, p-chlorobenzyl, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl, 9-anthrylmethyl, diphenylmethyl); Groups With Assisted Cleavage: (2-methylthioethyl, 2-methylsulfonylethyl, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl, 4-methylthiophenyl, 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl, 2-phosphonioethyl, 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl, 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl, m-choro-p-acyloxybenzyl, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl); Groups Capable of Photolytic Cleavage: (m-nitrophenyl, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl); Urea-Type Derivatives (phenothiazinyl-(10)-carbonyl, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminocarbonyl, N′-phenylaminothiocarbonyl); Miscellaneous Carbamates: (t-amyl, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl, cyclobutyl, cyclohexyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopropylmethyl, p-decyloxybenzyl, diisopropylmethyl, 2,2-dimethoxycarbonylvinyl, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl, di(2-pyridyl)methyl, 2-furanylmethyl, 2-Iodoethyl, Isobornyl, Isobutyl, Isonicotinyl, p-(p′-Methoxyphenylazo)benzyl, 1-methylcyclobutyl, 1-methylcyclohexyl, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl, 1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, phenyl, p-(phenylazo)benzyl, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl); Amides: (N-formyl, N-acetyl, N-choroacetyl, N-trichoroacetyl, N-trifluoroacetyl, N-phenylacetyl, N-3-phenylpropionyl, N-picolinoyl, N-3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl, N-benzoyl, N-p-phenylbenzoyl); Amides With Assisted Cleavage: (N-o-nitrophenylacetyl, N-o-nitrophenoxyacetyl, N-acetoacetyl, (N′-dithiobenzyloxycarbonylamino)acetyl, N-3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propionyl, N-3-(o-nitrophenyl)propionyl, N-2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propionyl, N-2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propionyl, N-4-chlorobutyryl, N-3-methyl-3-nitrobutyryl, N-o-nitrocinnamoyl, N-acetylmethionine, N-o-nitrobenzoyl, N-o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzoyl, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one); Cyclic Imide Derivatives: (N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinoyl, N-2,3-diphenylmaleoyl, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrolyl, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct, 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3-5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridonyl); N-Alkyl and N-Aryl Amines: (N-methyl, N-allyl, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methyl, N-3-acetoxypropyl, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyrrolin-3-yl), Quaternary Ammonium Salts, N-benzyl, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methyl, N-5-dibenzosuberyl, N-triphenylmethyl, N-(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, N-9-phenylfluorenyl, N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethylene, N-ferrocenylmethyl, N-2-picolylamine N,-oxide); Imine Derivatives: (N-1,1-dimethylthiomethylene, N-benzylidene, N-p-methoxybenzylidene, N-diphenylmethylene, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methylene, N,(N′,N-dimethylaminomethylene, N,N′-isopropylidene, N-p-nitrobenzylidene, N-salicylidene, N-5-chlorosalicylidene, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethylene, N-cyclohexylidene); Enamine Derivatives: (N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)); N-Metal Derivatives (N-borane derivatives, N-diphenylborinic acid derivatives, N-[phenyl(pentacarbonylchromium- or -tungsten)]carbenzyl, N-copper or N-zinc chelate); N—N Derivatives: (N-nitro, N-nitroso, N-oxide); N—P Derivatives: (N-diphenylphosphinyl, N-dimethylthiophosphinyl, N-diphenylthiophosphinyl, N-dialkyl phosphoryl, N-dibenzyl phosphoryl, N-diphenyl phosphoryl); N—Si Derivatives, N—S Derivatives, and N-Sulfenyl Derivatives: (N-benzenesulfenyl, N-o-nitrobenzenesulfenyl, N-2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenyl, N-pentachlorobenzenesulfenyl, N-2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenyl, N-triphenylmethylsulfenyl, N-3-nitropyridinesulfenyl); and N-sulfonyl Derivatives (N-p-toluenesulfonyl, N-benzenesulfonyl, N-2,3,6-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-pentamethylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,3,5,6,-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl, N-2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonyl, N-2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonyl, N-methanesulfonyl, N-β-trimethylsilyethanesulfonyl, N-9-anthracenesulfonyl, N-4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonyl, N-benzylsulfonyl, N-trifluoromethylsulfonyl, N-phenacylsulfonyl). More typically, protected amino groups include carbamates and amides, still more typically, —NHC(O)R1 or —N═CR1N(R1)2. Another protecting group, also useful as a prodrug for amino or —NH(R5), is: See for example Alexander, J. et al. (1996) J. Med. Chem. 39:480-486. Amino Acid and Polypeptide Protecting Group and Conjugates An amino acid or polypeptide protecting group of a compound of the invention has the structure R15NHCH(R16)C(O)—, where R15 is H, an amino acid or polypeptide residue, or R5, and R16 is defined below. R16 is lower alkyl or lower alkyl (C1-C6) substituted with amino, carboxyl, amide, carboxyl ester, hydroxyl, C6-C7 aryl, guanidinyl, imidazolyl, indolyl, sulfhydryl, sulfoxide, and/or alkylphosphate. R10 also is taken together with the amino acid α N to form a proline residue (R10=—CH2)3—). However, R10 is generally the side group of a naturally-occurring amino acid such as H, —CH3, —CH(CH3)2, —CH2—CH(CH3)2, —CHCH3—CH2—CH3, —CH2—C6H5, —CH2CH2—S—CH3, —CH2OH, —CH(OH)—CH3, —CH2—SH, —CH2—C6H4OH, —CH2—CO—NH2, —CH2—CH2—CO—NH2, —CH2—COOH, —CH2—CH2—COOH, —(CH2)4—NH2 and —(CH2)3—NH—C(NH2)—NH2. R10 also includes 1-guanidinoprop-3-yl, benzyl, 4-hydroxybenzyl, imidazol-4-yl, indol-3-yl, methoxyphenyl and ethoxyphenyl. Another set of protecting groups include the residue of an amino-containing compound, in particular an amino acid, a polypeptide, a protecting group, —NHSO2R, NHC(O)R, —N(R)2, NH2 or —NH(R)(H), whereby for example a carboxylic acid is reacted, i.e. coupled, with the amine to form an amide, as in C(O)NR2. A phosphonic acid may be reacted with the amine to form a phosphonamidate, as in —P(O)(OR)(NR2). In general, amino acids have the structure R17C(O)CH(R16)NH—, where R17 is —OH, —OR, an amino acid or a polypeptide residue. Amino acids are low molecular weight compounds, on the order of less than about 1000 MW and which contain at least one amino or imino group and at least one carboxyl group. Generally the amino acids will be found in nature, i.e., can be detected in biological material such as bacteria or other microbes, plants, animals or man. Suitable amino acids typically are alpha amino acids, i.e. compounds characterized by one amino or imino nitrogen atom separated from the carbon atom of one carboxyl group by a single substituted or unsubstituted alpha carbon atom. Of particular interest are hydrophobic residues such as mono- or di-alkyl or aryl amino acids, cycloalkylamino acids and the like. These residues contribute to cell permeability by increasing the partition coefficient of the parental drug. Typically, the residue does not contain a sulfhydryl or guanidino substituent. Naturally-occurring amino acid residues are those residues found naturally in plants, animals or microbes, especially proteins thereof. Polypeptides most typically will be substantially composed of such naturally-occurring amino acid residues. These amino acids are glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, threonine, cysteine, methionine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, hydroxylysine, arginine, histidine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, proline, asparagine, glutamine and hydroxyproline. Additionally, unnatural amino acids, for example, valanine, phenylglycine and homoarginine are also included. Commonly encountered amino acids that are not gene-encoded may also be used in the present invention. All of the amino acids used in the present invention may be either the D- or L-optical isomer. In addition, other peptidomimetics are also useful in the present invention. For a general review, see Spatola, A. F., in Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins, B. Weinstein, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 267 (1983). When protecting groups are single amino acid residues or polypeptides they optionally are substituted at R3 of substituents A1, A2 or A3 in a compound of the invention. These conjugates are produced by forming an amide bond between a carboxyl group of the amino acid (or C-terminal amino acid of a polypeptide for example). Similarly, conjugates are formed between R3 and an amino group of an amino acid or polypeptide. Generally, only one of any site in the parental molecule is amidated with an amino acid as described herein, although it is within the scope of this invention to introduce amino acids at more than one permitted site. Usually, a carboxyl group of R3 is amidated with an amino acid. In general, the α-amino or α-carboxyl group of the amino acid or the terminal amino or carboxyl group of a polypeptide are bonded to the parental functionalities, i.e., carboxyl or amino groups in the amino acid side chains generally are not used to form the amide bonds with the parental compound (although these groups may need to be protected during synthesis of the conjugates as described further below). With respect to the carboxyl-containing side chains of amino acids or polypeptides it will be understood that the carboxyl group optionally will be blocked, e.g., by R1, esterified with R5 or amidated. Similarly, the amino side chains R16 optionally will be blocked with R1 or substituted with R5. Such ester or amide bonds with side chain amino or carboxyl groups, like the esters or amides with the parental molecule, optionally are hydrolyzable in vivo or in vitro under acidic (pH <3) or basic (pH >10) conditions. Alternatively, they are substantially stable in the gastrointestinal tract of humans but are hydrolyzed enzymatically in blood or in intracellular environments. The esters or amino acid or polypeptide amidates also are useful as intermediates for the preparation of the parental molecule containing free amino or carboxyl groups. The free acid or base of the parental compound, for example, is readily formed from the esters or amino acid or polypeptide conjugates of this invention by conventional hydrolysis procedures. When an amino acid residue contains one or more chiral centers, any of the D, L, meso, threo or erythro (as appropriate) racemates, scalemates or mixtures thereof may be used. In general, if the intermediates are to be hydrolyzed non-enzymatically (as would be the case where the amides are used as chemical intermediates for the free acids or free amines), D isomers are useful. On the other hand, L isomers are more versatile since they can be susceptible to both non-enzymatic and enzymatic hydrolysis, and are more efficiently transported by amino acid or dipeptidyl transport systems in the gastrointestinal tract. Examples of suitable amino acids whose residues are represented by Rx or Ry include the following: Glycine; Aminopolycarboxylic acids, e.g., aspartic acid, β-hydroxyaspartic acid, glutamic acid, β-hydroxyglutamic acid, β-methylaspartic acid, β-methylglutamic acid, β,β-dimethylaspartic acid, γ-hydroxyglutamic acid, β,γ-dihydroxyglutamic acid, β-phenylglutamic acid, γ-methyleneglutamic acid, 3-aminoadipic acid, 2-aminopimelic acid, 2-aminosuberic acid and 2-aminosebacic acid; Amino acid amides such as glutamine and asparagine; Polyamino- or polybasic-monocarboxylic acids such as arginine, lysine, β-aminoalanine, γ-aminobutyrine, ornithine, citruline, homoarginine, homocitrulline, hydroxylysine, allohydroxylsine and diaminobutyric acid; Other basic amino acid residues such as histidine; Diaminodicarboxylic acids such as α,α′-diaminosuccinic acid, α,α′-diaminoglutaric acid, α,α′-diaminoadipic acid, α,α′-diaminopimelic acid, α,α′-diamino-β-hydroxypimelic acid, α,α′-diaminosuberic acid, α,α′-diaminoazelaic acid, and α,α′-diaminosebacic acid; imino acids such as proline, hydroxyproline, allohydroxyproline, Δ-methylproline, pipecolic acid, 5-hydroxypipecolic acid, and azetidine-2-carboxylic acid; A mono- or di-alkyl (typically C1-C8 branched or normal) amino acid such as alanine, valine, leucine, allylglycine, butyrine, norvaline, norleucine, heptyline, α-methylserine, α-amino-α-methyl-γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, α-amino-α-methyl-δ-hydroxyvaleric acid, α-amino-α-methyl-ε-hydroxycaproic acid, isovaline, α-methylglutamic acid, α-aminoisobutyric acid, α-aminodiethylacetic acid, α-aminodiisopropylacetic acid, α-aminodi-n-propylacetic acid, α-aminodiisobutylacetic acid, α-aminodi-n-butylacetic acid, α-aminoethylisopropylacetic acid, α-amino-n-propylacetic acid, α-aminodiisoamyacetic acid, α-methylaspartic acid, α-methylglutamic acid, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, isoleucine, alloisoleucine, tert-leucine, β-methyltryptophan and α-amino-β-ethyl-β-phenylpropionic acid; β-phenylserinyl; Aliphatic α-amino-β-hydroxy acids such as serine, β-hydroxyleucine, β-hydroxynorleucine, β-hydroxynorvaline, and α-amino-β-hydroxystearic acid; α-Amino, α-, γ-, δ- or ε-hydroxy acids such as homoserine, δ-hydroxynorvaline, γ-hydroxynorvaline and ε-hydroxynorleucine residues; canavine and canaline; γ-hydroxyornithine; 2-hexosaminic acids such as D-glucosaminic acid or D-galactosaminic acid; α-Amino-β-thiols such as penicillamine, β-thiolnorvaline or β-thiolbutyrine; Other sulfur containing amino acid residues including cysteine; homocystine, β-phenylmethionine, methionine, S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide, 2-thiolhistidine, cystathionine, and thiol ethers of cysteine or homocysteine; Phenylalanine, tryptophan and ring-substituted α-amino acids such as the phenyl- or cyclohexylamino acids α-aminophenylacetic acid, α-aminocyclohexylacetic acid and α-amino-β-cyclohexylpropionic acid; phenylalanine analogues and derivatives comprising aryl, lower alkyl, hydroxy, guanidino, oxyalkylether, nitro, sulfur or halo-substituted phenyl (e.g., tyrosine, methyltyrosine and o-chloro-, p-chloro-, 3,4-dichloro, o-, m- or p-methyl-, 2,4,6-trimethyl-, 2-ethoxy-5-nitro-, 2-hydroxy-5-nitro- and p-nitro-phenylalanine); furyl-, thienyl-, pyridyl-, pyrimidinyl-, purinyl- or naphthyl-alanines; and tryptophan analogues and derivatives including kynurenine, 3-hydroxykynurenine, 2-hydroxytryptophan and 4-carboxytryptophan; α-Amino substituted amino acids including sarcosine (N-methylglycine), N-benzylglycine, N-methylalanine, N-benzylalanine, N-methylphenylalanine, N-benzylphenylalanine, N-methylvaline and N-benzylvaline; and α-Hydroxy and substituted α-hydroxy amino acids including serine, threonine, allothreonine, phosphoserine and phosphothreonine. Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids in which a carboxyl group of one amino acid monomer is bonded to an amino or imino group of the next amino acid monomer by an amide bond. Polypeptides include dipeptides, low molecular weight polypeptides (about 1500-5000 MW) and proteins. Proteins optionally contain 3, 5, 10, 50, 75, 100 or more residues, and suitably are substantially sequence-homologous with human, animal, plant or microbial proteins. They include enzymes (e.g., hydrogen peroxidase) as well as immunogens such as KLH, or antibodies or proteins of any type against which one wishes to raise an immune response. The nature and identity of the polypeptide may vary widely. The polypeptide amidates are useful as immunogens in raising antibodies against either the polypeptide (if it is not immunogenic in the animal to which it is administered) or against the epitopes on the remainder of the compound of this invention. Antibodies capable of binding to the parental non-peptidyl compound are used to separate the parental compound from mixtures, for example in diagnosis or manufacturing of the parental compound. The conjugates of parental compound and polypeptide generally are more immunogenic than the polypeptides in closely homologous animals, and therefore make the polypeptide more immunogenic for facilitating raising antibodies against it. Accordingly, the polypeptide or protein may not need to be immunogenic in an animal typically used to raise antibodies, e.g., rabbit, mouse, horse, or rat, but the final product conjugate should be immunogenic in at least one of such animals. The polypeptide optionally contains a peptidolytic enzyme cleavage site at the peptide bond between the first and second residues adjacent to the acidic heteroatom. Such cleavage sites are flanked by enzymatic recognition structures, e.g., a particular sequence of residues recognized by a peptidolytic enzyme. Peptidolytic enzymes for cleaving the polypeptide conjugates of this invention are well known, and in particular include carboxypeptidases. Carboxypeptidases digest polypeptides by removing C-terminal residues, and are specific in many instances for particular C-terminal sequences. Such enzymes and their substrate requirements in general are well known. For example, a dipeptide (having a given pair of residues and a free carboxyl terminus) is covalently bonded through its α-amino group to the phosphorus or carbon atoms of the compounds herein. In embodiments where W1 is phosphonate it is expected that this peptide will be cleaved by the appropriate peptidolytic enzyme, leaving the carboxyl of the proximal amino acid residue to autocatalytically cleave the phosphonoamidate bond. Suitable dipeptidyl groups (designated by their single letter code) are AA, AR, AN, AD, AC, AE, AQ, AG, AH, AI, AL, AK, AM, AF, AP, AS, AT, AW, AY, AV, RA, RR, RN, RD, RC, RE, RQ, RG, RH, RI, RL, RK, RM, RF, RP, RS, RT, RW, RY, RV, NA, NR, NN, ND, NC, NE, NQ, NG, NH, NI, NL, NK, NM, NF, NP, NS, NT, NR, NY, NV, DA, DR, DN, DD, DC, DE, DQ, DG, DH, DI, DL, DK, DM, DF, DP, DS, DT, DW, DY, DV, CA, CR, CN, CD, CC, CE, CQ, CG, CH, Cl, CL, CK, CM, CF, CP, CS, CT, CW, CY, CV, EA, ER, EN, ED, EC, EE, EQ, EG, EH, EI, EL, EK, EM, EF, EP, ES, ET, EW, EY, EV, QA, QR, QN, QD, QC, QE, QQ, QG, QH, QI, QL, QK, QM, QF, QP, QS, QT, QW, QY, QV, GA, GR, GN, GD, OC, GE, GQ, GG, GH, GI, GL, GK, GM, GF, GP, GS, GT, GW, GY, GV, HA, HR, HN, HD, HC, HE, HQ, HG, HH, HI, HL, HK, HM, HF, HP, HS, HT, HW, HY, HV, IA, IR, IN, ID, IC, IE, IQ, IG, IH, II, IL, IK, IM, IF, IP, IS, IT, IW, IY, IV, LA, LR, LN, LD, LC, LE, LQ, LG, LH, LI, LL, LK, LM, LF, LP, LS, LT, LW, LY, LV, KA, KR, KN, KD, KC, KE, KQ, KG, KH, KI, KL, KK, KM, KF, KP, KS, KT, KW, KY, KV, MA, MR, MN, MD, MC, ME, MQ, MG, MH, MI, ML, MK, MM, MF, MP, MS, MT, MW, MY, MV, FA, FR, FN, FD, FC, FE, FQ, FG, FH, FI, FL, FK, FM, FF, FP, FS, FT, FW, FY, FV, PA, PR, PN, PD, PC, PE, PQ, PG, PH, PI, PL, PK, PM, PF, PP, PS, PT, PW, PY, PV, SA, SR, SN, SD, SC, SE, SQ, SG, SH, SI, SL, SK, SM, SF, SP, SS, ST, SW, SY, SV, TA, TR, TN, TD, TC, TE, TQ, TG, TH, TI, TL, TK, TM, TF, TP, TS, TT, TW, TY, TV, WA, WR, WN, WD, WC, WE, WQ, WG, WH, WI, WL, WK, WM, WF, WP, WS, WT, WW, WY, WV, YA, YR, YN, YD, YC, YE, YQ, YG, YH, YI, YL, YK, YM, YF, YP, YS, YT, YW, YY, YV, VA, VR, VN, VD, VC, VE, VQ, VG, VH, VI, VL, VK, VM, VF, VP, VS, VT, VW, VY and VV. Tripeptide residues are also useful as protecting groups. When a phosphonate is to be protected, the sequence —X4-pro-X5 (where X4 is any amino acid residue and X5 is an amino acid residue, a carboxyl ester of proline, or hydrogen) will be cleaved by luminal carboxypeptidase to yield X4 with a free carboxyl, which in turn is expected to autocatalytically cleave the phosphonoamidate bond. The carboxy group of X5 optionally is esterified with benzyl. Dipeptide or tripeptide species can be selected on the basis of known transport properties and/or susceptibility to peptidases that can affect transport to intestinal mucosal or other cell types. Dipeptides and tripeptides lacking an α-amino group are transport substrates for the peptide transporter found in brush border membrane of intestinal mucosal cells (Bai, J. P. F., (1992) Pharm Res. 9:969-978). Transport competent peptides can thus be used to enhance bioavailability of the amidate compounds. Di- or tripeptides having one or more amino acids in the D configuration are also compatible with peptide transport and can be utilized in the amidate compounds of this invention. Amino acids in the D configuration can be used to reduce the susceptibility of a di- or tripeptide to hydrolysis by proteases common to the brush border such as aminopeptidase N. In addition, di- or tripeptides alternatively are selected on the basis of their relative resistance to hydrolysis by proteases found in the lumen of the intestine. For example, tripeptides or polypeptides lacking asp and/or glu are poor substrates for aminopeptidase A, di- or tripeptides lacking amino acid residues on the N-terminal side of hydrophobic amino acids (leu, tyr, phe, val, trp) are poor substrates for endopeptidase, and peptides lacking a pro residue at the penultimate position at a free carboxyl terminus are poor substrates for carboxypeptidase P. Similar considerations can also be applied to the selection of peptides that are either relatively resistant or relatively susceptible to hydrolysis by cytosolic, renal, hepatic, serum or other peptidases. Such poorly cleaved polypeptide amidates are immunogens or are useful for bonding to proteins in order to prepare immunogens. SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Specific values described for radicals, substituents, and ranges, as well as specific embodiments of the invention described herein, are for illustration only; they do not exclude other defined values or other values within defined ranges. In one specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: and W5a is a carbocycle or a heterocycle where W5a is independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups. A specific value for M12a is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups; In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups; In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5a is independently substituted with 0 or 1 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A1 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 0, Y2 is a bond and W5 is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5 is optionally and independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: wherein W5a is a carbocycle or heterocycle where W5a is optionally and independently substituted with 1,-2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12a is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is selected from phenyl, substituted phenyl, benzyl, substituted benzyl, pyridyl and substituted pyridyl. In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A2 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention M12b is 1. In a specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(Rx) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention M12d is 1. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention W5 is a carbocycle. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention W5 is phenyl. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(Rx) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention R1 is H. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(R2) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); Y2d is O or N(Ry); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2a is O, N(R2) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c O, N(Ry) or S. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); Y2d is O or N(Ry); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein Y2b is O or N(R2). In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(Rx); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. In another specific embodiment of the invention A3 is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention A0 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently (C1-C6)alkyl. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is independently H, R1, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 is independently H, R1, R3 or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; wherein R3 is as defined herein. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: wherein Y1a is O or S; and Y2c is O, N(Ry) or S. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: wherein Y1a is Q or S; and Y2d is O or N(Ry). In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Ry is hydrogen or alkyl of 1 to 10 carbons. In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Rx is of the formula: In a specific embodiment of the invention Y1 is O or S In a specific embodiment of the invention Y2 is O, N(Ry) or S. In one specific embodiment of the invention Rx is a group of the formula: wherein: m1a, m1b, m1c, m1d and m1e are independently 0 or 1; m12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; Ry is H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; wherein W3, R2, Y1 and Y2 are as defined herein; provided that: if m1a, m12c, and m1d are 0, then m1b, m1c and m1e are 0; if m1a and m12c are 0 and m1d is not 0, then m1b and m1c are 0; if m1a and m1d are 0 and m12c is not 0, then m1b and at least one of m1c and m1e are 0; if m1a is 0 and m12c and m1d are not 0, then m1b is 0; if m12c and m1d are 0 and m1a is not 0, then at least two of m1b, m1c and m1e are 0; if m12c is 0 and m1a and m1d are not 0, then at least one of m1b and m1c are 0; and if m1d is 0 and m1a and m12c are not 0, then at least one of m1c and m1e are 0. In compounds of the invention W5 carbocycles and W5 heterocycles may be independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups. W5 may be a saturated, unsaturated or aromatic ring comprising a mono- or bicyclic carbocycle or heterocycle. W5 may have 3 to 10 ring atoms, e.g., 3 to 7 ring atoms. The W5 rings are saturated when containing 3 ring atoms, saturated or mono-unsaturated when containing 4 ring atoms, saturated, or mono- or di-unsaturated when containing 5 ring atoms, and saturated, mono- or di-unsaturated, or aromatic when containing 6 ring atoms. A W5 heterocycle may be a monocycle having 3 to 7 ring members (2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 to 3 heteroatoms selected from N, O, P, and S) or a bicycle having 7 to 10 ring members (4 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 3 heteroatoms selected from N, O, P, and S). W5 heterocyclic monocycles may have 3 to 6 ring atoms (2 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S); or 5 or 6 ring atoms (3 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N and S). W5 heterocyclic bicycles have 7 to 10 ring atoms (6 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S) arranged as a bicyclo [4,5], [5,5], [5,6], or [6,6] system; or 9 to 10 ring atoms (8 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 to 2 hetero atoms selected from N and S) arranged as a bicyclo [5,6] or [6,6] system. The W5 heterocycle may be bonded to Y2 through a carbon, nitrogen, sulfur or other atom by a stable covalent bond. W5 heterocycles include for example, pyridyl, dihydropyridyl isomers, piperidine, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, s-triazinyl, oxazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrazolyl, isothiazolyl, furanyl, thiofuranyl, thienyl, and pyrrolyl. W5 also includes, but is not limited to, examples such as: W5 carbocycles and heterocycles may be independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups, as defined above. For example, substituted W5 carbocycles include: Examples of substituted phenyl carbocycles include: Linking Groups and Linkers The invention provides conjugates that comprise an HIV inhibiting compound that is optionally linked to one or more phosphonate groups either directly (e.g. through a covalent bond) or through a linking group (i.e. a linker). The nature of the linker is not critical provided it does not interfere with the ability of the phosphonate containing compound to function as a therapeutic agent. The phosphonate or the linker can be linked to the compound (e.g. a compound of formula A) at any synthetically feasible position on the compound by removing a hydrogen or any portion of the compound to provide an open valence for attachment of the phosphonate or the linker. In one embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker (which can be designated “L”) can include all or a portions of the group A0, A1, A2, or W3 described herein. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker has a molecular weight of from about 20 daltons to about 400 daltons. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker has a length of about 5 angstroms to about 300 angstroms. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker separates the DRUG and a P(═Y1) residue by about 5 angstroms to about 200 angstroms, inclusive, in length. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent, branched or unbranched, saturated or unsaturated, hydrocarbon chain, having from 2 to 25 carbon atoms, wherein one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) of the carbon atoms is optionally replaced by (—O—), and wherein the chain is optionally substituted on carbon with one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) substituents selected from (C1-C6)alkoxy, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C1-C6)alkanoyl, (C1-C6)alkanoyloxy, (C1-C6)alkoxycarbonyl, (C1-C6)alkylthio, azido, cyano, nitro, halo, hydroxy, oxo (═O), carboxy, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, and heteroaryloxy. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is of the formula W-A wherein A is (C1-C24)alkyl, (C2-C24)alkenyl, (C2-C24)alkynyl, (C3-C8)cycloalkyl, (C6-C10)aryl or a combination thereof, wherein W is —N(R)C(═O)—, —C(═O)N(R)—, —OC(═O)—, —C(═O)O—, —O—, —S—, —S(O)—, —S(O)2—, —N(R)—, —C(═O)—, or a direct bond; wherein each R is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from a peptide. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from an amino acid. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is a divalent radical formed from poly-L-glutamic acid, poly-L-aspartic acid, poly-L-histidine, poly-L-ornithine, poly-L-serine, poly-L-threonine, poly-L-tyrosine, poly-L-leucine, poly-L-lysine-L-phenylalanine, poly-L-lysine or poly-L-lysine-L-tyrosine. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is of the formula W—(CH2)n wherein, n is between about 1 and about 10; and W is —N(R)C(═O)—, —C(═O)N(R)—, —OC(═O)—, —C(═O)O—, —O—, —S—, —S(O)—, —S(O)2—, —C(═O)—, —N(R)—, or a direct bond; wherein each R is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is methylene, ethylene, or propylene. In another embodiment of the invention the linking group or linker is attached to the phosphonate group through a carbon atom of the linker. Intracellular Targeting The optionally incorporated phosphonate group of the compounds of the invention may cleave in vivo in stages after they have reached the desired site of action, i.e. inside a cell. One mechanism of action inside a cell may entail a first cleavage, e.g. by esterase, to provide a negatively-charged “locked-in” intermediate. Cleavage of a terminal ester grouping in a compound of the invention thus affords an unstable intermediate which releases a negatively charged “locked in” intermediate. After passage inside a cell, intracellular enzymatic cleavage or modification of the phosphonate or prodrug compound may result in an intracellular accumulation of the cleaved or modified compound by a “trapping” mechanism. The cleaved or modified compound may then be “locked-in” the cell by a significant change in charge, polarity, or other physical property change which decreases the rate at which the cleaved or modified compound can exit the cell, relative to the rate at which it entered as the phosphonate prodrug. Other mechanisms by which a therapeutic effect are achieved may be operative as well. Enzymes which are capable of an enzymatic activation mechanism with the phosphonate prodrug compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to, amidases, esterases, microbial enzymes, phospholipases, cholinesterases, and phosphatases. From the foregoing, it will be apparent that many different drugs can be derivatized in accord with the present invention. Numerous such drugs are specifically mentioned herein. However, it should be understood that the discussion of drug families and their specific members for derivatization according to this invention is not intended to be exhaustive, but merely illustrative. HIV-Inhibitory Compounds The compounds of the invention include those with HIV-inhibitory activity. The compounds of the inventions optionally bear one or more (e.g. 1, 2, 3, or 4) phosphonate groups, which may be a prodrug moiety. The term “HIV-inhibitory compound” includes those compounds that inhibit HIV. Typically, compounds of the invention have a molecular weight of from about 400 amu to about 10,000 amu; in a specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 5000 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 2500 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 1000 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 800 amu; in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 600 amu; and in another specific embodiment of the invention, compounds have a molecular weight of less than about 600 amu and a molecular weight of greater than about 400 amu. The compounds of the invention also typically have a logD(polarity) less than about 5. In one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD less than about 4; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD less than about 3; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about −5; in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about −3; and in another one embodiment the invention provides compounds having a logD greater than about 0 and less than about 3. Selected substituents within the compounds of the invention are present to a recursive degree. In this context, “recursive substituent” means that a substituent may recite another instance of itself. Because of the recursive nature of such substituents, theoretically, a large number may be present in any given embodiment. For example, Rx contains a Ry substituent. Ry can be R2, which in turn can be R3. If R3 is selected to be R3c, then a second instance of Rx can be selected. One of ordinary skill in the art of medicinal chemistry understands that the total number of such substituents is reasonably limited by the desired properties of the compound intended. Such properties include, by of example and not limitation, physical properties such as molecular weight, solubility or log P, application properties such as activity against the intended target, and practical properties such as ease of synthesis. By way of example and not limitation, W3, R1 and R3 are all recursive substituents in certain embodiments. Typically, each of these may independently occur 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0, times in a given embodiment. More typically, each of these may independently occur 12 or fewer times in a given embodiment. More typically yet, W3 will occur 0 to 8 times, Ry will occur 0 to 6 times and R3 will occur 0 to 10 times in a given embodiment. Even more typically, W3 will occur 0 to 6 times, Ry will occur 0 to 4 times and R3 will occur 0 to 8 times in a given embodiment. Recursive substituents are an intended aspect of the invention. One of ordinary skill in the art of medicinal chemistry understands the versatility of such substituents. To the degree that recursive substituents are present in an embodiment of the invention, the total number will be determined as set forth above. Whenever a compound described herein is substituted with more than one of the same designated group, e.g., “R1” or “R6a”, then it will be understood that the groups may be the same or different, i.e., each group is independently selected. Wavy lines indicate the site of covalent bond attachments to the adjoining groups, moieties, or atoms. In one embodiment of the invention, the compound is in an isolated and purified form. Generally, the term “isolated and purified” means that the compound is substantially free from biological materials (e.g. blood, tissue, cells, etc.). In one specific embodiment of the invention, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 50 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 75 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 90 wt. % free from biological materials; in another specific embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 98 wt. % free from biological materials; and in another embodiment, the term means that the compound or conjugate of the invention is at least about 99 wt. % free from biological materials. In another specific embodiment, the invention provides a compound or conjugate of the invention that has been synthetically prepared (e.g., ex vivo). Cellular Accumulation In one embodiment, the invention is provides compounds capable of accumulating in human PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells). PBMC refer to blood cells having round lymphocytes and monocytes. Physiologically, PBMC are critical components of the mechanism against infection. PBMC may be isolated from heparinized whole blood of normal healthy donors or buffy coats, by standard density gradient centrifugation and harvested from the interface, washed (e.g. phosphate-buffered saline) and stored in freezing medium. PBMC may be cultured in multi-well plates. At various times of culture, supernatant may be either removed for assessment, or cells may be harvested and analyzed (Smith R. et al (2003) Blood 102(7):2532-2540). The compounds of this embodiment may further comprise a phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. More typically, the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug can have the structure A3 as described herein. Typically, compounds of the invention demonstrate improved intracellular half-life of the compounds or intracellular metabolites of the compounds in human PBMC when compared to analogs of the compounds not having the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. Typically, the half-life is improved by at least about 50%, more typically at least in the range 50-100%, still more typically at least about 100%, more typically yet greater than about 100%. In one embodiment of the invention the intracellular half-life of a metabolite of the compound in human PBMCs is improved when compared to an analog of the compound not having the phosphonate or phosphonate prodrug. In such embodiments, the metabolite may be generated intracellularly, e.g. generated within human PBMC. The metabolite may be a product of the cleavage of a phosphonate prodrug within human PBMCs. The optionally phosphonate-containing phosphonate prodrug may be cleaved to form a metabolite having at least one negative charge at physiological pH. The phosphonate prodrug may be enzymatically cleaved within human PBMC to form a phosphonate having at least one active hydrogen atom of the form P—OH. Stereoisomers The compounds of the invention may have chiral centers, e.g., chiral carbon or phosphorus atoms. The compounds of the invention thus include racemic mixtures of all stereoisomers, including enantiomers, diastereomers, and atropisomers. In addition, the compounds of the invention include enriched or resolved optical isomers at any or all asymmetric, chiral atoms. In other words, the chiral centers apparent from the depictions are provided as the chiral isomers or racemic mixtures. Both racemic and diastereomeric mixtures, as well as the individual optical isomers isolated or synthesized, substantially free of their enantiomeric or diastereomeric partners, are all within the scope of the invention. The racemic mixtures are separated into their individual, substantially optically pure isomers through well-known techniques such as, for example, the separation of diastereomeric salts formed with optically active adjuncts, e.g., acids or bases followed by conversion back to the optically active substances. In most instances, the desired optical isomer is synthesized by means of stereospecific reactions, beginning with the appropriate stereoisomer of the desired starting material. The compounds of the invention can also exist as tautomeric isomers in certain cases. All though only one delocalized resonance structure may be depicted, all such forms are contemplated within the scope of the invention. For example, ene-amine tautomers can exist for purine, pyrimidine, imidazole, guanidine, amidine, and tetrazole systems and all their possible tautomeric forms are within the scope of the invention. Salts and Hydrates The compositions of this invention optionally comprise salts of the compounds herein, especially pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic salts containing, for example, Na+, Li+, K+, Ca+2 and Mg+2. Such salts may include those derived by combination of appropriate cations such as alkali and alkaline earth metal ions or ammonium and quaternary amino ions with an acid anion moiety, typically a carboxylic acid. Monovalent salts are preferred if a water soluble salt is desired. Metal salts typically are prepared by reacting the metal hydroxide with a compound of this invention. Examples of metal salts which are prepared in this way are salts containing Li+, Na+, and K+. A less soluble metal salt can be precipitated from the solution of a more soluble salt by addition of the suitable metal compound. In addition, salts may be formed from acid addition of certain organic and inorganic acids, e.g., HCl, HBr, H2SO4, H3PO4 or organic sulfonic acids, to basic centers, typically amines, or to acidic groups. Finally, it is to be understood that the compositions herein comprise compounds of the invention in their un-ionized, as well as zwitterionic form, and combinations with stoichiometric amounts of water as in hydrates. Also included within the scope of this invention are the salts of the parental compounds with one or more amino acids. Any of the amino acids described above are suitable, especially the naturally-occurring amino acids found as protein components, although the amino acid typically is one bearing a side chain with a basic or acidic group, e.g., lysine, arginine or glutamic acid, or a neutral group such as glycine, serine, threonine, alanine, isoleucine, or leucine. Methods of Inhibition of HIV Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of inhibiting the activity of HIV comprising the step of treating a sample suspected of containing HIV with a composition of the invention. Compositions of the invention may act as inhibitors of HIV, as intermediates for such inhibitors or have other utilities as described below. The inhibitors will generally bind to locations on the surface or in a cavity of the liver. Compositions binding in the liver may bind with varying degrees of reversibility. Those compounds binding substantially irreversibly are ideal candidates for use in this method of the invention. Once labeled, the substantially irreversibly binding compositions are useful as probes for the detection of HIV. Accordingly, the invention relates to methods of detecting NS3 in a sample suspected of containing HIV comprising the steps of: treating a sample suspected of containing HIV with a composition comprising a compound of the invention bound to a label; and observing the effect of the sample on the activity of the label. Suitable labels are well known in the diagnostics field and include stable free radicals, fluorophores, radioisotopes, enzymes, chemiluminescent groups and chromogens. The compounds herein are labeled in conventional fashion using functional groups such as hydroxyl or amino. Within the context of the invention samples suspected of containing HIV include natural or man-made materials such as living organisms; tissue or cell cultures; biological samples such as biological material samples (blood, serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, tears, sputum, saliva, tissue samples, and the like); laboratory samples; food, water, or air samples; bioproduct samples such as extracts of cells, particularly recombinant cells synthesizing a desired glycoprotein; and the like. Typically the sample will be suspected of containing HIV. Samples can be contained in any medium including water and organic solvent/water mixtures. Samples include living organisms such as humans, and man made materials such as cell cultures. The treating step of the invention comprises adding the composition of the invention to the sample or it comprises adding a precursor of the composition to the sample. The addition step comprises any method of administration as described above. If desired, the activity of HIV after application of the composition can be observed by any method including direct and indirect methods of detecting HIV activity. Quantitative, qualitative, and semiquantitative methods of determining HIV activity are all contemplated. Typically one of the screening methods described above are applied, however, any other method such as observation of the physiological properties of a living organism are also applicable. Many organisms contain HIV. The compounds of this invention are useful in the treatment or prophylaxis of conditions associated with HIV activation in animals or in man. However, in screening compounds capable of inhibiting HIV it should be kept in mind that the results of enzyme assays may not correlate with cell culture assays. Thus, a cell based assay should be the primary screening tool. Screens for HIV Inhibitors Compositions of the invention are screened for inhibitory activity against HIV by any of the conventional techniques for evaluating enzyme activity. Within the context of the invention, typically compositions are first screened for inhibition of HIV in vitro and compositions showing inhibitory activity are then screened for activity in vivo. Compositions having in vitro Ki (inhibitory constants) of less then about 5×10−6 M, typically less than about 1×10−7 M and preferably less than about 5×10−8 M are preferred for in vivo use. Useful in vitro screens have been described in detail. Pharmaceutical Formulations The compounds of this invention are formulated with conventional carriers and excipients, which will be selected in accord with ordinary practice. Tablets will contain excipients, glidants, fillers, binders and the like. Aqueous formulations are prepared in sterile form, and when intended for delivery by other than oral administration generally will be isotonic. All formulations will optionally contain excipients such as those set forth in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (1986). Excipients include ascorbic acid and other antioxidants, chelating agents such as EDTA, carbohydrates such as dextrin, hydroxyalkylcellulose, hydroxyalkylmethylcellulose, stearic acid and the like. The pH of the formulations ranges from about 3 to about 11, but is ordinarily about 7 to 10. While it is possible for the active ingredients to be administered alone it may be preferable to present them as pharmaceutical formulations. The formulations, both for veterinary and for human use, of the invention comprise at least one active ingredient, as above defined, together with one or more acceptable carriers therefor and optionally other therapeutic ingredients. The carrier(s) must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and physiologically innocuous to the recipient thereof. The formulations include those suitable for the foregoing administration routes. The formulations may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Techniques and formulations generally are found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.). Such methods include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product. Formulations of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient; as a powder or granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. The active ingredient may also be administered as a bolus, electuary or paste. A tablet is made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered active ingredient moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets may optionally be coated or scored and optionally are formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therefrom. For administration to the eye or other external tissues e.g., mouth and skin, the formulations are preferably applied as a topical ointment or cream containing the active ingredient(s) in an amount of, for example, 0.075 to 20% w/w (including active ingredient(s) in a range between 0.1% and 20% in increments of 0.1% w/w such as 0.6% w/w, 0.7% w/w, etc.), preferably 0.2 to 15% w/w and most preferably 0.5 to 10% w/w. When formulated in an ointment, the active ingredients may be employed with either a paraffinic or a water-miscible ointment base. Alternatively, the active ingredients may be formulated in a cream with an oil-in-water cream base. If desired, the aqueous phase of the cream base may include, for example, at least 30% w/w of a polyhydric alcohol, i.e. an alcohol having two or more hydroxyl groups such as propylene glycol, butane 1,3-diol, mannitol, sorbitol, glycerol and polyethylene glycol (including PEG 400) and mixtures thereof. The topical formulations may desirably include a compound which enhances absorption or penetration of the active ingredient through the skin or other affected areas. Examples of such dermal penetration enhancers include dimethyl sulphoxide and related analogs. The oily phase of the emulsions of this invention may be constituted from known ingredients in a known manner. While the phase may comprise merely an emulsifier (otherwise known as an emulgent), it desirably comprises a mixture of at least one emulsifier with a fat or an oil or with both a fat and an oil. Preferably, a hydrophilic emulsifier is included together with a lipophilic emulsifier which acts as a stabilizer. It is also preferred to include both an oil and a fat. Together, the emulsifier(s) with or without stabilizer(s) make up the so-called emulsifying wax, and the wax together with the oil and fat make up the so-called emulsifying ointment base which forms the oily dispersed phase of the cream formulations. Emulgents and emulsion stabilizers suitable for use in the formulation of the invention include Tween® 60, Span® 80, cetostearyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, myristyl alcohol, glyceryl mono-stearate and sodium lauryl sulfate. The choice of suitable oils or fats for the formulation is based on achieving the desired cosmetic properties. The cream should preferably be a non-greasy, non-staining and washable product with suitable consistency to avoid leakage from tubes or other containers. Straight or branched chain, mono- or dibasic alkyl esters such as di-isoadipate, isocetyl stearate, propylene glycol diester of coconut fatty acids, isopropyl myristate, decyl oleate, isopropyl palmitate, butyl stearate, 2-ethylhexyl palmitate or a blend of branched chain esters known as Crodamol CAP may be used, the last three being preferred esters. These may be used alone or in combination depending on the properties required. Alternatively, high melting point lipids such as white soft paraffin and/or liquid paraffin or other mineral oils are used. Pharmaceutical formulations according to the present invention comprise one or more compounds of the invention together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients and optionally other therapeutic agents. Pharmaceutical formulations containing the active ingredient may be in any form suitable for the intended method of administration. When used for oral use for example, tablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oil suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, syrups or elixirs may be prepared. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents including sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents, in order to provide a palatable preparation. Tablets containing the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipient which are suitable for manufacture of tablets are acceptable. These excipients may be, for example, inert diluents, such as calcium or sodium carbonate, lactose, lactose monohydrate, croscarmellose sodium, povidone, calcium or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, such as maize starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, such as cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, starch, gelatin or acacia; and lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. Tablets may be uncoated or may be coated by known techniques including microencapsulation to delay disintegration and adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate alone or with a wax may be employed. Formulations for oral use may be also presented as hard gelatin capsules where the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with water or an oil medium, such as peanut oil, liquid paraffin or olive oil. Aqueous suspensions of the invention contain the active materials in admixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueous suspensions. Such excipients include a suspending agent, such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcelluose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth and gum acacia, and dispersing or wetting agents such as a naturally occurring phosphatide (e.g., lecithin), a condensation product of an alkylene oxide with a fatty acid (e.g., polyoxyethylene stearate), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a long chain aliphatic alcohol (e.g., heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a partial ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol anhydride (e.g., polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate). The aqueous suspension may also contain one or more preservatives such as ethyl or n-propyl p-hydroxy-benzoate, one or more coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents and one or more sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharin. Oil suspensions may be formulated by suspending the active ingredient in a vegetable oil, such as arachis oil, olive oil, sesame oil or coconut oil, or in a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin. The oral suspensions may contain a thickening agent, such as beeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol. Sweetening agents, such as those set forth above, and flavoring agents may be added to provide a palatable oral preparation. These compositions may be preserved by the addition of an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid. Dispersible powders and granules of the invention suitable for preparation of an aqueous suspension by the addition of water provide the active ingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending agent, and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents are exemplified by those disclosed above. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring and coloring agents, may also be present. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be in the form of oil-in-water emulsions. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil, such as olive oil or arachis oil, a mineral oil, such as liquid paraffin, or a mixture of these. Suitable emulsifying agents include naturally-occurring gums, such as gum acacia and gum tragacanth, naturally occurring phosphatides, such as soybean lecithin, esters or partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, such as sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of these partial esters with ethylene oxide, such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The emulsion may also contain sweetening and flavoring agents. Syrups and elixirs may be formulated with sweetening agents, such as glycerol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations may also contain a demulcent, a preservative, a flavoring or a coloring agent. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be in the form of a sterile injectable preparation, such as a sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to the known art using those suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents which have been mentioned above. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, such as a solution in 1,3-butane-diol or prepared as a lyophilized powder. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile fixed oils may conventionally be employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid may likewise be used in the preparation of injectables. The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier material to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. For example, a time-release formulation intended for oral administration to humans may contain approximately 1 to 1000 mg of active material compounded with an appropriate and convenient amount of carrier material which may vary from about 5 to about 95% of the total compositions (weight:weight). The pharmaceutical composition can be prepared to provide easily measurable amounts for administration. For example, an aqueous solution intended for intravenous infusion may contain from about 3 to 500 μg of the active ingredient per milliliter of solution in order that infusion of a suitable volume at a rate of about 30 mL/hr can occur. Formulations suitable for administration to the eye include eye drops wherein the active ingredient is dissolved or suspended in a suitable carrier, especially an aqueous solvent for the active ingredient. The active ingredient is preferably present in such formulations in a concentration of 0.5 to 20%, advantageously 0.5 to 10% particularly about 1.5% w/w. Formulations suitable for topical administration in the mouth include lozenges comprising the active ingredient in a flavored basis, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth; pastilles comprising the active ingredient in an inert basis such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia; and mouthwashes comprising the active ingredient in a suitable liquid carrier. Formulations for rectal administration may be presented as a suppository with a suitable base comprising for example cocoa butter or a salicylate. Formulations suitable for intrapulmonary or nasal administration have a particle size for example in the range of 0.1 to 500 microns (including particle sizes in a range between 0.1 and 500 microns in increments microns such as 0.5, 1, 30 microns, 35 microns, etc.), which is administered by rapid inhalation through the nasal passage or by inhalation through the mouth so as to reach the alveolar sacs. Suitable formulations include aqueous or oily solutions of the active ingredient. Formulations suitable for aerosol or dry powder administration may be prepared according to conventional methods and may be delivered with other therapeutic agents such as compounds heretofore used in the treatment or prophylaxis of conditions associated with HIV activity. Formulations suitable for vaginal administration may be presented as pessaries, tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams or spray formulations containing in addition to the active ingredient such carriers as are known in the art to be appropriate. Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous sterile injection solutions which may contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspending agents and thickening agents. The formulations are presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed ampoules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example water for injection, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions are prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets of the kind previously described. Preferred unit dosage formulations are those containing a daily dose or unit daily sub-dose, as herein above recited, or an appropriate fraction thereof, of the active ingredient. It should be understood that in addition to the ingredients particularly mentioned above the formulations of this invention may include other agents conventional in the art having regard to the type of formulation in question, for example those suitable for oral administration may include flavoring agents. The invention further provides veterinary compositions comprising at least one active ingredient as above defined together with a veterinary carrier therefor. Veterinary carriers are materials useful for the purpose of administering the composition and may be solid, liquid or gaseous materials which are otherwise inert or acceptable in the veterinary art and are compatible with the active ingredient. These veterinary compositions may be administered orally, parenterally or by any other desired route. Compounds of the invention can also be formulated to provide controlled release of the active ingredient to allow less frequent dosing or to improve the pharmacokinetic or toxicity profile of the active ingredient. Accordingly, the invention also provided compositions comprising one or more compounds of the invention formulated for sustained or controlled release. Effective dose of active ingredient depends at least on the nature of the condition being treated, toxicity, whether the compound is being used prophylactically (lower doses), the method of delivery, and the pharmaceutical formulation, and will be determined by the clinician using conventional dose escalation studies. It can be expected to be from about 0.0001 to about 100 mg/kg body weight per day. Typically, from about 0.01 to about 10 mg/kg body weight per day. More typically, from about 0.01 to about 5 mg/kg body weight per day. More typically, from about 0.05 to about 0.5 mg/kg body weight per day. For example, the daily candidate dose for an adult human of approximately 70 kg body weight will range from 1 mg to 1000 mg, preferably between 5 mg and 500 mg, and may take the form of single or multiple doses. Routes of Administration One or more compounds of the invention (herein referred to as the active ingredients) are administered by any route appropriate to the condition to be treated. Suitable routes include oral, rectal, nasal, topical (including buccal and sublingual), vaginal and parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intradermal, intrathecal and epidural), and the like. It will be appreciated that the preferred route may vary with for example the condition of the recipient. An advantage of the compounds of this invention is that they are orally bioavailable and can be dosed orally. Combination Therapy The compounds of the invention may be employed in combination with other therapeutic agents for the treatment or prophylaxis of the infections or conditions indicated above. Examples of such further therapeutic agents include agents that are effective for the treatment or prophylaxis of viral, parasitic or bacterial infections or associated conditions or for treatment of tumors or related conditions include 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine (zidovudine, AZT), 2′-deoxy-3′-thiacytidine (3TC), 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydroadenosine (D4A), 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydrothymidine (D4T), carbovir (carbocyclic 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydroguanosine) 3′-azido-2′,3′-dideoxyuridine, 5-fluorothymidine, (E)-5-(2-bromovinyl)-2′-deoxyuridine (BVDU), 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine, 2-deoxycoformycin, 5-fluorouracil, 5-fluorouridine, 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine, 5-trifluoromethyl-2′-deoxyuridine, 6-azauridine, 5-fluoroorotic acid, methotrexate, triacetyluridine, 1-(2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro-1-β-arabinosyl)-5-iodocytidine (FIAC), tetrahydro-imidazo(4,5,1-jk)-(1,4)-benzodiazepin-2(1H)-thione (TIBO), 2′-nor-cyclicGMP, 6-methoxypurine arabinoside (ara-M), 6-methoxypurine arabinoside 2′-O-valerate, cytosine arabinoside (ara-C), 2′,3′-dideoxynucleosides such as 2′,3′-dideoxycytidine (ddC), 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine (ddA) and 2′,3′-dideoxyinosine (ddI), acyclic nucleosides such as acyclovir, penciclovir, famciclovir, ganciclovir, HPMPC, PMEA, PMEG, PMPA, PMPDAP, FPMPA, HPMPA, HPMPDAP, (2R,5R)-9->tetrahydro-5-(phosphonomethoxy)-2-furanyladenine, (2R,5R)-1->tetrahydro-5-(phosphonomethoxy)-2-furanylthymine, other antivirals including ribavirin (adenine arabinoside), 2-thio-6-azauridine, tubercidin, aurintricarboxylic acid, 3-deazaneoplanocin, neoplanocin, rimantidine, adamantine, and foscamet (trisodium phosphonoformate), antibacterial agents including bactericidal fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin and the like), aminoglycoside bactericidal antibiotics (streptomycin, gentarnicin, amicacin and the like) β-lactamase inhibitors (cephalosporins, penicillins and the like), other antibacterials including tetracycline, isoniazid, rifampin, cefoperazone, claithromycin and azithromycin, antiparasite or antifungal agents including pentamidine (1,5-bis(4′-aminophenoxy)pentane), 9-deaza-inosine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfadiazine, quinapyramine, quinine, fluconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, Amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine, clotrimazole, hexadecylphosphocholine and nystatin, renal excretion inhibitors such as probenicid, nucleoside transport inhibitors such as dipyridamole, dilazep and nitrobenzylthioinosine, immunomodulators such as FK506, cyclosporin A, thymosin α-1, cytokines including TNF and TGF-β, interferons including IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ, interleukins including various interleukins, macrophage/granulocyte colony stimulating factors including GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, cytokine antagonists including anti-TNF antibodies, anti-interleukin antibodies, soluble interleukin receptors, protein kinase C inhibitors and the like. In addition, the therapeutic agents disclosed in Tables 98 and 99 directed to HIV may be used in combination with compounds of the present invention. For example, Table 98 discloses exemplary HIV/AIDS therapeutics, and Table 99 discloses Exemplary HIV Antivirals with their corresponding U.S. patent numbers. TABLE 98 Exemplary HIV/AIDS Therapeutics Code Generic Brand Therapeutic Mechanism of Action Highest Phase Name Name Name Group Group Organization Launched- AZT Azidothymidine AZTEC Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1987 BW-A509U Zidovudine Retrovir Transcriptase (Originator) Cpd S Inhibitors Launched- NSC- Dideoxycytidine Hivid Anti-HIV Agents Reverse National Cancer 1992 606170 Transcriptase Institute (US) Inhibitors (Originator) Ro-24- Zalcitabine Roche 2027/000 Ro-242027 ddC ddCyd Launched- BMY-27857 Sanilvudine Zerit Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers 1994 Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DTH Stavudine Chemical INSERM Delivery (Originator) Systems d4T ddeThd Launched- BMY-40900 Didanosine Videx Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers 1991 Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DDI Dideoxyinosine Bristol-Myers Squibb (Orphan Drug) NSC- 612049 d2I ddIno Launched- rIL-2 Aldesleukin Macrolin Anti-HIV Agents IL-2 Chiron 1989 (Originator) rhIL-2 Recombinant Proleukin Breast Cancer Nat. Inst. Allergy interleukin-2 Therapy & Infectious Dis. Immunostimulants Leukemia Therapy Melanoma Therapy Myelodysplastic Syndrome Therapy Myeloid Leukemia Therapy Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Launched- R-56 Saquinavir Fortovase Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Chugai 1995 mesilate Inhibitors Pharmaceutical (Originator) Ro-31- Invirase Chugai 8959/003 Pharmaceutical (Orphan Drug) Fortovase Roche (soft gel (Originator) capsules) Launched- Human Alferon Anti- Guangdong 1989 leukocyte LDO Cytomegalovirus interferon alpha Drugs Interferon alfa-n3 Alferon N Anti-HIV Agents HemispheRx (human Gel leukocyte derived) Alferon N Anti-Hepatitis C Interferon Injection Virus Drugs Sciences (Originator) Altemol Anti-Papilloma Virus Drugs Cellferon Antiviral Drugs Genital Warts, Treatment for Multiple Sclerosis, Agents for Oncolytic Drugs Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Treatment of Treatment of Female Sexual Dysfunction Launched- BI-RG-587 Nevirapine Viramune Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Boehringer 1996 Transcriptase Ingelheim Inhibitors (Originator) BIRG-0587 Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim Roxane Launched- 1592U89 Abacavir Ziagen Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1999 sulfate sulfate Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GlaxoSmithKline (Orphan Drug) Phase I/II CD4-IgG CD4- AIDS Medicines Genentech Immunoadhesin (Originator) rCD4-IgG Recombinant Immunomodulators Nat. Inst. Allergy CD4- & Infectious Dis. immunoglobulin G Recombinant soluble CD4- immunoglobulin G Launched- (−)-BCH-189 Lamivudine 3TC Agents for Liver Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1995 Cirrhosis Transcriptase (−)-SddC Epivir Anti-HIV Agents Inhibitors Shire BioChem (Originator) 3TC Epivir- Anti-Hepatitis B HBV Virus Drugs GG-714 Heptodin GR- Heptovir 109714X BCH-790 Lamivir (fomer code) Zeffix Zefix Phase II KNI-272 Kynostatin-272 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Japan Energy Inhibitors (Originator) NSC- 651714 Launched- (−)-FTC Emtricitabine Coviracil Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Emory University 2003 Transcriptase (Originator) 524W91 Emtriva Anti-Hepatitis B Inhibitors Gilead Virus Drugs BW- Japan Tobacco 524W91 Launched- U-90152S Delavirdine Rescriptor Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Agouron 1997 mesilate Transcriptase Pfizer Inhibitors (Originator) Pfizer (Orphan Drug) Pre-Registered AG-1661 HIV-1 Remune AIDS Vaccines Immune Immunogen Response (Originator) RG-83894 Roemmers RG-83894- Trinity Medical 103 Group Launched- L-735524 Indinavir sulfate Crixivan Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Banyu 1996 Inhibitors MK-639 Merck & Co. (Originator) Phase I phAZT Azidothymidine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Russian phosphonate Transcriptase Academy of Inhibitors Sciences (Originator) Nicavir Phosphazid Phase II NSC- (+)-Calanolide A Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Advanced Life 675451 Transcriptase Sciences Inhibitors NSC-664737 Calanolide A Treatment of Sarawak (racemate) Tuberculosis MediChem US Department of Health & Human Services (Originator) Phase II 5A8 Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD4 Biogen Idec (Originator) Hu-5A8 Humanized Tanox Monoclonal Antibodies TNX-355 Viral Entry Inhibitors Launched- 141W94 Amprenavir Agenerase Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease GlaxoSmithKline 1999 KVX-478 Prozei Inhibitors Kissei VX-478 Vertex (Originator) Launched- DMP-266 Efavirenz Stocrin Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Banyu 1998 Transcriptase Inhibitors L-743726 Sustiva Banyu (Orphan Drug) L-743725 Bristol-Myers ((+)- Squibb enantiomer) (Originator) L-741211 (racemate) Launched- A-84538 Ritonavir Norvir Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Abbott 1996 Inhibitors (Originator) ABT-538 Dainippon Pharmaceutical Launched- AG-1343 Nelfinavir Viracept Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Agouron 1997 mesilate Inhibitors (Originator) LY-312857 Japan Tobacco AG-1346 Mitsubishi (free base) Pharma Roche Phase III PRO-2000 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Indevus Inhibitors PRO-2000/5 Microbicides Medical Research Council Paligent (Originator) Phase III Gd-Tex Gadolinium Xcytrin Anti-HIV Agents National Cancer texaphyrin Institute GdT2B2 Motexafin Antineoplastic Pharmacyclics gadolinium Enhancing (Originator) Agents PCI-0120 Brain Cancer Therapy Glioblastoma MultiformeTherapy Head and Neck Cancer Therapy Lung Cancer Therapy Lymphocytic Leukemia Therapy Multiple Myeloma Therapy Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapy Radiosensitizers Renal Cancer Therapy Solid Tumors Therapy Launched- DP-178 Enfuvirtide Fuzeon Anti-HIV Agents Viral Fusion Duke University 2003 Inhibitors (Originator) R-698 Pentafuside Roche T-20 Trimeris (Originator) Phase II BC-IL Buffy coat MultiKine AIDS Medicines Cel-Sci interleukins (Originator) Cancer University of Immunotherapy Maryland Cervical Cancer Therapy Head and Neck Cancer Therapy Prostate Cancer Therapy Phase II FP-21399 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Fusion EMD Lexigen Inhibitors (Originator) Fuji Photo Film (Originator) Phase II AXD-455 Semapimod Anti-HIV Agents Deoxyhypusine Axxima hydrochloride Synthase Inhibitors CNI-1493 Antipsoriatics Mitogen- Cytokine Activated PharmaSciences Protein Kinase (MAPK) Inhibitors Inflammatory Nitric Oxide Picower Institute Bowel Disease, Synthase for Medical Agents for Inhibitors Research (Originator) Pancreatic Disorders, Treatment of Renal Cancer Therapy Phase II ALVAC AIDS Vaccines ANRS MN120 TMGMP ALVAC Merck & Co. vCP205 vCP205 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Virogenetics (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Phase I/II CY-2301 Theradigm- AIDS Vaccines Epimmune HIV (Originator) EP HIV-1090 DNA Vaccines IDM EP-1090 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. National Institutes of Health Phase II CD4-IgG2 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Epicyte Inhibitors PRO-542 Formatech GTC Biotherapeutics Progenics (Originator) Phase I UC-781 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Biosyn Transcriptase Inhibitors Microbicides Cellegy Uniroyal (Originator) University of Pittsburgh (Originator) Preclinical ProVax AIDS Vaccines Progenics (Originator) Phase II ACH- Elvucitabine Anti-HIV Agents DNA Achillion 126443 Polymerase Inhibitors L-D4FC Anti-Hepatitis B Reverse Vion Virus Drugs Transcriptase Inhibitors beta-L-Fd4C Yale University (Originator) Preclinical CV-N Cyanovirin N Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Biosyn Inhibitors Microbicides National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) Launched- PNU- Tipranavir Aptivus Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Boehringer 2005 140690 Inhibitors Ingelheim U-140690 Pfizer (Originator) PNU- 140690E (diNa salt) Phase I/II ADA Azodicarbonamide Anti-HIV Agents National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) NSC- Rega Institute for 674447 Medical Research (Originator) Launched- Bis(POC)PM Tenofovir Viread AIDS Medicines Reverse Gilead 2001 PA disoproxil Transcriptase (Originator) fumarate Inhibitors GS-4331-05 Anti-HIV Agents Japan Tobacco Japan Tobacco (Orphan Drug) Phase II PA-457 Anti-HIV Agents Viral Biotech Maturation Research Inhibitors Laboratories (Originator) YK-FH312 Panacos University North Carolina, Chapel Hill (Originator) ViroLogic Phase II SP-01 Anticort Anti-HIV Agents HMG-CoA Altachem Reductase mRNA Expression Inhibitors SP-01A Oncolytic Drugs Viral Entry Georgetown Inhibitors University (Originator) Samaritan Pharmaceuticals Launched- BMS-232632- Atazanavir Reyataz Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Bristol-Myers 2003 05 sulfate Inhibitors Squibb CGP-73547 Bristol-Myers Squibb (Orphan Drug) BMS-232632 Novartis (free base) (Originator) Launched- AZT/3TC Lamivudine/Zidovudine Combivir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 1997 Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Zidovudine/Lamivudine Phase III AIDSVAX AIDS Vaccines Genentech B/B (Originator) AIDSVAX Nat. Inst. Allergy gp120 B/B & Infectious Dis. VaxGen Phase II (−)-BCH- Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Avexa 10652 Transcriptase (−)-dOTC Inhibitors Shire Pharmaceuticals (Originator) AVX-754 BCH-10618 SPD-754 Phase II D-D4FC Reverset Anti-HIV Agents DNA Bristol-Myers Polymerase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) DPC-817 Reverse Incyte Transcriptase Inhibitors RVT Pharmasset beta-D- D4FC Phase I/II VIR-201 AIDS Vaccines Virax (Originator) Preclinical DDE-46 Anti-HIV Agents Antimitotic Paradigm Drugs Pharmaceuticals WHI-07 Oncolytic Drugs Apoptosis Parker Hughes Inducers Institute (Originator) Vaginal Caspase 3 Spermicides Activators Caspase 8 Activators Caspase 9 Activators Microtubule inhibitors Preclinical HI-113 Sampidine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Parker Hughes Transcriptase Institute Inhibitors (Originator) STAMP Stampidine d4T- pBPMAP Preclinical WHI-05 Anti-HIV Agents Paradigm Pharmaceuticals Vaginal Parker Hughes Spermicides Institute (Originator) Preclinical 1F7 Anti-HIV Agents Murine ImmPheron Monoclonal CTB-1 Anti-Hepatitis C Antibodies Immune Network Virus Drugs MAb 1F7 InNexus Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center (Originator) University of British Columbia IND Filed MDI-P Anti-HIV Agents Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Antibacterial Medical Drugs Discoveries (Originator) Asthma Therapy Cystic Fibrosis, Treatment of Septic Shock, Treatment of Phase I PA-14 Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD195 Epicyte (CCR5) PRO-140 Humanized Progenics Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies Viral Entry Protein Design Inhibitors Labs Phase II EpiBr Immunitin Anti-HIV Agents Colthurst (Originator) HE-2000 Inactivin Anti-Hepatitis B Edenland Virus Drugs Anti-Hepatitis C Hollis-Eden Virus Drugs (Originator) Antimalarials Cystic Fibrosis, Treatment of Immunomodulators Treatment of Tuberculosis Phase II ALVAC AIDS Vaccines ANRS vCP1452 vCP1452 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Virogenetics (Originator) Phase II (±)-FTC Racivir Anti-HIV Agents Pharmasset (Originator) PSI-5004 Anti-Hepatitis B Virus Drugs Phase III Cellulose Female Viral Entry Polydex sulfate Contraceptives Inhibitors (Originator) Ushercell Microbicides Phase I SF-2 rgp120 AIDS Vaccines Chiron (Originator) rgp120 SF-2 Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase I MIV-150 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Microbicides Population Council Phase I/II Cytolin Anti-HIV Agents Anti- Amerimmune CD11a/CD18 (Originator) (LFA-1) Murine Cytodyn Monoclonal Antibodies Phase III 10D1 mAb Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD152 Bristol-Myers (CTLA-4) Squibb Anti-CTLA-4 Breast Cancer Human Medarex MAb Therapy Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies MDX-010 Head and Neck Medarex Cancer Therapy (Orphan Drug) MDX- Melanoma National Cancer CTLA4 Therapy Institute MDX-101 Prostate Cancer (formerly) Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Phase II/III 1018-ISS AIDS Medicines Oligonucleotides Dynavax (Originator) ISS-1018 Antiallergy/Antiasthmatic Gilead Drugs Drugs for Sanofi Pasteur Allergic Rhinitis Immunomodulators Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy Vaccine adjuvants Phase I/II HGTV43 Stealth Anti-HIV Agents Enzo (Originator) Vector Gene Delivery Systems Phase II R-147681 Dapivirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse IPM Transcriptase Inhibitors TMC-120 Microbicides Janssen (Originator) Tibotec (Originator) Phase II DPC-083 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers Transcriptase Squibb Inhibitors (Originator) Launched- Lamivudine/zidovudine/ Trizivir Anti-HIV Agents GlaxoSmithKline 2000 abacavir (Originator) sulfate Launched- 908 Fosamprenavir Lexiva Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease GlaxoSmithKline 2003 calcium Inhibitors (Originator) GW- Telzir Chemical Vertex 433908G Delivery (Originator) Systems GW-433908 (free acid) VX-175 (free acid) Phase I DNA HIV AIDS Vaccines GlaxoSmithKline vaccine PowderJect HIV PowderMed DNA vaccine (Originator) Phase III PC-515 Carraguard Microbicides Population Council (Originator) Phase II R-165335 Etravirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Janssen Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors TMC-125 Tibotec (Originator) Preclinical SP-1093V Anti-HIV Agents DNA McGill University Polymerase Inhibitors Reverse Supratek Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase III AIDSVAX AIDS Vaccines Genentech B/E (Originator) AIDSVAX VaxGen gp120 B/E Walter Reed Army Institute Launched- ABT-378/r Lopinavir/ritonavir Kaletra Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Abbott 2000 Inhibitors (Originator) ABT- Severe Acute Gilead 378/ritonavir Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Treatment of Phase I BCH-13520 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Shire Transcriptase Pharmaceuticals Inhibitors (Originator) SPD-756 Phase I/II BAY-50- Adargileukin Anti-HIV Agents IL-2 Bayer 4798 alfa Immunomodulators (Originator) Oncolytic Drugs Phase I 204937 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase Inhibitors MIV-210 Anti-Hepatitis B Medivir Virus Drugs (Originator) Phase III BufferGel Microbicides Johns Hopkins University (Originator) Vaginal National Spermicides Institutes of Health ReProtect (Originator) Phase I Ad5-FLgag AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. (Originator) Ad5-gag DNA Vaccines Phase III ALVAC AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy E120TMG & Infectious Dis. ALVAC Sanofi Pasteur vCP1521 (Originator) vCP1521 Virogenetics (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Phase II MVA-BN AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Nef (Originator) MVA-HIV-1 LAI-nef MVA-nef Phase I DNA/MVA Multiprotein AIDS Vaccines Emory University SHIV-89.6 DNA/MVA (Originator) vaccine GeoVax Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase II MVA.HIVA AIDS Vaccines Impfstoffwerk Dessau-Tornau GmbH (Originator) International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Uganda Virus Research Institute University of Oxford Phase I LFn-p24 HIV-Therapore AIDS Vaccines Avant vaccine (Originator) Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Walter Reed Army Institute Phase III C31G Glyminox Oramed Anti-HIV Agents Biosyn (Originator) SAVVY Antibacterial Cellegy Drugs Antifungal Agents Microbicides Treatment of Opportunistic Infections Vaginal Spermicides Phase I BRI-7013 VivaGel Microbicides Biomolecular Research Institute (Originator) SPL-7013 Starpharma Phase I/II SDS Sodium dodecyl Invisible Anti-HIV Agents Universite Laval sulfate Condom (Originator) SLS Sodium lauryl Anti-Herpes sulfate Simplex Virus Drugs Antiviral Drugs Microbicides Vaginal Spermicides Phase I/II 2F5 Anti-HIV Agents Human Epicyte Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Polymun Inhibitors (Originator) Universitaet Wien (Originator) Phase I AK-671 Ancriviroc Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Schering-Plough CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists SCH- Viral Entry 351125 Inhibitors SCH-C Schering C Phase I DNA/PLG AIDS Vaccines Chiron microparticles (Originator) DNA Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase I AAV2-gag- AIDS Vaccines International PR-DELTA- AIDS Vaccine RT Initiative tgAAC-09 DNA Vaccines Targeted Genetics (Originator) tgAAC09 AAV Phase I AVX-101 AIDS Vaccines AlphaVax (Originator) AVX-101 DNA Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy VEE & Infectious Dis. Phase I gp160 AIDS Vaccines ANRS MN/LAI-2 Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Walter Reed Army Institute Preclinical THPB 2-OH-propyl- Trappsol Anti-HIV Agents Cyclodextrin beta- HPB Technologies cyclodextrin Development O-(2- (Originator) Hydroxypropyl)- beta- cyclodextrin Preclinical MPI-49839 Anti-HIV Agents Myriad Genetics (Originator) Phase I BMS- Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Bristol-Myers 378806 Inhibitors Squibb BMS-806 (Originator) Phase I T-cell HIV AIDS Vaccines Hadassah Vaccine Medical Organization (Originator) Weizmann Institute of Science Phase III TMC-114 Darunavir Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Johnson & Inhibitors Johnson UIC-94017 Tibotec (Originator) University of Illinois (Originator) Preclinical MV-026048 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Roche Preclinical K5-N, OS(H) Anti-HIV Agents Angiogenesis Glycores 2000 Inhibitors Microbicides Viral Fusion San Raffaele Inhibitors Scientific Institute Oncolytic Drugs Universita degli Studi di Bari (Originator) Universita degli Studi di Brescia (Originator) Phase III UK-427857 Maraviroc Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Pfizer CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Phase I BILR-355 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Boehringer Transcriptase Ingelheim Inhibitors (Originator) BILR-355- BS Launched- Abacavir Epzicom Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline 2004 sulfate/lamivudine Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Kivexa Preclinical DermaVir AIDS Vaccines Genetic Immunity (Originator) DNA Vaccines Research Institute Genetic Human Ther. Phase I/II 2G12 Anti-HIV Agents Human Epicyte Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Polymun Inhibitors (Originator) Universitaet Wien (Originator) Phase I L- Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Merck & Co. 000870810 Inhibitors (Originator) L-870810 Phase I L-870812 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Merck & Co. Inhibitors (Originator) Phase I VRX-496 Anti-HIV Agents University of Pennsylvania Antisense VIRxSYS Therapy (Originator) Preclinical SAMMA Microbicides Viral Entry Mount Sinai Inhibitors School of Medicine (Originator) Rush University Medical Center (Originator) Phase I Ad5gag2 AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. (Originator) MRKAd5 Nat. Inst. Allergy HIV-1 gag & Infectious Dis. MRKAd5gag Sanofi Pasteur Phase I BG-777 Anti- Virocell Cytomegalovirus (Originator) Drugs Anti-HIV Agents Anti-Influenza Virus Drugs Antibacterial Drugs Immunomodulators Preclinical Sulphonated Contraceptives Panjab Hesperidin Microbicides University (Originator) Phase II 695634 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GW-5634 GW-695634 Phase II GW-678248 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse GlaxoSmithKline Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors GW-8248 Preclinical R-1495 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase Inhibitors Roche Preclinical SMP-717 Anti- Reverse Advanced Life Cytomegalovirus Transcriptase Sciences Drugs Inhibitors (Originator) Anti-HIV Agents Phase I/II AMD-070 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine AnorMED CXCR4 (SDF- (Originator) 1) Antagonists Viral Entry Nat. Inst. Allergy Inhibitors & Infectious Dis. National Institutes of Health Preclinical TGF-alpha Anti-HIV Agents Centocor Antiparkinsonian Kaleidos Pharma Drugs National Cancer Institute (US) (Originator) National Institutes of Health (Originator) Phase II 873140 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine GlaxoSmithKline CCR5 Antagonists AK-602 Viral Entry Ono (Originator) Inhibitors GW-873140 ONO-4128 Phase I TAK-220 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Takeda CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Launched V-1 Immunitor AIDS Vaccines Immunitor (Originator) Treatment of AIDS-Associated Disorders Phase I TAK-652 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Takeda CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors IND Filed R15K BlockAide/ Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Adventrx CR Inhibitors Pharmaceuticals M. D. Anderson Cancer Center (Originator) Phase II R-278474 Rilpivirine Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Janssen Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors TMC-278 Preclinical KPC-2 Anti-HIV Agents Kucera Pharmaceutical (Originator) Preclinical INK-20 Anti-HIV Agents Kucera Pharmaceutical (Originator) Chemical Delivery Systems Phase I CCR5 mAb Anti-HIV Agents Anti-CD195 Human Genome (CCR5) Sciences (Originator) CCR5mAb004 Human Monoclonal Antibodies Viral Entry Inhibitors Preclinical MIV-170 Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Medivir Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase I DP6-001 HIV DNA AIDS Vaccines Advanced vaccine BioScience DNA Vaccines CytRx University of Massachusetts (Originator) Phase II AG-001859 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Pfizer Inhibitors (Originator) AG-1859 Phase I/II GTU- AIDS Vaccines FIT Biotech MultiHIV (Originator) DNA Vaccines International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Preclinical EradicAide AIDS Vaccines Adventrx Pharmaceuticals M. D. Anderson Cancer Center (Originator) Launched- Tenofovir Truvada Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Gilead 2004 disoproxil Transcriptase (Originator) fumarate/emtricitabine Inhibitors Japan Tobacco Preclinical BlockAide/VP Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Adventrx Inhibitors Pharmaceuticals (Originator) Preclinical TPFA Thiovir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Adventrx Transcriptase Pharmaceuticals Inhibitors Cervical Cancer National Cancer Therapy Institute Genital Warts, University of Treatment for Southern California (Originator) Phase I/II MetX MetaboliteX Anti-HIV Agents Tripep (Originator) alpha-HGA Preclinical NV-05A Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Idenix Transcriptase (Originator) Inhibitors Phase I/II IR-103 AIDS Vaccines Immune Response Preclinical MX-100 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Pharmacor Inhibitors (Originator) PL-100 Procyon Biopharma (Originator) ViroLogic Phase I Anti-HIV Agents Fresenius (Originator) Gene Therapy Georg-Speyer- Haus (Originator) Phase I SCH-D Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine Schering-Plough CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Sch-417690 Viral Entry Inhibitors Preclinical ImmunoVex- AIDS Vaccines BioVex HIV (Originator) Phase I CYT-99-007 Anti-HIV Agents Cytheris (Originator) rhIL-7 Immunomodulators Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. National Cancer Institute Phase I recombinant o- AIDS Vaccines Chiron gp140/MF59 (Originator) adjuvant Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Phase II BMS- Anti-HIV Agents Viral Entry Bristol-Myers 488043 Inhibitors Squibb (Originator) Preclinical KP-1212 Anti-HIV Agents Koronis (Originator) SN-1212 Preclinical AMD-887 Anti-HIV Agents Chemokine AnorMED CCR5 (Originator) Antagonists Viral Entry Inhibitors Phase I KP-1461 Anti-HIV Agents Koronis (Originator) SN-1461 Chemical Delivery Systems Preclinical DES-10 Anti-HIV Agents AusAm Biotechnologies (Originator) Anti-Herpes National Virus Drugs Institutes of Health Preclinical APP-069 Anti-HIV Agents Aphios (Originator) Preclinical PC-815 MIV- Anti-HIV Agents Medivir 150/Carraguard (Originator) MIV-150/PC- Microbicides Population 515 Council (Originator) Preclinical FGI-345 Anti-HIV Agents Functional Genetics (Originator) Preclinical RPI-MN Anti-HIV Agents Nutra Pharma (Originator) ReceptoPharm (Originator) Preclinical Tenofovir Anti-HIV Agents Reverse Bristol-Myers disoproxil Transcriptase Squibb fumarate/emtricitabine/ Inhibitors (Originator) efavirenz Gilead (Originator) Merck & Co. (Originator) Preclinical MVA-BN HIV AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Polytope (Originator) Preclinical MVA-BN HIV AIDS Vaccines Bavarian Nordic Multiantigen (Originator) Preclinical PBS-119 Immunostimulants Phoenix Biosciences (Originator) Phase II HIV-1 Tat Toxoid AIDS Vaccines Neovacs vaccine Tat Toxoid Sanofi Pasteur vaccine Univ. Maryland Biotechnology Institute Phase III TNP Thymus nuclear Anti-HIV Agents Viral Genetics VGV-1 protein Phase I VCR-ADV- AIDS Vaccines GenVec 014 (Originator) VRC- Nat. Inst. Allergy HIVADV014- & Infectious Dis. 00-VP Preclinical SP-010 Anti-HIV Agents Georgetown University (Originator) SP-10 Cognition Samaritan Disorders, Pharmaceuticals Treatment of Phase I/II GS-9137 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Integrase Gilead Inhibitors JTK-303 Japan Tobacco (Originator) Phase I/II RNA-loaded AIDS Vaccines Argos dendritic cell Cancer Vaccines Therapeutics vaccine (Originator) Melanoma Therapy Renal Cancer Therapy Phase I IFN-alpha Antiferon AIDS Vaccines Neovacs kinoid (Originator) Systemic Lupus Sanofi Pasteur Erythematosus, Agents for Vaccines Phase II DNA.HIVA AIDS Vaccines International AIDS Vaccine Initiative HIVA DNA Vaccines ML Laboratories (Originator) Uganda Virus Research Institute University of Oxford Phase I DEBIO-025 Anti-HIV Agents Debiopharm (Originator) UNIL-025 Anti-Hepatitis C Virus Drugs Ischemic Stroke, Treatment of Preclinical HIV vaccine AIDS Vaccines Bema Biotech (Originator) MV-HIV vaccine Phase I 825780 DNA Vaccines GlaxoSmithKline (Originator) Viral Vaccines Phase I C-1605 AIDS Medicines Merck & Co. (Originator) Phase I ADMVA AIDS Vaccines Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center Impfstoffwerk Dessau-Tornau GmbH (Originator) International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Preclinical BL-1050 AIDS Medicines BioLineRx Hebrew University (Originator) Yissum Phase I CAP Cellulose Microbicides Viral Entry New York Blood acetate Inhibitors Center phthalate Vaginal Spermicides Preclinical QR-437 Anti-HIV Agents Quigley Pharma (Originator) Phase II MRKAd5 AIDS Vaccines Merck & Co. HIV-1 (Originator) gag/pol/nef MRKAd5 Nat. Inst. Allergy HIV-1 & Infectious Dis. trivalent MRKAd5gag/ pol/nef Preclinical CarryVac- AIDS Vaccines Tripep HIV (Originator) Vaccine Research Institute of San Diego Preclinical HIV-RAS AIDS Medicines Tripep (Originator) Preclinical PL-337 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Procyon Inhibitors Biopharma (Originator) Phase I DNA-C AIDS Vaccines EuroVacc Foundation DNA-HIV-C Universitaet Regensburg (Originator) Phase II Lipo-5 AIDS Vaccines ANRS INSERM (Originator) Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Phase I Lipo-6T AIDS Vaccines ANRS INSERM (Originator) Sanofi Pasteur (Originator) Phase I EnvPro AIDS Vaccines St. Jude Children's Res. Hosp. (Originator) Phase I TCB-M358 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-M335 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-F357 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC-F349 AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy & Infectious Dis. Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC- AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy M358/TBC- & Infectious Dis. M355 Therion (Originator) Phase I TBC- AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy F357/TBC- & Infectious Dis. F349 Therion (Originator) Phase I HIV CTL Multiepitope CTL AIDS Vaccines Nat. Inst. Allergy MEP peptide vaccine & Infectious Dis. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals (Originator) Phase I VRC-DNA- AIDS Vaccines National 009 Institutes of Health (Originator) VRC- DNA Vaccines HIVDNA009- 00-VP Preclinical REP-9 Anti-HIV Agents Oligonucleotides REPLICor (Originator) Antiviral Drugs Preclinical PPL-100 Anti-HIV Agents HIV Protease Procyon Inhibitors Biopharma (Originator) Chemical Delivery Systems Phase I/II BI-201 Anti-HIV Agents Human BioInvent Monoclonal (Originator) Antibodies TABLE 99 Exemplary HIV Antivirals and Patent Numbers Ziagen (Abacavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,394) Epzicom (Abacavir sulfate/lamivudine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,394) Hepsera (Adefovir dipivoxil, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,233) Agenerase (Amprenavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,646,180) Reyataz (Atazanavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,849,911) Rescriptor (Delavirdine mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,142) Hivid (Dideoxycytidine; Zalcitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,595) Videx (Dideoxyinosine; Didanosine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,861,759) Sustiva (Efavirenz, U.S. Pat. No. 5,519,021) Emtriva (Emtricitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 6,642,245) Lexiva (Fosamprenavir calcium, U.S. Pat. No. 6,436,989) Virudin; Triapten; Foscavir (Foscarnet sodium, U.S. Pat. No. 6,476,009) Crixivan (Indinavir sulfate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,413,999) Epivir (Lamivudine, U.S. Pat. No. 5 047,407) Combivir (Lamivudine/Zidovudine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,232) Aluviran (Lopinavir) Kaletra (Lopinavir/ritonavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,206) Viracept (Nelfinavir mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,484,926) Viramune (Nevirapine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,366,972) Norvir (Ritonavir, U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,206) Invirase; Fortovase (Saquinavir mesilate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,196,438) Zerit (Stavudine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,978,655) Truvada (Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine, U.S. Pat. No. 5,210,085) Aptivus (Tipranavir) Retrovir (Zidovudine; Azidothymidine, U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,232) Metabolites of the Compounds of the Invention Also falling within the scope of this invention are the in vivo metabolic products of the compounds described herein. Such products may result for example from the oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, amidation, esterification and the like of the administered compound, primarily due to enzymatic processes. Accordingly, the invention includes compounds produced by a process comprising contacting a compound of this invention with a mammal for a period of time sufficient to yield a metabolic product thereof. Such products typically are identified by preparing a radiolabelled (e.g., C14 or H3) compound of the invention, administering it parenterally in a detectable dose (e.g., greater than about 0.5 mg/kg) to an animal such as rat, mouse, guinea pig, monkey, or to man, allowing sufficient time for metabolism to occur (typically about 30 seconds to 30 hours) and isolating its conversion products from the urine, blood or other biological samples. These products are easily isolated since they are labeled (others are isolated by the use of antibodies capable of binding epitopes surviving in the metabolite). The metabolite structures are determined in conventional fashion, e.g., by MS or NMR analysis. In general, analysis of metabolites is done in the same way as conventional drug metabolism studies well-known to those skilled in the art. The conversion products, so long as they are not otherwise found in vivo, are useful in diagnostic assays for therapeutic dosing of the compounds of the invention even if they possess no HIV-inhibitory activity of their own. Recipes and methods for determining stability of compounds in surrogate gastrointestinal secretions are known. Compounds are defined herein as stable in the gastrointestinal tract where less than about 50 mole percent of the protected groups are deprotected in surrogate intestinal or gastric juice upon incubation for 1 hour at 37° C. Simply because the compounds are stable to the gastrointestinal tract does not mean that they cannot be hydrolyzed in vivo. The phosphonate prodrugs of the invention typically will be stable in the digestive system but are substantially hydrolyzed to the parental drug in the digestive lumen, liver or other metabolic organ, or within cells in general. Exemplary Methods of Making the Compounds of the Invention. The invention also relates to methods of making the compositions of the invention. The compositions are prepared by any of the applicable techniques of organic synthesis. Many such techniques are well known in the art. However, many of the known techniques are elaborated in Compendium of Organic Synthetic Methods (John Wiley & Sons, New York), Vol. 1, Ian T. Harrison and Shuyen Harrison, 1971; Vol. 2, Ian T. Harrison and Shuyen Harrison, 1974; Vol. 3, Louis S. Hegedus and Leroy Wade, 1977; Vol. 4, Leroy G. Wade, jr., 1980; Vol. 5, Leroy G. Wade, Jr., 1984; and Vol. 6, Michael B. Smith; as well as March, J., Advanced Organic Chemistry, Third Edition, (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1985), Comprehensive Organic Synthesis. Selectivity, Strategy & Efficiency in Modern Organic Chemistry. In 9 Volumes, Barry M. Trost, Editor-in-Chief (Pergamon Press, New York, 1993 printing). A number of exemplary methods for the preparation of the compositions of the invention are provided below. These methods are intended to illustrate the nature of such preparations and are not intended to limit the scope of applicable methods. Generally, the reaction conditions such as temperature, reaction time, solvents, work-up procedures, and the like, will be those common in the art for the particular reaction to be performed. The cited reference material, together with material cited therein, contains detailed descriptions of such conditions. Typically the temperatures will be −100° C. to 200° C., solvents will be aprotic or protic, and reaction times will be 10 seconds to 10 days. Work-up typically consists of quenching any unreacted reagents followed by partition between a water/organic layer system (extraction) and separating the layer containing the product. Oxidation and reduction reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature (about 20° C.), although for metal hydride reductions frequently the temperature is reduced to 0° C. to −100° C., solvents are typically aprotic for reductions and may be either protic or aprotic for oxidations. Reaction times are adjusted to achieve desired conversions. Condensation reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature, although for non-equilibrating, kinetically controlled condensations reduced temperatures (0° C. to −100° C.) are also common. Solvents can be either protic (common in equilibrating reactions) or aprotic (common in kinetically controlled reactions). Standard synthetic techniques such as azeotropic removal of reaction by-products and use of anhydrous reaction conditions (e.g., inert gas environments) are common in the art and will be applied when applicable. Schemes and Examples General aspects of these exemplary methods are described below and in the Examples. Each of the products of the following processes is optionally separated, isolated, and/or purified prior to its use in subsequent processes. Generally, the reaction conditions such as temperature, reaction time, solvents, work-up procedures, and the like, will be those common in the art for the particular reaction to be performed. The cited reference material, together with material cited therein, contains detailed descriptions of such conditions. Typically the temperatures will be −100° C. to 200° C., solvents will be aprotic or protic, and reaction times will be 10 seconds to 10 days. Work-up typically consists of quenching any unreacted reagents followed by partition between a water/organic layer system (extraction) and separating the layer containing the product. Oxidation and reduction reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature (about 20° C.), although for metal hydride reductions frequently the temperature is reduced to 0° C. to −100° C., solvents are typically aprotic for reductions and may be either protic or aprotic for oxidations. Reaction times are adjusted to achieve desired conversions. Condensation reactions are typically carried out at temperatures near room temperature, although for non-equilibrating, kinetically controlled condensations reduced temperatures (0° C. to −100° C.) are also common. Solvents can be either protic (common in equilibrating reactions) or aprotic (common in kinetically controlled reactions). Standard synthetic techniques such as azeotropic removal of reaction by-products and use of anhydrous reaction conditions (e.g., inert gas environments) are common in the art and will be applied when applicable. The terms “treated”, “treating”, “treatment”, and the like, when used in connection with a chemical synthetic operation, mean contacting, mixing, reacting, allowing to react, bringing into contact, and other terms common in the art for indicating that one or more chemical entities is treated in such a manner as to convert it to one or more other chemical entities. This means that “treating compound one with compound two” is synonymous with “allowing compound one to react with compound two”, “contacting compound one with compound two”, “reacting compound one with compound two”, and other expressions common in the art of organic synthesis for reasonably indicating that compound one was “treated”, “reacted”, “allowed to react”, etc., with compound two. For example, treating indicates the reasonable and usual manner in which organic chemicals are allowed to react. Normal concentrations (0.01M to 10M, typically 0.1M to 1M), temperatures (−100° C. to 250° C., typically −78° C. to 150° C., more typically −78° C. to 100° C., still more typically 0° C. to 100° C.), reaction vessels (typically glass, plastic, metal), solvents, pressures, atmospheres (typically air for oxygen and water insensitive reactions or nitrogen or argon for oxygen or water sensitive), etc., are intended unless otherwise indicated. The knowledge of similar reactions known in the art of organic synthesis are used in selecting the conditions and apparatus for “treating” in a given process. In particular, one of ordinary skill in the art of organic synthesis selects conditions and apparatus reasonably expected to successfully carry out the chemical reactions of the described processes based on the knowledge in the art. Modifications of each of the exemplary schemes and in the examples (hereafter “exemplary schemes”) leads to various analogs of the specific exemplary materials produce. The above-cited citations describing suitable methods of organic synthesis are applicable to such modifications. In each of the exemplary schemes it may be advantageous to separate reaction products from one another and/or from starting materials. The desired products of each step or series of steps is separated and/or purified (hereinafter separated) to the desired degree of homogeneity by the techniques common in the art. Typically such separations involve multiphase extraction, crystallization from a solvent or solvent mixture, distillation, sublimation, or chromatography. Chromatography can involve any number of methods including, for example: reverse-phase and normal phase; size exclusion; ion exchange; high, medium, and low pressure liquid chromatography methods and apparatus; small scale analytical; simulated moving bed (SMB) and preparative thin or thick layer chromatography, as well as techniques of small scale thin layer and flash chromatography. Another class of separation methods involves treatment of a mixture with a reagent selected to bind to or render otherwise separable a desired product, unreacted starting material, reaction by product, or the like. Such reagents include adsorbents or absorbents such as activated carbon, molecular sieves, ion exchange media, or the like. Alternatively, the reagents can be acids in the case of a basic material, bases in the case of an acidic material, binding reagents such as antibodies, binding proteins, selective chelators such as crown ethers, liquid/liquid ion extraction reagents (LIX), or the like. Selection of appropriate methods of separation depends on the nature of the materials involved. For example, boiling point, and molecular weight in distillation and sublimation, presence or absence of polar functional groups in chromatography, stability of materials in acidic and basic media in multiphase extraction, and the like. One skilled in the art will apply techniques most likely to achieve the desired separation. A single stereoisomer, e.g., an enantiomer, substantially free of its stereoisomer may be obtained by resolution of the racemic mixture using a method such as formation of diastereomers using optically active resolving agents (Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, (1962) by E. L. Eliel, McGraw Hill; Lochmuller, C. H., (1975) J. Chromatogr., 113:(3) 283-302). Racemic mixtures of chiral compounds of the invention can be separated and isolated by any suitable method, including: (1) formation of ionic, diastereomeric salts with chiral compounds and separation by fractional crystallization or other methods, (2) formation of diastereomeric compounds with chiral derivatizing reagents, separation of the diastereomers, and conversion to the pure stereoisomers, and (3) separation of the substantially pure or enriched stereoisomers directly under chiral conditions. Under method (1), diastereomeric salts can be formed by reaction of enantiomerically pure chiral bases such as brucine, quinine, ephedrine, strychnine, α-methyl-β-phenylethylamine (amphetamine), and the like with asymmetric compounds bearing acidic functionality, such as carboxylic acid and sulfonic acid. The diastereomeric salts may be induced to separate by fractional crystallization or ionic chromatography. For separation of the optical isomers of amino compounds, addition of chiral carboxylic or sulfonic acids, such as camphorsulfonic acid, tartaric acid, mandelic acid, or lactic acid can result in formation of the diastereomeric salts. Alternatively, by method (2), the substrate to be resolved is reacted with one enantiomer of a chiral compound to form a diastereomeric pair (Eliel, E. and Wilen, S. (1994) Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 322). Diastereomeric compounds can be formed by reacting asymmetric compounds with enantiomerically pure chiral derivatizing reagents, such as menthyl derivatives, followed by separation of the diastereomers and hydrolysis to yield the free, enantiomerically enriched xanthene. A method of determining optical purity involves making chiral esters, such as a menthyl ester, e.g., (−) menthyl chloroformate in the presence of base, or Mosher ester, α-methoxy-α-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl acetate (Jacob III. (1982) J. Org. Chem. 47:4165), of the racemic mixture, and analyzing the NMR spectrum for the presence of the two atropisomeric diastereomers. Stable diastereomers of atropisomeric compounds can be separated and isolated by normal- and reverse-phase chromatography following methods for separation of atropisomeric naphthyl-isoquinolines (Hoye, T., WO 96/15111). By method (3), a racemic mixture of two enantiomers can be separated by chromatography using a chiral stationary phase (Chiral Liquid Chromatography (1989) W. J. Lough, Ed. Chapman and Hall, New York; Okamoto, (1990) J. of Chromatogr. 513:375-378). Enriched or purified enantiomers can be distinguished by methods used to distinguish other chiral molecules with asymmetric carbon atoms, such as optical rotation and circular dichroism. Examples General Section A number of exemplary methods for the preparation of compounds of the invention are provided herein, for example, in the Examples hereinbelow. These methods are intended to illustrate the nature of such preparations are not intended to limit the scope of applicable methods. Certain compounds of the invention can be used as intermediates for the preparation of other compounds of the invention. For example, the interconversion of various phosphonate compounds of the invention is illustrated below. Interconversions of the Phosphonates R-Link-P(O)(OR1)2, R-Link-P(O)(OR1)(OH) and R-Link-P(O)(OH)2. The following schemes 32-38 describe the preparation of phosphonate esters of the general structure R-link-P(O)(OR1)2, in which the groups R1 may be the same or different. The R1 groups attached to a phosphonate ester, or to precursors thereto, may be changed using established chemical transformations. The interconversion reactions of phosphonates are illustrated in Scheme S32. The group R in Scheme 32 represents the substructure, i.e. the drug “scaffold, to which the substituent link-P(O)(OR1)2 is attached, either in the compounds of the invention, or in precursors thereto. At the point in the synthetic route of conducting a phosphonate interconversion, certain functional groups in R may be protected. The methods employed for a given phosphonate transformation depend on the nature of the substituent R1, and of the substrate to which the phosphonate group is attached. The preparation and hydrolysis of phosphonate esters is described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 9ff. In general, synthesis of phosphonate esters is achieved by coupling a nucleophile amine or alcohol with the corresponding activated phosphonate electrophilic precursor. For example, chlorophosphonate addition on to 5′-hydroxy of nucleoside is a well known method for preparation of nucleoside phosphate monoesters. The activated precursor can be prepared by several well known methods. Chlorophosphonates useful for synthesis of the prodrugs are prepared from the substituted-1,3-propanediol (Wissner, et al, (1992) J. Med. Chem. 35:1650). Chlorophosphonates are made by oxidation of the corresponding chlorophospholanes (Anderson, et al, (1984) J. Org. Chem. 49:1304) which are obtained by reaction of the substituted diol with phosphorus trichloride. Alternatively, the chlorophosphonate agent is made by treating substituted-11,3-diols with phosphorusoxychloride (Patois, et al, (1990) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1577). Chlorophosphonate species may also be generated in situ from corresponding cyclic phosphites (Silverburg, et al., (1996) Tetrahedron lett., 37:771-774), which in turn can be either made from chlorophospholane or phosphoramidate intermediate. Phosphoroflouridate intermediate prepared either from pyrophosphate or phosphoric acid may also act as precursor in preparation of cyclic prodrugs (Watanabe et al., (1988) Tetrahedron lett., 29:5763-66). Phosphonate prodrugs of the present invention may also be prepared from the free acid by Mitsunobu reactions (Mitsunobu, (1981) Synthesis, 1; Campbell, (1992) J. Org. Chem. 57:6331), and other acid coupling reagents including, but not limited to, carbodiimides (Alexander, et al, (1994) Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 59:1853; Casara et al, (1992) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2:145; Ohashi et al, (1988) Tetrahedron Lett., 29:1189), and benzotriazolyloxytris-(dimethylamino)phosphonium salts (Campagne et al (1993) Tetrahedron Lett. 34:6743). Aryl halides undergo Ni+2 catalyzed reaction with phosphite derivatives to give aryl phosphonate containing compounds (Balthazar, et al (1980) J. Org. Chem. 45:5425). Phosphonates may also be prepared from the chlorophosphonate in the presence of a palladium catalyst using aromatic triflates (Petrakis et al (1987) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 109:2831; Lu et al (1987) Synthesis 726). In another method, aryl phosphonate esters are prepared from aryl phosphates under anionic rearrangement conditions (Melvin (1981) Tetrahedron Lett. 22:3375; Casteel et al (1991) Synthesis, 691). N-Alkoxy aryl salts with alkali metal derivatives of cyclic alkyl phosphonate provide general synthesis for heteroaryl-2-phosphonate linkers (Redmore (1970) J. Org. Chem. 35:4114). These above mentioned methods can also be extended to compounds where the W5 group is a heterocycle. Cyclic-1,3-propanyl prodrugs of phosphonates are also synthesized from phosphonic diacids and substituted propane-1,3-diols using a coupling reagent such as 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) in presence of a base (e.g., pyridine). Other carbodiimide based coupling agents like 1,3-disopropylcarbodiimide or water soluble reagent, 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDCI) can also be utilized for the synthesis of cyclic phosphonate prodrugs. The conversion of a phosphonate diester S32.1 into the corresponding phosphonate monoester S32.2 (Scheme 32, Reaction 1) is accomplished by a number of methods. For example, the ester S32.1 in which R1 is an aralkyl group such as benzyl, is converted into the monoester compound S32.2 by reaction with a tertiary organic base such as diazabicyclooctane (DABCO) or quinuclidine, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1995) 60:2946. The reaction is performed in an inert hydrocarbon solvent such as toluene or xylene, at about 110° C. The conversion of the diester S32.1 in which R1 is an aryl group such as phenyl, or an alkenyl group such as allyl, into the monoester S32.2 is effected by treatment of the ester S32.1 with a base such as aqueous sodium hydroxide in acetonitrile or lithium hydroxide in aqueous tetrahydrofuran. Phosphonate diesters S32.1 in which one of the groups R1 is aralkyl, such as benzyl, and the other is alkyl, is converted into the monoesters S32.2 in which R1 is alkyl by hydrogenation, for example using a palladium on carbon catalyst. Phosphonate diesters in which both of the groups R1 are alkenyl, such as allyl, is converted into the monoester S32.2 in which R1 is alkenyl, by treatment with chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium (Wilkinson's catalyst) in aqueous ethanol at reflux, optionally in the presence of diazabicyclooctane, for example by using the procedure described in J. Org. Chem. (1973) 38:3224, for the cleavage of allyl carboxylates. The conversion of a phosphonate diester S32.1 or a phosphonate monoester S32.2 into the corresponding phosphonic acid S32.3 (Scheme 32, Reactions 2 and 3) can be effected by reaction of the diester or the monoester with trimethylsilyl bromide, as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm., (1979) 739. The reaction is conducted in an inert solvent such as, for example, dichloromethane, optionally in the presence of a silylating agent such as bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide, at ambient temperature. A phosphonate monoester S32.2 in which R1 is aralkyl such as benzyl, is converted into the corresponding phosphonic acid S32.3 by hydrogenation over a palladium catalyst, or by treatment with hydrogen chloride in an ethereal solvent such as dioxane. A phosphonate monoester S32.2 in which R1 is alkenyl such as, for example, allyl, is converted into the phosphonic acid S32.3 by reaction with Wilkinson's catalyst in an aqueous organic solvent, for example in 15% aqueous acetonitrile, or in aqueous ethanol, for example using the procedure described in Helv. Chim. Acta. (1985) 68:618. Palladium catalyzed hydrogenolysis of phosphonate esters S32.1 in which R1 is benzyl is described in J. Org. Chem. (1959) 24:434. Platinum-catalyzed hydrogenolysis of phosphonate esters S32.1 in which R1 is phenyl is described in J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1956) 78:2336. The conversion of a phosphonate monoester S32.2 into a phosphonate diester S32.1 (Scheme 32, Reaction 4) in which the newly introduced R1 group is alkyl, aralkyl, haloalkyl such as chloroethyl, or aralkyl is effected by a number of reactions in which the substrate S32.2 is reacted with a hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a coupling agent. Typically, the second phosphonate ester group is different than the first introduced phosphonate ester group, i.e. R1 is followed by the introduction of R2 where each of R1 and R2 is alkyl, aralkyl, haloalkyl such as chloroethyl, or aralkyl (Scheme 32, Reaction 4a) whereby S32.2 is converted to S32.1a. Suitable coupling agents are those employed for the preparation of carboxylate esters, and include a carbodiimide such as dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, in which case the reaction is preferably conducted in a basic organic solvent such as pyridine, or (benzotriazol-1-yloxy)tripyrrolidinophosphonium hexafluorophosphate (PYBOP, Sigma), in which case the reaction is performed in a polar solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a tertiary organic base such as diisopropylethylamine, or Aldrithiol-2 (Aldrich) in which case the reaction is conducted in a basic solvent such as pyridine, in the presence of a triaryl phosphine such as triphenylphosphine. Alternatively, the conversion of the phosphonate monoester S32.2 to the diester S32.1 is effected by the use of the Mitsunobu reaction, as described above. The substrate is reacted with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of diethyl azodicarboxylate and a triarylphosphine such as triphenyl phosphine. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester S32.2 is transformed into the phosphonate diester S32.1, in which the introduced R1 group is alkenyl or aralkyl, by reaction of the monoester with the halide R1Br, in which R1 is as alkenyl or aralkyl. The alkylation reaction is conducted in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide or acetonitrile, in the presence of a base such as cesium carbonate. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester is transformed into the phosphonate diester in a two step procedure. In the first step, the phosphonate monoester S32.2 is transformed into the chloro analog RP(O)(OR1)Cl by reaction with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride and the like, as described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 17, and the thus-obtained product RP(O)(OR1)Cl is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, to afford the phosphonate diester S32.1. A phosphonic acid R-link-P(O)(OH)2 is transformed into a phosphonate monoester RP(O)(OR1)(OH) (Scheme 32, Reaction 5) by means of the methods described above of for the preparation of the phosphonate diester R-link-P(O)(OR1)2 S32.1, except that only one molar proportion of the component R1OH or R1Br is employed. Dialkyl phosphonates may be prepared according to the methods of: Quast et al (1974) Synthesis 490; Stowell et al (1990) Tetrahedron Lett. 3261; U.S. Pat. No. 5,663,159. A phosphonic acid R-link-P(O)(OH)2 S32.3 is transformed into a phosphonate diester R-link-P(O)(OR1)2 S32.1 (Scheme 32, Reaction 6) by a coupling reaction with the hydroxy compound R1OH, in the presence of a coupling agent such as Aldrithiol-2 (Aldrich) and triphenylphosphine. The reaction is conducted in a basic solvent such as pyridine. Alternatively, phosphonic acids S32.3 are transformed into phosphonic esters S32.1 in which R1 is aryl, by means of a coupling reaction employing, for example, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in pyridine at ca 70° C. Alternatively, phosphonic acids S32.3 are transformed into phosphonic esters S32.1 in which R1 is alkenyl, by means of an alkylation reaction. The phosphonic acid is reacted with the alkenyl bromide R1Br in a polar organic solvent such as acetonitrile solution at reflux temperature, the presence of a base such as cesium carbonate, to afford the phosphonic ester S32.1. Preparation of Phosphonate Carbamates. Phosphonate esters may contain a carbamate linkage. The preparation of carbamates is described in Comprehensive Organic Functional Group Transformations, A. R. Katritzky, ed., Pergamon, 1995, Vol. 6, p. 416ff, and in Organic Functional Group Preparations, by S. R. Sandler and W. Karo, Academic Press, 1986, p: 260ff. The carbamoyl group may be formed by reaction of a hydroxy group according to the methods known in the art, including the teachings of Ellis, US 2002/0103378 A1 and Hajima, U.S. Pat. No. 6,018,049. Scheme 33 illustrates various methods by which the carbamate linkage is synthesized. As shown in Scheme 33, in the general reaction generating carbamates, an alcohol S33.1, is converted into the activated derivative S33.2 in which Lv is a leaving group such as halo, imidazolyl, benztriazolyl and the like, as described herein. The activated derivative S33.2 is then reacted with an amine S33.3, to afford the carbamate product S33.4. Examples 1-7 in Scheme 33 depict methods by which the general reaction is effected. Examples 8-10 illustrate alternative methods for the preparation of carbamates. Scheme 33, Example 1 illustrates the preparation of carbamates employing a chloroformyl derivative of the alcohol S33.5. In this procedure, the alcohol S33.5 is reacted with phosgene, in an inert solvent such as toluene, at about 0° C., as described in Org. Syn. Coll. Vol. 3, 167, 1965, or with an equivalent reagent such as trichloromethoxy chloroformate, as described in Org: Syn. Coll. Vol. 6, 715, 1988, to afford the chloroformate S33.6. The latter compound is then reacted with the amine component S33.3, in the presence of an organic or inorganic base, to afford the carbamate S33.7. For example, the chloroformyl compound S33.6 is reacted with the amine S33.3 in a water-miscible solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide, as described in Org. Syn. Coll. Vol. 3, 167, 1965, to yield the carbamate S33.7. Alternatively, the reaction is performed in dichloromethane in the presence of an organic base such as diisopropylethylamine or dimethylaminopyridine. Scheme 33, Example 2 depicts the reaction of the chloroformate compound S33.6 with imidazole to produce the imidazolide S33.8. The imidazolide product is then reacted with the amine S33.3 to yield the carbamate S33.7. The preparation of the imidazolide is performed in an aprotic solvent such as dichloromethane at 0′, and the preparation of the carbamate is conducted in a similar solvent at ambient temperature, optionally in the presence of a base such as dimethylaminopyridine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1989, 32, 357. Scheme 33 Example 3, depicts the reaction of the chloroformate S33.6 with an activated hydroxyl compound R″OH, to yield the mixed carbonate ester S33.10. The reaction is conducted in an inert organic solvent such as ether or dichloromethane, in the presence of a base such as dicyclohexylamine or triethylamine. The hydroxyl component R″OH is selected from the group of compounds S33.19-S33.24 shown in Scheme 33, and similar compounds. For example, if the component R″OH is hydroxybenztriazole S33.19, N-hydroxysuccinimide S33.20, or pentachlorophenol, S33.21, the mixed carbonate S33.10 is obtained by the reaction of the chloroformate with the hydroxyl compound in an ethereal solvent in the presence of dicyclohexylamine, as described in Can. J. Chem., 1982, 60, 976. A similar reaction in which the component R″OH is pentafluorophenol S33.22 or 2-hydroxypyridine S33.23 is performed in an ethereal solvent in the presence of triethylamine, as described in Syn., 1986, 303, and Chem. Ber. 118, 468, 1985. Scheme 33 Example 4 illustrates the preparation of carbamates in which an alkyloxycarbonylimidazole S33.8 is employed. In this procedure, an alcohol S33.5 is reacted with an equimolar amount of carbonyl diimidazole S33.11 to prepare the intermediate S33.8. The reaction is conducted in an aprotic organic solvent such as dichloromethane or tetrahydrofuran. The acyloxyimidazole S33.8 is then reacted with an equimolar amount of the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is performed in an aprotic organic solvent such as dichloromethane, as described in Tet. Lett., 42, 2001, 5227, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 5 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of an intermediate alkoxycarbonylbenztriazole S33.13. In this procedure, an alcohol ROH is reacted at ambient temperature with an equimolar amount of benztriazole carbonyl chloride S33.12, to afford the alkoxycarbonyl product S33.13. The reaction is performed in an organic solvent such as benzene or toluene, in the presence of a tertiary organic amine such as triethylamine, as described in Synthesis., 1977, 704. The product is then reacted with the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is conducted in toluene or ethanol, at from ambient temperature to about 80 as described in Synthesis., 1977, 704. Scheme 33, Example 6 illustrates the preparation of carbamates in which a carbonate (R″O)2CO, S33.14, is reacted with an alcohol S33.5 to afford the intermediate alkyloxycarbonyl intermediate S33.15. The latter reagent is then reacted with the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from hydroxybenztriazole S33.19 is described in Synthesis, 1993, 908; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from N-hydroxysuccinimide S33.20 is described in Tet. Lett., 1992, 2781; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from 2-hydroxypyridine S33.23 is described in Tet. Lett., 1991, 4251; the procedure in which the reagent S33.15 is derived from 4-nitrophenol S33.24 is described in Synthesis. 1993, 103. The reaction between equimolar amounts of the alcohol ROH and the carbonate S33.14 is conducted in an inert organic solvent at ambient temperature. Scheme 33, Example 7 illustrates the preparation of carbamates from alkoxycarbonyl azides S33.16. In this procedure, an alkyl chloroformate S33.6 is reacted with an azide, for example sodium azide, to afford the alkoxycarbonyl azide S33.16. The latter compound is then reacted with an equimolar amount of the amine R′NH2 to afford the carbamate S33.7. The reaction is conducted at ambient temperature in a polar aprotic solvent such as dimethylsulfoxide, for example as described in Synthesis., 1982, 404. Scheme 33, Example 8 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and the chloroformyl derivative of an amine S33.17. In this procedure, which is described in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, R. B. Wagner, H. D. Zook, Wiley, 1953, p. 647, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic solvent such as acetonitrile, in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 9 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and an isocyanate S33.18. In this procedure, which is described in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, R. B. Wagner, H. D. Zook, Wiley, 1953, p. 645, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic solvent such as ether or dichloromethane and the like, to afford the carbamate S33.7. Scheme 33, Example 10 illustrates the preparation of carbamates by means of the reaction between an alcohol ROH and an amine R′NH2. In this procedure, which is described in Chem. Lett. 1972, 373, the reactants are combined at ambient temperature in an aprotic organic solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of a tertiary base such as triethylamine, and selenium. Carbon monoxide is passed through the solution and the reaction proceeds to afford the carbamate S33.7. Examples Preparation of Carboalkoxy-Substituted Phosphonate Bisamidates, Monoamidates, Diesters and Monoesters. A number of methods are available for the conversion of phosphonic acids into amidates and esters. In one group of methods, the phosphonic acid is either converted into an isolated activated intermediate such as a phosphoryl chloride, or the phosphonic acid is activated in situ for reaction with an amine or a hydroxy compound. The conversion of phosphonic acids into phosphoryl chlorides is accomplished by reaction with thionyl chloride, for example as described in J. Gen. Chem. USSR, 1983, 53, 480, Zh. Obschei Khim., 1958, 28, 1063, or J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 6144, or by reaction with oxalyl chloride, as described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1994, 116, 3251, or J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 6144, or by reaction with phosphorus pentachloride, as described in J. Org. Chem., 2001, 66, 329, or in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372. The resultant phosphoryl chlorides are then reacted with amines or hydroxy compounds in the presence of a base to afford the amidate or ester products. Phosphonic acids are converted into activated imidazolyl derivatives by reaction with carbonyl diimidazole, as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (1991) 312, or Nucleosides & Nucleotides (2000) 19:1885. Activated sulfonyloxy derivatives are obtained by the reaction of phosphonic acids with trichloromethylsulfonyl chloride or with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride, as described in Tet. Lett. (1996) 7857, or Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (1998) 8:663. The activated sulfonyloxy derivatives are then reacted with amines or hydroxy compounds to afford amidates or esters. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid and the amine or hydroxy reactant are combined in the presence of a diimide coupling agent. The preparation of phosphonic amidates and esters by means of coupling reactions in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide is described, for example, in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm. (1991) 312 or Coll. Czech. Chem. Comm. (1987) 52:2792. The use of ethyl dimethylaminopropyl carbodiimide for activation and coupling of phosphonic acids is described in Tet. Lett., (2001) 42:8841, or Nucleosides & Nucleotides (2000) 19:1885. A number of additional coupling reagents have been described for the preparation of amidates and esters from phosphonic acids. The agents include Aldrithiol-2, and PYBOP and BOP, as described in J. Org. Chem., 1995, 60, 5214, and J. Med. Chem. (1997) 40:3842, mesitylene-2-sulfonyl-3-nitro-1,2,4-triazole (MSNT), as described in J. Med. Chem. (1996) 39:4958, diphenylphosphoryl azide, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1984) 49:1158, 1-(2,4,6-triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl-3-nitro-1,2,4-triazole (TPSNT) as described in Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (1998) 8:1013, bromotris(dimethylamino)phosphonium hexafluorophosphate (BroP), as described in Tet. Lett., (1996) 37:3997, 2-chloro-5,5-dimethyl-2-oxo-1,3,2-dioxaphosphinane, as described in Nucleosides Nucleotides 1995, 14, 871, and diphenyl chlorophosphate, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1988, 31, 1305. Phosphonic acids are converted into amidates and esters by means of the Mitsunobu reaction, in which the phosphonic acid and the amine or hydroxy reactant are combined in the presence of a triaryl phosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate. The procedure is described in Org. Lett., 2001, 3, 643, or J. Med. Chem., 1997, 40, 3842. Phosphonic esters are also obtained by the reaction between phosphonic acids and halo compounds, in the presence of a suitable base. The method is described, for example, in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, or J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans., I, 1993, 19, 2303, or J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372, or Tet. Lett., 2002, 43, 1161. Schemes 34-37 illustrate the conversion of phosphonate esters and phosphonic acids into carboalkoxy-substituted phosphonbisamidates (Scheme 34), phosphonamidates (Scheme 35), phosphonate monoesters (Scheme 36) and phosphonate diesters, (Scheme 37). Scheme 38 illustrates synthesis of gem-dialkyl amino phosphonate reagents. Scheme 34 illustrates various methods for the conversion of phosphonate diesters S34.1 into phosphonbisamidates S34.5. The diester S34.1, prepared as described previously, is hydrolyzed, either to the monoester S34.2 or to the phosphonic acid S34.6. The methods employed for these transformations are described above. The monoester S34.2 is converted into the monoamidate S34.3 by reaction with an aminoester S34.9, in which the group R2 is H or alkyl; the group R4b is a divalent alkylene moiety such as, for example, CHCH3, CHCH2CH3, CH(CH(CH3)2), CH(CH2Ph), and the like, or a side chain group present in natural or modified aminoacids; and the group R5b is C1-C12 alkyl, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, or isobutyl; C6-C20 aryl, such as phenyl or substituted phenyl; or C6-C20 arylalkyl, such as benzyl or benzyhydryl. The reactants are combined in the presence of a coupling agent such as a carbodiimide, for example dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, as described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., (1957) 79:3575, optionally in the presence of an activating agent such as hydroxybenztriazole, to yield the amidate product S34.3. The amidate-forming reaction is also effected in the presence of coupling agents such as BOP, as described in J. Org. Chem. (1995) 60:5214, Aldrithiol, PYBOP and similar coupling agents used for the preparation of amides and esters. Alternatively, the reactants S34.2 and S34.9 are transformed into the monoamidate S34.3 by means of a Mitsunobu reaction. The preparation of amidates by means of the Mitsunobu reaction is described in J. Med. Chem. (1995) 38:2742. Equimolar amounts of the reactants are combined in an inert solvent such as tetrahydrofuran in the presence of a triaryl phosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate. The thus-obtained monoamidate ester S34.3 is then transformed into amidate phosphonic acid S34.4. The conditions used for the hydrolysis reaction depend on the nature of the R1 group, as described previously. The phosphonic acid amidate S34.4 is then reacted with an aminoester S34.9, as described above, to yield the bisamidate product S34.5, in which the amino substituents are the same or different. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid S34.6 may be treated with two different amino ester reagents simulataneously, i.e. S34.9 where R2, R4b or are different. The resulting mixture of bisamidate products S34.5 may then be separable, e.g. by chromatography. An example of this procedure is shown in Scheme 34, Example 1. In this procedure, a dibenzyl phosphonate S34.14 is reacted with diazabicyclooctane (DABCO) in toluene at reflux, as described in J. Org. Chem., 1995, 60, 2946, to afford the monobenzyl phosphonate S34.15. The product is then reacted with equimolar amounts of ethyl alaninate S34.16 and dicyclohexyl carbodiimide in pyridine, to yield the amidate product S34.17. The benzyl group is then removed, for example by hydrogenolysis over a palladium catalyst, to give the monoacid product S34.18 which may be unstable according to J. Med. Chem. (1997) 40(23):3842. This compound S34.18 is then reacted in a Mitsunobu reaction with ethyl leucinate S34.19, triphenyl phosphine and diethylazodicarboxylate, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 2742, to produce the bisamidate product S34.20. Using the above procedures, but employing in place of ethyl leucinate S34.19 or ethyl alaninate S34.16, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is converted into the bisamidate S34.5 by use of the coupling reactions described above. The reaction is performed in one step, in which case the nitrogen-related substituents present in the product S34.5 are the same, or in two steps, in which case the nitrogen-related substituents can be different. An example of the method is shown in Scheme 34, Example 2. In this procedure, a phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted in pyridine solution with excess ethyl phenylalaninate S34.21 and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, for example as described in J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Comm., 1991, 1063, to give the bisamidate product S34.22. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl phenylalaninate, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. As a further alternative, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is converted into the mono or bis-activated derivative S34.7, in which Lv is a leaving group such as chloro, imidazolyl, triisopropylbenzenesulfonyloxy etc. The conversion of phosphonic acids into chlorides S34.7 (Lv=Cl) is effected by reaction with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride and the like, as described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976, p. 17. The conversion of phosphonic acids into monoimidazolides S34.7 (Lv imidazolyl) is described in J. Med. Chem., 2002, 45, 1284 and in J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm., 1991, 312. Alternatively, the phosphonic acid is activated by reaction with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride, as described in Nucleosides and Nucleotides, 2000, 10, 1885. The activated product is then reacted with the aminoester S34.9, in the presence of a base, to give the bisamidate S34.5. The reaction is performed in one step, in which case the nitrogen substituents present in the product S34.5 are the same, or in two steps, via the intermediate S34.11, in which case the nitrogen substituents can be different. Examples of these methods are shown in Scheme 34, Examples 3 and 5. In the procedure illustrated in Scheme 34, Example 3, a phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with ten molar equivalents of thionyl chloride, as described in Zh. Obschei Khim., 1958, 28, 1063, to give the dichloro compound S34.23. The product is then reacted at reflux temperature in a polar aprotic solvent such as acetonitrile, and in the presence of a base such as triethylamine, with butyl serinate S34.24 to afford the bisamidate product S34.25. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of butyl serinate S34.24, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. In the procedure illustrated in Scheme 34, Example 5, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted, as described in J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm., 1991, 312, with carbonyl diimidazole to give the imidazolide S34.S32. The product is then reacted in acetonitrile solution at ambient temperature, with one molar equivalent of ethyl alaninate S34.33 to yield the monodisplacement product S34.S34. The latter compound is then reacted with carbonyl diimidazole to produce the activated intermediate S34.35, and the product is then reacted, under the same conditions, with ethyl N-methylalaninate S34.33a to give the bisamidate product S34.36. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl alaninate S34.33 or ethyl N-methylalaninate S34.33a, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The intermediate monoamidate S34.3 is also prepared from the monoester S34.2 by first converting the monoester into the activated derivative S34.8 in which Lv is a leaving group such as halo, imidazolyl etc, using the procedures described above. The product S34.8 is then reacted with an aminoester S34.9 in the presence of a base such as pyridine, to give an intermediate monoamidate product S34.3. The latter compound is then converted, by removal of the R1 group and coupling of the product with the aminoester S34.9, as described above, into the bisamidate S34.5. An example of this procedure, in which the phosphonic acid is activated by conversion to the chloro derivative S34.26, is shown in Scheme 34, Example 4. In this procedure, the phosphonic monobenzyl ester S34.15 is reacted, in dichloromethane, with thionyl chloride, as described in Tetttt. Letters., 1994, 35, 4097, to afford the phosphoryl chloride S34.26. The product is then reacted in acetonitrile solution at ambient temperature with one molar equivalent of ethyl 3-amino-2-methylpropionate S34.27 to yield the monoamidate product S34.28. The latter compound is hydrogenated in ethylacetate over a 5% palladium on carbon catalyst to produce the monoacid product S34.29. The product is subjected to a Mitsunobu coupling procedure, with equimolar amounts of butyl alaninate S34.30, triphenyl phosphine, diethylazodicarboxylate and triethylamine in tetrahydrofuran, to give the bisamidate product S34.31. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-amino-2-methylpropionate S34.27 or butyl alaninate S34.30, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The activated phosphonic acid derivative S34.7 is also converted into the bisamidate S34.5 via the diamino compound S34.10. The conversion of activated phosphonic acid derivatives such as phosphoryl chlorides into the corresponding amino analogs S34.10, by reaction with ammonia, is described in Organic Phosphorus Compounds, G. M. Kosolapoff, L. Maeir, eds, Wiley, 1976. The bisamino compound S34.10 is then reacted at elevated temperature with a haloester S34.12 (Hal=halogen, i.e. F, Cl, Br, I), in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a base such as 4,4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) or potassium carbonate, to yield the bisamidate S34.5. Alternatively, S34.6 may be treated with two different amino ester reagents simulataneously, i.e. S34.12 where R4b or R5b are different. The resulting mixture of bisamidate products S34.5 may then be separable, e.g. by chromatography. An example of this procedure is shown in Scheme 34, Example 6. In this method, a dichlorophosphonate S34.23 is reacted with ammonia to afford the diamide S34.37. The reaction is performed in aqueous, aqueous alcoholic or alcoholic solution, at reflux temperature. The resulting diamino compound is then reacted with two molar equivalents of ethyl 2-bromo-3-methylbutyrate S34.38, in a polar organic solvent such as N-methylpyrrolidinone at ca. 150° C., in the presence of a base such as potassium carbonate, and optionally in the presence of a catalytic amount of potassium iodide, to afford the bisamidate product S34.39. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-bromo-3-methylbutyrate S34.38, different haloesters S34.12 the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The procedures shown in Scheme 34 are also applicable to the preparation of bisamidates in which the aminoester moiety incorporates different functional groups. Scheme 34, Example 7 illustrates the preparation of bisamidates derived from tyrosine. In this procedure, the monoimidazolide S34.32 is reacted with propyl tyrosinate S34.40, as described in Example 5, to yield the monoamidate S34.41. The product is reacted with carbonyl diimidazole to give the imidazolide S34.42, and this material is reacted with a further molar equivalent of propyl tyrosinate to produce the bisamidate product S34.43. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of propyl tyrosinate S34.40, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S34.5 are obtained. The aminoesters employed in the two stages of the above procedure can be the same or different, so that bisamidates with the same or different amino substituents are prepared. Scheme 35 illustrates methods for the preparation of phosphonate monoamidates. In one procedure, a phosphonate monoester S34.1 is converted, as described in Scheme 34, into the activated derivative S34.8. This compound is then reacted, as described above, with an aminoester S34.9, in the presence of a base, to afford the monoamidate product S35.1. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 1. In this method, a monophenyl phosphonate S35.7 is reacted with, for example, thionyl chloride, as described in J. Gen. Chem. USSR., 1983, 32, 367, to give the chloro product S35.8. The product is then reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with ethyl alaninateS3, to yield the amidate S35.10. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl alaninate S35.9, different aminoesters S34.9, the corresponding products S35.1 are obtained. Alternatively, the phosphonate monoester S34.1 is coupled, as described in Scheme 34, with an aminoester S34.9 to produce the amidateS335.1. If necessary, the R1 substituent is then altered, by initial cleavage to afford the phosphonic acid S35.2. The procedures for this transformation depend on the nature of the R1 group, and are described above. The phosphonic acid is then transformed into the ester amidate product S35.3, by reaction with the hydroxy compound R3OH, in which the group R3 is aryl, heterocycle, alkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl etc, using the same coupling procedures (carbodiimide, Aldrithiol-2, PYBOP, Mitsunobu reaction etc) described in Scheme 34 for the coupling of amines and phosphonic acids. Examples of this method are shown in Scheme 35, Examples 2 and 3. In the sequence shown in Example 2, a monobenzyl phosphonate S35.11 is transformed by reaction with ethyl alaninate, using one of the methods described above, into the monoamidate S35.12. The benzyl group is then removed by catalytic hydrogenation in ethylacetate solution over a 5% palladium on carbon catalyst, to afford the phosphonic acid amidate S35.13. The product is then reacted in dichloromethane solution at ambient temperature with equimolar amounts of 1-(dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide and trifluoroethanol S35.14, for example as described in Tet. Lett., 2001, 42, 8841, to yield the amidate ester S35.15. In the sequence shown in Scheme 35, Example 3, the monoamidate S35.13 is coupled, in tetrahydrofuran solution at ambient temperature, with equimolar amounts of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide and 4-hydroxy-N-methylpiperidine S35.16, to produce the amidate ester product S35.17. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of the ethyl alaninate product S35.12 different monoacids S35.2, and in place of trifluoroethanol S35.14 or 4-hydroxy-N-methylpiperidine S35.16, different hydroxy compounds R3OH, the corresponding products S35.3 are obtained. Alternatively, the activated phosphonate ester S34.8 is reacted with ammonia to yield the amidate S35.4. The product is then reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with a haloester S35.5, in the presence of a base, to produce the amidate product S35.6. If appropriate, the nature of the R1 group is changed, using the procedures described above, to give the product S35.3. The method is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 4. In this sequence, the monophenyl phosphoryl chloride S35.18 is reacted, as described in Scheme 34, with ammonia, to yield the amino product S35.19. This material is then reacted in N-methylpyrrolidinone solution at 170° with butyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S35.20 and potassium carbonate, to afford the amidate product S35.21. Using these procedures, but employing, in place of butyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S35.20, different haloesters S35.5, the corresponding products S35.6 are obtained. The monoamidate products S35.3 are also prepared from the doubly activated phosphonate derivatives S34.7. In this procedure, examples of which are described in Synlett., 1998, 1, 73, the intermediate S34.7 is reacted with a limited amount of the aminoester S34.9 to give the mono-displacement product S34.11. The latter compound is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R3OH in a polar organic solvent such as dimethylformamide, in the presence of a base such as diisopropylethylamine, to yield the monoamidate ester S35.3. The method is illustrated in Scheme 35, Example 5. In this method, the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 is reacted in dichloromethane solution with one molar equivalent of ethyl N-methyl tyrosinate S35.23 and dimethylaminopyridine, to generate the monoamidate S35.24. The product is then reacted with phenol S35.25 in dimethylformamide containing potassium carbonate, to yield the ester amidate product S35.26. Using these procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl N-methyl tyrosinate S35.23 or phenol S35.25, the aminoesters 34.9 and/or the hydroxy compounds R3OH, the corresponding products S35.3 are obtained. Scheme 36 illustrates methods for the preparation of carboalkoxy-substituted phosphonate diesters in which one of the ester groups incorporates a carboalkoxy substituent. In one procedure, a phosphonate monoester S34.1, prepared as described above, is coupled, using one of the methods described above, with a hydroxyester S36.1, in which the groups R4b and R5b are as described in Scheme 34. For example, equimolar amounts of the reactants are coupled in the presence of a carbodiimide such as dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, as described in Aust. J. Chem., 1963, 609, optionally in the presence of dimethylaminopyridine, as described in Tet., 1999, 55, 12997. The reaction is conducted in an inert solvent at ambient temperature. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 1. In this method, a monophenyl phosphonate S36.9 is coupled, in dichloromethane solution in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, with ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-methylpropionate S36.10 to yield the phosphonate mixed diester S36.11. Using this procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-methylpropionate S36.10, different hydroxyesters S33.1, the corresponding products S33.2 are obtained. The conversion of a phosphonate monoester S34.1 into a mixed diester S36.2 is also accomplished by means of a Mitsunobu coupling reaction with the hydroxyester S36.1, as described in Org. Lett., 2001, 643. In this method, the reactants 34.1 and S36.1 are combined in a polar solvent such as tetrahydrofuran, in the presence of a triarylphosphine and a dialkyl azodicarboxylate, to give the mixed diester S36.2. The R1 substituent is varied by cleavage, using the methods described previously, to afford the monoacid product S36.3. The product is then coupled, for example using methods described above, with the hydroxy compound R3OH, to give the diester product S36.4. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 2. In this method, a monoallyl phosphonate S36.12 is coupled in tetrahydrofuran solution, in the presence of triphenylphosphine and diethylazodicarboxylate, with ethyl lactate S36.13 to give the mixed diester S36.14. The product is reacted with tris(triphenylphosphine) rhodium chloride (Wilkinson catalyst) in acetonitrile, as described previously, to remove the allyl group and produce the monoacid product S36.15. The latter compound is then coupled, in pyridine solution at ambient temperature, in the presence of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, with one molar equivalent of 3-hydroxypyridine S36.16 to yield the mixed diester S36.17. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of the ethyl lactate S36.13 or 3-hydroxypyridine, a different hydroxyester S36.1 and/or a different hydroxy compound R3OH, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. The mixed diesters S36.2 are also obtained from the monoesters S34.1 via the intermediacy of the activated monoesters S36.5. In this procedure, the monoester S34.1 is converted into the activated compound S36.5 by reaction with, for example, phosphorus pentachloride, as described in J. Org. Chem., 2001, 66, 329, or with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride (Lv=Cl), or with triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine, as described in Nucleosides and Nucleotides, 2000, 19, 1885, or with carbonyl diimidazole, as described in J. Med. Chem., 2002, 45, 1284. The resultant activated monoester is then reacted with the hydroxyester S36.1, as described above, to yield the mixed diester S36.2. The procedure is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 3. In this sequence, a monophenyl phosphonate S36.9 is reacted, in acetonitrile solution at 70° C., with ten equivalents of thionyl chloride, so as to produce the phosphoryl chloride S36.19. The product is then reacted with ethyl 4-carbamoyl-2-hydroxybutyrate S36.20 in dichloromethane containing triethylamine, to give the mixed diester S36.21. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 4-carbamoyl-2-hydroxybutyrate S36.20, different hydroxyesters S36.1, the corresponding products S36.2 are obtained. The mixed phosphonate diesters are also obtained by an alternative route for incorporation of the R3O group into intermediates S36.3 in which the hydroxyester moiety is already incorporated. In this procedure, the monoacid intermediate S36.3 is converted into the activated derivative S36.6 in which Lv is a leaving group such as chloro, imidazole, and the like, as previously described. The activated intermediate is then reacted with the hydroxy compound R3OH, in the presence of a base, to yield the mixed diester product S36.4. The method is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 4. In this sequence, the phosphonate monoacid S36.22 is reacted with trichloromethanesulfonyl chloride in tetrahydrofuran containing collidine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 4648, to produce the trichloromethanesulfonyloxy product S36.23. This compound is reacted with 3-(morpholinomethyl)phenol S36.24 in dichloromethane containing triethylamine, to yield the mixed diester product S36.25. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of with 3-(morpholinomethyl)phenol S36.24, different alcohols R3OH, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. The phosphonate esters S36.4 are also obtained by means of alkylation reactions performed on the monoesters S34.1. The reaction between the monoacid S34.1 and the haloester S36.7 is performed in a polar solvent in the presence of a base such as diisopropylethylamine, as described in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, or triethylamine, as described in J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 1372, or in a non-polar solvent such as benzene, in the presence of 18-crown-6, as described in Syn. Comm., 1995, 25, 3565. The method is illustrated in Scheme 36, Example 5. In this procedure, the monoacid S36.26 is reacted with ethyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S36.27 and diisopropylethylamine in dimethylfommamide at 80° C. to afford the mixed diester product S36.28. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-bromo-3-phenylpropionate S36.27, different haloesters S36.7, the corresponding products S36.4 are obtained. Scheme 37 illustrates methods for the preparation of phosphonate diesters in which both the ester substituents incorporate carboalkoxy groups. The compounds are prepared directly or indirectly from the phosphonic acids S34.6. In one alternative, the phosphonic acid is coupled with the hydroxyester S37.2, using the conditions described previously in Schemes 34-36, such as coupling reactions using dicyclohexyl carbodiimide or similar reagents, or under the conditions of the Mitsunobu reaction, to afford the diester product S37.3 in which the ester substituents are identical. This method is illustrated in Scheme 37, Example 1. In this procedure, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with three molar equivalents of butyl lactate S37.5 in the presence of Aldrithiol-2 and triphenyl phosphine in pyridine at ca. 70° C., to afford the diester S37.6. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of butyl lactate S37.5, different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. Alternatively, the diesters S37.3 are obtained by alkylation of the phosphonic acid S34.6 with a haloester S37.1. The alkylation reaction is performed as described in Scheme 36 for the preparation of the esters S36.4. This method is illustrated in Scheme 37, Example 2. In this procedure, the phosphonic acid S34.6 is reacted with excess ethyl 3-bromo-2-methylpropionate S37.7 and diisopropylethylamine in dimethylformamide at ca. 80° C., as described in Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 1056, to produce the diester S37.8. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-bromo-2-methylpropionate S37.7, different haloesters S37.1, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. The diesters S37.3 are also obtained by displacement reactions of activated derivatives S34.7 of the phosphonic acid with the hydroxyesters S37.2. The displacement reaction is performed in a polar solvent in the presence of a suitable base, as described in Scheme 36. The displacement reaction is performed in the presence of an excess of the hydroxyester, to afford the diester product S37.3 in which the ester substituents are identical, or sequentially with limited amounts of different hydroxyesters, to prepare diesters S37.3 in which the ester substituents are different. The methods are illustrated in Scheme 37, Examples 3 and 4. As shown in Example 3, the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 is reacted with three molar equivalents of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propionate S37.9 in tetrahydrofuran containing potassium carbonate, to obtain the diester product S37.10. Using the above procedure, but employing, in place of ethyl 3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)propionate S37.9, different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. Scheme 37, Example 4 depicts the displacement reaction between equimolar amounts of the phosphoryl dichloride S35.22 and ethyl 2-methyl-3-hydroxypropionate S37.11, to yield the monoester product S37.12. The reaction is conducted in acetonitrile at 70° in the presence of diisopropylethylamine. The product S37.12 is then reacted, under the same conditions, with one molar equivalent of ethyl lactate S37.13, to give the diester product S37.14. Using the above procedures, but employing, in place of ethyl 2-methyl-3-hydroxypropionate S37.11 and ethyl lactate S37.13, sequential reactions with different hydroxyesters S37.2, the corresponding products S37.3 are obtained. 2,2-Dimethyl-2-aminoethylphosphonic acid intermediates can be prepared by the route in Scheme 5. Condensation of 2-methyl-2-propanesulfinamide with acetone give sulfinyl imine S38.11 (J. Org. Chem. 1999, 64, 12). Addition of dimethyl methylphosphonate lithium to S38.11 afford S38.12. Acidic methanolysis of S38.12 provide amine S38.13. Protection of amine with Cbz group and removal of methyl groups yield phosphonic acid S38.14, which can be converted to desired S38.15 (Scheme 38a) using methods reported earlier on. An alternative synthesis of compound S38.14 is also shown in Scheme 38b. Commercially available 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol is converted to aziridines S38.16 according to literature methods (J. Org. Chem. 1992, 57, 5813; Syn. Lett. 1997, 8, 893). Aziridine opening with phosphite give S38.17 (Tetrahedron Lett. 1980, 21, 1623). Reprotection) of S38.17 affords S38.14. ENUMERATED EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS 1. A compound, including enantiomers thereof, of Formula 1A, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein: A0 is A1, A2, or A3; A1 is A2 is A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, Y3, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; Y3 is O, S(O)M2, S, or C(R2)2; Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: Ry is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or, when taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c, R3d, or R3e, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is R3e, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is (═Y1); R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3c is F, Cl, Br or I; R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is H or R4, wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 2. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 3. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 4. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2 is selected from selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 5. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1B 6. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1C 7. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1D 8. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1E 9. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1F 10. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1G 11. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1H 12. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1I wherein: Y4 is N or C(R3). 13. The compound of embodiment 1 that has the formula 1J 14. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein R2a is halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 15. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein Rx is a naturally occurring amino acid. 16. A compound, enantiomers thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that is of the general structure of formula I wherein B is Base; Z is O, S, or C(Rk)2; R3e is F, Cl, Br or I; A6k —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(Yk2A5k), —CH2P(Yk)(A5k)(A5k), or —CH2P(Yk)(YkAA5k)(Yk2A5k), optionally substituted with Rk; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; Yk is O or S; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; and each Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that the compound of Formula 1A is not of the structure 556-E.6 or its ethyl diester. 17. The compound of embodiment 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl 18. The compound of embodiment 16 wherein R2a is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, alkyl, azido, cyano, or haloalkyl. 19. The compound of embodiment 1 selected from: a) Formula 1A wherein A0 is A3; b) Formula 1A wherein A0 is c) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H; d) Formula 1A wherein: A3 is R3 is —N(Rx)(Rx); each R2 and R2a is H. e) Formula 1A wherein: A0 is and each R2 and R2a is H. 20. The compound of embodiment 1, wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y2b is O or N(R2); and M12d is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 21. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 22. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 23. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein the phenyl carbocycle is substituted with 0, 1, 2, or 3 R2 groups. 24. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: 25. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein: Y1a is O or S; Y2b is O or N(R2); and Y2c is O, N(R) or S; and each R2 and R2a is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl. 26. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein A3 is of the formula: wherein each R is independently H or alkyl. 27. The compound of embodiment 1 which is isolated and purified. 28. A compound of formula MBF I, or prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters thereof wherein each K1 and K2 are independently selected from the group consisting of A5k and —Yk2A5k; Yk2 is O, N(Rk), or S; B is Base; A5k is H, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, or heteroaryl, optionally substituted with Rk; and Rk is independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, amino, amino acid, alkoxy, aryloxy, cyano, azido, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, and heteroaryl; provided that when B is adenine, then both K1 and K2 are not simultaneously both —OH or —OEt. 29. The compound of embodiment 28 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of 2,6-diaminopurine, guanine, adenine, cytosine, 5-fluoro-cytosine, monodeaza, and monoaza analogues thereof. 30. The compound of embodiment 28 wherein MBF I is of the formula 31. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein B is selected from the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, inosine, nebularine, nitropyrrole, nitroindole, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil, O6-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, O4-methylthymine, 5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 4-methylindole, substituted triazole, and pyrazolo[3,4-D]pyrimidine. 32. The compound of embodiment 1 wherein B is selected form the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, thymine, 7-deazaadenine, 7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, and 7-deazaguanine. 33. The compound of embodiment 1 that is selected from Table Y. 34 The compound of embodiment 28 wherein K1 and K2 are selected from Table 100. TABLE 100 K1 K2 Ester Ala OPh cPent Ala OCH2CF3 Et Ala OPh 3-furan-4H Ala OPh cBut Phe(B) OPh Et Phe(A) OPh Et Ala(B) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(S) Phe OPh cBu Phe OCH2CF3 iBu Ala(A) OPh Et Phe OPh sBu(R) Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr Phe(B) OPh nBu Phe(A) OPh nBu Phe OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh CH2cBu Ala OPh 3-pent ABA(B) OPh Et ABA(A) OPh Et Ala OPh CH2cBu Met OPh Et Pro OPh Bn Phe(B) OPh iBu Phe(A) OPh iBu Phe OPh iPr Phe OPh nPr Ala OPh CH2cPr Phe OPh Et Ala OPh Et ABA OPh nPent Phe Phe nPr Phe Phe Et Ala Ala Et CHA OPh Me Gly OPh iPr ABA OPh nBu Phe OPh allyl Ala OPh nPent Gly OPh iBu ABA OPh iBu Ala OPh nBu CHA CHA Me Phe Phe Allyl ABA ABA nPent Gly Gly iBu Gly Gly iPr Phe OPh iBu Ala OPh nPr Phe OPh nBu ABA OPh nPr ABA OPh Et Ala Ala Bn Phe Phe nBu ABA ABA nPr ABA ABA Et Ala Ala nPr Ala OPh iPr Ala OPh Bn Ala Ala nBu Ala Ala iBu ABA ABA nBu ABA ABA iPr Ala OPh iBu ABA OPh Me ABA OPh iPr ABA ABA iBu wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). 35. A compound of formula B, and the salts and solvates thereof. wherein: A3 is: Y1 is independently O, S, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), or N(N(Rx)(Rx)); Y2 is independently a bond, O, N(Rx), N(O)(Rx), N(ORx), N(O)(ORx), N(N(Rx)(Rx)), —S(O)M2—, or —S(O)M2—S(O)M2—; and when Y2 joins two phosphorous atoms Y2 can also be C(R2)(R2); Rx is independently H, R1, R2, W3, a protecting group, or the formula: wherein: R1 is independently H, W3, R2 or a protecting group; R1 is independently H or alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms; R2 and R2a are independently H, R1, R3, or R4 wherein each R4 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups or taken together at a carbon atom, two R2 groups form a ring of 3 to 8 carbons and the ring may be substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; R3 is R3a, R3b, R3c or R3d, provided that when R3 is bound to a heteroatom, then R3 is R3c or R3d; R3a is F, Cl, Br, I, —CN, N3 or —NO2; R3b is Y1; R3c is -Rx, —N(Rx)(Rx), —SRx, —S(O)Rx, —S(O)2Rx, —S(O)(ORx), —S(O)2(ORx), —OC(Y1)Rx, —OC(Y1)ORx, —OC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —SC(Y1)Rx, —SC(Y1)ORx, —SC(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)), —N(Rx)C(Y1)Rx, —N(Rx)C(Y1)ORx, or —N(Rx)C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R3d is —C(Y1)Rx, —C(Y1)ORx or —C(Y1)(N(Rx)(Rx)); R4 is an alkyl of 1 to 18 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms, or alkynyl of 2 to 18 carbon atoms; R5 is R4 wherein each R4 is substituted with 0 to 3 R3 groups; W3 is W4 or W5; W4 is R5, —C(Y1)R5, —C(Y1)W5, —SOM2R5, or —SOM2W5; W5 is carbocycle or heterocycle wherein W5 is independently substituted with 0 to 3 R2 groups; W6 is W3 independently substituted with 1, 2, or 3 A3 groups; M2 is 0, 1 or 2; M12a is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M12b is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; M1a, M1c, and M1d are independently 0 or 1; and M12c is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12; wherein A3 is not —O—CH2—P(O)(OH)2 or —O—CH2—P(O)(OEt)2. 36. The compound of embodiment 35 wherein m2 is 0, Y1 is O, Y2 is O, M12b and M12a are 1, one Y3 is —ORx where Rx is W3 and the other Y3 is N(H)Rx where Rx is 37. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is selected from the group of esters in Table 100. 38. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a C1-C8 normal, secondary, tertiary or cyclic alkylene, alkynylene or alkenylene. 39. The compound of embodiment 36 wherein the terminal Ry of Rx is a heterocycle containing 5 to 6 ring atoms and 1 or 2 N, O and/or S atoms in the ring. 40. The compound of embodiment 1 having the formula XX: 41. The compound of embodiment 1 having the formula XXX: 42. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutical excipient and an antivirally-effective amount of the compound of embodiment 1. 43. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 32 that further comprises a second active ingredient. 44. A combination comprising the compound of embodiment 1 and one or more antivirally active ingredients. 45. The combination of embodiment 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 98. 46. The combination of embodiment 45 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 47. The combination of embodiment 44 wherein one or more of the active ingredients is selected from Table 99. 48. The combination of embodiment 47 wherein one of the active ingredients is selected from the group consisting of Truvada, Viread, Emtriva, d4T, Sustiva, or Amprenavir antiviral compounds. 49. The combination of embodiment 46 for use in medical therapy. 50. The combination of embodiment 48 for use in medical therapy. 51. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 42 for use in medical therapy, 52. The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 43 for use in medical therapy 53. The compound of embodiment 1 for use in antiretroviral or antihepadinaviral treatment. 54. A method of preparing the compound of embodiment 1 according to the Examples or Schemes. 55. Use of a compound of embodiment 1 for preparing a medicament for treating HIV or a HIV associated disorder. 56. A method of therapy for treating HIV or HIV-associated disorders with the compound of embodiment 1. 57. A method of treating disorders associated with HIV, said method comprising administering to an individual infected with, or at risk for HIV infection, a pharmaceutical composition which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of any of embodiments 1-28. 58. A compound of Table Y, provided the compound is not or its ethyl diester. EXAMPLES AND EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Examples 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-3,5-di-O-benzoyl-•-D-arabinofuranosylbromide (2) Tann et al., JOC 1985, 50, p 3644 Howell et al. JOC 1988, 53, p 85. To a solution of 1 (120 g, 258 mmol), commercially available from Davos or CMS chemicals, in CH2Cl2 (1 L) was added 33% HBr/Acetic acid (80 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h, cooled with ice-water, and slowly neutralized over 1-2 h with NaHCO3 (150 g/1.5 L solution). The CH2Cl2 phase was separated and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with NaHCO3 until no acid was present. The organic phase was dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give product 2 as a yellow oil (˜115 g). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-3,5-di-O-benzoyl-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-9H-6-chloropurine (3) Ma et al., J. Med. Chem. 1997, 40, 2750 Marquez et al., J. Med. Chem. 1990, 33, 978 Hildebrand et al., J. Org. Chem. 1992, 57, 1808 Kazimierczuk et al. JACS 1984, 106, 6379 To a suspension of NaH (14 g, 60%) in ACETONITRILE (900 mL), 6-chloropurine (52.6 g) was added in 3 portions. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1.5 h. A solution of 2 (258 mmol) in ACETONITRILE (300 mL) was added dropwise. The resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h. The reaction was quenched with Acetic acid (3.5 mL), filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was partitioned between CH2Cl2 and water. The organic phase was dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was treated with CH2Cl2 and then EtOH (˜1:2 overall) to precipitate out the desired product 3 as a yellowish solid (83 g, 65% from 1). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-6-methoxyadenine (4) To a suspension of 3 (83 g, 167 mmol) in Methanol (1 L) at 0° C., NaOMe (25% wt, 76 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 h, and then quenched with Acetic acid (˜11 mL, pH=7). The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure and the resultant residue partitioned between hexane and water (approximately 500 mL hexane and 300 mL water). The aqueous layer was separated and the organic layer mixed with water once again (approximately 300 mL). The water fractions were combined and concentrated under reduced pressure to ˜100 mL. The product, 4, precipitated out and was collected by filtration (42 g, 88%). 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-5-carboxy-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-6-methoxyadenine (5) Moss et al. J. Chem. Soc 1963, p 1149 A mixture of Pt/C (10%, 15 g (20-30% mol equiv.) as a water slurry) and NaHCO3 (1.5 g, 17.94 mmol) in H2O (500 mL) was stirred at 65° C. under H2 for 0.5 h. The reaction mixture was then allowed to cool, placed under a vacuum and flushed with N2 several times to completely remove all H2. Compound 4 (5.1 g, 17.94 mmol) was then added at room temperature. The reaction mixture was stirred at 65° C. under O2 (balloon) until the reaction was complete by LC-MS (typically 24-72 h). The mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered. The Pt/C was washed with H2O extensively. The combined filtrates were concentrated to ˜30 mL, and acidified (pH 4) by the addition of HCl (4N) at 0° C. A black solid precipitated out which was collected by filtration. The crude product was dissolved in a minimum amount of Methanol and filtered through a pad of silica gel (eluting with Methanol). The filtrate was concentrated and crystallized from water to give compound 5 (2.5 g) as an off-white solid. (2′R,3′S,4′R,5′R)-6-Methoxy-9-[tetrahydro 4-iodo-3-fluoro-5-(diethoxyphosphinyl)methoxy-2-furanyl purine (6) Zemlicka et al., J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, p 3213 To a solution of 5 (22 g, 73.77 mmol) in DMF (400 mL), DMF dineopentyl acetal (150 mL, 538 mmol) and methanesulfonic acid (9.5 mL, 146.6 mmol) were added. The reaction mixture was stirred at 80-93° C. (internal temperature) for 30 min, then cooled to room temperature and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic phase was separated and washed with NaHCO3 followed by brine, dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue and diethyl (hydroxymethyl)phosphonate (33 mL, 225 mmol) were dissolved in CH2Cl2 (250 mL) and cooled down to −40° C. A solution of iodine monobromide (30.5 g, 1.1 mol) in CH2Cl2 (100 mL) was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred at −20 to −5° C. for 6 h. The reaction was then quenched with NaHCO3 and Na2S2O3. The organic phase was separated and the water phase was extracted with CH2Cl2. The combined organic phases were washed with brine, dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by silica gel chromatography to give product 6 (6 g, 15.3%). Alternative Procedure for the Preparation of 6 A solution of 5 (2.0 g, 6.7 mmol) in THF (45 mL) was treated with triphenyl phosphine (2.3 g, 8.7 mmol) under N2. Diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (1.8 g, 8.7 mmol) was added slowly. The resultant mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1 h and then concentrated under reduced pressure to dryness. The residue was dissolved in CH2Cl2 (20 ml), and then treated with diethyl(hydroxymethyl)phosphonate (4.5 g, 27 mmol). The mixture was cooled to −60° C. and then a cold solution of iodine monobromide 2 g, 9.6 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 ml) was added. The reaction mixture was warmed to −10° C. and then kept at −10° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with CH2Cl2, washed with saturated aqueous NaHCO3, and then with aqueous sodium thiosulfate. The organic phase was separated, dried over MgSO4, and concentrated under reduced pressure to dryness. The reaction mixture was purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with 25% ethyl acetate in CH2Cl2, then switching to 3% methanol in CH2Cl2) to afford product 6 (0.9 g, 33%). (2′R,5′R)-6-Methoxy-9-[3-fluoro-2,5-dihydro-5-(diethoxyphosphinyl)methoxy-2-furanyl]purine (7) To a solution of compound 6 (6 g, 11.3 mmol) in acetic acid (2.5 mL) and methanol (50 mL), NaClO (10-13%) (50 mL) was added dropwise. The reaction mixture was then stirred for 0.5 h and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with ethyl acetate and then filtered to remove solids. The filtrate was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica gel chromatography to give product 7 (4 g, 88%). (2′R,5′R)-9-(3-fluoro-2,5-dihydro-5-phosphonomethoxy-2-furanyl)adenine Disodium Salt (8) A solution of compound 7 (2.3 g, 5.7 mmol) in methanol (6 mL) was mixed with ammonium hydroxide (28-30%) (60 mL). The resultant mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 4 h, cooled, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dried under vacuum for 12 h. The residue was dissolved in DMF (40 mL) and bromotrimethylsilane (3.5 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 h, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in aqueous NaHCO3 (2.3 g in 100 mL of water). The solution was evaporated and the residue was purified on C-18 (40 μm) column, eluting with water. The aqueous fractions were freeze dried to give di-sodium salt 8 (1.22 g, 57%). Example of Monoamidate Preparation (9) Disodium salt 8 (25 mg, 0.066 mmol), (S)-Ala-O-cyclobutyl ester hydrochloride (24 mg, 2 eq., 0.133 mmol) and phenol (31 mg, 0.333 mmol) were mixed in anhydrous pyridine (1 mL). Triethylamine (111 μL, 0.799 mmol) was added and the resultant mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen. In a separate flask, 2′-Aldrithiol (122 mg, 0.466 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (103 mg, 0.466 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous pyridine (0.5 mL) and the resulting yellow solution was stirred for 15-20 min. The solution was then added to the solution of 8 in one portion. The combined mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 16 h to give a clear yellow to light brown solution. The mixture was then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in CH2Cl2 and purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with a linear gradient of 0 to 5% MeOH in CH2Cl2) to give an oil. The resulting oil was dissolved in acetonitrile and water and purified by preparative HPLC (linear gradient, 5-95% acetonitrile in water). Pure fractions were combined and freeze-dried to give mono amidate 9 as a white powder. Example of Bis Amidate Preparation (10) Disodium salt 8 (12 mg, 0.032 mmol) and (S)-Ala-O-n-Pr ester hydrochloride (32 mg, 6 eq., 0.192 mmol) were mixed in anhydrous pyridine (1 mL). Triethylamine (53 μL, 0.384 mmol) was added and the resultant mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen. In a separate flask, 2′-Aldrithiol (59 mg, 0.224 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (49 mg, 0.224 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous pyridine (0.5 mL) and the resulting yellow solution was stirred for 15-20 min. The solution was then added to the solution of 8 in one portion. The combined mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 16 h to give a clear yellow to light brown solution. The mixture was then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in CH2Cl2 and purified by silica gel chromatography (eluting with a linear gradient of 0 to 5% MeOH in CH2Cl2) to give an oil. The resulting oil was dissolved in acetonitrile and water and purified by preparative HPLC (linear gradient, 5-95% acetonitrile in water). Pure fractions were combined and freeze-dried to give bis amidate as a white powder. Example of Monoamidate Preparation (11) Compound 8 (1.5 g, 4 mmol) was mixed with ethyl alanine ester HCl salt (1.23 g, 8 mmol) and phenol (1.88 g, 20 mmol). Anhydrous pyridine (35 mL) was added followed by TEA (6.7 mL, 48 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 60° C. under nitrogen for 15-20 min. 2′-Aldrithiol (7.3 g) was mixed in a separate flask with triphenylphosphine (6.2 g) in anhydrous pyridine (5 mL) and the resultant mixture was stirred for 10-15 min to give a clear light yellow solution. The solution was then added to the above mixture and stirred overnight at 60° C. The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to remove pyridine. The resultant residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution (2×) and then with saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The resultant oil was dissolved in dichloromethane and loaded onto a dry CombiFlash column, 40 g, eluting, with a linear gradient of 0-5% methanol in dichloromethane over 10 min and then 5% methanol in dichloromethane for 7-10 min. Fractions containing the desired product were combined and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a foam. The foam was dissolved in acetonitrile and purified by prep HPLC to give 11 (0.95 g). Dissolved 11 (950 mg) in small amount of acetonitrile and let stand at room temperature overnight. Collected solid by filtration and washed with small amount of acetonitrile. Solid was GS-327625. Filtrate was reduced under vacuum and then loaded onto Chiralpak AS-H column equilibrated in Buffer A, 2% ethanol in acetonitrile. Isomer A, 12, was eluted out with Buffer A at 10 mL/min for 17 mins. After which Buffer 13, 50% methanol in acetonitrile, was used to elute isomer 13 out from the column in 8 mins. Removed all solvent and then re-dissolved in acetonitrile and water. Freeze-dried the samples (Mass—348 mg). Example 11b 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.12 (s, 1H) • 6.82 (m, 1H) • 5.96-5.81 (m, 4H) • 4.03-3.79 (m, 10H) • 3.49 (s, 1H) • 3.2 (m, 2H) • 1.96-1.69 (m, 10H) • 1.26 (m, 4H) • 0.91 (m, 12H) • 31P NMR (CDCl3) 20.37 (s, 1P) MS (M+1) 614 Example 12b 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.13 (s, 1H) • 7.27-7.11 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.97-5.77 (m, 4H) • 4.14-3.79 (m, 6H) • 3.64 (t, 1H) • 2.00-1.88 (bm, 4H) • 1.31 (dd, 3H) • 0.91 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.12 (s, 0.5P) • 19.76 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 535 Example 13b 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.39 (s, 1H), 8.13 (s, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.95 (m, 1H), 5.81 (s, 1H), 4.98 (m, 2H), 3.90 (m, 2H), 3.37 (m, 1H), 3.19 (m, 1H), 1.71 (m, 4H), 1.25 (m, 12H), 0.90 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 14 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.38 (s, 1H), 8.12 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.93 (m, 1H), 5.79 (s, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.42 (m, 1H), 3.21 (m, 1H), 1.65 (m, 4H), 1.35 (m, 8H), 0.92 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 614.3 Example 15 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.38 (s, 1H), 8.12 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.93 (m, 2H), 5.80 (s, 1H), 3.91 (m, 6H), 3.42 (m, 1H), 3.30 (m, 1H), 1.91 (m, 2H), 1.40 (m, 6H), 0.90 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 16 1H NMR (CDCl3): • 8.37 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 6.80 (m 1H), 6.18 (s, 1H), 5.93 (m, 1H), 5.79 (s, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.46 (m, 1H), 3.37 (m, 1H), 1.61 (m, 4H), 1.32 (m, 10H), 0.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 614.3 Example 17 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 4H), 1.38 (m, 6H), 0.98 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 18 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 8H), 1.67 (m, 4H), 1.23 (m, 6H), 0.95 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 19 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.96 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 8H), 0.93 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 586.3 Example 20 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 7.21 (m, 10H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.91 (s, 1H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.04 (m, 6H), 3.50 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.47 (m, 8H), 0.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 738.4 Example 21 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.24 (s, 2H), 7.33 (m, 10H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.88 (s, 1H), 5.84 (m, 1H), 5.12 (m, 4H), 3.94 (m, 4H), 1.35 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 654.3 Example 22 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.38 (d, 1H) • 8.12 (d, 1H) • 7.31-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.81 (m, 1H) • 5.98-5.75 (m, 4H) • 4.23-3.92 (M, 7H) • 3.65 (m, 1H) • 1.63 (m, 3H) • 1.26 (m, 4H) • 1.05-0.78 (m, 3H) 31P NMR • 21.01 (s, 0.6P) • 20.12 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 23 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.40 (d, 1H) • 8.13 (d, 1H) • 7.30-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (m, 1H) • 5.99-5.77 (m, 3H) • 4.22-3.92 (m, 6H) • 3.61 (m, 1H) • 1.65 (m, 4H) • 1.26-0.71 (m, 6H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.99 (s, 0.6P) • 20.08 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 535 Example 24 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.08 (d, 1H) • 7.28-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.90 (m, 4H) • 4.37 (m, 1H) • 4.05 (m, 5H) • 3.56 (m, 2H) • 2.99 (m, 2H) • 1.55 (m, 2H) • 1.22 (m, 3H) • 0.88 (m, 3H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.95 (s, 0.5P) 20.01 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 611 Example 25 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.38 (d, 1H) • 8.11 (s, 1H) • 7.31-7.11 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.96-5.76 (m, 4H) • 4.22-3.63 (m, 6H) • 2.17 (bm, 2H) • 1.65 (m, 2H) 1.30 (m, 4H) • 0.88 (m, 3H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.75 (s, 0.5P) • 19.82 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 26 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.40 (d, 1H) • 8.09 (d, 1H) • 7.27-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.93-5.30 (m, 4H) • 4.39 (m, 1H) • 4.14-3.77 (m, 4H) • 3.58 (m, 2H) • 2.95 (m, 2H) • 1.90 (m, 3H) • 1.26 (m, 1H) • 0.85 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.97 (s, 0.5P) • 20.04 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 611 Example 27 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.31 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.02 (s, 1H), 5.98 (m, 1H), 4.98 (m, 2H), 4.01 (m, 2H), 3.66 (m, 4H), 1.23 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 530.2 Example 28 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.31 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.01 (s, 1H), 5.98 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 2H), 3.86 (m, 4H), 3.68 (m, 4H), 1.92 (m, 2H), 0.93 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 558.3 Example 29 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.99 (s, 1H), 5.97 (m, 1H), 4.01 (m, 8H), 1.66 (m, 8H), 1.32 (m, 8H), 0.96 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 642.4 Example 30 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.24 (m, 10H), 6.80 (m 1H), 5.90 (s, 1H), 5.71 (m, 1H), 5.25 (m, 4H), 4.57 (m, 2H), 4.51 (m, 2H), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.46 (m, 2H), 2.92 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 706.4 Example 31 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.32 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.97 (m, 11), 3.93 (m, 4H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 3.60 (s, 3H), 1.51 (m, 26H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 666.5 Example 32 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.17 (d, 1H) • 7.32-6.82 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.98-5.81 (m, 3H) • 4.27-3.64 (m, 6H) • 1.94 (m, 11) • 0.90 (m, 6H) • 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.50 (s, 0.5P) • 21.37 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 521 Example 33 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (s, 1H) • 8.13 (s, 1H) • 7.27-7.14 (m, 5H) • 6.85 (s, 1H) • 5.97-5.77 (m, 4H) • 4.186-4.05 (m, 7H) • 1.60 (m, 3H) • 1.29 (m, 7H) • 0.90 (m, 3H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) 20.69 (s, 0.6P) • 19.77 (s, 0.4P) MS (M+1) 549 Example 34 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.07 (d, 1H) • 7.27-6.74 (m, 10H) • 5.91 (m, 2H) • 5.69 (m 2H) • 5.27 (m, 2H) • 4.55 (m, 2H) • 4.30 (m, 1H) • 3.69 (m, 1H) • 2.95 (m, 1H) • 5.05 (m, 2H) 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 20.94 (s, 0.5P) • 19.94 (s, 0.5P) MS (M+1) 595 Example 35 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.11 (d, 1H) • 7.28-7.10 (m, 5H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.98-5.76 (m, 3H) • 4.18-3.56 (m, 4H) • 3.59 (m, 1H) • 1.74-0.70 (m, 12H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.00 (s, 0.6 P) • 20.09 (s, 0.4 P). MS (M+1) 549 Example 36 1H NMR (CDCl3) • 8.39 (d, 1H) • 8.12 (d. 1H) • 7.29 (m, 2H) • 7.15 (m, 3H) • 6.82 (s, 1H) • 5.94 (dd, 1H) • 5.80 (s, 3H)• 5.02 (m, 1H) • 4.23-3.58 (m, 6H) • 2.18 (s, 3H) • 1.23 (m, 6H). 31P NMR (CDCl3) • 21.54 (s, 0.5 P) • 21.43 (s, 0.5 P). MS (M+1) 507 Example 37 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.30 (s, 1H), 8.25 (s, 1H), 6.84 (m 1H), 6.00 (s, 1H), 5.95 (m, 1H), 4.06 (m, 8H), 1.31 (m, 12H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 530.3 Example 38 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.24 (m, 10H), 6.84 (m 1H), 5.91 (s, 1H), 5.75 (m, 1H), 4.08 (m, 6H), 3.60 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.21 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 682.4 Example 39 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (s, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 7.22 (m, 10H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.90 (s, 1H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.02 (m, 6H), 3.63 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 4H), 1.58 (m, 4H), 0.87 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 710.4 Example 40 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.22 (m, 8H), 6.95 (m, 1H), 6.82 (m 1H), 5.90 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 3.95 (m, 4H), 3.63 (m, 1H), 3.07 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 0.86 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 597.4 Example 41 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.13 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 597.5 Example 42 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.33 (m, 10H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.92 (m, 2H), 5.15 (m, 2H), 4.25 (m, 4H), 3.20 (m, 1H), 1.90 (m, 4H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 595.6 Example 43 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 5H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 4.10 (m, 5H), 2.50 (m, 4H), 2.01 (m, 3H), 1.22 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 567.3 Example 44 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 5H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 4.10 (m, 5H), 2.57 (m, 1H), 1.80 (m, 6H), 1.25 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 547.7 Example 45 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.17 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 4.66 (m, 1H), 4.12 (m, 3H), 1.56 (m, 4H), 1.28 (m, 3H), 0.88 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 549.3 Example 46 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.12 (m, 10H), 6.83 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.10 (m, 411), 3.65 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.79 (m, 1H), 2.50 (m, 1H), 1.89 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 623.4 Example 47 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.15 (m, 10H), 6.82 (m, 1H), 5.99 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 3.99 (m, 4H), 3.65 (m, 1H), 3.05 (m, 1H), 2.85 (m, 1H), 1.02 (m, 1H), 0.51 (m, 2H), 0.20 (m, 2H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 609.3 Example 48 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.71 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.49 (m, 2H) 1.07 (m, 3H), 0.82 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 611.2 Example 49 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.20 (m, 2H), 7.25 (m, 6H), 6.82 (m 1H), 5.95 (m, 2H), 5.68 (m, 1H), 3.93 (m, 6H), 3.50 (m, 1H), 3.20 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.90 (m, 1H), 0.95 (m, 6H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 617.3 Example 50 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.23 (m, 2H), 7.18 (m, 10H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.94 (m, 2H), 5.72 (m, 1H), 4.81 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 2.25 (m, 2H) 1.81 (m, 4H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 609.3 Example 51 1H NMR (CD3OD): 8.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 9H), 6.96 (m, 1H), 6.81 (m 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.71 (m, 1H)), 4.05 (m, 2H), 3.60 (m, 1H), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 1.49 (m, 2H) 1.07 (m, 3H), 0.82 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 611.4 Example 52 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (m, 1H), 8.25 (m, 1H), 7.20 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.97 (m, 2H), 4.85 (m, 1H), 4.15 (m, 2H), 3.95 (m, 1H), 2.28 (m, 2H), 1.99 (m, 2H), 1.77 (m, 2H) 1.26 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 533.3 Example 53 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.29 (m, 1H), 8.25 (m, 1H), 7.20 (m, 5H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 5.98 (m, 2H), 5.18 (m, 1H), 4.03 (m, 7H), 2.15 (m, 1H), 1.95 (m, 1H), 1.26 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 549.2 Example 54 1H NMR (CD3OD): • 8.24 (m, 2H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 6.01 (m, 2H), 4.43 (m, 2H), 4.09 (m, 5H), 1.38 (m, 3H) 1.23 (m, 3H) Mass Spectrum (m/e): (M+H)+ 513.2 Example 55 1H NMR for mixture of diastereomers at phosphorus (300 MHz, CD3OD ref. solv. resid. 3.30 ppm): • • (ppm)=8.22-8.27 (m, 2H), 7.09-7.34 (m, 5H), 6.84 (br s, 1H), 5.93-6.02 (m, 2H), 5.00-5.14 (m, 1H), 4.01-4.26 (m, 2H) 3.89-3.94 (m, 1H), 1.50-1.88 (m, 8H), 1.23, (br t, 3H, J=6.8). 31P NMR for mixture of diastereomers at phosphorus(121 MHz, 1H decoupled): • • (ppm)=23.56, 22.27 (˜60:40 ratio). Example 102 By way of example and not limitation, embodiments of the invention are named below in tabular format (Table Y). These embodiments are of the general formula “MBF3” MBF3: Sc.K1.K2 Each embodiment of MBF3, is depicted as a substituted nucleus (Sc). Sc is described in Table 1.1 below. Sc is also described by any formula presented herein that bears at least one K1 or K2 wherein each is a point of covalent attachment to Sc. For those embodiments described in Table Y, Sc is a nucleus designated by a number and each substituent is designated in order by number. Table 1.1 are a schedule of nuclei used in forming the embodiments of Table Y. Each nucleus (Sc) is given a number designation from Table 1.1 and this designation appears first in each embodiment name as numbers 1 to 2. Similarly, Tables 20.1 to 20.37 list the selected substituent groups by number designation, and are understood to be attached to Sc at K1 or K2 as listed. It is understood that K1 and K2 do not represent atoms, but only points of connection to the parent scaffold Sc. Accordingly, a compound of the formula MBF3 includes compounds having Sc groups based on compounds according to Table Y below. In all cases the compounds of the formula MBF3 have groups K1 and K2 on nucleus Sc, and the corresponding groups K1 and K2 are listed, as set forth in the Tables below. Accordingly, each named embodiment of Table Y is depicted by a number designating the nucleus from Table 1.1, followed by a number designating each substituent group K1, followed by the designation of substituent K2, as incorporated from Tables 20.1 to 20.37. In graphical tabular form, each embodiment of Table Y appears as a name having the syntax: Sc.K1.K2 Each Sc group is shown having various substituents K1 or K2. Each group K1 and K2 as listed in Table Y, is a substituent, as listed, of the Sc nucleus listed in Table Y. K1 and K2, it should be understood, do not represent groups or atoms but are simply connectivity designations. The site of the covalent bond to the nucleus (Sc) is designated as K1 and K2 of formula MBF3. Embodiments of K1 and K2 in Tables 20.1 to 20.37 are designated as numbers 1 to 247. For example there are 2 Sc entries in Table 1.1 and these entries for Sc are numbered 1 to 2. Each is designated as the Sc identifier (ie. 1 to 2). In any event, entries of Tables 20.1 to 20.37 always begin with a number, and are independently selected from Tables 20.1 to 20.37 and are each thus independently designated as numbers 1 to 247. Selection of the point of attachment is described herein. By way of example and not limitation, the point of attachment is selected from those depicted in the schemes and examples. TABLE 1.1 TABLE 20.1 TABLE 20.2 TABLE 20.3 TABLE 20.4 TABLE 20.5 TABLE 20.6 TABLE 20.7 TABLE 20.8 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 TABLE 20.9 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 TABLE 20.10 58 59 60 TABLE 20.11 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 TABLE 20.12 69 70 71 TABLE 20.13 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 TABLE 20.14 80 81 82 TABLE 20.15 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 TABLE 20.16 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 TABLE 20.17 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 TABLE 20.18 107 108 109 TABLE 20.19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 TABLE 20.20 118 119 120 TABLE 20.21 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 TABLE 20.22 129 130 131 TABLE 20.23 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 TABLE 20.24 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 TABLE 20.25 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 TABLE 20.26 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 TABLE 20.27 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 TABLE 20.28 180 181 182 183 184 185 TABLE 20.29 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 TABLE 20.30 194 195 196 197 198 199 TABLE 20.31 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 TABLE 20.32 208 209 210 211 212 213 TABLE 20.33 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 TABLE 20.34 222 223 224 225 226 227 TABLE 20.35 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 TABLE 20.36 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 TABLE 20.37 244 245 246 247 Lengthy table referenced here US20090202470A1-20090813-T00001 Please refer to the end of the specification for access instructions. EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Example R1 R2 Ester MW 55 Ala OPh cPent 546.5 54 Ala OCH2CF3 Et 512.36 53 Ala OPh 3-furan- 548.47 4H 52 Ala OPh cBut 532.47 50 Phe(B) OPh Et 582.53 56 Phe(A) OPh Et 582.53 57 Ala(B) OPh Et 506.43 51 Phe OPh sBu(S) 610.58 58 Phe OPh cBu 608.57 49 Phe OCH2CF3 iBu 616.51 59 Ala(A) OPh Et 506.43 48 Phe OPh sBu(R) 610.58 60 Ala(B) OPh CH2cPr 532.47 61 Ala(A) OPh CH2cPr 532.47 62 Phe(B) OPh nBu 610.58 63 Phe(A) OPh nBu 610.58 47 Phe OPh CH2cPr 608.57 46 Phe OPh CH2cBu 622.59 45 Ala OPh 3-pent 548.51 64 ABA(B) OPh Et 520.46 65 ABA(A) OPh Et 520.46 44 Ala OPh CH2cBu 546.5 43 Met OPh Et 566.55 42 Pro OPh Bn 594.54 66 Phe(B) OPh iBu 610.58 67 Phe(A) OPh iBu 610.58 41 Phe OPh iPr 596.56 40 Phe OPh nPr 596.56 79 Ala OPh CH2cPr 532.47 68 Phe OPh Et 582.53 69 Ala OPh Et 506.43 70 ABA OPh nPent 562.54 39 Phe Phe nPr 709.71 38 Phe Phe Et 681.66 37 Ala Ala Et 529.47 71 CHA OPh Me 574.55 36 Gly OPh iPr 506.43 35 ABA OPh nBu 548.51 34 Phe OPh allyl 594.54 33 Ala OPh nPent 548.51 32 Gly OPh iBu 520.46 72 ABA OPh iBu 548.51 73 Ala OPh nBu 534.48 31 CHA CHA Me 665.7 30 Phe Phe Allyl 705.68 29 ABA ABA nPent 641.48 28 Gly Gly iBu 557.52 27 Gly Gly iPr 529.47 26 Phe OPh iBu 610.58 25 Ala OPh nPr 520.46 24 Phe OPh nBu 610.58 23 ABA OPh nPr 534.48 22 ABA OPh Et 520.46 21 Ala Ala Bn 653.61 20 Phe Phe nBu 737.77 19 ABA ABA nPr 585.57 18 ABA ABA Et 557.52 17 Ala Ala nPr 557.52 74 Ala OPh iPr 520.46 75 Ala OPh Bn 568.5 16 Ala Ala nBu 585.57 15 Ala Ala iBu 585.57 14 ABA ABA nBu 613.63 13b ABA ABA iPr 585.57 12b Ala OPh iBu 534.48 77 ABA OPh Me 506.43 78 ABA OPh iPr 534.48 11b ABA ABA iBu 613.63 wherein Ala represents L-alanine, Phe represents L-phenylalanine, Met represents L-methionine, ABA represents (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, Pro represents L-proline, CHA represents 2-amino-3-(S)cyclohexylpropionic acid, Gly represents glycine; K1 or K2 amino acid carboxyl groups are esterified as denoted in the ester column, wherein cPent is cyclopentane ester; Et is ethyl ester, 3-furan-4H is the (R) tetrahydrofuran-3-yl ester; cBut is cyclobutane ester; sBu(S) is the (S) secButyl ester; sBu(R) is the (R) secButyl ester; iBu is isobutyl ester; CH2cPr is methylcyclopropane ester, nBu is n-butyl ester; CH2cBu is methylcyclobutane ester; 3-pent is 3-pentyl ester; nPent is nPentyl ester; iPr is isopropyl ester, nPr is nPropyl ester; allyl is allyl ester; Me is methyl ester; Bn is Benzyl ester; and wherein A or B in parentheses denotes one stereoisomer at phosphorus, with the least polar isomer denoted as (A) and the more polar as (B). All literature and patent citations above are hereby expressly incorporated by reference at the locations of their citation. Specifically cited sections or pages of the above cited works are incorporated by reference with specificity. The invention has been described in detail sufficient to allow one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the subject matter of the following Embodiments. It is apparent that certain modifications of the methods and compositions of the following Embodiments can be made within the scope and spirit of the invention. In the embodiments hereinbelow, the subscript and superscripts of a given variable are distinct. For example, R1 is distinct from R1. LENGTHY TABLES The patent application contains a lengthy table section. A copy of the table is available in electronic form from the USPTO web site (). An electronic copy of the table will also be available from the USPTO upon request and payment of the fee set forth in 37 CFR 1.19(b)(3).
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A
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38
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20
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11870317
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US20130109617A1-20130502
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SUBSTITUTED TETRACYCLINE COMPOUNDS FOR TREATMENT OF BACILLUS ANTHRACIS INFECTIONS
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ACCEPTED
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20130417
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20130502
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A61K3165
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["A61K3165", "A61K4506", "A61K3814", "A61K3143", "A61K317056"]
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A61K3165
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["A61K3165", "A61K317056", "A61K3143", "A61K4506", "A61K3814"]
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8440646
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20071010
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20130514
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514
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152000
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62917.0
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RICCI
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CRAIG
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Alekshun", "inventor_name_first": "Michael N.", "inventor_city": "Marlboro", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tanaka", "inventor_name_first": "S. Ken", "inventor_city": "Needham", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Methods and compositions for the treatment of Bacillus anthracis infections are described.
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1-4. (canceled) 5. A method for treating a bacillus anthracis infection in a subject, comprising administering to said subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that said bacillus anthracis infection in said subject is treated, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is of the formula I: wherein R2″ is C(═O)—NR2R2′; R2, R2′, and R3 are hydrogen; R4a and R4b are each alkyl; R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen; R4 and R4′ are each independently NR4aR4b; R5 and R5′ are each hydrogen; R6 and R6′ are each hydrogen; R7 is hydrogen, dialkylamino, alkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, or alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, wherein R7g and R7h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl; R8 is hydrogen; R9 is of the formula: wherein: J5 and J6 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, or linked to form a ring; and J7 and J8 are each alkyl, halogen, or hydrogen; and X is CR6′R6; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester or enantiomer thereof. 6-9. (canceled) 10. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted pyrimidinyl, pyridinyl, or furanyl. 12-13. (canceled) 14. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is hydrogen. 15-18. (canceled) 19. The method of claim 5, wherein J7 and J8 are each hydrogen. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein J6 is hydrogen. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein J5 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein J5 is propyl. 23-27. (canceled) 28. The method of claim 19, wherein J5 and J6 are linked to form a ring. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein J5 and J6 are linked to form a substituted or unsubstituted piperidinyl ring or fused ring. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said fused ring is 2,3-dihydro-indole or decahydro-isoquinoline. 31. The method of claim 29, wherein said piperidinyl ring is substituted with one or more halogens or one or more heterocyclic groups. 32. The method of claim 5, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is selected from the group consisting of: 33. The method of claim 5, wherein said substituted tetracycline compound is administered in combination with a second agent. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein said second agent is an antibiotic. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said second agent is selected from the group consisting of rifampin, vancomycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, imipenem, clindamycin, and clarithromycin. 36. The method of claim 5, wherein said bacillus anthracis is multidrug resistant. 37-57. (canceled) 58. The method of claim 5, wherein R7 is dimethylamino. 59. The method of claim 22, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 60. The method of claim 28, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 61. The method of claim 29, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 62. The method of claim 30, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen. 63. The method of claim 31, wherein R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, dimethylamino, or hydrogen.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the fall of 2001, letters intentionally contaminated with Bacillus anthracis were mailed to individuals in Florida, Washington, D.C., and New York City. These events resulted in exposures both at the sites of delivery and also at sites the letters passed through in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and Connecticut. In total, there were 11 cases of documented inhalation anthrax infections, including 5 deaths, and 11 cases of documented cutaneous anthrax infections. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for at least 60 days was recommended for about 10,000 individuals; ultimately, about 32,000 people actually received prophylactic therapy. The public health crisis in antibiotic resistance generally focuses on nosocomial and community-acquired infections with organisms that have naturally become resistant to multiple agents. This situation has developed due to a combination of antibiotic use (including overuse and misuse) and the emergence of freely transmissible resistance determinant(s). Organisms that might be (or have been) used by bioterrorists could acquire antibiotic resistance not only naturally, but also as a result of intentional manipulation. Ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin G procaine (penicillin) are the three drugs currently approved for intravenous therapy of all forms of anthrax (cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal) infection. Mobile elements that confer resistance to tetracyclines and penicillins can be introduced into B. anthracis and are functional; resistance to ciprofloxacin can be induced by passage in vitro. Thus, there is a real possibility of multiple drug resistant (MDR) anthrax and alternative agents effective against such strains are needed.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the invention pertains to novel, narrow-spectrum, orally bioavailable substituted tetracycline compounds that are active against B. anthracis, including strains expressing resistance to known tetracycline resistance elements. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. In another embodiment, the invention also pertains to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/851,211, filed on Oct. 11, 2006, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In the fall of 2001, letters intentionally contaminated with Bacillus anthracis were mailed to individuals in Florida, Washington, D.C., and New York City. These events resulted in exposures both at the sites of delivery and also at sites the letters passed through in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and Connecticut. In total, there were 11 cases of documented inhalation anthrax infections, including 5 deaths, and 11 cases of documented cutaneous anthrax infections. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for at least 60 days was recommended for about 10,000 individuals; ultimately, about 32,000 people actually received prophylactic therapy. The public health crisis in antibiotic resistance generally focuses on nosocomial and community-acquired infections with organisms that have naturally become resistant to multiple agents. This situation has developed due to a combination of antibiotic use (including overuse and misuse) and the emergence of freely transmissible resistance determinant(s). Organisms that might be (or have been) used by bioterrorists could acquire antibiotic resistance not only naturally, but also as a result of intentional manipulation. Ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin G procaine (penicillin) are the three drugs currently approved for intravenous therapy of all forms of anthrax (cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal) infection. Mobile elements that confer resistance to tetracyclines and penicillins can be introduced into B. anthracis and are functional; resistance to ciprofloxacin can be induced by passage in vitro. Thus, there is a real possibility of multiple drug resistant (MDR) anthrax and alternative agents effective against such strains are needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the invention pertains to novel, narrow-spectrum, orally bioavailable substituted tetracycline compounds that are active against B. anthracis, including strains expressing resistance to known tetracycline resistance elements. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. In another embodiment, the invention also pertains to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION: In one embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject. The method includes administering to the subject an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound, such that the Bacillus anthracis infection in the subject is treated. The term “Bacillus anthracis infection” includes any state, diseases, or disorders caused or which result from exposure or alleged exposure to Bacillus anthracis or another member of the Bacillus cereus group of bacteria. The Bacillus cereus group of bacteria is composed of B. anthracis (the etiologic agent of anthrax), B. cereus and B. weihenstephanensis (food borne pathogens), B. thuringiensis (an insect pathogen), and B. mycoides (non-pathogenic). B. anthracis is associated with three different clinical forms of infection. Inhalation anthrax is rare, with only 18 cases reported in the US from 1900-1976 and none from 1976-2001. The mortality rate of inhalation anthrax has been reported to range from 40% to 89%; however, many cases are from the pre-antibiotic era {Inglesby, 2002 #1942}. Patients that died following the accidental dissemination of B. anthracis from a bioweapons facility in Sverdlovsk, Russia in 1976 exhibited hemorrhagic thoracic lymphadenitis, hemorrhagic mediastinitis, and pleural effusions. This experience confirmed that typical bronchopneumonia is not a characteristic of pulmonary anthrax. The most common infection due to B. anthracis is cutaneous anthrax, which is rarely fatal when treated with appropriate antibiotics. Gastrointestinal anthrax may develop after eating improperly prepared, contaminated meat; these infections are typically encountered in developing countries in Africa and Asia. The term “subject” includes animals (e.g., mammals, e.g., cats, dogs, horses, pigs, cows, sheep, rodents, rabbits, squirrels, bears, primates (e.g., chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans)) which are capable of (or currently) suffering from a Bacillus anthracis infection. It also includes transgenic animal models. The term “treated,” “treating” or “treatment” includes therapeutic and/or prophylactic treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection. The treatment includes the diminishment or alleviation of at least one symptom associated or caused by a Bacillus anthracis infection. For example, treatment can be diminishment of one or several symptoms of a Bacillus anthracis infection or complete eradication. The language “effective amount” of the tetracycline compound is that amount necessary or sufficient to treat or prevent a Bacillus anthracis infection in a subject, e.g. prevent the various morphological and somatic symptoms of multiple sclerosis. The effective amount can vary depending on such factors as the size and weight of the subject, the type of illness, or the particular tetracycline compound. For example, the choice of the tetracycline compound can affect what constitutes an “effective amount.” One of ordinary skill in the art would be able to study the aforementioned factors and make the determination regarding the effective amount of the tetracycline compound without undue experimentation. The term “tetracycline compound” does not include minocycline, doxycycline, or tetracycline. The term includes substituted tetracycline compounds or compounds with a similar ring structure to tetracycline. Examples of tetracycline compounds include: chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, demeclocycline, methacycline, sancycline, chelocardin, rolitetracycline, lymecycline, apicycline; clomocycline, guamecycline, meglucycline, mepylcycline, penimepicycline, pipacycline, etamocycline, penimocycline, etc. Other derivatives and analogues comprising a similar four ring structure are also included (See Rogalski, “Chemical Modifications of Tetracyclines,” the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference). Table 1 depicts tetracycline and several known other tetracycline derivatives. TABLE 1 Other tetracycline compounds which may be modified using the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, 6-demethyl-6-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; tetracyclino-pyrazole; 7-chloro-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 4-hydroxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 12α-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 5-hydroxy-6α-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; 4-dedimethylamino-12α-deoxyanhydrotetracycline; 7-dimethylamino-6-demethyl-6-deoxy-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline; tetracyclinonitrile; 4-oxo-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline 4,6-hemiketal; 4-oxo-11a Cl-4-dedimethylaminotetracycline-4,6-hemiketal; 5a,6-anhydro-4-hydrazon-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; 4-hydroxyimino-4-dedimethylamino tetracyclines; 4-hydroxyimino-4-dedimethylamino 5a,6-anhydrotetracyclines; 4-amino-4-dedimethylamino-5a, 6 anhydrotetracycline; 4-methylamino-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; 4-hydrazono-11a-chloro-6-deoxy-6-demethyl-6-methylene-4-dedimethylamino tetracycline; tetracycline quaternary ammonium compounds; anhydrotetracycline betaines; 4-hydroxy-6-methyl pretetramides; 4-keto tetracyclines; 5-keto tetracyclines; 5a, 11a dehydro tetracyclines; 11a Cl-6, 12 hemiketal tetracyclines; 11a Cl-6-methylene tetracyclines; 6, 13 diol tetracyclines; 6-benzylthiomethylene tetracyclines; 7, 11a-dichloro-6-fluoro-methyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-fluoro (α)-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-fluoro (β)-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-α acetoxy-6-demethyl tetracyclines; 6-β acetoxy-6-demethyl tetracyclines; 7, 13-epithiotetracyclines; oxytetracyclines; pyrazolotetracyclines; 11a halogens of tetracyclines; 12a formyl and other esters of tetracyclines; 5, 12a esters of tetracyclines; 10, 12a-diesters of tetracyclines; isotetracycline; 12-a-deoxyanhydro tetracyclines; 6-demethyl-12a-deoxy-7-chloroanhydrotetracyclines; B-nortetracyclines; 7-methoxy-6-demethyl-6-deoxytetracyclines; 6-demethyl-6-deoxy-5a-epitetracyclines; 8-hydroxy-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; monardene; chromocycline; 5a methyl-6-demethyl-6-deoxy tetracyclines; 6-oxa tetracyclines, and 6 thia tetracyclines. The term “substituted tetracycline compound” includes tetracycline compounds with one or more additional substituents, e.g., at the 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11a, 12, 12a or 13 position or at any other position which allows the substituted tetracycline compound of the invention to perform its intended function, e.g., treat B. anthracis infections. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than that of doxycycline for at least one strain of Bacillus anthracis. The MIC of the substituted tetracycline compound can be tested using the method described in the Examples. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than 32 μg/ml for a doxycycline resistant strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the MIC of the substituted tetracycline has an MIC that is 90% or less, 50% or less, 20% or less, 10% or less, 5% or less than the MIC of doxycycline for a particular strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than that of ciproflaxin for at least one strain of Bacillus anthracis. The MIC of the substituted tetracycline compound can be tested using the method described in the Examples. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound has an MIC less than 32 μg/ml for a ciproflaxin resistant strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the MIC of the substituted tetracycline has an MIC that is 90% or less, 50% or less, 20% or less, 10% or less, 5% or less than the MIC of ciproflaxin for a particular strain of Bacillus anthracis. In a further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound of the invention is of the formula I: wherein R1 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, arylalkyl, amido, alkylamino, amino, arylamino, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, alkoxy, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, alkyloxycarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, aryloxy, thiol, alkylthio, arylthio, alkenyl, heterocyclic, hydroxy, or halogen, optionally linked to R2 to form a ring; R2″ is cyano or C(═)—NR2R2′; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, hydroxyl, thiol, cyano, nitro, acyl, formyl, alkoxy, amino, alkylamino, heterocyclic, or absent, optionally linked to R1 to form a ring; R2′, R3, R4a, and R4b are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, heteroaromatic or a prodrug moiety; R10, R11, and R12 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, benzyl, arylalkyl, or a pro-drug moiety; R4 and R4′ are each independently NR4aR4b, alkyl, acyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, hydroxyl, halogen, hydrogen, or taken together ═N—OR4a; R5 and R5′ are each independently hydroxyl, hydrogen, thiol, alkanoyl, aroyl, alkaroyl, aryl, heteroaromatic, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, alkyl carbonyloxy, or aryl carbonyloxy; R6 and R6′ are each independently hydrogen, methylene, absent, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; R7 is hydrogen, dialkylamino, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, arylalkyl, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, boronic ester, alkylcarbonyl, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR7c)0-1C(═W′)WR7a; R8 is hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR8c)0-1C(=E′)ER8a; R9 is hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, thiol, nitro, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, arylalkyl, amino, arylalkenyl, arylalkynyl, acyl, aminoalkyl, heterocyclic, thionitroso, or —(CH2)0-3(NR9c)0-1C(=Z′)ZR9a; R7a, R7b, R7c, R7d, R7e, R7f, R8a, R8b, R8c, R8d, R8e, R8f, R9a, R9b, R9c, R9d, R9e, and R9f are each independently hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, arylalkyl, aryl, heterocyclic, heteroaromatic or a prodrug moiety; R13 is hydrogen, hydroxy, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, aryl, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; E is CR8dR8e, S, NR8b or O; E′ is O, NR8f, or S; W is CR7dR7e, S, NR7b or O; W′ is O, NR7f, or S; X is CHC(R13Y′Y), C═CR13Y, CR6′R6, S, NR6, or O; Y′ and Y are each independently hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, cyano, sulfhydryl, amino, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl, alkylamino, or an arylalkyl; Z is CR9dR9e, S, NR9b or O; Z′ is O, S, or NR9f, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters and enantiomers thereof. In a further embodiment, R2″ is C(═O)NH2; R3, R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen or a prodrug moiety; R4 is NR4aR4b; R4a and R4b are each methyl; R5 is hydrogen; R8 is hydrogen; X is CR6R6′; R6 is hydrogen; and R5′ and R6′ are hydrogen. In another further embodiment, R8 and R9 are hydrogen. In yet another further embodiment, R7 is substituted phenyl, a boronic ester, alkylcarbonyl, heterocyclic, aminoalkyl, or arylalkynyl. Examples of substituents for phenyl R7 groups include, but are not limited to, alkoxy, alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, alkylaminoalkyl, alkenylaminoalkyl, alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted alkyl, and substituted carbonylamino, wherein R7g and R9h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl. In another further embodiment, R7 is substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, e.g., substituted or unsubstituted pyrimidinyl, pyridinyl, or furanyl. In another further embodiment, R7 is substituted or unsubstituted piperdinyl-alkyl. In other embodiments, R7 is pyridinyl-alkynyl or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl-alkynyl. In other embodiment, R7 is hydrogen and R9 is substituted carbonylamino. In other embodiments, R8 is hydrogen; R7 is heterocyclic, alkyl, alkyl-O—N═C—CR7gR7h, or dimethylamino, wherein R7g and R9h are each independently hydrogen or alkyl. In a further embodiment, R9 is aminoalkyl. Examples of aminoalkyl R9 moieties include aminomethyl moieties and moieties of the formula: wherein: J5 and J6 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, sulfonyl, acyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkaminocarbonyl, alkaminothiocarbonyl, substituted thiocarbonyl, substituted carbonyl, alkoxythiocarbonyl, or linked to form a ring; and J7 and J8 are each alkyl, halogen, or hydrogen. In a further embodiment, J7 and J8 are each hydrogen. In another further embodiment, J6 is hydrogen and J5 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, 2-methyl-propyl, hexyl, and/or cyclohexyl. Examples of substituents of J5 include one or more fluorines or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl groups. In another embodiment, J5 and/or J6 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or alkenyl. Examples of J5 and/or J6 include methyl, ethyl, propyl, propenyl, 2-methyl-propyl, butyl, butenyl, pentyl, pentenyl, hexyl, and hexenyl. In a further embodiment, J5 is substituted with one or more fluorines or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl groups. In another further embodiment, J5 and J6 are linked to form a ring, e.g., a piperdinyl ring or a fused ring, e.g., 2,3-dihydro-indole or an decahydro-isoquinoline. In another further embodiment, the piperidinyl ring is substituted with one or more halogens, one or more heterocyclic groups or one or more halogenated alkyl groups (e.g., trifluoromethyl). In one embodiment, R2″ is C(═O)NH2; R4′, R5′, R3, R10, R11, and R12 are each hydrogen or a prodrug moiety; R4 is NR4aR4b; R4a and R4b are each methyl; R5 is hydroxyl; R8 is hydrogen; X is CR6R6′; R6 is hydrogen and R6′ is alkyl (e.g., methyl). In a further embodiment, R7 is hydrogen and R9 aminoalkyl (e.g., piperidinyl alkyl, such as halogenated alkyl substituted piperidinyl alkyl, for example, trifluoromethyl substituted piperidinylalkyl). In another embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound is selected from the group consisting of: and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. The tetracycline compounds of this invention can be synthesized using the methods described in the Schemes and/or by other techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention can be synthesized using the methods described in the following schemes and by using art recognized techniques. All novel substituted tetracycline compounds described herein are included in the invention as compounds. 9- and 7-substituted tetracyclines can be synthesized by the method shown in Scheme 1. As shown in Scheme 1, 9- and 7-substituted tetracycline compounds can be synthesized by treating a tetracycline compound (e.g., doxycycline, 1A), with sulfuric acid and sodium nitrate. The resulting product is a mixture of the 7-nitro and 9-nitro isomers (1B and 1C, respectively). The 7-nitro (1B) and 9-nitro (1C) derivatives are treated by hydrogenation using hydrogen gas and a platinum catalyst to yield amines 1D and 1E. The isomers are separated at this time by conventional methods. To synthesize 7- or 9-substituted alkenyl derivatives, the 7- or 9-amino tetracycline compound (1E and 1F, respectively) is treated with HONO, to yield the diazonium salt (1G and 1H). The salt (1G and 1H) is treated with an appropriate reactive reagent to yield the desired compound (e.g., in Scheme 1, 7-cyclopent-1-enyl doxycycline (1H) and 9-cyclopent-1-enyl doxycycline (1I)). As shown in Scheme 2, tetracycline compounds of the invention wherein R7 is a carbamate or a urea derivative can be synthesized using the following protocol. Sancycline (2A) is treated with NaNO2 under acidic conditions forming 7-nitro sancycline (2B) in a mixture of positional isomers. 7-nitrosancycline (2B) is then treated with H2 gas and a platinum catalyst to form the 7-amino sancycline derivative (2C). To form the urea derivative (2E), isocyanate (2D) is reacted with the 7-amino sancycline derivative (2C). To form the carbamate (2G), the appropriate acid chloride ester (2F) is reacted with 2C. As shown in Scheme 3, tetracycline compounds of the invention, wherein R7 is a heterocyclic (i.e., thiazole) substituted amino group can be synthesized using the above protocol. 7-amino sancycline (3A) is reacted with Fmoc-isothiocyanate (3B) to produce the protected thiourea (3C). The protected thiourea (3C) is then deprotected yielding the active sancycline thiourea (3D) compound. The sancycline thiourea (3D) is reacted with an α-haloketone (3E) to produce a thiazole substituted 7-amino sancycline (3F). 7-alkenyl tetracycline compounds, such as 7-alkynyl sancycline (4A) and 7-alkenyl sancycline (4B), can be hydrogenated to form 7-alkyl substituted tetracycline compounds (e.g., 7-alkyl sancycline, 4C). Scheme 4 depicts the selective hydrogenation of the 7-position double or triple bond, in saturated methanol and hydrochloric acid solution with a palladium/carbon catalyst under pressure, to yield the product. In Scheme 5, a general synthetic scheme for synthesizing 7-position aryl derivatives is shown. A Suzuki coupling of an aryl boronic acid with an iodosancycline compound is shown. An iodo sancycline compound (5B) can be synthesized from sancycline by treating sancycline (5A) with at least one equivalent N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) under acidic conditions. The reaction is quenched, and the resulting 7-iodo sancycline (5B) can then be purified using standard techniques known in the art. To form the aryl derivative, 7-iodo sancycline (5B) is treated with an aqueous base (e.g., Na2CO3) and an appropriate boronic acid (5C) and under an inert atmosphere. The reaction is catalyzed with a palladium catalyst (e.g., Pd(OAc)2). The product (5D) can be purified by methods known in the art (such as HPLC). Other 7-aryl, alkenyl, and alkynyl tetracycline compounds can be synthesized using similar protocols. The 7-substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention can also be synthesized using Stille cross couplings. Stille cross couplings can be performed using an appropriate tin reagent (e.g., R—SnBu3) and a halogenated tetracycline compound, (e.g., 7-iodosancycline). The tin reagent and the iodosancycline compound can be treated with a palladium catalyst (e.g., Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 or Pd(AsPh3)2Cl2) and, optionally, with an additional copper salt, e.g., CuI. The resulting compound can then be purified using techniques known in the art. The compounds of the invention can also be synthesized using Heck-type cross coupling reactions. As shown in Scheme 6, Heck-type cross-couplings can be performed by suspending a halogenated tetracycline compound (e.g., 7-iodosancycline, 6A) and an appropriate palladium or other transition metal catalyst (e.g., Pd(OAc)2 and CuI) in an appropriate solvent (e.g., degassed acetonitrile). The substrate, a reactive alkene (6B) or alkyne (6D), and triethylamine are then added and the mixture is heated for several hours, before being cooled to room temperature. The resulting 7-substituted alkenyl (6C) or 7-substituted alkynyl (6E) tetracycline compound can then be purified using techniques known in the art. To prepare 7-(2′-chloro-alkenyl)-tetracycline compounds, the appropriate 7-(alkynyl)-sancycline (7A) is dissolved in saturated methanol and hydrochloric acid and stirred. The solvent is then removed to yield the product (7B). As depicted in Scheme 8, 5-esters of 9-substituted tetracycline compounds can be formed by dissolving the 9-substituted compounds (8A) in strong acid (e.g., HF, methanesulphonic acid, and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid) and adding the appropriate carboxylic acid to yield the corresponding esters (8B). As shown in Scheme 9 below, 7 and 9 aminomethyl tetracyclines may be synthesized using reagents such as hydroxymethyl-carbamic acid benzyl ester. The term “alkyl” includes saturated aliphatic groups, including straight-chain alkyl groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, etc.), branched-chain alkyl groups (isopropyl, tert-butyl, isobutyl, etc.), cycloalkyl (alicyclic) groups (cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl), alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkyl substituted alkyl groups. The term alkyl further includes alkyl groups, which can further include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C1-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain), and more preferably 4 or fewer. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyls have from 3-8 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or 6 carbons in the ring structure. The term C1-C6 includes alkyl groups containing 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkyl includes both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls,” the latter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Cycloalkyls can be further substituted, e.g., with the substituents described above. An “alkylaryl” or an “arylalkyl” moiety is an alkyl substituted with an aryl (e.g., phenylmethyl (benzyl)). The term “alkyl” also includes the side chains of natural and unnatural amino acids. The term “aryl” includes groups, including 5- and 6-membered single-ring aromatic groups that may include from zero to four heteroatoms, for example, benzene, phenyl, pyrrole, furan, thiophene, thiazole, isothiaozole, imidazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, oxazole, isooxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyridazine, and pyrimidine, and the like. Furthermore, the term “aryl” includes multicyclic aryl groups, e.g., tricyclic, bicyclic, e.g., naphthalene, benzoxazole, benzodioxazole, benzothiazole, benzoimidazole, benzothiophene, methylenedioxyphenyl, quinoline, isoquinoline, napthridine, indole, benzofuran, purine, benzofuran, deazapurine, or indolizine. Those aryl groups having heteroatoms in the ring structure may also be referred to as “aryl heterocycles,” “heterocycles,” “heteroaryls” or “heteroaromatics.” The aromatic ring can be substituted at one or more ring positions with such substituents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkylaminoacarbonyl, arylalkyl aminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, arylalkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Aryl groups can also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic rings which are not aromatic so as to form a polycycle (e.g., tetralin). The term “alkenyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but that contain at least one double bond. For example, the term “alkenyl” includes straight-chain alkenyl groups (e.g., ethylenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, etc.), branched-chain alkenyl groups, cycloalkenyl (alicyclic) groups (cyclopropenyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptenyl, cyclooctenyl), alkyl or alkenyl substituted cycloalkenyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkenyl groups. The term alkenyl further includes alkenyl groups which include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkenyl group has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). Likewise, cycloalkenyl groups may have from 3-8 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or 6 carbons in the ring structure. The term C2-C6 includes alkenyl groups containing 2 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkenyl includes both “unsubstituted alkenyls” and “substituted alkenyls,” the latter of which refers to alkenyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “alkynyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but which contain at least one triple bond. For example, the term “alkynyl” includes straight-chain alkynyl groups (e.g., ethynyl, propynyl, butynyl, pentynyl, hexynyl, heptynyl, octynyl, nonynyl, decynyl, etc.), branched-chain alkynyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkynyl groups. The term alkynyl further includes alkynyl groups which include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkynyl group has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). The term C2-C6 includes alkynyl groups containing 2 to 6 carbon atoms. Moreover, the term alkynyl includes both “unsubstituted alkynyls” and “substituted alkynyls,” the latter of which refers to alkynyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Unless the number of carbons is otherwise specified, “lower alkyl” as used herein means an alkyl group, as defined above, but having from one to five carbon atoms in its backbone structure. “Lower alkenyl” and “lower alkynyl” have chain lengths of, for example, 2-5 carbon atoms. The term “acyl” includes compounds and moieties which contain the acyl radical (CH3CO—) or a carbonyl group. It includes substituted acyl moieties. The term “substituted acyl” includes acyl groups where one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “acylamino” includes moieties wherein an acyl moiety is bonded to an amino group. For example, the term includes alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido groups. The term “aroyl” includes compounds and moieties with an aryl or heteroaromatic moiety bound to a carbonyl group. Examples of aroyl groups include phenylcarboxy, naphthyl carboxy, etc. The terms “alkoxyalkyl,” “alkylaminoalkyl” and “thioalkoxyalkyl” include alkyl groups, as described above, which further include oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone, e.g., oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. The term “alkoxy” includes substituted and unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups covalently linked to an oxygen atom. Examples of alkoxy groups include methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, propoxy, butoxy, and pentoxy groups. Examples of substituted alkoxy groups include halogenated alkoxy groups. The alkoxy groups can be substituted with groups such as alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties. Examples of halogen substituted alkoxy groups include, but are not limited to, fluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, dichloromethoxy, trichloromethoxy, etc. The term “amine” or “amino” includes compounds where a nitrogen atom is covalently bonded to at least one carbon or heteroatom. The term includes “alkyl amino” which comprises groups and compounds wherein the nitrogen is bound to at least one additional alkyl group. The term “dialkyl amino” includes groups wherein the nitrogen atom is bound to at least two additional alkyl groups. The term “arylamino” and “diarylamino” include groups wherein the nitrogen is bound to at least one or two aryl groups, respectively. The term “alkylarylamino,” “alkylaminoaryl” or “arylaminoalkyl” refers to an amino group which is bound to at least one alkyl group and at least one aryl group. The term “alkaminoalkyl” refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group bound to a nitrogen atom which is also bound to an alkyl group. The term “amide,” “amido” or “aminocarbonyl” includes compounds or moieties which contain a nitrogen atom which is bound to the carbon of a carbonyl or a thiocarbonyl group. The term includes “alkaminocarbonyl” or “alkylaminocarbonyl” groups which include alkyl, alkenyl, aryl or alkynyl groups bound to an amino group bound to a carbonyl group. It includes arylaminocarbonyl and arylcarbonylamino groups which include aryl or heteroaryl moieties bound to an amino group which is bound to the carbon of a carbonyl or thiocarbonyl group. The terms “alkylaminocarbonyl,” “alkenylaminocarbonyl,” “alkynylaminocarbonyl,” “arylaminocarbonyl,” “alkylcarbonylamino,” “alkenylcarbonylamino,” “alkynylcarbonylamino,” and “arylcarbonylamino” are included in term “amide.” Amides also include urea groups (aminocarbonylamino) and carbamates (oxycarbonylamino). The term “carbonyl” or “carboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to an oxygen atom. The carbonyl can be further substituted with any moiety which allows the compounds of the invention to perform its intended function. For example, carbonyl moieties may be substituted with alkyls, alkenyls, alkynyls, aryls, alkoxy, aminos, etc. Examples of moieties which contain a carbonyl include aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amides, esters, anhydrides, etc. The term “thiocarbonyl” or “thiocarboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to a sulfur atom. The term “ether” includes compounds or moieties which contain an oxygen bonded to two different carbon atoms or heteroatoms. For example, the term includes “alkoxyalkyl” which refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group covalently bonded to an oxygen atom which is covalently bonded to another alkyl group. The term “ester” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon or a heteroatom bound to an oxygen atom which is bonded to the carbon of a carbonyl group. The term “ester” includes alkoxycarboxy groups such as methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl, pentoxycarbonyl, etc. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl groups are as defined above. The term “thioether” includes compounds and moieties which contain a sulfur atom bonded to two different carbon or hetero atoms. Examples of thioethers include, but are not limited to alkthioalkyls, alkthioalkenyls, and alkthioalkynyls. The term “alkthioalkyls” include compounds with an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group bonded to a sulfur atom which is bonded to an alkyl group. Similarly, the term “alkthioalkenyls” and alkthioalkynyls” refer to compounds or moieties wherein an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group is bonded to a sulfur atom which is covalently bonded to an alkynyl group. The term “hydroxy” or “hydroxyl” includes groups with an —OH or —O−. The term “halogen” includes fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine, etc. The term “perhalogenated” generally refers to a moiety wherein all hydrogens are replaced by halogen atoms. The terms “polycyclyl” or “polycyclic radical” refer to two or more cyclic rings (e.g., cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls and/or heterocyclyls) in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings, e.g., the rings are “fused rings.” Rings that are joined through non-adjacent atoms are termed “bridged” rings. Each of the rings of the polycycle can be substituted with such substituents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylaminoacarbonyl, arylalkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, arylalkyl carbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amido, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The term “heteroatom” includes atoms of any element other than carbon or hydrogen. Preferred heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus. The term “prodrug moiety” includes moieties which can be metabolized in vivo to a hydroxyl group and moieties which may advantageously remain esterified in vivo. Preferably, the prodrugs moieties are metabolized in vivo by esterases or by other mechanisms to hydroxyl groups or other advantageous groups. Examples of prodrugs and their uses are well known in the art (See, e.g., Berge et al. (1977) “Pharmaceutical Salts,” J. Pharm. Sci. 66:1-19). The prodrugs can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds, or by separately reacting the purified compound in its free acid form or hydroxyl with a suitable esterifying agent. Hydroxyl groups can be converted into esters via treatment with a carboxylic acid. Examples of prodrug moieties include substituted and unsubstituted, branch or unbranched lower alkyl ester moieties, (e.g., propionoic acid esters), lower alkenyl esters, di-lower alkyl-amino lower-alkyl esters (e.g., dimethylaminoethyl ester), acylamino lower alkyl esters (e.g., acetyloxymethyl ester), acyloxy lower alkyl esters (e.g., pivaloyloxymethyl ester), aryl esters (phenyl ester), aryl-lower alkyl esters (e.g., benzyl ester), substituted (e.g., with methyl, halo, or methoxy substituents) aryl and aryl-lower alkyl esters, amides, lower-alkyl amides, di-lower alkyl amides, and hydroxy amides. Preferred prodrug moieties are propionoic acid esters and acyl esters. It will be noted that the structure of some of the tetracycline compounds of this invention includes asymmetric carbon atoms. It is to be understood accordingly that the isomers arising from such asymmetry (e.g., all enantiomers and diastereomers) are included within the scope of this invention, unless indicated otherwise. Such isomers can be obtained in substantially pure form by classical separation techniques and by stereochemically controlled synthesis. Furthermore, the structures and other compounds and moieties discussed in this application also include all tautomers thereof. In another further embodiment, the substituted tetracycline compound is administered in combination with a second agent. The language “in combination with” a second agent includes co-administration of the tetracycline compound, and with the second agent, administration of the tetracycline compound first, followed by the second agent and administration of the second agent, followed by the tetracycline compound. The second agent may be any agent which is known in the art to treat, prevent, or reduce the symptoms of a Bacillus anthracis infection. Furthermore, the second agent may be any agent of benefit to the subject when administered in combination with the administration of an tetracycline compound. Examples of second agents include antibiotics, such as rifampin, vancomycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, imipenem, clindamycin, and clarithromycin. In another embodiment, the invention pertains to pharmaceutical compositions comprising an effective amount of a substituted tetracycline compound of the invention for the treatment of a Bacillus anthracis infection and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes substances capable of being coadministered with the tetracycline compound(s), and which allow both to perform their intended function, e.g., treat or prevent a Bacillus anthracis infection. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include but are not limited to water, salt solutions, alcohol, vegetable oils, polyethylene glycols, gelatin, lactose, amylose, magnesium stearate, talc, silicic acid, viscous paraffin, perfume oil, fatty acid monoglycerides and diglycerides, petroethral fatty acid esters, hydroxymethyl-cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, etc. The pharmaceutical preparations can be sterilized and if desired mixed with auxiliary agents, e.g., lubricants, preservatives, stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, salts for influencing osmotic pressure, buffers, colorings, flavorings and/or aromatic substances and the like which do not deleteriously react with the active compounds of the invention. The tetracycline compounds of the invention that are basic in nature are capable of forming a wide variety of salts with various inorganic and organic acids. The acids that may be used to prepare pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts of the tetracycline compounds of the invention that are basic in nature are those that form non-toxic acid addition salts, i.e., salts containing pharmaceutically acceptable anions, such as the hydrochloride, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, nitrate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, acid phosphate, isonicotinate, acetate, lactate, salicylate, citrate, acid citrate, tartrate, pantothenate, bitartrate, ascorbate, succinate, maleate, gentisinate, fumarate, gluconate, glucaronate, saccharate, formate, benzoate, glutamate, methanesulfonate, ethanesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate and palmoate [i.e., 1,1′-methylene-bis-(2-hydroxy-3-naphthoate)] salts. Although such salts must be pharmaceutically acceptable for administration to a subject, e.g., a mammal, it is often desirable in practice to initially isolate a tetracycline compound of the invention from the reaction mixture as a pharmaceutically unacceptable salt and then simply convert the latter back to the free base compound by treatment with an alkaline reagent and subsequently convert the latter free base to a pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt. The acid addition salts of the base compounds of this invention are readily prepared by treating the base compound with a substantially equivalent amount of the chosen mineral or organic acid in an aqueous solvent medium or in a suitable organic solvent, such as methanol or ethanol. Upon careful evaporation of the solvent, the desired solid salt is readily obtained. The preparation of other tetracycline compounds of the invention not specifically described in the foregoing experimental section can be accomplished using combinations of the reactions described above that will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature are capable of forming a wide variety of base salts. The chemical bases that may be used as reagents to prepare pharmaceutically acceptable base salts of those tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature are those that form non-toxic base salts with such compounds. Such non-toxic base salts include, but are not limited to those derived from such pharmaceutically acceptable cations such as alkali metal cations (e.g., potassium and sodium) and alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., calcium and magnesium), ammonium or water-soluble amine addition salts such as N-methylglucamine-(meglumine), and the lower alkanolammonium and other base salts of pharmaceutically acceptable organic amines. The pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts of tetracycline compounds of the invention that are acidic in nature may be formed with pharmaceutically acceptable cations by conventional methods. Thus, these salts may be readily prepared by treating the tetracycline compound of the invention with an aqueous solution of the desired pharmaceutically acceptable cation and evaporating the resulting solution to dryness, preferably under reduced pressure. Alternatively, a lower alkyl alcohol solution of the tetracycline compound of the invention may be mixed with an alkoxide of the desired metal and the solution subsequently evaporated to dryness. The tetracycline compounds of the invention and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof can be administered via either the oral, parenteral or topical routes. In general, these compounds are most desirably administered in effective dosages, depending upon the weight and condition of the subject being treated and the particular route of administration chosen. Variations may occur depending upon the species of the subject being treated and its individual response to said medicament, as well as on the type of pharmaceutical formulation chosen and the time period and interval at which such administration is carried out. The tetracycline compounds of the invention may be administered alone or in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents by any of the routes previously mentioned, and the administration may be carried out in single or multiple doses. For example, the novel therapeutic agents of this invention can be administered advantageously in a wide variety of different dosage forms, i.e., they may be combined with various pharmaceutically acceptable inert carriers in the form of tablets, capsules, lozenges, troches, hard candies, powders, sprays (e.g., aerosols, etc.), creams, salves, suppositories, jellies, gels, pastes, lotions, ointments, aqueous suspensions, injectable solutions, elixirs, syrups, and the like. Such carriers include solid diluents or fillers, sterile aqueous media and various non-toxic organic solvents, etc. Moreover, oral pharmaceutical compositions can be suitably sweetened and/or flavored. In general, the therapeutically-effective compounds of this invention are present in such dosage forms at concentration levels ranging from about 5.0% to about 70% by weight. For oral administration, tablets containing various excipients such as microcrystalline cellulose, sodium citrate, calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate and glycine may be employed along with various disintegrants such as starch (and preferably corn, potato or tapioca starch), alginic acid and certain complex silicates, together with granulation binders like polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose, gelatin and acacia. Additionally, lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, sodium lauryl sulfate and talc are often very useful for tabletting purposes. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in gelatin capsules; preferred materials in this connection also include lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols. When aqueous suspensions and/or elixirs are desired for oral administration, the active ingredient may be combined with various sweetening or flavoring agents, coloring matter or dyes, and, if so desired, emulsifying and/or suspending agents as well, together with such diluents as water, ethanol, propylene glycol, glycerin and various like combinations thereof. The compositions of the invention may be formulated such that the tetracycline compositions are released over a period of time after administration. For parenteral administration (including intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intravenous, intradermal or intramuscular injection), solutions of a therapeutic compound of the present invention in either sesame or peanut oil or in aqueous propylene glycol may be employed. The aqueous solutions should be suitably buffered (preferably pH greater than 8) if necessary and the liquid diluent first rendered isotonic. These aqueous solutions are suitable for intravenous injection purposes. The oily solutions are suitable for intraarticular, intramuscular and subcutaneous injection purposes. The preparation of all these solutions under sterile conditions is readily accomplished by standard pharmaceutical techniques well known to those skilled in the art. For parenteral application, examples of suitable preparations include solutions, preferably oily or aqueous solutions as well as suspensions, emulsions, or implants, including suppositories. Therapeutic compounds may be formulated in sterile form in multiple or single dose formats such as being dispersed in a fluid carrier such as sterile physiological saline or 5% saline dextrose solutions commonly used with injectables. Additionally, it is also possible to administer the compounds of the present invention topically when treating inflammatory conditions of the skin. Examples of methods of topical administration include transdermal, buccal or sublingual application. For topical applications, therapeutic compounds can be suitably admixed in a pharmacologically inert topical carrier such as a gel, an ointment, a lotion or a cream. Such topical carriers include water, glycerol, alcohol, propylene glycol, fatty alcohols, triglycerides, fatty acid esters, or mineral oils. Other possible topical carriers are liquid petrolatum, isopropylpalmitate, polyethylene glycol, ethanol 95%, polyoxyethylene monolauriate 5% in water, sodium lauryl sulfate 5% in water, and the like. In addition, materials such as anti-oxidants, humectants, viscosity stabilizers and the like also may be added if desired. For enteral application, particularly suitable are tablets, dragees or capsules having talc and/or carbohydrate carrier binder or the like, the carrier preferably being lactose and/or corn starch and/or potato starch. A syrup, elixir or the like can be used wherein a sweetened vehicle is employed. Sustained release compositions can be formulated including those wherein the active component is protected with differentially degradable coatings, e.g., by microencapsulation, multiple coatings, etc. In addition to treatment of human subjects, the therapeutic methods of the invention also will have significant veterinary applications, e.g., for treatment of livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, cows, swine and the like; poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and the like; horses; and pets such as dogs and cats. It will be appreciated that the actual preferred amounts of active compounds used in a given therapy will vary according to the specific compound being used, the particular compositions formulated, the mode of application, the particular site of administration, etc. Optimal administration rates for a given protocol of administration can be readily ascertained by those skilled in the art using conventional dosage determination tests conducted with regard to the foregoing guidelines. In general, compounds of the invention for treatment can be administered to a subject in dosages used in prior tetracycline therapies. See, for example, the Physicians' Desk Reference. For example, a suitable effective dose of one or more compounds of the invention will be in the range of from 0.01 to 100 milligrams per kilogram of body weight of recipient per day, preferably in the range of from 0.1 to 50 milligrams per kilogram body weight of recipient per day, more preferably in the range of 1 to 20 milligrams per kilogram body weight of recipient per day. The desired dose is suitably administered once daily, or several sub-doses, e.g. 2 to 5 sub-doses, are administered at appropriate intervals through the day, or other appropriate schedule. It will also be understood that normal, conventionally known precautions will be taken regarding the administration of tetracyclines generally to ensure their efficacy under normal use circumstances. Especially when employed for therapeutic treatment of humans and animals in vivo, the practitioner should take all sensible precautions to avoid conventionally known contradictions and toxic effects. Thus, the conventionally recognized adverse reactions of gastrointestinal distress and inflammations, the renal toxicity, hypersensitivity reactions, changes in blood, and impairment of absorption through aluminum, calcium, and magnesium ions should be duly considered in the conventional manner. Furthermore, the invention also pertains to the use of a substituted tetracycline of the invention, for the preparation of a medicament. The medicament may include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and the tetracycline compound is an effective amount, e.g., an effective amount to treat a Bacillus anthracis infection. EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE INVENTION Example 1 Antibacterial Activity of Tetracycline Compounds Against Susceptible and (Multiple) Antibiotic Resistant Organisms Efflux. The tetracycline efflux proteins, in general, confer resistance to both tetracycline and doxycycline. S. aureus RN4250 bears a TetK efflux mechanism and is resistant to both agents, but susceptible to minocycline (Table 2). A number of tetracyclines that overcome gram-positive efflux (Table 2) have been identified. TABLE 2 MICs (μg/ml) of novel TCs against strains with efflux resistance determinants. S. aureus S. aureus RN450a RN4250b Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 0.06 4 Minocycline 0.25 0.5 Tetracycline 0.06 64 O 0.06 0.06 M 0.06 0.06 Q 0.06 0.06 P 0.06 0.06 S 0.06 0.06 T 0.06 0.06 U 0.06 0.06 V 0.06 0.06 W 0.06 0.06 X 0.06 0.06 Y 0.06 0.06 aWild type S. aureus. bContains a TetK (efflux) resistance determinant. Ribosome protection. The ribosome protection determinants, which confer resistance to tetracycline, doxycycline and minocycline, are predominantly found in gram-positive bacteria and are probably the most widespread tetracycline resistance determinant in these organisms. A number of tetracycline compounds that can overcome this mechanism of resistance in a variety of gram-positive bacteria including S. aureus, E. faecium, and S. pneumoniae (Table 3). TABLE 3 MICs (μg/ml) of tetracycline compounds against strains with ribosome protection resistance determinants S. S. S. aureus S. aureus E. faecium pneumoniae pneumoniae Com- RN450a MRSA5b 494c 157Ea 700905d pound MIC (ug/ml) Doxy- 0.06 4 8 0.06 4 cycline Mino- 0.25 2 16 0.06 8 cycline Tetra- 0.06 32 64 0.06 32 cycline Z 0.13 0.5 2 0.06 NDe AA 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 AB 0.06 1 0.06 0.06 4 AD 0.06 1 2 0.13 0.5 AE 0.06 0.5 2 0.13 1 AK 1 2 1 0.5 0.5 aWild type. bMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM (ribosome protection); also multi-drug resistant. cContains TetL (efflux) and TetM (ribosome protection); is also resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. dContains TetM (ribosome protection); is also resistant to penicillin and erythromycin. eND, not determined. Efflux and ribosome protection concurrently. A number of tetracycline compounds were tested against gram-positive bacteria possessing both tetracycline efflux and ribosome protection determinants as well as other non-tetracycline resistance mechanisms. Compounds with substitutions at both R7 and R9 position in Formula I e.g., substituted 7-dimethylamino-9-aminomethylcyclines and 7-aryl or heteroaryl sancyclines) demonstrated activity against both tetracycline sensitive isolates and tetracycline resistant gram-positive bacteria containing efflux and ribosome protection determinants (Table 4). TABLE 4 MICs (μg/ml) of tetracycline compounds against strains with ribosome protection and efflux resistance determinants. E. faecium E. faecalis S. aureus S. pneumoniae 494a 29212b MRSA5c 700905d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 16 4 4 4 Minocycline 16 4 2 8 Tetracycline 64 16 32 32 A 1 1 1 0.25 B 1 1 1 0.5 C 0.25 0.5 1 0.25 D 1 0.25 1 0.25 E 1 0.25 0.25 0.06 F 1 0.5 0.5 0.25 G 1 0.5 0.5 0.06 H 0.5 0.5 0.35 0.06 I 1 1 1 0.5 J 1 0.25 0.5 0.06 K 1 1 0.5 0.25 L 1 1 0.5 0.75 R 1 2 1 0.13 N 0.5 1 1 0.13 AH 0.25 0.25 1 0.06 aHas TetM (ribosome protection) and TetL (efflux); is resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. bHas TetM (ribosome protection). cMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM, ribosome protection; also multi-drug resistant. dHas TetM (ribosome protection). Bacillus cereus. In order to prevent the unnecessary use of the anthrax pathogen, a group of tetracycline resistant B. cereus was obtained. In this panel, B. cereus 95/3032 and 98/2658 were classified as tetracycline susceptible whereas B. cereus 98/2620 and 97/4144 were tetracycline resistant (Table 6). Preliminary MICs were determined for common antibiotics against the B. cereus isolates (Table 5). B. cereus containing natural tetracycline resistance determinants were chosen rather than creating isogenic tetracycline resistant B. anthracis strains since it would be a violation of International Bioweapons Treaty to purposefully create an antibiotic resistant category A agent. In addition, B. cereus are generally more tetracycline resistant than B. anthracis. TABLE 5 Activity of tetracycline compounds against tetracycline susceptible and tetracycline resistant Bacillus cereus. B. cereus B. cereus B. cereus B. cereus 98/2620a 95/3032b 98/2658c 97/4144d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 4 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 4 Minocycline 0.5 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 0.5 Tetracycline 32 ≦0.06 ≦0.06 64 Cefotaxime 64 >64 >64 32 Penicillin 32 >64 >64 >64 Vancomycin 1 1 2 1 Erythromycin ≦0.06 0.125 1 0.125 Clindamycin 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.5 aAn industrial fermenter isolate, serotype 1. bIsolated from an orthopedic-related area, serotype 24. cNon-typeable. dIsolated from an individual with food poisoning, serotype AA. Bacillus anthracis. The panel of B. anthracis isolates (n=27) that was available for susceptibility studies included two organisms that exhibit reduced susceptibility to doxycycline (Table 6). B. anthracis V770 was 4→33-fold less susceptible to doxycycline than 25 other B. anthracis and strain V770NPIR was fully doxycycline-resistant. The group of organisms listed in Table 6 all possessed the same tetracycline resistance determinants that would be found in B. anthracis and the majority were multi-drug resistant. The criteria for selecting compounds for subsequent testing in B. anthracis were (a) the compounds must not possess cytotoxicity in vitro (Table 9) and (b) the compounds were required to possess a MIC of ≦0.5 μg/ml against this panel of resistant isolates (Table 7). At least five tetracycline compounds were identified (Table 7). The activities of these tetracyclines were tested against B. anthracis (n=5), including the tetracycline resistant strains V770 and V770NPIR (Table 7). As illustrated, these compounds possessed exceptional activity against tetracycline susceptible and resistant B. anthracis isolates in vitro (Table 7). Compounds AI, H, and AJ all contain substituents at the R9 position of the tetracycline core while compounds AM and AF bear substitutions at the R7 and R9 positions. Without being bound by theory, these data support the hypothesis that tetracycline compounds directed against common tetracycline resistant organisms, e.g., S. aureus, S. pneumoniae, and Enterococcus spp. may also target tetracycline resistant B. anthracis. TABLE 6 Activity of tetracycline compounds against susceptible and doxycycline resistant B. anthracis. Vollum1B Sterne Ames V770 V770NPIR Compound MIC (ug/ml) Ciprofloxacin 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.12 0.25 Doxycyclinea 0.06 0.12 <0.03 1 32 AI <0.03 <0.03 0.06 0.12 0.06 AM 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.06 AF <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 0.06 0.06 H <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 0.06 AJ <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 aThe activity of doxycycline against the entire B. anthracis panel (n = 27) is as follows: MIC50 = 0.06 μg/ml; MIC90 = 0.25 μg/ml; MIC Range = <0.03-32 μg/ml. TABLE 7 Activity of tetracycline compounds against common susceptible and tetracycline resistant bacteria. S. aureus E. faecium E. faecalis S. pneumoniae MRSA5a 494b 29212c 700905d Compound MIC (ug/ml) Doxycycline 4 16 4 4 Minocycline 2 16 4 8 Tetracycline 32 64 16 32 AI 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.06 AM 0.25 0.25 0.13 0.06 AF 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.06 H 0.35 0.5 0.5 0.06 AJ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.06 aMethicillin resistant S. aureus; contains TetM, ribosome protection; also multi-drug resistant. bHas TetM (ribosome protection) and TetL (efflux); is resistant to vancomycin and erythromycin. cHas TetM (ribosome protection). dHas TetM (ribosome protection); is resistant to penicillin and erythromycin. Example 2 Additional Potential Mechanisms of Antibacterial Activity by Tetracycline Compounds In addition to inhibiting protein synthesis, molecules within the tetracycline family are reported to affect peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Using cell-free macromolecular synthesis assays early studies divided the tetracycline compounds into two classes based on these additional activities. Class 1 compounds (tetracycline, minocycline, and doxycycline) were potent inhibitors of protein synthesis compared to the weak effects of class 2 molecules (chelocardin, anhydrotetracycline, and 4-epi-anhydrochlorotet). Using chemical footprinting assays, minocycline, doxycycline, and tetracycline were shown to affect the reactivity of nucleotides known to mediate binding of the antibiotics within the 16S rRNA. Tigecycline exhibited a chemical footprint similar to that of tetracycline. A similar effect was not seen with chelocardin or anhydrotetracycline, which correlates with their poor activity against the purified ribosome in vitro. As illustrated in Table 8, these previous findings were confirmed and methods for deriving IC50 values (i.e., compound concentration necessary to inhibit a biological process by 50%) were developed. In particular, compounds AA, O, and tigecycline have a profile similar to class I compounds. Compounds AA and A also affect peptidoglycan biosynthesis. TABLE 8 Effect of tetracycline compounds on macromolecular synthesis of S. aureus RN450. Protein Peptidoglycan MIC synthesisa synthesis Antibiotic (μg/ml) IC50 IC90 IC50 IC90 Tetracycline 0.06 <0.03 0.11 >32 >32 Minocycline 0.19 <0.03 0.1 4.6 20.9 Doxycycline 0.06 <0.03 <0.03 3.9 18.23 Anhydrotetracycline 2 <0.03 <0.03 19.2 >32 Tigecycline 2 0.12 0.68 >32 >32 AA 1 0.14 1.4 3.8 23 AB 0.06 0.19 1.8 18.3 >32 A 0.25 1.9 5 2.1 3.8 AE 0.06 0.07 0.62 6.0 >32 O 0.06 0.33 0.92 >32 >32 aCompounds were assayed against S. aureus RN450, a TC susceptible organism and IC50 and IC90 values are reported in μg/ml. Example 3 In Vitro and in Vivo Toxicity An in vitro determination of the cytotoxicity of the compounds of the invention was performed using standard mammalian cell assays and in vivo using mice. Specifically, African green monkey kidney (COS-1) and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cell lines were used according to standard methods (see Zhi-Jun, Y., N. Sriranganathan, T. Vaught, S. K. Arastu, and S. A. Ahmed. 1997. A dye-based lymphocyte proliferation assay that permits multiple immunological analyses: mRNA, cytogenetic, apoptosis, and immunophenotyping studies. J Immunol Methods 210:25-39). Briefly, suspensions of tissue culture cells were grown overnight in the presence of serial dilutions of drug up to a maximum concentration of 50 or 100 μg/ml. The metabolism of the tissue culture cells was monitored with resazurin, a soluble non-toxic dye. Control cytotoxic and non-cytotoxic compounds were routinely included in all assays. Tox100 values represented the concentration of compound necessary to inhibit cellular proliferation by 100%. Compounds without measurable cytotoxicity in vitro were assigned a Tox100 value of greater than the highest concentration assayed (e.g., 50 or 100 μg/ml). The results are shown in Table 9. TABLE 9 Cytotoxicity of tetracycline compounds. Tox50 (μg/ml)a Compound COS-1 CHO-K1 AI >100 >100 AM >100 92.85 AF >100 >100 H >100 >100 AJ >100 >100 aRepresents the concentration necessary to cause 50% inhibition of cell growth in tissue culture cells. Example 4 Efficacy of Tetracycline Compounds Against Susceptible and Resistant Organisms in Animal Infection Models In vivo efficacy as well as oral bioavailability of the tetracycline compounds were assessed in murine models of infection and compared to control tetracyclines and other currently available antibiotics. In the standard screening assay of acute systemic infection (Table 10), mice were given a lethal intraperitoneal inoculum of S. pneumoniae strain 157E (tetracycline susceptible) or 700905 (tetracycline resistant), followed by a single dose of drug, and then observed for survival over 48 hours. Each experiment routinely included an untreated group (n=5; expected survival<5%) and a group (n=5) treated with a conventional antibiotic (e.g., minocycline, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin; expected survival>80%). The results are tabulated in Table 10. TABLE 10 Efficacy of selected tetracyclines in the screening assay of acute systemic infection due to S. pneumoniae 157E. SC PO Compound dose % survival dose % survival B 5 mg/kg 100% 5 mg/kg 40% C 5 mg/kg 100% 10 mg/kg 60% D 5 mg/kg 0% 10 mg/kg 0% AI 5 mg/kg 40% 10 mg/kg 0% E 5 mg/kg 40% 10 mg/kg 0% AM 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 0% F 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 100% AJ 5 mg/kg 100% 50 mg/kg 80% ND, not determined. Compounds providing ≧60% survival at 10 mg/kg were further assessed in a dose response study to determine the PD50 (the drug concentration necessary to prevent death in 50% of the mice in a treatment group). These experiments involved an untreated group, a group treated with a control antibiotic (e.g., minocycline, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin), and up to five groups each receiving a different doses of an active experimental compound; all groups included 5 animals (Table 11). Compounds B and C were efficacious following tetracycline administration and compounds H and I exhibited oral activity (Tables 10 and 11). Compound H, which exhibited potency against tetracycline resistant B. anthracis (Table 6), exhibits IV and PO efficacy against infections caused by tetracycline susceptible and resistant organisms (Table 11), and is efficacious in a model of lung infection following IV and PO drug administration (Table 12). TABLE 11 Efficacy (PD50) of selected tetracycline compounds in mice with acute systemic infection due to S. pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae S. pneumoniae 157E 700905 IV PO IV PO Compound PD50 (mg/kg) Minocycline 0.53 1.5 >50 >50 Ciprofloxacin >50 ND ND >50 Ampicillin 0.6 1.1 43.7 >50 H 1.1 5 2.2 12.7 I 1 13.4 2.2 31.6 AN 0.54 2.3 1.4 8.4 A chronic model of murine S. pneumoniae lung infection was also established and the efficacy of a variety of currently available tetracycline compounds were tested in this model (Table 12). TABLE 12 Efficacy (PD50) of tetracycline compounds in mice with acute pulmonary infection due to S. pneumoniae PBS1339. PD50 (mg/kg) Compound IV PO Minocycline 4.5 3.6 Doxycycline 7.1 35.3 Ampicillin ND 3.2 H <5.0 3.6 Example 5 In Vivo Murine Model of B. Anthracis Infection In this example, mice were exposed to B. anthracis using whole body aerosol challenge, which approximated the mode of pathogen dissemination that would be expected during a bioterrorist event and was therefore preferred over other models (e.g., intratracheal inoculation). Animals were challenged with 75-100 LD50 of B. anthracis Ames strain spores (LD50 3.4×104 CFU/ml), which has been demonstrated repeatedly to cause death in 90-100% of untreated animals. Treatment with the substituted tetracycline compounds of the invention began 24 hours after challenge and continued for 21 days. Due to the persistence of ungerminated anthrax spores in the lungs of challenged animals, a treatment duration of 21 days was used regardless of the antibiotic class. Antibiotics were administered by parenteral injection or oral administration. Treatment groups were followed for an additional 30 days after cessation of antibiotic treatment. In addition to monitoring survival in each treatment group, animals were sacrificed at selected time points to monitor microbiological burdens. Tissues, including brain, spleen, lungs, heart, and liver were excised and pathogens were enumerated using agar plates. Additionally, emergence of resistance was monitored by culturing organs on antibiotic containing media (usually at 3× the baseline MIC). Individual treatment groups consisted of 15 animals and the study endpoint was death after infectious challenge. Ciprofloxacin (30 mg/kg, q12h) or doxycycline (at experimentally determined doses) was included as the active control in all experiments. Moribund animals exhibiting labored breathing, showing signs of paralysis, or that are unresponsive were humanely euthanized. Challenged survivors were humanely euthanized at the conclusion of the example. Throughout the study the mice were observed three to four times daily and mortality was recorded with each inspection. All moribund mice were euthanized and the deaths were recorded as the day of sacrifice. All mice that died or were sacrificed had their lungs and spleens quantitatively cultured on drug-free and antibiotic supplemented agar (3× MIC) to determine the effect of the treatment regimen on the total and drug-resistant bacterial populations, respectively. Twenty-four hours after the last dose was given, a group of surviving mice (n=5) were sacrificed and the lungs and spleens were aseptically harvested. The homogenized specimens were washed with saline to prevent drug carryover and bacteria were quantitatively cultured on drug-free and antibiotic-supplemented agar (3× MIC). The remaining animals were observed for survival for 14 days after the last dose of drug is given. Those that were alive after the 2-week observation period were sacrificed and their lungs and spleens were quantitatively cultured for total and drug-resistant populations. Portions of the homogenates were “heat shocked” for spore determination and bacterial load was determined by plating onto culture media and incubated at 36° C. Differences in survival between treatment and control groups was assessed by the Fisher exact test and by survival analysis techniques (Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazards modeling). Differences in bacterial concentrations in the lungs were determined by Student's t-test or by ANOVA. A P value<0.05 is considered statistically significant. The results of the in vivo assay indicate that untreated mice exposed to B. anthracis survived approximately 4 days, all mice treated with 10 mg/kg compound AN survived the entire 21 days and 75% of mice treated with 25 mg/kg of compound AN survived the entire 21 days. Equivalents Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specific procedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of the present invention and are covered by the following claims. The contents of all references, patents, and patent applications cited throughout this application are hereby incorporated by reference. The appropriate components, processes, and methods of those patents, applications and other documents may be selected for the present invention and embodiments thereof.
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A
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31
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65
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11748296
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US20070219163A1-20070920
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Compounds Active in Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Signaling
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ACCEPTED
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20070905
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20070920
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[]
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A61K31675
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["A61K31675", "C07F904"]
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7560477
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20070514
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20090714
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514
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400000
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90995.0
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VAJDA
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KRISTIN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Lynch", "inventor_name_first": "Kevin", "inventor_city": "Charlottesville", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Macdonald", "inventor_name_first": "Timothy", "inventor_city": "Charlottesville", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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The present invention relates to S1P analogs that have activity as S1P receptor modulating agents and the use of such compounds to treat diseases associated with inappropriate S1P receptor activity. The compounds have the general structure: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof.
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1. A compound having the formula: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently H, halo or hydroxy; Y is a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently H, halo, hydroxy or amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl, or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkynyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 or C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano or C1-C6 alkylthio; R2, and R21 are both NH2; R3 is H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is H, F or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, or N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein R12 is O, NH or S; X is O, NH or S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. 2. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R23 and R24 are independently H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 3. The compound of claim 2 wherein y is 0 or 1; n is 1-10; Z is CH2; and R17 is H. 4. The compound of claim 2 wherein y is 0 or 1; n is 0; Z is C5-C6 aryl, or C5-C6 heteroaryl; R16 is C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl, or C5-C12 alkoxy; and R17 and R23 are each H. 5. The compound of claim 4 wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl; R24 is H; and R21 is C1-C4 alkyl, or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH. 6. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein Z is aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkynyl or C5-C12 alkoxy; Y is CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O or S; W is CR27R28; wherein R27 and R28 are independently H, halo or hydroxy; R21 is C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is H, F, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is H, F or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 7. The compound of claim 6 wherein R23 and R24 are both H; R27 and R28 are independently H or F; Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl; R21 is OH, C1-C4 alkyl, or (C1-C3 alkyl)OH; and y is 0 or 1. 8. The compound of claim 6 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R21 is C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H, F, C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 9. The compound of claim 8 wherein Y is carbonyl, NH or O. 10. The compound of claim 9 wherein R15 is OH; and R23 is H, F or C1-C3 alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 11. The compound of claim 1 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R1 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, or C5-C12 alkynyl; C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, R7 and R8 are independently O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, or N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R25 is N or CH; R2 is NH2; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, or (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; R23 is H, F, OH, C1-C4 alkyl, CO2H or C1-C4 alkyl; R24 is H, F, C1-C4 alkyl or PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 12. The compound of claim 11 wherein m is 0; y is 0 or 1; R25 is CH; R23 is H or F; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl. 13. The compound of claim 11 wherein R3 is C1-C3 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH. 14. The compound of claim 12 wherein R7 is NH; and X is O; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 15. The compound of claim 14 wherein y is 0; and R15 is OH. 16. The compound of claim 13 wherein the compound has the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkoxy, or C5-C12 alkenyl; and R8 is N; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 17. The compound of claim 16 wherein R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 18. The compound of claim 17 wherein R1 is C5-C9 alkyl; R15 is OH and R3 is CH3, CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH or CH2CH2CH2OH. 19. A composition comprising a compound of claim 1, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 20. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound having the formula wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 is O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 21. The composition of claim 20 wherein Q is 22. The composition of claim 21 wherein R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 23. The composition of claim 22 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 24. A method of promoting wound healing in a warm blooded vertebrate, said method comprising the step of administering a composition comprising a compound having the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 25. The method of claim 24 wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, and R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 26. The method of claim 25 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 27. A method for treating a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth, said method comprising the steps of administering a compound having the formula: wherein R1 is located in the meta or para position and is C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl or —NH(CO)—; R3 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or wherein X and R12 are independently O or S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. 28. The method of claim 27 wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, R15 is hydroxy or wherein R12 is O or S. 29. The method of claim 28 wherein Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been demonstrated to induce many cellular effects, including those that result in platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, cell morphology, tumor-cell invasion, endothelial cell chemotaxis and endothelial cell in vitro angiogenesis. For these reasons, S1P receptors are good targets for therapeutic applications such as wound healing and tumor growth inhibition. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signals cells in part via a set of G protein-coupled receptors named S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P4, and S1P5 (formerly Edg-1, Edg-5, Edg-3, Edg-6, and Edg-8, respectively). These receptors share 50-55% identical amino acids and cluster with three other receptors (LPA1, LPA2, and LPA3 (formerly Edg-2, Edg-4 and Edg-7)) for the structurally-related lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). A conformational shift is induced in the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) when the ligand binds to that receptor, causing GDP to be replaced by GTP on the α-subunit of the associated G-proteins and subsequent release of the G-proteins into the cytoplasm. The α-subunit then dissociates from the βγ-subunit and each subunit can then associate with effector proteins, which activate second messengers leading to a cellular response. Eventually the GTP on the G-proteins is hydrolyzed to GDP and the subunits of the G-proteins reassociate with each other and then with the receptor. Amplification plays a major role in the general GPCR pathway. The binding of one ligand to one receptor leads to the activation of many G-proteins, each capable of associating with many effector proteins leading to an amplified cellular response. S1P receptors make good drug targets because individual receptors are both tissue and response specific. Tissue specificity of the S1P receptors is desirable because development of an agonist or antagonist selective for one receptor localizes the cellular response to tissues containing that receptor, limiting unwanted side effects. Response specificity of the S1P receptors is also of importance because it allows for the development of agonists or antagonists that initiate or suppress certain cellular responses without affecting other responses. For example, the response specificity of the S1P receptors could allow for an S1P mimetic that initiates platelet aggregation without affecting cell morphology. Sphingosine-1-phosphate is formed as a metabolite of sphingosine in its reaction with sphingosine kinase and is stored in abundance in the aggregates of platelets where high levels of sphingosine kinase exist and sphingosine lyase is lacking. S1P is released during platelet aggregation, accumulates in serum and is also found in malignant ascites. Biodegradation of S1P most likely proceeds via hydrolysis by ectophosphohydrolases, specifically the sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolases. The physiologic implications of stimulating individual S1P receptors are largely unknown due in part to a lack of receptor type selective ligands. Therefore there is a need for compounds that have strong affinity and high selectivity for S1P receptor subtypes. Isolation and characterization of S1P analogs that have potent agonist or antagonist activity for S1P receptors has been limited due to the complication of synthesis derived from the lack of solubility of Sip analogs. The present invention is directed to a series of compounds that are active at S1P receptors.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One embodiment of the present invention is directed to novel sphingosine-1-phosphate analogs, compositions comprising such analogs, and methods of using such analogs as agonist or antagonists of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor activity to treat a wide variety of human disorders. S1P analogs of the present invention have a range of activities including agonism, with various degrees of selectivity at individual S1P receptor subtypes, as well as compounds with antagonist activity at the S1P receptors. More particularly, the S1P analogs of the present invention include compounds with the general structure: wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted aryl, C 3 -C 6 optionally substituted heteroaryl and R 1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R 17 is H, alkyl, alkylaryl or alkyl(optionally substituted aryl); R 18 is N, O, S, CH or together with R 17 form a carbonyl group or a bond; W is NH, CH 2 or (CH 2 ) n NH(CO); R 2 and R 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH 2 , C 1 -C 6 alkyl, (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)OH, and (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)NH 2 , with the proviso that R 2 and R 3 are not the same and either R 2 or R 3 is NH 2 . R 23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH 2 , OH, CO 2 H, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)OH, and (C 1 -C 4 alkyl)NH 2 ; R 24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO 2 H, OH and PO 3 H 2 , or R 23 together with R 24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R 15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R 12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y is an integer ranging from 0-10; n is an integer ranging from 0-4; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers of such compounds, with the proviso that R18 and W are not both CH2. Selective agonists and antagonists at S1P receptors will be useful therapeutically in a wide variety of human disorders.
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 USC § 119 from International patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2003/023768 filed on 30 Jul. 2003, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/523,337, filed Jan. 28, 2005, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/399,545, filed Jul. 30, 2002, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/425,595, filed Nov. 12, 2002, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. US GOVERNMENT RIGHTS This invention was made with United States Government support under Grant No. NIH R01 GM52722 and NIH R01 CA88994 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been demonstrated to induce many cellular effects, including those that result in platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, cell morphology, tumor-cell invasion, endothelial cell chemotaxis and endothelial cell in vitro angiogenesis. For these reasons, S1P receptors are good targets for therapeutic applications such as wound healing and tumor growth inhibition. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signals cells in part via a set of G protein-coupled receptors named S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P4, and S1P5 (formerly Edg-1, Edg-5, Edg-3, Edg-6, and Edg-8, respectively). These receptors share 50-55% identical amino acids and cluster with three other receptors (LPA1, LPA2, and LPA3 (formerly Edg-2, Edg-4 and Edg-7)) for the structurally-related lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). A conformational shift is induced in the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) when the ligand binds to that receptor, causing GDP to be replaced by GTP on the α-subunit of the associated G-proteins and subsequent release of the G-proteins into the cytoplasm. The α-subunit then dissociates from the βγ-subunit and each subunit can then associate with effector proteins, which activate second messengers leading to a cellular response. Eventually the GTP on the G-proteins is hydrolyzed to GDP and the subunits of the G-proteins reassociate with each other and then with the receptor. Amplification plays a major role in the general GPCR pathway. The binding of one ligand to one receptor leads to the activation of many G-proteins, each capable of associating with many effector proteins leading to an amplified cellular response. S1P receptors make good drug targets because individual receptors are both tissue and response specific. Tissue specificity of the S1P receptors is desirable because development of an agonist or antagonist selective for one receptor localizes the cellular response to tissues containing that receptor, limiting unwanted side effects. Response specificity of the S1P receptors is also of importance because it allows for the development of agonists or antagonists that initiate or suppress certain cellular responses without affecting other responses. For example, the response specificity of the S1P receptors could allow for an S1P mimetic that initiates platelet aggregation without affecting cell morphology. Sphingosine-1-phosphate is formed as a metabolite of sphingosine in its reaction with sphingosine kinase and is stored in abundance in the aggregates of platelets where high levels of sphingosine kinase exist and sphingosine lyase is lacking. S1P is released during platelet aggregation, accumulates in serum and is also found in malignant ascites. Biodegradation of S1P most likely proceeds via hydrolysis by ectophosphohydrolases, specifically the sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolases. The physiologic implications of stimulating individual S1P receptors are largely unknown due in part to a lack of receptor type selective ligands. Therefore there is a need for compounds that have strong affinity and high selectivity for S1P receptor subtypes. Isolation and characterization of S1P analogs that have potent agonist or antagonist activity for S1P receptors has been limited due to the complication of synthesis derived from the lack of solubility of Sip analogs. The present invention is directed to a series of compounds that are active at S1P receptors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One embodiment of the present invention is directed to novel sphingosine-1-phosphate analogs, compositions comprising such analogs, and methods of using such analogs as agonist or antagonists of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor activity to treat a wide variety of human disorders. S1P analogs of the present invention have a range of activities including agonism, with various degrees of selectivity at individual S1P receptor subtypes, as well as compounds with antagonist activity at the S1P receptors. More particularly, the S1P analogs of the present invention include compounds with the general structure: wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl and R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R17 is H, alkyl, alkylaryl or alkyl(optionally substituted aryl); R18 is N, O, S, CH or together with R17 form a carbonyl group or a bond; W is NH, CH2 or (CH2)nNH(CO); R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2. R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y is an integer ranging from 0-10; n is an integer ranging from 0-4; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers of such compounds, with the proviso that R18 and W are not both CH2. Selective agonists and antagonists at S1P receptors will be useful therapeutically in a wide variety of human disorders. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A-1F are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23019 and VPC23031. FIG. 1A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 1B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 1C—S1P2 receptor, FIG. 1D=S1P4 receptor, FIG. 1E=S1P5 receptor, and FIG. 1F=S1P3 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 2A-2E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23065 and VPC23069. FIG. 2A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 2B=31P3 receptor, FIG. 2C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 2D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 2E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 3A-3E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293 T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23075 and VPC23079. FIG. 3A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 3B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 3C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 3D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 3E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIG. 4A-4E are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC23087 and VPC23089. FIG. 4A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 4B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 4C=S1P2 receptor, FIG. 4D=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 4E=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIGS. 5A and 5B. FIG. 5A is a graphic representation of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes containing the S1P1 receptor, in response to S1P, VPC23087 and VPC23087+S1P. FIG. 5B is a graphic representation of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes containing the S1P3 receptor, in response to S1P, VPC23089 and VPC23089+S1P. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations (CPM=counts per minute). FIGS. 6A-6D are graphic representations of [γ-35 S]GTP binding to HEK293T cell membranes (containing different S1P receptors) in response to S1P, VPC24289 and VPC24287. FIG. 6A=S1P1 receptor, FIG. 6B=S1P3 receptor, FIG. 6C=S1P4 receptor, and FIG. 6D=S1P5 receptor. Each data point represents the mean of three determinations, wherein the activity of VPC24289 and VPC24287 is measured relative to S1P activity at the specific receptor subtype. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In describing and claiming the invention, the following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set forth below. As used herein, the term “purified” and like terms relate to an enrichment of a molecule or compound relative to other components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a native environment. The term “purified” does not necessarily indicate that complete purity of the particular molecule has been achieved during the process. A “highly purified” compound as used herein refers to a compound that is greater than 90% pure. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers, such as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such as an oil/water or water/oil emulsion, and various types of wetting agents. The term also encompasses any of the agents approved by a regulatory agency of the US Federal government or listed in the US Pharmacopeia for use in animals, including humans. As used herein, the term “treating” includes prophylaxis of the specific disorder or condition, or alleviation of the symptoms associated with a specific disorder or condition and/or preventing or eliminating said symptoms. As used herein, an “effective amount” means an amount sufficient to produce a selected effect. For example, an effective amount of an S1P receptor antagonist is an amount that decreases the cell signaling activity of the S1P receptor. As used herein, the term “halogen” or “halo” includes bromo, chloro, fluoro, and iodo. The term “haloalkyl” as used herein refers to an alkyl radical bearing at least one halogen substituent, for example, chloromethyl, fluoroethyl or trifluoromethyl and the like. The term “C1-Cn alkyl” wherein n is an integer, as used herein, represents a branched or linear alkyl group having from one to the specified number of carbon atoms. Typically C1-C6 alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, hexyl and the like. The term “C2-Cn alkenyl” wherein n is an integer, as used herein, represents an olefinically unsaturated branched or linear group having from 2 to the specified number of carbon atoms and at least one double bond. Examples of such groups include, but are not limited to, 1-propenyl, 2-propenyl, 1,3-butadienyl, 1-butenyl, hexenyl, pentenyl, and the like. The term “C2-Cn alkynyl” wherein n is an integer refers to an unsaturated branched or linear group having from 2 to the specified number of carbon atoms and at least one triple bond. Examples of such groups include, but are not limited to, 1-propynyl, 2-propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, and the like. The term “C3-Cn cycloalkyl” wherein n=8, represents cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl. As used herein, the term “optionally substituted” refers to from zero to four substituents, wherein the substituents are each independently selected. Each of the independently selected substituents may be the same or different than other substituents. As used herein the term “aryl” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or two aromatic rings including, but not limited to, phenyl, benzyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, and the like. “Optionally substituted aryl” includes aryl compounds having from zero to four substituents, and “substituted aryl” includes aryl compounds having one to three substituents, wherein the substituents, including alkyl, halo or amino substituents. The term (C5-C8 alkyl)aryl refers to any aryl group which is attached to the parent moiety via the alkyl group. The term “heterocyclic group” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system containing from one to three heteroatoms wherein the heteroatoms are selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. As used herein the term “heteroaryl” refers to a mono- or bicyclic carbocyclic ring system having one or two aromatic rings containing from one to three heteroatoms and includes, but is not limited to, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl and the like. The term “bicyclic” represents either an unsaturated or saturated stable 7- to 12-membered bridged or fused bicyclic carbon ring. The bicyclic ring may be attached at any carbon atom which affords a stable structure. The term includes, but is not limited to, naphthyl, dicyclohexyl, dicyclohexenyl, and the like. The term “lower alkyl” as used herein refers to branched or straight chain alkyl groups comprising one to eight carbon atoms, including methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, t-butyl, neopentyl and the like. The terms 16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 20:4 or 22:6 hydrocarbon refers to a branched or straight alkyl or alkenyl group, wherein the first integer represents the total number of carbons in the group and the second integer represent the number of double bonds in the group. As used herein, an “S1P modulating agent” refers a compound or composition that is capable of inducing a detectable change in S1P receptor activity in vivo or in vitro (e.g., at least 10% increase or decrease in S1P activity as measured by a given assay such as the bioassay described in Example 2). As used herein, the term “EC50 of an agent” refers to that concentration of an agent at which a given activity, including binding of sphingosine or other ligand of an S1P receptor and/or a functional activity of a S1P receptor (e.g., a signaling activity), is 50% maximal for that S1P receptor. Stated differently, the EC50 is the concentration of agent that gives 50% activation, when 100% activation is set at the amount of activity of the S1P receptor which does not increase with the addition of more ligand/agonist and 0% is set at the amount of activity in the assay in the absence of added ligand/agonist. As used herein, the term “phosphate analog” and “phosphonate analog” comprise analogs of phosphate and phosphonate wherein the phosphorous atom is in the +5 oxidation state and one or more of the oxygen atoms is replaced with a non-oxygen moiety, including for example, the phosphate analogs phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, phosphoroselenoate, phosphorodiselenoate, phosphoroanilothioate, phosphoranilidate, phosphoramidate, boronophosphates, and the like, including associated counterions, e.g., H, NH4, Na, and the like if such counterions are present. The S1P analogs of the present invention contain one or more asymmetric centers in the molecule. In accordance with the present invention a structure that does not designate the stereochemistry is to be understood as embracing all the various optical isomers, as well as racemic mixtures thereof. The compounds of the present invention may exist in tautomeric forms and the invention includes both mixtures and separate individual tautomers. For example the following structure: is understood to represent a mixture of the structures: The term “pharmaceutically-acceptable salt” refers to salts which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the S1P analogs of the present invention and which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. In many cases, the S1P analogs of the present invention are capable of forming acid and/or base salts by virtue of the presence of amino and/or carboxyl groups or groups similar thereto. Pharmaceutically-acceptable base addition salts can be prepared from inorganic and organic bases. Salts derived from inorganic bases, include by way of example only, sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary and tertiary amines, such as alkyl amines, dialkyl amines, trialkyl amines, substituted alkyl amines, di(substituted alkyl) amines, tri(substituted alkyl) amines, alkenyl amines, dialkenyl amines, trialkenyl amines, substituted alkenyl amines, di(substituted alkenyl) amines, tri(substituted alkenyl) amines, cycloalkyl amines, di(cycloalkyl) amines, tri(cycloalkyl) amines, substituted cycloalkyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkyl amines, cycloalkenyl amines, di(cycloalkenyl) amines, tri(cycloalkenyl) amines, substituted cycloalkenyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkenyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, aryl amines, diaryl amines, triaryl amines, heteroaryl amines, diheteroaryl amines, triheteroaryl amines, heterocyclic amines, diheterocyclic amines, triheterocyclic amines, mixed di- and tri-amines where at least two of the substituents on the amine are different and are selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and the like. Also included are amines where the two or three substituents, together with the amino nitrogen, form a heterocyclic or heteroaryl group. Examples of suitable amines include, by way of example only, isopropylamine, trimethyl amine, diethyl amine, tri(iso-propyl) amine, tri(n-propyl) amine, ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, tromethamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, N-alkylglucamines, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, and the like. It should also be understood that other carboxylic acid derivatives would be useful in the practice of this invention, for example, carboxylic acid amides, including carboxamides, lower alkyl carboxamides, dialkyl carboxamides, and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be prepared from inorganic and organic acids. Salts derived from inorganic acids include hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Salts derived from organic acids include acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluene-sulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like. Embodiments One aspect of the present invention is directed to novel S1P analogs that have activity as modulators of S1P receptor activity. Modulators of S1P activity include agents that have either agonist or antagonist activity at the S1P receptor as well as analogs of those compounds that have been modified to resist enzymatic modification (i.e. block modification of the compounds by phosphohydrolases, sphingosine lyases or sphingosine kinases), or provide a suitable substrate for sphingosine kinases to convert an administered form into a more active form. The structure of S1P can be described as a combination of three regions: the phosphate head group, the linker region, and the fatty acid tail. Through structure activity relationships (SAR) of the closely related lysophospholipid, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), it has been determined that the presence of a phosphate head group is an important feature to allow binding of S1P to its S1P receptors. However, there are exceptions to the requirement for a phosphate head group. In particular a phosphonate, hydroxyl, phosphate or phosphonate group can be substituted for the phosphate head group while retaining activity at the S1P receptor. Based on the SAR of LPA, the linker region of S1P is anticipated to be the area of the molecule that can best accommodate change. Again using the SAR of LPA as a lead, it is presumed that presence of a hydrogen bond donor 5 bonds away from the phosphate is important to binding. From a retrosynthetic standpoint, the linker region may be seen as a functionalized derivative of L-Serine. Due to the long fatty acid chain and charged phosphate head group, S1P has an amphipathic nature that makes it extremely insoluble in organic solvents. Manipulation of the saturation of the fatty acid chain may compromise aggregate formation of the molecule, thereby increasing solubility. One important aspect of the long chain, however, is the length. GTPγS studies that have been completed thus far have demonstrated that an 18 carbon backbone, as is the case in S1P, displays optimal activity compared to 16 and 20 carbon backbones, however the long fatty acid chain can vary from 8 to 25 carbons and still exhibit activity. It is also anticipated that the S stereochemistry of the C-2 amine may have an effect on binding as one would expect from a receptor. Hydrogen bonds from the phosphate head group and the C-2 amine to adjacent argenine and glutamic acid residues on the model receptor have been demonstrated to be important to S1P-receptor binding. In accordance with one embodiment an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, flourine substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2, and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to an S1P receptor modulating compound is represented by the formula: wherein Z is CH2, aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20, wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R21 is selected from the group consisting of NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), with the proviso that R2 or R3 is NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; and n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is CH2, y is 0, n is 1-10, and R17 is H. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, y is 0, n is 0, R17 and R23 are each H and R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl or C5-C12 alkoxy. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula II is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, y is 0, n is 0, R17, R23 and R24 are each H, R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl or C5-C12 alkoxy and R15 is hydroxy. In another embodiment of the present invention, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein Z is aryl or heteroaryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkenyl, C5-C18 alkynyl and C5-C18 alkoxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; W is CR27R28, wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; R21 is selected from the group consisting of NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, NH2, OH, CO2H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula III is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl or C5-C6 heteroaryl, R23 and R24 are both H, R21 is selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C4 alkyl, and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH; and y is 0. In another embodiment, the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH and O; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 and R24 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H or PO3H2 or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group, as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts and tautomers thereof. In another embodiment, the compound of Formula III is provided wherein Z is C5-C6 aryl; R16 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl and C5-C18 alkenyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; W is CH2; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 and R24 are both H; y is 0; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is O and S (and in one embodiment R15 is OH), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In another embodiment of the present invention a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R29, is H or halo; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl); R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 and R24 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, C1-C3 alkyl or PO3H2 or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; m is 1 or 0; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment, R29 is H or F; m is 0; y is 1 or 0; R2 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is H and R23 is C1-C3 alkyl. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention a compound of Formula IV, V or VI is provided wherein R23 and R29 are both H; m is 0; R25 is CH2 or CH; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, CH2 or CH, NH, and N; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C3 alkyl; and y is 1 or 0. In one embodiment of the present invention, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C18 alkyl, C5-C18 alkenyl and C5-C18 alkynyl; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, NH and N; R2, is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, OH and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; m is 0; and y is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In one embodiment of the present invention a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CH2, CH, NH and N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, (C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and (C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; y is 1 or 0 R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, C1-C4 alkyl and OH; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R2 is NH2; and R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. Alternatively, in one embodiment a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R3 is NH2; and R2 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R23 is H; R2 is NH2; and R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, C1-C4 alkyl; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N. In another embodiment, a compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R7 and R9 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, NH and N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; y is 0; R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment of the present invention, a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl, C5-C12 alkenyl and C5-C12 alkynyl; R8 is O or N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; R23 is H or F; and R24 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment the compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, CH3 and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; and R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H or C1-C4 alkyl as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In another embodiment the compound of Formula VIII is provided wherein R11 is C5-C12 alkyl or C5-C12 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of NH2, CH3 and (C1-C3 alkyl)OH, with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same and either R2 or R3 is NH2; and R15 is hydroxy; R23 is H; and R24 is H or CH3 as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers thereof. In one embodiment, a S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound is represented by the formula: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; R8 is N; R2 is NH2; R3 is CH3 or (C1-C3 alkyl)OH and R15 is hydroxy; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl(optionally substituted aryl), alkyl(optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl, and arylalkyl(optionally substituted)aryl; R12 is 0, or R1 and R12 taken together form an optionally substituted heteroaryl; R17 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; y is an integer from 1-10, and R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphate, methylene phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In one embodiment one of the R2 and R3 substituents of Formula XII is NH2. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the Formula XII include salts with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide and sulfate, salts with organic acids, such as acetate, fumarate, maleate, benzoate, citrate, malate, methanesulfonate and benzenesulfonate salts, and when a carboxy group is present, salts with metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium and aluminium, salts with amines, such as triethylamine and salts with dibasic amino acids, such as lysine. The compounds and salts of the present invention encompass hydrate and solvate forms. In one embodiment, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs; y is an integer ranging from 1 to 4; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; Z is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, aryl and heteroaryl; and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C12 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. When R5 is an alpha substituted phosphonate, the alpha carbon can be mono- or di-substituted, wherein the substitutions are independently selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, PO3H2, or together with the attached carbon, form a carbonyl. In one embodiment, R1 is C8-C22 alkyl, and more preferably C12-C16 alkyl, y is 1 or 2 and R5 is hydroxy, phosphate or phosphonate. Alternatively, in one embodiment, R1 is —(CH2)n-Z-R6, wherein n is an integer ranging from 1-4, Z is aryl and R6 is C1-C10 alkyl; more preferably, Z is phenyl, R5 is hydroxy, phosphate or phosphonate, and R6 is C6-C10 alkyl. In another embodiment of the present invention, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R14 is selected from the group consisting of H, hydroxy, NH2, C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxyl, phosphate, phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs; y is an integer ranging from 1 to 4; m is an integer ranging from 0 to 4; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; Z is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, aryl and heteroaryl; and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C12 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; and R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S and N. In one embodiment R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl and C8-C22 alkynyl, R4 is hydroxyl, phosphate or phosphonate, y is 1 or 2, m is 0 or 1 and either R7 or R8 is N; more preferably, R1 is C4-C10 alkyl, R4 is hydroxyl or phosphate, y is l, m is 0 and R7 and R8 are both N. The present invention also encompasses compounds of the general structure: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl and wherein R6 and R13 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl and C1-C20 alkoxy and R10 is hydroxy, phosphonate, methylene phosphonate or phosphate, with the proviso that when R9 is —NR1, R10 is not phosphate. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, R6 is C1-C10 alkyl, R13 is H and R10 is hydroxy, phosphonate, or methylene phosphonate. A GTP[γ35 S] binding assay was developed to analyze directly the activation of individual S1P receptors, and thus allow the identification of S1P receptor agonists and antagonists as well as determine the relative efficacies and potencies at each receptor in a common system. The same results were obtained regardless of whether the recombinant receptor used exogenous G proteins (HEK293T cells) or endogenous G proteins (RH7777 cells). In addition, insect Sf9 cells infected with recombinant baculovirus encoding receptors (e.g. LPA and S1P receptors) and G proteins can also serve as the source of membranes for the broken cells used in the GTPgammaS-35 binding assays. The Sf9 cell and HEK293T cell membranes gave similar results. Furthermore, the activities measured in the broken cell assay predicted the responses seen in whole cell assays. Thus the primary assay used in the present invention for determining compound potency and efficacy is a valid measure of activity at the S1P receptors. The GTP[γ35 S] binding assay has revealed that the compounds of the present invention have the ability to modulate S1P receptor activity (See Examples 2 and 3). More particularly, compounds represented by the following formula display activity as modulators of S1P activity. More particularly, such compounds include those having the structure wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2 and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. As described in Example 2 compounds having the general structure wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1, R1 is C8-C22 alkyl, R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H and NH2, wherein at least one of R2 and R3 is NH2 and R4 is phosphate all display significant agonist activity at the S1P receptors tested (S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P5), although none were as potent as S1P itself (See Table 1 of Example 2). However, one compound, VPC22135 (wherein R2 is H, R3 is NH2, R4 is phosphate and R9 is —N(CH2)13CH3), approached the potency of S1P at both the human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, compound VPC22135 is used as a selective agonist of human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. Curiously, this compound has the amino group in the unnatural (R) configuration. Its enantiomer, VPC22053, was more than 1 log order less potent at both the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors. An additional series of compounds have shown activity in modulating S1P receptor activity, however these compounds also displayed selectivity for certain S1P receptor subtypes (See Example 3 and FIGS. 1-5). Each of these compounds (VPC 23019, 23031, 23065, 23069, 23087, 23089, 23075, 23079) are inactive at the S1P2 receptor. Compounds VPC23031, 23019, 23089 are inverse agonists (antagonists of the S1P3) receptor, but this inverse agonism becomes agonism when the alkyl chain length is 9 carbons (VPC23079) or 10 (VPC23069). In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention an antagonist of S1P activity is provided. In particular, a compound having the general structure: wherein R1 and R11 is C4-C12 alkyl and located in the meta or ortho position, Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl and C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof are anticipated to have antagonist activity at the S1P3 receptor. In accordance with one embodiment, the R1 substituent is located in the ortho position on the phenyl ring, and in one embodiment, the R1 substituent is located in the meta position on the phenyl ring. However compounds of the general structure (wherein R11 is located in the para-position) have exhibited activity as agonists of S1P activity. In particular compounds of Formula XI are provided as S1P agonists wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl and C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In one embodiment, a compound represented by Formula XI is provided as an S1P agonist wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl; Q is —NH(CO)—, R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R24 is H; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl, and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of O and S. Compounds VPC23065, VPC23087 and VPC23075 are primary alcohols, i.e. R4 of formula XII is hydroxy. These compounds demonstrate significant agonist activity at various S1P receptors. In particular, the S1P4 receptor binds to the primary alcohol S1P analogs with an EC50 within a log order of the phosphorylated compounds. Since S1P4 is present on lymphocytes, the use of the primary alcohol analogs may be used for immuno-suppression. In addition, it is also hypothesized that the hydroxy moiety of the primary alcohols may be converted to phosphates in vivo. Therefore the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are all anticipated to serve as prodrug forms of active S1P receptor modulating compounds. S1P is metabolized by a variety of conceivable routes including phosphatases, esterases or transported into cells. The S1P signal at receptors might be prolonged if the routes of degradation could be evaded or inhibited by S1P structural analogs. The S1P analogs of the present invention can be used, in accordance with one embodiment, to inhibit or evade endogenous S1P metabolic pathways including phosphotases, esterases, transporters and S1P acyl transferases. For example, those S1P analogs that lack an ester bond would be resistant to degradation by endogenous esterases. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to compounds that function as a S1P receptor agonists and antagonists that are resistant to hydrolysis by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) or are sub-type selective inhibitors of LPPs, and in particular are resistant to hydrolysis by sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolase. Previously described S1P mimetics contain a phosphate group, and thus are likely susceptible to hydrolysis by LPPs. Alpha hydroxy phosphonates are well known phosphate mimetics. For example, the compounds used clinically to treat osteoporosis (pamidronate, alendronate) are alpha hydroxy bisphosphonates that are analogs of pyrophosphate. S1P analogs can be prepared wherein the phosphate moiety is replaced by an alpha substituted phosphonate, wherein the substituents are selected from the group consisting of H, OH, F, CO2H, PO3H2 or double bonded oxygen. Accordingly, one aspect of the present invention is directed to lipid phosphate phosphatase resistant S1P analogs having the general structures: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6; R11 is —(CH2)n-Z-R6; wherein n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10, Z is selected from the group consisting of aryl and heteroaryl and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2, —(C1-C4 alkyl)aryl(C0-C4 alkyl) and —(C1-C4 alkyl)aryloxyaryl(C0-C4 alkyl), wherein R2 and R3 are not the same and R2 or R3 is NH2 y is an integer from 0-10; R14 is selected from the group consisting of R15 is selected from the group consisting of H, hydroxy, amino, COOH, halo, PO2H2; or R15 and R16 taken together form a keto group or a methylene group; R16 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, amino, COOH, halo, PO2H2; or R15 and R16 taken together with the carbon to which they are bound form a carbonyl or a methylene group; and R17 is selected from the group consisting of O, S and NH. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, wherein R1 is C8-C22 alkyl or —(CH2)n-Z-R6, y is 0 or 1, R15 and R16 are independently H, C1-C4 alkyl or hydroxyl, and R14 is OH. In an alternative preferred embodiment, the compound has the general structure: wherein R9 is selected from the group consisting of —NR1, and —OR1; R1 is selected from the group consisting of C8-C22 alkyl, C8-C22 alkenyl, C8-C22 alkynyl and —(CH2)n-Z-R6, wherein n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10, Z is selected from the group consisting of aryl and heteroaryl and R6 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C10 alkyl, C1-C20 alkoxy, C1-C20 alkylthio, and C1-C20 alkylamino; R2 is NH2 or OH; y is an integer from 0-10; R14 is H or R15 is NH2 or OH; and R17 is selected from the group consisting of O, S and NH. In one preferred embodiment, R9 is —NR1, wherein R1 is C8-C22 alkyl or —(CH2)n-Z-R6, y is 0 or 1, and R17 is O. Lysophospholipids such as S1P and LPA, and their phosphate-containing analogs, are probably degraded by membrane bound lipid ectophosphohydrolases. This activity can be evaded by substituting phosphonate, α-substituted phosphonate, phosphothionate or other phosphate analogs as phosphate surrogates. Such compounds might also function as lipid ectophosphohydrolase inhibitors. Further, substitution of small alkyl groups (e.g. C1-C4 alkyl, C1-C3 alkylalcohol) at C-1 or C-2 might retard lipid ectophosphohydrolase cleavage by steric hindrance. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl (optionally substituted aryl), alkyl (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl (optionally substituted aryl) R7 is H, O, or R1 and R7 taken together form an optionally substituted C3-C6 heteroaryl or optionally substituted C3-C6 heterocyclic group; R6 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R4 and R5 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R8 is O, NH or S. In one embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is CH3 and R6 is H. In another embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is H and one of the R4 and R5 substituents is CH3 while the other is H, and R6 is H. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, a compound is provided that could be converted by phosphorylation to an S1P receptor modulating compound. The compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkyl (optionally substituted aryl), alkyl (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), arylalkyl and arylalkyl (optionally substituted aryl) R7 is H, O, or R1 and R7 taken together form an optionally substituted C3-C6 heteroaryl or optionally substituted C3-C6 heterocyclic group; R6 is H, C1-C4 alkyl or (CH2)aryl; R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R4 and R5 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, NH2, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, —(C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and —(C1-C4 alkyl)NH2. In one embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is CH3 and R6 is H. In another embodiment, one of the R2 and R3 substituents is NH2 while the other is H and one of the R4 and R5 substituents is CH3 while the other is H, and R6 is H. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P receptor modulating compound is provided wherein the compound has the general structure: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl, or C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl optionally substituted with OH; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 alkoxy, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkyl, (CH2)yNH2, (CH2)ycyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphate, methylene phosphonate, α-substituted methylene phosphonate, thiophosphate, thiophosphonate and other phosphate analogs and phosphonate analogs or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C4 alkyl and haloalkyl; X is CR8R9; Y is selected from the group consisting of CR8R9, carbonyl, NH, O or S; R8 and R9 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; n and m are integers independently ranging from 5-10, and y is an integer ranging from 0-10 with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl and ethyl. In another embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CH2, CHF, CF2, and CHOH. In a further embodiment, a compound of the Formula IX is provided wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of CH3, CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH and CH2CH2CH2OH; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 alkoxy, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 and R5 are H; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphate and methylene phosphonate; X is CH2; Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH, O and S; and n and m are integers independently ranging from 5-10. In one embodiment a compound of Formula IX is provided wherein R1 is —CH3, or —CH2CH3; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl; R3 and R5 are H; R4 is hydroxy or phosphate X is CH2; and Y is selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, NH and O. The present invention also encompasses the pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the Formula IX including salts with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide and sulfate, salts with organic acids, such as acetate, fumarate, maleate, benzoate, citrate, malate, methanesulfonate and benzenesulfonate salts, and when a carboxy group is present, salts with metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium and aluminium, salts with amines, such as triethylamine and salts with dibasic amino acids, such as lysine. The compounds and salts of the present invention encompass hydrate and solvate forms. In one embodiment, an S1P modulating compound is provided having the general structure: wherein R1 is methyl or ethyl; R2 is selected from the group consisting of C5-C10 alkyl, (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 alkoxy (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; n and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 10; X is a methylene group optionally substituted with one or two fluorine atoms or a secondary alcohol in either stereoconfiguration; Y is a carbonyl group, —O—, —NH— or a methylene group that is optionally substituted with one or two fluorine atoms, or a secondary alcohol in either stereoconfiguration, with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the compound of Formula X is provided wherein R1 is methyl or ethyl; R2 is C5-C10 alkyl or (CH2)nO(CH2)m; R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; X is methylene; Y is a carbonyl group, —O— or —NH—; and n and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 10. More particularly, in one embodiment, compounds of Formula X are provided wherein R1 is methyl; R2 is C5-C8 alkyl and located in the para position; R4 is OPO3H2 or OH; X is methylene; and Y is a carbonyl group or —NH—. In accordance with one embodiment, compounds suitable for use in accordance with the present invention include: wherein R1 is selected from the group consisting of —CH3, —CH2CH3, CH2OH, CH2CH2OH; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkoxy and C1-C6 alkyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHOH, CF2, CFH, carbonyl, NH, O and S; and R12 is H, C1-C6 alkoxy or C1-C6 alkyl. More particularly, suitable compounds include the following compounds: The present invention also encompasses compounds general structure: wherein R1 and R1 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl, C2-C12 alkynyl; R1g is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl and (C1-C6 alkyl)OH; Q is R2 is C5-C12 alkyl, C2-C12 alkenyl (CH2)nO(CH2)m, C5-C10 (optionally substituted aryl), C5-C10 (optionally substituted heteroaryl) and C5-C10 (optionally substituted cycloalkyl); R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkyl, (CH2)nNH2, (CH2), cyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, R5 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl or ethyl; X is CH2, CHF, CF2 or CHOH; Y is selected from the group consisting of CHF, CF2, CHOH, carbonyl, NH, O or S; n and m are integers independently ranging from 0-10, with the proviso that X and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, R1 is methyl or ethyl, R2 is C5-C10 alkyl, C5-C10 aryl or C5-C10 alkoxy, R3 is H, C1-C6 alkoxy or C1-C6 alkyl, R4 is as defined immediately above, R5 is H, X is methylene and Y is a carbonyl group, —O— or —NH—; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In another embodiment, Q is R2 and R1 are independently selected from the group consisting of C5-C12 alkyl and C2-C12 alkenyl and R15 is OH. The compounds of the present invention are anticipated to be high affinity agonists (or antagonists) at various sphingosine I-phosphate receptors of the ‘Edg’ family. The compounds of the present invention are also expected to evoke lymphopenia when introduced into rodents or humans. Thus the compounds of the invention are immune modulators and are useful in treatment or prophylaxis of pathologies mediated by lymphocyte actions including acute or chronic rejection of tissue grafts such as organ transplants or graft vs. host disease as well as autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunue diseases that could be treated with compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to: systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, type I diabetes, uveitis, psoriasis and myasthenia gravis. The compounds of the invention are useful also in treating inflammatory disorders such as atopic asthma, inflammatory glomerular injury and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Compounds of formula XII wherein R15 is hydroxy are primary alcohols. It is hypothesized that the hydroxy moiety of the primary alcohols is converted to phosphates in vivo. Therefore, the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are expected to serve as prodrug forms of active S1P receptor modulating compounds. Therefore, in accordance with one embodiment pharmaceutical compositions comprising the primary alcohol S1P analogs of the present invention are administered to treat patients for a variety of ailments or conditions, including the use of the compounds for immuno-modulation to prevent or diminish tissue graft rejection. S1P is metabolized by a variety of conceivable routes including phosphatases, esterases or transported into cells. The S1P signal at receptors might be prolonged if the routes of degradation could be evaded or inhibited by S1P structural analogs. The S1P analogs of the present invention can be used, in accordance with one embodiment, to inhibit or evade endogenous S1P metabolic pathways including phosphotases, esterases, transporters and S1P acyl transferases. For example, those S1P analogs that lack an ester bond would be resistant to degradation by endogenous esterases. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to compounds that function as a S1P receptor agonists and antagonists that are resistant to hydrolysis by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) or are sub-type selective inhibitors of LPPs, and in particular are resistant to hydrolysis by sphingosine 1-phosphate phosphohydrolase. Previously described S1P mimetics contain a phosphate group, and thus are likely susceptible to hydrolysis by LPPs. Alpha hydroxy phosphonates are well known phosphate mimetics. For example, the compounds used clinically to treat osteoporosis (pamidronate, alendronate) are alpha hydroxy bisphosphonates that are analogs of pyrophosphate. S1P analogs can be prepared wherein the phosphate moiety is replaced by an alpha hydroxy phosphonate. Accordingly, one aspect of the present invention is directed to lipid phosphate phosphatase resistant S1P analogs having the general structures of Formula IX or I wherein R4 or R15, respectively, are selected from the group consisting of The compounds of the present invention can be used for immuno-modulation as well as in anti-angiogenesis therapy, most particularly as applied in therapy of neoplastic disease. In another embodiment, the SP1 analogs of the present invention are used in the protection of female gonads during radiation therapy such as applied to the abdomen in the course of treatment of neoplastic diseases. Lysophospholipids, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), stimulate cellular proliferation and affect numerous cellular functions by signaling through G protein-coupled endothelial differentiation gene-encoded (S1P) receptors. Accordingly, the S1P receptor agonists disclosed in the present invention are anticipated to have utility in a variety of clinical settings including but not limited to the acceleration of wound healing (including corneal wounds), the promotion of myelination (oligodendrocyte cell function) and for immuno-modulation. In particular, LPA has been reported (Balazs et al. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2001 280(2):R466-472) as having activity in accelerating wound closing and increasing neoepithelial thickness. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more of the S1P receptor agonists of the present invention is administered to a mammalian species (including humans) to enhance wound repair, improve neuronal function or enhance an immune response of that species. It has also been reported that S1P inhibits fibrosis in various organs. Accordingly, the S1P receptor agonists of the present invention can be used to prevent/treat diseases associated with fibrosis of organs such as pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial pneumonia, chronic hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic renal insufficiency or kidney glomerular sclerosis. In one embodiment, a composition comprising an S1P receptor agonist of the present invention is used to treat wounds, including burns, cuts, lacerations, surgical incisions, bed sores, and slow-healing ulcers such as those seen in diabetics. Typically the composition is administered locally as a topical formulation, however other standard routes of administration are also acceptable. In addition, it is believed that the S1P analogs of the present invention mobilize lymphocytes and increase their homing to secondary lymphoid tissues. Thus, the present analogs can be used to direct lymphocytes away from transplanted organs (allografts) or healthy cells (e.g. pancreatic islets (type I diabetes), myelin sheathing (multiple sclerosis)), or other tissues that may be subjected to an undesirable immuno response and thus decrease damage to such tissues from the immune system. In another embodiment, the S1P receptor modulating compounds of the present invention are administered to a subject to treat or prevent a disorder of abnormal cell growth and differentiation as well as inflammatory diseases. These disorders include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's disease, aberrant corpus luteum formation, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, anovulation, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P antagonist is administered to a patient to treat a disease associated with abnormal growth. In one embodiment, a composition comprising a compound of the general structure: wherein R11 is C5-C18 alkyl or C5-C18 alkenyl located in the meta or para position; Q is selected from the group consisting of C3-C6 optionally substituted cycloalkyl, C3-C6 optionally substituted heterocyclic, C3-C6 optionally substituted aryl C3-C6 optionally substituted heteroaryl, CH2CH2 and —NH(CO)—; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C4 alkyl and (C1-C4 alkyl)OH; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein X and R12 is selected from the group consisting of O and S; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is administered to treat a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth. In one embodiment, the compound of Formula XI is administered to treat a patient suffering from a disease associated with abnormal cell growth wherein Q is —NH(CO)—, R24 is H; R23 is H or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy and wherein R12 is O or S, and in a further embodiment Q is R15 is OH; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof. In addition, it is believed that the S1P analogs of the present invention mobilize lymphocytes and increase their homing to secondary lymphoid tissues. Thus, the present analogs can be used to direct lymphocytes away from transplanted organs (allografts) or healthy cells (e.g., pancreatic islets (type I diabetes), myelin sheathing (multiple sclerosis)), or other tissues that may be subjected to an undesirable immuno response and thus decrease damage to such tissues from the immune system. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P analogs of the present invention are used for immuno-modulation, wherein immuno-modulation refers to an affect on the functioning of the immune system and includes lymphocyte trafficking. In accordance with one embodiment, an S1P analog of the present invention that exhibits potent agonist activity at S1P1 is administered to a warm blooded vertebrate, including a human, to induce immuno-modulation in a patient in need thereof. In one embodiment the S1P analog is specific or has enhanced activity at the S1P1 receptor subtype relative to one or more of the other S1P receptor subtypes. In one embodiment of the present invention, the S1P analogs of the present invention are used as immuno-modulators to alter immune system activities and prevent damage to healthy tissue that would otherwise occur in autoimmune diseases and in organ transplantation. In particular, the compounds can be administered to patients as part of the treatment associated with organ transplantation, including pancreas, pancreatic islets, kidney, heart and lung transplantations. The S1P analogs can be administered alone or in combo with known immuno-suppressants such as cyclosporine, tacrolimus, rapamycin, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and corticosteroids such as cortisolo, cortisone, desoxymetasone, betametasone, desametasone, flunisolide, prednisolone, prednisone, amcinomide desonide, methylprednisolone, triamcinolone, and alclometasone. Additionally, the S1P analogs of the present invention can be administered to patients suffering from an autoimmune disease to treat that disease. Examples of diseases considered to be autoimmune in nature are: type I diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease including colitis and Crohn's disease, glomerulonephritis, uveitis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, myasthenia gravis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune hepatitis and Wegner's granuloma. In accordance with one embodiment, an immuno-modulation therapy is provided for treating mammals, including humans, in need thereof. The method comprises the steps of administering to said mammal an effective amount of a compound represented by the formula: wherein W is CR27R28 or (CH2)nNH(CO); wherein R27 and R28 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo and hydroxy; Y is selected from the group consisting of a bond, CR9R10, carbonyl, NH, O or S; wherein R9 and R10 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, halo, hydroxy and amino; Z is CH2, aryl, halo substituted aryl or heteroaryl; R11 and R16 are independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C18 alkyl, C2-C18 alkenyl, C2-C18 alkynyl, C5-C18 alkoxy, (CH2)pO(CH2)q, C5-C10 (aryl)R20, C5-C10 (heteroaryl)R20, C5-C10 (cycloalkyl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(aryl)R20, C5-C10 alkoxy(heteroaryl)R20 and C5-C10 alkoxy(cycloalkyl)R20; wherein R20 is H or C1-C10 alkyl; R29 is H or halo; R17 is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, NH2, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 alkylamino, C1-C6 alkylcyano and C1-C6 alkylthio; R2 and R21 are both NH2; R3 is selected from the group consisting of H, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R22 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R23 is selected from the group consisting of H, F, CO2H, OH, C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH, and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; R24 is selected from the group consisting of H, F and PO3H2, or R23 together with R24 and the carbon to which they are attached form a carbonyl group; R25, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of O, S, CHR26, CHR26, NR26, and N; wherein R26 is H, F or C1-C4 alkyl; R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; X is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; y and m are integers independently ranging from 0 to 4; p and q are integers independently ranging from 1 to 10; n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or tautomer thereof, with the proviso that W and Y are not both methylene. In one embodiment, the compound has the general structure of Formula II-VII as described herein to treat a patient by suppressing the immune system and diminishing damage to healthy tissue that would otherwise occur in autoimmune diseases and in organ transplantation. In one embodiment, the immuno-modulating compound has the general structure: wherein R6 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C10 alkyl and R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, and NH2 with the proviso that R2 and R3 are not the same, and either R2 or R3 is NH2; R21 is selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkyl)OH and (C1-C4 alkyl)NH2; and R15 is selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, phosphonate, and wherein R12 is selected from the group consisting of O, NH and S; as well as pharmaceutically acceptable salts or tautomers of such compounds. The dosage to be used is, of course, dependent on the specific disorder to be treated, as well as additional factors including the age, weight, general state of health, severity of the symptoms, frequency of the treatment and whether additional pharmaceuticals accompany the treatment. The dosages are in general administered several times per day and preferably one to three times per day. The amounts of the individual active compounds are easily determined by routine procedures known to those of ordinary skill in the art. S1P also acts as a survival factor in many cell types. In particular, S1P receptor agonists are anticipated to have activity in protecting cells and tissues from hypoxic conditions. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P antagonists of the present invention are administered to treat cells and tissues exposed to hypoxic conditions, including injury sustained as a result of ischemia. In accordance with one embodiment, the S1P analogs exhibiting S1P receptor antagonist activity can be used to treat ischemia reperfusion type injury. Interference with the supply of oxygenated blood to tissues is defined as ischemia. The effects of ischemia are known to be progressive, such that over time cellular vitality continues to deteriorate and tissues become necrotic. Total persistent ischemia, with limited oxygen perfusion of tissues, results in cell death and eventually in coagulation-induced necrosis despite reperfusion with arterial blood. A substantial body of evidence indicates that a significant proportion of the injury associated with ischemia is a consequence of the events associated with reperfusion of ischemic tissues, hence the term reperfusion injury. The present invention is also directed to pharmaceutical compositions comprising the S1P receptor modulating compounds of the present invention. More particularly, such S1P receptor agonists and antagonists can be formulated as pharmaceutical compositions using standard pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, fillers, solublizing agents and stabilizers known to those skilled in the art. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the S1P receptor agonists and/or antagonists are administered to an individual in need thereof by any number of routes including, but not limited to, topical, oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intramedullary, intrathecal, intraventricular, transdermal, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, enteral, topical, sublingual, or rectal means. The oral route is typically employed for most conditions requiring the compounds of the invention. Preference is given to intravenous injection or infusion for the acute treatments. For maintenance regimens the oral or parenteral, e.g. intramuscular or subcutaneous, route is preferred. In accordance with one embodiment, a composition is provided that comprises an S1P analog of the present invention and albumin, more particularly, the composition comprises an S1P analog of the present invention, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and 0.1-1.0% albumin. Albumin functions as a buffer and improves the solubility of the compounds. The invention also provides a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients of the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention. In accordance with one embodiment, a kit is provided for treating a patient in need of immuno-modulation. In this embodiment the kit comprises one or more of the S1P analogs of the present invention and may also include one or more known immuno-supressants. These pharmaceuticals can be packaged in a variety of containers, e.g., vials, tubes, microtiter well plates, bottles, and the like. Other reagents can be included in separate containers and provided with the kit; e.g., positive control samples, negative control samples, buffers, cell culture media, etc. Preferably, the kits will also include instructions for use. The present invention is also directed to methods for discovering agonists and antagonists of the interaction between S1P and the S1P receptor. Such compounds are identified by using an assay for detecting S1P receptor activity (such as the [Y-35 S]GTP binding assay) and assaying for activity in the presence of S1P and the test compound. More particularly, in the method described by Traynor and Nahorski, 1995, Mol. Pharmacol. 47: 848-854, incorporated herein by reference, G-protein coupling to membranes can be evaluated by measuring the binding of labeled GTP. For example, samples comprising membranes isolated from cells expressing an S1P polypeptide can be incubated in a buffer promoting binding of the polypeptide to ligand (i.e. S1P), in the presence of radiolabeled GTP and unlabeled GDP (e.g., in 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, and 10 mM MgCl2, 80 pM 35S-GTPγS and 3 μM GDP), with and without a candidate modulator. The assay mixture is incubated for a suitable period of time to permit binding to and activation of the receptor (e.g., 60 minutes at 30° C.), after which time unbound labeled GTP is removed (e.g., by filtration onto GF/B filters). Bound, labeled GTP can be measured by liquid scintillation counting. A decrease of 10% or more in labeled GTP binding as measured by scintillation counting in a sample containing a candidate modulator, relative to a sample without the modulator, indicates that the candidate modulator is an inhibitor of S1P receptor activity. A similar GTP-binding assay can be performed without the presence of the ligand (i.e. S1P) to identify agents that act as agonists. In this case, ligand-stimulated GTP binding is used as a standard. An agent is considered an agonist if it induces at least 50% of the level of GTP binding induced by S1P when the agent is present at 10 uM or less, and preferably will induce a level which is the same as or higher than that induced by ligand. GTPase activity can be measured by incubating cell membrane extracts containing an S1P receptor with γ32P-GTP. Active GTPase will release the label as inorganic phosphate, which can be detected by separation of free inorganic phosphate in a 5% suspension of activated charcoal in 20 mM H3PO4, followed by scintillation counting. Controls would include assays using membrane extracts isolated from cells not expressing an S1P receptor (e.g., mock-transfected cells), in order to exclude possible non-specific effects of the candidate modulator. In order to assay for the effect of a candidate modulator on S1P-regulated GTPase activity, cell membrane samples can be incubated with a ligand (e.g., S1P), with and without the modulator, and a GTPase assay can be performed as described above. A change (increase or decrease) of 10% or more in the level of GTP binding or GTPase activity relative to samples without modulator is indicative of S1P modulation by a candidate modulator. Identified S1P receptor agonists and antagonists can be used to treat a variety of human diseases and disorders, including, but not limited to the treatment of infections such as bacterial, fungal, protozoan and viral infections, particularly infections caused by HIV-1 or HIV-2; pain; cancers; diabetes, obesity; anorexia; bulimia; asthma; Parkinson's disease; acute heart failure; hypotension; hypertension; urinary retention; osteoporosis; angina pectoris; myocardial infarction; stroke; ulcers; asthma; allergy; benign prostatic hypertrophy; migraine; vomiting; psychotic and neurological disorders, including anxiety, schizophrenia, manic depression, depression, delirium, dementia, and severe mental retardation. EXAMPLE 1 Chemical Syntheses of S1P Analogs To develop good mimetics for S1P, a synthetic route was designed that had several aspects in mind (Scheme 1). First, butoxycarbonyl protected L-serine was chosen as starting material primarily because it retrosynthetically resembled the linker region of S1P. In addition, the starting material is a cheap and commercially available protected amino acid. Secondly, chemodivergence was taken into consideration. Coupling of the long chain was performed late in the synthesis so that several chain lengths could be prepared from a common intermediate. Another important issue to address was the overwhelming insolubility of the final compounds. Due to this insolubility, the target molecules could not be purified by chromatography or crystallization methods, nor could they tolerate a simple workup. It was therefore necessary to design a final step that quantitatively generated only the target product, and allowed for removal of excess reagents under vacuum. This was accomplished by employing trifluoroacetic acid deprotection at the end of the route. The syntheses of the S1P analogs described in the synthetic schemes of Example 1 were accomplished using solvents purified by filtration through alumina (activity J) and unless otherwise indicated all reactions were conducted at room temperature. All reactions were performed under an inert atmosphere and all products were purified using 230-400 mesh silica gel. Each product was analyzed by thin layer chromatography (single spot) and spectroscopic methods including 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectrometry. The assigned structures of the S1P analogs were consistent with all spectral data obtained. All final products were obtained as the TFA salts. Synthesis of (2S) S1P Analogs VPC22041, 51, 53, and 63 % Yields Compound R A B C D E VPC22041 n-C12H25NH 100 100 91 33 100 VPC22051 n-C14H29NH 100 100 91 41 96 VPC22053 n-C14H29O 100 100 91 15 100 VPC22063 n-C16H33NH 100 100 91 26 100 Benzyl protection of N-Boc serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(L)-Serine (4.87 mmol) in DMF (100 mL) was added cesium carbonate (5.11 mmol) and stirring was continued 30 min. Benzyl bromide (5.84 mmol) was then added and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL), washed with lithium bromide (3×15 mL), sodium bicarbonate (2×15 mL), and brine (2×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting tan oil was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether, to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.26 (1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the benzyl protected serine (1.98 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (50 mL) was added tetrazole (3.96 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (3.96 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (7.92 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (100 mL) and extracted with 50% aqueous Na2S2O5 (2×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (97%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.67 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Debenzylation of phosphorylated serine. To a solution of the phosphorylated serine (1.55 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (25 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (91%) as a slightly yellow oil. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Coupling of long chain amine with phosphorylated acid. A solution of the acid (0.252 mmol), a catalytic amount of 4-dimethylaminopyridine, 1-hydroxybenzotriazole hydrate (0.277 mmol), the long chain amine or alcohol (0.252 mmol), and 15 mL of CH2Cl2 was cooled to 0° C. with stirring. To the resulting solution at 0° C. was added dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (0.277 mmol) and the mixture was allowed to return to rt. with stirring continuing for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then recooled to 0° C. and filtered. The filtrate washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), and the organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting yellow oil was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC22041: 33%, white solid, Rf=0.78 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22051: 41%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22053: 15%, white solid, Rf=0.20 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22063: 26%, white solid, Rf=0.79 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.072 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22041: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22051: 96%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22053: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22063: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). For S1P analog VPC22051 the PyBOP coupling procedure (as used in VPC22135) was used in place of DCC coupling. The product was obtained in 15% yield as a clear oil. Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22135 Coupling of long chain amine with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.847 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (20 mL) was added PyBOP (0.847 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.847 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, 1-tetradecylamine (0.847 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 1 h after which time more 1-tetradecylamine was added (0.254 mmol). Stirring was continued for another 3 h and then the reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (2×15 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear gelatinous solid, which was purified by flash chromatography, using 95:5 CHCl3/methanol, to afford the product (68%) as a white solid. Rf=0.78 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.579 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (15 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (87%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.5 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.474 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (20 mL) was added tetrazole (0.948 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.948 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (1.896 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (50 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×15 mL), water (1×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (100%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.23 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.071 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (56%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22157, 173, 199, and 211 Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.339 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.339 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.339 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.339 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (2×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear gelatinous solid, which was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC22157: 77%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22173: 73%, white solid, Rf=0.78 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22199: 65%, white solid, Rf=0.79 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22211: 71%, white solid, Rf=0.80 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.260 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product. VPC22157: 85%, clear oil, Rf=0.50 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22173: 60%, clear oil, Rf=0.55 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22199: 70%, clear oil, Rf=0.48 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22211: 9%, clear oil, Rf=0.53 (95:5 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.220 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (10 mL) was added tetrazole (0.400 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.400 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.800 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), water (1×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography provided the product as a clear oil. VPC22157: 84%, clear oil, Rf=0.23 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22173: 96%, clear oil, Rf=0.30 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22199: 87%, clear oil, Rf=0.72 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22211: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.58 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.162 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22157: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22173: 58%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22199: 75%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22211: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2S) S1P Analogs VPC22179 and 181 Benzyl protection of N-Boc serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(L)-Serine (2.44 mmol) in DMF (50 mL) was added cesium carbonate (2.56 mmol) and stirring was continued 30 min. Benzyl bromide (2.92 mmol) was then added and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL), washed with lithium bromide (3×10 mL), sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), and brine (2×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was then removed under reduced pressure and the resulting tan oil was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether, to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.26 (1:1 petroleum ether/diethyl ether). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the benzyl protected serine (2.22 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (100 mL) was added tetrazole (4.43 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (4.43 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (8.86 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 01 C, and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (100 mL) and extracted with 50% aqueous Na2S2O5 (2×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone, provided the product (97%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.67 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Debenzylation of phosphorylated serine. To a solution of the phosphorylated serine (1.55 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (25 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (91%) as a slightly yellow oil. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Coupling of long chain aniline with phosphorylated acid. To a stirring solution of the phosphorylated acid (0.252 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.252 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.252 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.252 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (2×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford the product. VPC22179: 43%, white solid, Rf=0.40 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC22181: 60%, white solid, Rf=0.35 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.117 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (19.48 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC22179: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC22181: 100%, white solid, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC22277 Tosyl protection of the long chain aniline. To a stirring solution of the 4-decylaniline (0.428 mmol) in pyridine (3 mL) under inert atmosphere at 0° C. was added tosyl chloride (0.428 mmol). The reaction mixture was warmed to r.t. After 20 min., the reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and ethyl acetate (10 mL). The aqueous layer was discarded and the organic layer washed with 1N HCl (3×10 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL) and brine (2×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product (81%) as pink crystals, which needed no further purification. Rf=0.82 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Reduction of protected amino acid. At −10° C., under inert atmosphere, N-Boc-(D)-Ser-OBz (0.678 mmol) and diisopropylethylamine (0.678 mmol) were added to stirring THF (3 mL). Isobutylchloroformate (0.745 mmol) was then slowly added. The reaction mixture was allowed to stir for 1 h until a precipitate was observed. The reaction mixture was then filtered and the filtrate was re-cooled to −10° C. Meanwhile, sodium borohydride (1.36 mmol) was dissolved in stirring water (0.5 mL) under inert atmosphere and this mixture was cooled to −10° C. The original reaction mixture was then cannulated into the sodium borohydride mixture slowly and the newly formed reaction mixture was brought to r.t. and stirred 1 h. The reaction mixture was then quenched by addition of sat. ammonium chloride (5 mL), diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and the aqueous layer was discarded. The organic layer was then washed with sat. ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL) and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a white solid. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography, using 80:20 CHCl3/acetone, to afford the product (42%) as a white solid. Rf=0.48 (80:20 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of aniline with alcohol. To a stirring solution of the aniline (0.209 mmol) in THF (3 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added triphenylphospine (0.254 mmol), the alcohol (0.105 mmol), and finally DEAD (0.209 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred 12 h and then concentrated to a clear oil. Petroleum ether was added to the clear oil and solid triphenylphosphine oxide was allowed to settle on the bottom of the flask. The clear petroleum ether layer was then pipetted off and concentrated to a clear oil. The crude product was then subjected to flash chromatography, using 1:1 petroleum ether/ether, to afford the final product (50%) as a white solid. Rf=0.83 (1:1 petroleum ether/ether). Tosyl deprotection of the coupled product. Ammonia (20 mL) was condensed in a 2-neck round bottom flask equipped with a stirbar and cold finger that was cooled to −70° C. under an inert atmosphere. Sodium metal (4.27 mmol) was then added to the reaction mixture followed by the tosyl protected amine (0.427 mmol) in THF (8 mL). The dark blue reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h at −70° C. and was then quenched with ethanol until the solution was clear/white and the reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. overnight. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with sat. ammonium chloride (3×20 mL), sat. sodium bicarbonate (3×20 mL), and finally brine (1×20 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a clear oil. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography, using 1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes, to afford the product (40%) as a white solid. Rf=0.42 (1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes). Phosphorylation of resulting alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.130 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (5 mL) was added tetrazole (0.130 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.130 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (30%, 0.044 mL) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL), water (1×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes, provided the product (12%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.41 (1:1 ethyl acetate/hexanes). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected final product (0.016 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (0.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (6.49 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid was removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) S1P Analog VPC23031, 19, 65, 69, 75 and 79 % Yields Compound(s) n A B C D E F G VPC23031 4 24 66 52 100 X 90 100 VPC23019 6 100 85 90 95 X 56 92 VPC23065, 69 8 34 84 84 89 100 89 86 VPC23075, 79 7 66 100 100 27 93 77 100 Coupling of aryl halide with terminal alkyne. All starting materials were thoroughly flushed with nitrogen before the reaction. To a stirring solution of the aryl halide (2.01 mmol), bis(dibenzylideneacetone) palladium (0.04 mmol), triphenylphosphine (0.10 mmol), and copper iodide (0.04 mmol) in THF (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added the terminal alkyne (2.21 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (8.04 mmol). The reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL) and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography provided the final product. VPC23031: 24%, yellow oil, Rf=0.61 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23019: 100%, yellow oil, Rf=0.55 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23065, 69: 66%, yellow oil, Rf=0.75 (90:10 hexanes/ether). VPC23075, 79: 34%, yellow oil, Rf=0.75 (90:10 hexanes/ether). Reduction of the coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (1.68 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product. VPC23031: 66%, yellow solid, Rf=0.53 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23019: 85%, yellow solid, Rf=0.55 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23065, 69: 84%, yellow solid, Rf=0.79 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23075, 79: 100%, yellow solid, Rf=0.80 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-Boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.740 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (20 mL) was added PyBOP (0.740 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.740 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.740 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and washed with 1 N HCl (3×20 mL), sodium bicarbonate (3×20 mL), and finally brine (1×20 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil, which was purified by flash chromatography to afford the product. VPC23031: 52%, clear oil, Rf=0.35 (dichloromethane). VPC23019: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.61 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23065, 69: 84%, clear oil, Rf=0.82 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). VPC23075, 79: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0.92 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.667 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (15 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the product. VPC23031: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0.27 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23019: 95%, clear oil, Rf=0.28 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23065, 69: 89%, clear oil, Rf=0.62 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). VPC23075, 79: 27%, clear oil, Rf=0.43 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirred solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.143 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC23065: 100%, white solid, Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23075: 93%, white solid, Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, the reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.247 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (15 mL) was added tetrazole (0.495 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.495 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.989 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography provided the product. VPC23031: 90%, clear oil, Rf=0.80 (80:20 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23019: 56%, clear oil, Rf=0.82 (80:20 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23069: 89%, clear oil, Rf=0.85 (90:10 ether/ethyl acetate). VPC23079: 77%, clear oil, Rf=0.85 (90:10 ether/ethyl acetate). Deprotection of N-boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.162 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. Rinsed oil with ether and removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. VPC23031: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23019: 92%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23069: 86%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). VPC23079: 100%, clear oil, Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R)S1P Analog VPC23087 and 89: Coupling of aryl halide with terminal alkyne. All starting materials were thoroughly flushed with nitrogen before the reaction. To a stirring solution of the aryl halide (2.01 mmol), bis(dibenzylideneacetone) palladium (0.04 mmol), triphenylphosphine (0.10 mmol), and copper iodide (0.04 mmol) in THF (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added the terminal alkyne (2.21 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (8.04 mmol). The reaction mixture was then stirred at r.t. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL) and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a tan oil. Flash chromatography, using 70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (44%) as a yellow solid. Rf=0.79 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Coupling of long chain aniline with protected serine. To a stirring solution of N-boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.288 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added PyBOP (0.288 mmol) followed by diisopropylethylamine (0.288 mmol). After 5 min. of stirring, the aniline (0.288 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with 1 N HCl (3×10 mL), sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (65%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.64 (70:30 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Benzyl deprotection and reduction of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.188 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate provided the final product (49%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.51 (1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirred solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.025 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (12.98 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.092 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (10 mL) was added tetrazole (0.183 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.183 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.367 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 24 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×15 mL), ammonium chloride (3×15 mL), and finally brine (1×15 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 ethyl acetate/ether provided the final product (93%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.85 (90:10 ethyl acetate/ether). Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirred solution of the protected product (0.063 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (2 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (25.96 mmol) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a white solid. Rf=0 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Synthesis of (2R) Benzimidazole Compound: Acetylation of the aniline. To a stirring solution of acetic anhydride (10 mL) under inert atmosphere was added octyl aniline (0.738 mmol) and stirring was continued for 1 h. Sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate was then added to neutralize and acetic acid present. The aqueous solution was then extracted with ethyl acetate (3×15 mL) and the combined organic extracts were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to afford the final product (100%) as a yellow solid that was used without further purification. Rf=0.48 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Nitration of the acetylated aniline. To a stirring solution of acetic acid (1.08 mL), acetic anhydride (0.73 mL), and nitric acid (0.20 mL) at −15° C. under an inert atmosphere was added the acetylated aniline (0.91 mmol) in approx. 1 mL of acetic acid over a period of 3 h. Reaction mixture was periodically warmed to 0° C. to avoid freezing. The reaction mixture was stirred for an additional hour and was then diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and neutralized using 1M NaOH and sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The organic layer was removed and the aqueous portion washed twice more with ethyl acetate (10 mL each). The organic layers were combined and dried over sodium sulfate and then concentrated to a yellow solid. Flash chromatography, using 95:5 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (100%) as a yellow solid. Rf=0.68 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Deacetylation of the aniline. To a stirring solution of the nitrated, acetylated aniline (0.62 mmol) in ethanol (2.5 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added 40% KOH (0.13 mL). The reaction mixture was then heated to reflux for 1 h. The solution was then cooled in ice and brought to pH=6 using conc. HCl. This mixture was then concentrated to an orange solid and redissolved in ether (10 mL) and washed with sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate (2×10 mL) and brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to afford the final product (84%) as an orange solid that was used without further purification. Rf=0.82 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Reduction of the nitro group. To a stirring solution of the nitrated aniline (0.248 mmol) in acetic acid (5 mL) was added a catalytic amount of zinc dust and stirring was continued overnight under an inert atmosphere. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ether and filtered through a plug of celite under and inert atmosphere using ether to elute. Care was taken not to expose the ether solution to air. The solution was then concentrated to afford the final product (92%) as a reddish-brown oil which was used directly in the next step without further purification. Rf=0.05 (95:5 CHCl3/acetone). Coupling of the diamine with protected serine. A solution of N-boc-(D)-Serine-OBn (0.999 mmol), PyBOP (0.999 mmol), diisopropylethylamine (0.999 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (25 mL) was stirred 5 min. under an inert atmosphere and then cannulated into a flask containing the diamine (0.999 mmol). This reaction mixture was then stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with ethyl acetate (30 mL) and washed with sat. aqueous sodium bicarbonate (3×3 mL), ammonium chloride (3×30 mL), and finally brine (1×30 mL), and the organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate. Solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford a brown oil. Flash chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (17%) as a brown oil. Rf=0.52 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Benzyl deprotection of coupled product. To a solution of the coupled product (0.167 mmol) in 200 proof ethanol (10 mL) and a catalytic amount of formic acid was added a catalytic amount of palladium on activated carbon. To the resulting solution was applied a positive pressure of hydrogen gas and the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a plug of celite eluting with methanol and then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to yield the crude product as a tan oil. Prep. plate thin layer chromatography, using 90:10 CHCl3/acetone provided the final product (57%) as a tan/white solid. Rf=0.08 (90:10 CHCl3/acetone). Deprotection to afford free alcohol. To a stirring solution of the N-Boc protected alcohol (0.008 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (0.5 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (0.5 mL) and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product (100%) as a tan solid. Rf=0.2 (90:10 CHCl3/methanol). Phosphorylation of N-Boc protected alcohol. For phosphorylation, reaction is performed in the absence of light, work up and columns are completed with as little light as possible. To a solution of the alcohol (0.085 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (5 mL) was added tetrazole (0.170 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.170 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 15 h. Hydrogen peroxide (0.340 mmol) was then added and the resulting mixture was then stirred 4 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), ammonium chloride (3×10 mL), and finally brine (1×10 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford the product. Deprotection of N-Boc and phosphate groups. To a stirring solution of the protected product in CH2Cl2 was added trifluoroacetic acid and stirring was continued 4 h. Under reduced pressure, solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed affording a brown oil. The oil was rinsed with ether and the solvent was removed under vacuum 5 times to afford the product. EXAMPLE 2 All reactions for the synthetic schemes of Example 2 were accomplished using solvents purified by filtration through alumina (activity I) immediately prior to use. All reactions were performed under an inert atmosphere of nitrogen unless otherwise noted. All reagents were purchased from either Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wis.), Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.), Acros (Pittsburgh, Pa.), Advanced ChemTech (Louisville, Ky.), or Novabiochem (La Jolla, Calif.). Merck silica gel F-254 precoated, aluminum backed plates were used for thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. Analtech Silica Gel GF 500 or 1000 μm precoated, glass backed plates were used for preparative TLC. Silicycle Ultra Pure Silica Gel (230-400 mesh) or Fisher Scientific Silica Gel 60 Sorbent (230-400 mesh) was used for column chromatography. Each product was analyzed by TLC (single spot) and spectroscopic methods including 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectrometry. The nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were collected using a General Electric QE300 spectrometer at 300 MHz and chemical shifts are reported in ppm. The assigned structures of the S1P analogs were consistent with all spectral data obtained. Synthesis of Imidiazole Analog Reagents and Conditions: (i) NaH, THF 0° to R.T. 45 min., then Selectfluor 0° to R.T., overnight, 53%; (ii) SOCl2, MeOH, R.T., 4-6 h.; (iii) Boc2O, TEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h.; (iv) 2,2-dimethoxypropane, p-toluenesulfonic acid, CH2Cl2, R.T., 2 h., 62% (3 steps) (v) LiCl, NaBH4, EtOH/THF (3:2), 0° to R.T., 4 h, 89%; (vi) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h.; (vii) DBU, LiCl, CH3CN, R.T., overnight, 40% (2 steps); (viii) Dowex 50×8, EtOH, R.T. 24 h., 80%; (ix) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h. (x) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, t-butanol, 2-methyl-2-butene; (xi) p-octyl aniline, PyBOP, DIEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., overnight; (xii) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, R.T. overnight; (xiii) TMSBr, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h., then 95% CH3OH in H2O, R.T., 1 h. 2-Bromo-1-(4-octyl-phenyl)-ethanone (1). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added AlCl3 (5.47 g; 41 mmol) followed by 1,2-dichloroethane (22 mL). The stirring suspension was then brought to 0° C. and 1-phenyloctane (7.99 mL, 36 mmol) was added in one portion. Bromoacetyl bromide (3.75 mL, 43 mmol) was then added dropwise over a period of 10 minutes. Upon completing addition of the acid bromide, the reaction mixture was brought to rt and stirred for 2 h. The reaction mixture was then quenched carefully by slow addition of H2O (36 mL) without ever letting the reaction mixture exceed 45° C. producing a suspension of solid white precipitate. The aqueous layer of the quenched reaction mixture was discarded and the organic phase washed once with 10% HCl (10 mL), washed once with H2O (10 mL), and dried over magnesium sulfate. The dried organic phase was then concentrated in vacuo to a green/brown oil. Recrystallization from MeOH/H2O provided the product 1 (6.36 g, 57%) as white needles in three crops. Rf=0.21 (1:19 EtOAc/hexanes). 2-Amino-3-hydroxy-2-methyl-propionic acid methyl ester (2). A stirring solution of α-methyl-DL-Serine (1 g, 8.39 mmol) in MeOH (40 mL) in a flame dried round bottom flask under an inert atmosphere was cooled to 0° C. and SOCl2 (1.84 mL, 25.19 mmol) was slowly added. After addition of the SOCl2 was complete, the reaction mixture was stirred 12 h at rt and then concentrated in vacuo to a white solid that was used directly in the next reaction. 2-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-3-hydroxy-2-methyl-propionic acid methyl ester (3). To the crude product obtained in the above reaction was slowly added sat. aq. NaHCO3 (12.5 mL) followed by solid NaHCO3 (500 mg) and the reaction mixture was stirred 30 min under an inert atmosphere. THF (12.5 mL) was then added to the reaction mixture followed by di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (1.83 g, 8.39 mmol) and stirring at rt was continued for 12 h. The reaction mixture was then diluted with H2O (20 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined EtOAc extracts were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to a thick white paste. To this paste was added hexanes which produced 3 (630 mg, 32% for 2 steps) as a white precipitate which was collected by filtration. Rf=0.35 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). 2,2,4-Trimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester 4-methyl ester (4). To a stirring solution of 3 (9.342 g, 40 mmol) in acetone (115 mL) in a flame dried round bottom flask under an inert atmosphere was added 2,2-dimethoxypropane (66 mL). To this solution was added BF3.OEt2 (0.30 mL, cat.) and stirring was continued at rt for 2 h. The reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to an orange oil which was purified by flash chromatography to provide 4 (9.392 g, 85%) as a white solid. Rf=0.55 (1:3 EtOAc/hexanes). Compound was observed as an uneven mixture of rotomers. 2,2,4-Trimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester (5). To a stirring solution of 4 (9.392 g, 34 mmol) in THF (65 mL) and H2O (35 mL) under an inert atmosphere was added solid LiOH.H2O (1.426 g, 34 mmol) in one portion. The reaction mixture was heated to 90° C. and stirred 8 h at which point the reaction mixture was cooled to rt. The crude reaction mixture washed with Et2O (3×50 mL) and the Et2O extracts were discarded. The aqueous solution was then acidified with 2M KHSO4 until a white precipitate began to form on addition, pH=5. The acid was added dropwise until the precipitate persisted and the aqueous solution was extracted with Et2O (50 mL). After extraction, two addition drops of acid were added to the aqueous layer and it was again extracted with Et2O (25 mL). The Et2O extracts were combined and quickly back extracted with 1M NaOH (15 mL). The organic phase was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to give 5 (7.458 g, 85%) as a white solid which was used without further purification. Compound was observed as an uneven mixture of rotomers. 2,2,4-Trimethyl-4-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (6). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added 5 (3.00 g, 11.6 mmol) followed by absolute EtOH (33 mL) and Cs2CO3 (1.93 g, 5.9 mmol). This mixture was then shaken 30 min at which time all of the suspended Cs2CO3 had disappeared. The reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to a white solid at which time DMF (60 mL) was added. To the stirring solution was added a solution of 1 (3.60 g, 11.6 mmol) in DMF (5 mL). The resulting solution was stirred 4 h and concentrated to a light brown solid. To the light brown solid was added EtOAc (50 mL) and the suspended CsBr was filtered off and washed with EtOAc. The filtrate was then concentrated to a light brown foam which was subsequently dissolved in xylenes (195 mL) in a round bottom flask equipped with a Dean-Stark trap (filled with xylenes) and a reflux condenser. To this solution was added NH4OAc (1.74 g, 22.6 mmol) and the reaction mixture was brought to 105° C. and stirred 3 h at which time the reaction would progress no further. The crude reaction mixture was then concentrated in vacuo to a red oil. To the oil was added EtOAc (200 mL) and this solution washed with sat. aq. NaHCO3 (3×50 mL) followed by brine solution (1×50 mL). The organic phase was then dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to a red oil which was subjected to flash chromatography to give 6 (1.074 g, 20%) as a white solid. Rf=0.45 (6:4 Et2O/petroleum ether). 2-Amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propan-1-ol (VPC24241). To a flame dried round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirbar under an inert atmosphere was added 6 (973 mg, 2.07 mmol) followed by MeOH (20 mL) and p-TsOH.H2O (1.22 g, 6.42 mmol). This mixture was then heated to reflux, stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by slow addition of sat. aq. NaHCO3 (20 mL). This solution was then diluted with EtOAc (30 mL) and the aqueous layer was discarded. The organic phase washed with sat. aq. NaHCO3 (1×20 mL), washed with 1M NaOH (1×20 mL), dried over sodium sulfate, and concentrated to an orange oil. To this oil was added Et2O which produced VPC24241 (408 mg, 60%) as a white precipitate which was collected by filtration. {2-Hydroxy-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (7). To a vigorously stirring solution of VPC24241 (70 mg, 0.213 mmol) in THF (4 mL) and H2O (2 mL) was added Na2CO3 (198 mg, 1.87 mmol) followed by di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (214 mg, 0.98 mmol) and the resulting solution was stirred 12 h at rt. The reaction mixture was then diluted with EtOAc (20 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×15 mL). The organic phase was dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to a clear oil which solidified to a white solid under vacuum. This white solid was then subjected to flash chromatography to produce 7 (52 mg, 57%) as a white solid. Rf=0.50 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). {2-(Di-tert-butoxy-phosphoryloxy)-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (8). To a solution of 7 (33 mg, 0.077 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (3 mL) was added a 3% solution of tetrazole in acetonitrile (0.44 mL, 0.154 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.05 mL, 0.154 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. To this solution was added 30% hydrogen peroxide (0.04 mL, 0.308 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 3 h, cooled to 0° C., and quenched by addition of aqueous Na2S2O5. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (10 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×5 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil. Flash chromatography, using 1:1 EtOAc/hexanes, provided 8 (22 mg, 46%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.45 (1:1 EtOAc/hexanes). {2-(Di-tert-butoxy-thiophosphoryloxy)-1-methyl-1-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-ethyl}-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (9). To a solution of 7 (19 mg, 0.044 mmol) in 1:1 CH2Cl2/THF (2 mL) was added a 3% solution of tetrazole in acetonitrile (0.26 mL, 0.089 mmol) and the resulting mixture was stirred 30 min. Di-tert-butyl-di-isopropylphosphoramidite (0.03 mL, 0.089 mmol) was then added and the resulting reaction mixture was stirred 12 h. To this solution was added elemental sulfur (excess) and the resulting mixture was stirred 12 h. The resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (7 mL) and washed with saturated aq. NaHCO3 (2×3 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to afford a clear oil with yellow tint. Flash chromatography, using 1:3 EtOAc/hexanes, provided 9 (13 mg, 46%) as a clear oil. Rf=0.40 (1:3 EtOAc/hexanes). Phosphoric acid mono-{2-amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propyl}ester (VPC24287). To a stirring solution of 8 (22 mg, 0.035 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added trifluoroacetic acid (1 mL) and stirring was continued 4 h. Solvent and excess trifluoroacetic acid were removed in vacuo to afford a brown oil. The oil was diluted with ether and concentrated in vacuo 5 times on a rotary evaporator to afford a white solid which was placed in a fritted funnel and washed with cold ether producing VPC24287 (13 mg, 91%) as a powdery white solid. Rf=0 (4:1 CHCl3/methanol). Thiophosphoric acid O-{2-amino-2-[5-(4-octyl-phenyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-propyl}ester (VPC24289). To a stirring solution of 9 (13 mg, 0.020 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (1 mL) was added benzenethiol (0.042 mL, 0.40 mmol) followed by bromotrimethyl silane (0.05 mL, 0.40 mmol) and finally trifluoroacetic acid (1 mL) and stirring was continued 6 h. To quench the reaction mixture, water (0.5 mL) was added and the resulting solution was stirred 30 min. Solvent and excess reagents were removed in vacuo to afford a brown oil. The oil was diluted with ether and concentrated in vacuo 5 times on a rotary evaporator to afford a light tan solid which was placed in a fritted funnel and washed with cold ether and a small amount of cold water producing VPC24289 (8 mg, 94%) as a powdery white solid. Rf=0 (4:1 CHCl3/metha. Synthetic Scheme for Synthesis of Additional Imidizole Compounds Reagents and Conditions: (i) Br2, 1:1 dioxane/ether, CH2Cl2, rt, 1 h, 66%; (ii) 2,2-DMP, p-TsOH, DMF, rt, 12 h, TEA, rt, 10 min; (iii) (Boc)2O, NaHCO3, THF/H2O, rt, 12 h, 69% (2 steps); (iv) (COCl)2, DMSO, TEA, CH2Cl2, −78° C. to rt, 4 h, 74%; (v) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, 2-methyl-2-butene, tBuOH/H2O, rt, 1 h, 95%; (vi) Cs2CO3, EtOH, rt, 1 h; 1, DMF, rt, 12 h; (vii) NH4OAc, xylenes, 110° C., 12 h, 36% (2 steps); (viii) Pd(dba)2, Ph3P, CuI, DIEA, THF, rt, 12 h, 68%; (ix) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, rt, 12 h; (x) 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 6 h; (xi) DOWEX 50×8, EtOH, rt, 12 h; (xii) tetrazole, di-tert-butyl diisopropylphosphoramidite, CH2Cl2/THF, rt, 12 h; H2O2, rt, 3 h; (xiii) tetrazole, di-tert-butyl diisopropylphosphoramidite, CH2Cl2/THF, rt, 12 h; S8, rt, 3 h; (xiv) 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 4 h; (xv) benzenethiol, TMSBr, 1:1 TFA/CH2Cl2, rt, 4 h. Synthetic Scheme for Synthesis of Alpha Substituted Phosphonate Compounds Reagents and Conditions: (i) NaH, THF 0° to R.T. 45 min., then Selectfluor 0° to R.T., overnight, 53%; (ii) SOCl2, MeOH, R.T., 4-6 h.; (iii) Boc2O, TEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h.; (iv) 2,2-dimethoxypropane, p-toluenesulfonic acid, CH2Cl2, R.T., 2 h., 62% (3 steps) (v) LiCl, NaBH4, EtOH/THF (3:2), 0° to R.T., 4 h, 89%; (vi) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h.; (vii) DBU, LiCl, CH3CN, R.T., overnight, 40% (2 steps); (viii) Dowex 50×8, EtOH, R.T. 24 h., 80%; (ix) PCC, CH2Cl2, R.T., 6 h. (x) NaClO2, NaH2PO4.H2O, t-butanol, 2-methyl-2-butene; (xi) p-octyl aniline, PyBOP, DIEA, CH2Cl2, R.T., overnight; (xii) H2, 10% Pd/C, EtOH, R.T. overnight; (xiii) TMSBr, CH2Cl2, R.T., 4 h., then 95% CH3OH in H2O, R.T., 1 h. [(Diethoxy-phosphoryl)-fluoro-methyl]-phosphonic acid diethyl ester (31). To a slurry of 95% NaH (9 mg, 0.375 mmol) in THF (1.5 mL) was added tetraethyl methylene diphosphonate, (30) (100 mg, 0.347 mmol) at 0° C. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 45 minutes. The mixture was subsequently cooled to 0° C. and Selectfluor (153 mg, 0.432 mmol) was added in one portion. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 1 hr. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo and purified by column chromatography on SiO2 (3% MeOH in EtOAc) to yield 56 mg (53%) of a clear liquid. 2-Amino-3-hydroxy-propionic acid methyl ester (33). To a solution of D-serine (5 g, 47.58 mmol) in methanol (100 mL), stirring under N2 (g) at 0° C., was added thionyl chloride (20.8 mL, 285.5 mmol) dropwise. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature, stirred for 4-6 hours, then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was reconstituted in Et2O and concentrated, in the same manner. This was repeated numerous times until SOCl2 could not be detected. The crude material was confirmed by NMR experiments and carried on to the following step. 2-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-3-hydroxy-propionic acid methyl ester (34). To a solution of the crude methyl ester serine (33) in CH2Cl2 (100 mL), stirring under N2 (g), was added di-tert-butyl pyrocarbonate (11.420 g, 52.34 mmol) and triethyl amine (16.6 mL, 118.95 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir at room temperature for 4 hours, then poured over NH4Cl at 0° C. The organic layer was extracted with 10% HCl (2×), then NaHCO3 and brine. The organic layer was then dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was again carried on to the following step. 2,2-Dimethyl-oxazolidine-3,4-dicarboxylic acid 3-tert-butyl ester 4-methyl ester (35). To a solution of (34) in CH2Cl2, stirring under nitrogen at 0° C., was added 2,2-dimethoxypropane (29.5 mL, 237.9 mmol) and p-toluene sulfonic acid monohydrate (9.050 g, 47.58 mmol). The mixture was removed from the ice bath after 15 minutes and stirred at room temperature for 1.5 hours. The reaction mixture was poured into 50 mL of saturated NaHCO3 (aq) and extracted with diethyl ether (3×50). The organic layer was extracted with NaHCO3 and brine, then dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude material was purified by flash chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 7.659 g (62%, 3 steps) of a clear liquid. 4-Hydroxymethyl-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (36). To a mixture of NaBH4 (2.247 g, 59.08 mmol) and LiCl (2.505 g, 59.08 mmol) in EtOH (42 mL), stirring under nitrogen at 0° C., was added (35) (7.659 g, 29.54 mmol) in THF (30 mL) dropwise. This mixture was allowed to warn to room temperature and continued stirring for 48 hours. The precipitate was filtered and washed with ethanol. The washings were concentrated and extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was then washed with brine and dried over anhydrous Na2SO4. Column chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) was utilized to purify 6.101 g (89%) of the title compound as a white solid. 4-Formyl-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (37). To a solution of (36) (80 mg, 0.346 mmol) stirring in CH2Cl2 (2 mL), under a nitrogen atmosphere, was added pyridinium chlorochromate (150 mg, 0.694 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir overnight then filtered through a plug of silica gel. The crude aldehyde was carried on to the following step. 4-[2-(Diethoxy-phosphoryl)-2-fluoro-vinyl]-2,2-dimethyl-oxazolidine-3-carboxylic acid tert-butyl ester (38). To a stirred suspension of LiCl (18 mg, 0.416 mmol) in dry acetonitrile (3.5 mL), under nitrogen at room temperature, were added diphosphonate (31) (127 mg, 0.416 mmol), DBU (0.05 mL, 0.347 mmol) and garner's aldehyde (37) (80 mg, 0.347 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir overnight then concentrated in vacuo. The crude material was isolated by column chromatography on SiO2, (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 47 mg (40%, two steps) of a clear liquid. (3-tert-Butoxycarbonylamino-1-fluoro-4-hydroxy-but-1-phenyl)phosphonic acid diethyl ester (39). To compound (38) (47 mg, 0.123 mmol) stirring in EtOH (1 mL) was added Dowex 50×8 (150 mg), which washed with EtOH and dried. The reaction was allowed to stir under nitrogen and at room temperature for 24 hours. The reaction mixture was filtered and the precipitate washed with excess EtOH, then concentrated in vacuo. The crude material was purified by column chromatography on SiO2 (1:1 EtOAc/Hexanes) to yield 34 mg of the expected product. EXAMPLE 3 [γ-35 S]GTP Binding Assay for Measuring S1P Activity Transient Expression in HEK293T Cells. Human or mouse S1P5 DNA was mixed with an equal amount of DNA encoding a rat Gi2R protein as well as DNAs encoding cow β1 and γ2 proteins and used to transfect monolayers of HEK293T cells using the calcium phosphate precipitate method. After 60 h, cells were harvested, and microsomes were prepared, aliquoted, and stored at −70° C. until use. [γ-35 S]GTP Binding. Briefly, 5 ug of membranes from S1P expressing HEK293T cells was incubated in 0.1 mL of binding buffer (in mM: HEPES 50, NaCl 100, MgCl2 5), pH 7.5, containing 5 ug of saponin, 10 uM GDP, 0.1 nM [γ-35 S]GTP (1200 Ci/mmol), and test lipid. After incubating for 30 min at 30° C., bound radionuclide was separated from free by filtration through Whatman GF/C paper using a Brandel Cell Harvester (Gaithersburg, Md.). Stable Expression in RH7777 Cells. Rat hepatoma RH7777 cell monolayers were transfected with human or mouse S1P5/pCR3.1 DNA using the calcium phosphate precipitate method, and clonal populations expressing the neomycin phosphotransferase gene were selected by addition of Ge-neticin (G418) to the culture medium. The RH7777 cells were grown in monolayers at 37° C. in a 5% CO2/95% air atmosphere in growth medium consisting of 90% MEM, 10% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine, and 1 mM sodium pyruvate. Measurement of cAMP Accumulation. Assay of cAMP accumulation was performed as described previously (See Im et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14281-14286 (2000), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein). Assays were conducted on populations of 5×105 cells stimulated with 1 uM forskolin in the presence of the phosphodiesterase inhibitor isomethylbutylxanthine (IBMX, 1 mM) for 15 min. cAMP was measured by automated radioimmunoassay. The GTPγS studies were performed using zebrafish S1P1 overexpressed rat RH-7777 and human hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3 and hS1P5 overexpressed human HEK293 cells. Table 1 shows the EC50 values for each of the S1P analogs at S1P receptors: S1P1, S1P2, S1P3 and S1P5. In addition to testing the human S1P receptors (hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3 and hS1P5), a zebrafish S1P receptor (zS1P1) and mouse S1P (mS1P5) were also tested. TABLE 1 EC50 Values (nM) for S1P Analogues at Recombinant S1P Receptors zS1P1 hS1P1 hS1P3 hS1P2 hS1P5 mS1P5 S1P 54.6 0.9 1.1 2.9 43.9 12.7 VPC22041 2053.0 598.4 845.4 973.2 645.5 >5000 VPC22051 >5000 322.1 601.9 2760.0 >5000 >5000 VPC22053 >5000 397.0 862.4 2685.0 1606.0 2006.0 VPC22063 >5000 1805.0 878.6 >5000 1220.0 1326.0 VPC22135 1625.0 12.7 50.8 2107.0 >5000 1821.0 S1P increases GTPγS binding significantly (2-5-fold) at each receptor with EC50 values from 1 to 55 nM. The synthetic series consisted of five dihydro S1P of the general formula: wherein VPC22041 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)11CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22053 (2S): R1 is O(CH2)13CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22051 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)13CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; VPC22063 (2S): R1 is NH(CH2)15CH3, R2 is NH2 and R3 is H; and VPC22135 (2R): R1 is NH(CH2)13CH3, R2 is H and R3 is NH2 The amide-containing compounds contained alkyl chains of 12 (VPC22041), 14 (VPC22053), or 16 (VPC22063) carbons, and the 2′-amino group was in the natural configuration (S), except for VPC22135, wherein the 2′-amino was in the (R) configuration. VPC22053 and VPC22135 are an enantiomeric pair, while VPC22051 is the ester-containing equivalent of VPC22053 (see Scheme 4). All of these compounds had significant agonist activity at each of the S1P receptors, although none were as potent as S1P itself (see Table 1). In particular, on the S1P5 transfected HEK293 cells, the five mimetics showed EC50=s of approximately 1 μM, where as the EC50 of S1P itself on the same cells is closer to 10 nM. However, one compound, VPC22135, approached the potency of S1P at both the human S1P1 and human S1P3 receptors. Curiously, this compound has the amino group in the unnatural (R) configuration. Its enantiomer, VPC22053, was more than 1 log order less potent at both the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors. The results obtained for the S1P1 transfected RH-7777 cells showed a preference for binding with the 18 carbon backbone mimetic compounds (identical to S1P) over the 16 and 20 carbon backbone mimetic compounds. Assay of phenyl imidazole compounds vpc24287 (phosphate) and vpc24289 (phosphothionate) at individual human sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptors was also conducted. Methods: Human recombinant S1P receptor type DNAs were mixed with DNAs encoding human Gαi2, cow β1 and cow 72 proteins and introduced into cultured HEK293T cells by transfection. After about 48 hours, cells were harvested and crude membranes prepared. Ligand driven binding of a non-hydrolyzable GTP analog, GTP[γ-35S], was measured in a rapid filtration assay. Details of the assay are found in: Brinkmann, V., Davis, M. D., Heise, C. E., Albert, R., Cottens, W., H of, R., Bruns, C., Prieschl, E., Baumruker, T., Hiestand, P., Foster, C. and Lynch, K. R. The immune modulator, FTY720, targets sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 21453-21457 (2002). Total counts per minute were determined for S1P, vpc24287 and vpc24289 activation of the S1P receptor subtypes with the maximal counts received by S1P designated as 100% activation of the S1P receptor. The results are provided in FIG. 6A-6D demonstrating vpc24287 and vpc24289 activation of the S1P receptor subtypes relative to S1P. EXAMPLE 4 Biological Assay of the Synthesized Mimetics An additional series of compounds was tested using the GTPCS binding assay described in Example 2 and in Im et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14281-14286 (2000), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein). The compounds tested for binding at human S1P receptors (hS1P1, hS1P2, hS1P3, hS1P4 and hS1P5) have the general structure: wherein VPC23019: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23031: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23065: R5 is (CH2)9CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23069: R5 is (CH2)9CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; VPC23075: R5 is (CH2)8CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23079: R5 is (CH2)8CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; or have the general structure: wherein VPC23087: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is hydroxy; VPC23089: R5 is (CH2)7CH3, R2 is NH2, R3 is H and R4 is phosphate; Each of the compounds tested (VPC 23019, 23031, 23065, 23069, 23087, 23089, 23075, 23079) failed to show significant activity at the S1P2 receptor. Compounds VPC23065, VPC23087 and VPC23075 are primary alcohols and thus lack the phosphate headgroup. Yet several of these compounds exhibit activity at S1P receptors (See FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B, 3C and 4C) and each of these compounds shows good agonist activity at the S1P4 receptor. The GTPCS binding assay revealed that VPC23031, VPC23019, VPC23089 are inverse agonists (antagonists) of the S1P3 receptor (See FIGS. 1A and 4A), but this inverse agonism becomes agonism when the alkyl chain length is 9 carbons (VPC23079) or 10 (VPC23069), see FIGS. 2A and 3A. VPC23089 and VPC23019 are isomers, with the VPC23089 compound having the alkyl chain ortho and the VPC23019 compound meta; in both cases the alkyl chain has 8 carbons, but surprisingly, when one goes from ortho to meta, antagonism at S1P1 is realized (compare FIG. 1A with the competition curve FIG. 5A).
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A
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316
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75
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11831860
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US20130058967A1-20130307
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RECOMBINANT MODIFIED BACILLUS ANTHRACIS PROTECTIVE ANTIGEN FOR USE IN VACCINES
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ACCEPTED
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20130220
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20130307
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[]
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A61K3907
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["A61K3907", "A61P3104", "A61P3704"]
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8394387
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20070731
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20130312
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424
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246100
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97158.0
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ZEMAN
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ROBERT
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Leppla", "inventor_name_first": "Stephen H.", "inventor_city": "Bethesda", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rosovitz", "inventor_name_first": "Mary Jo", "inventor_city": "Germantown", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Robbins", "inventor_name_first": "John B.", "inventor_city": "New York", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Schneerson", "inventor_name_first": "Rachel", "inventor_city": "Bethesda", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hsu", "inventor_name_first": "S. Dana", "inventor_city": "Bethesda", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shiloach", "inventor_name_first": "Joseph", "inventor_city": "Rockville", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ramirez", "inventor_name_first": "Delia M.", "inventor_city": "Bethesda", "inventor_state": "MD", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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The invention relates to improved methods of producing and recovering sporulation-deficient B. anthracis mutant stains, and for producing and recovering recombinant B. anthracis protective antigen (PA), especially modified PA which is protease resistant, and to methods of using of these PAs or nucleic acids encoding these PAs for eliciting an immunogenic response in humans, including responses which provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, B. anthracis bacterial infections and which are useful to prevent and/or treat illnesses caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax and gastrointestinal anthrax.
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1.-19. (canceled) 20. A method for inducing serum antibodies that have neutralizing activity for Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis) toxin comprising administering to a mammal a pharmaceutical composition comprising an amount of a protein comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 sufficient to elicit production of said antibodies. 21.-29. (canceled) 30. The method of claim 20 wherein the mammal is a human. 31.-67. (canceled) 68. The method of claim 20, wherein the protein comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 is produced by culturing a cell or microorganism comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4 in a manner to cause expression of SEQ ID NO: 4, wherein the culture medium is maintained at about pH 7 to about pH 8 substantially throughout the fermentation process. 69. The method of claim 68, further comprising recovering the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4. 70. The method of claim 69, wherein said recovering step further comprises using hydrophobic interaction chromatography, ion exchange chromatography and gel filtration. 71. The method of claim 68, wherein the microorganism is a Bacillus. 72. The method of claim 68, wherein the cell or microorganism is a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis. 73. The method of claim 69, wherein EDTA is added to the culture medium prior to the recovery step. 74. The method of claim 20, wherein the pharmaceutical composition further comprises an adjuvant. 75. The method of claim 74, wherein the adjuvant comprises aluminum hydroxide. 76. The method of claim 20, wherein the pharmaceutical composition further comprises formalin. 77. The method of claim 72, wherein the protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis is BH445 pXO1−, pXO2−. 78. The method of claim 68, wherein the pH is maintained with HCl and NH4OH. 79. The method of claim 68, wherein the pH is maintained at about pH 7.5 throughout the fermentation.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Anthrax, a potentially fatal disease, is caused by Bacillus anthracis . The virulence of this pathogen is mediated by a capsule of a poly-D-γ-glutamic acid and an exotoxin composed of three proteins (14, 16, 17). The three protein components are the protective antigen (PA, 82 KDa), lethal factor (LF, 90.2 KDa) and edema factor (EF, 88.8 KDa). These proteins, non-toxic by themselves, form lethal toxins when combined with an activated PA (16). The genes coding for these three protein components and the capsule are found in the endogenous plasmids pXO1 and pXO2, respectively (29). The capsule of Bacillus anthracis , composed of poly-D-glutamic acid, serves as one of the principal virulence factors during anthrax infection. By virtue of its negative charge, the capsule is purported to inhibit host defence through inhibition of phagocytosis of the vegetative cells by macrophages. In conjunction with lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF), whose target cells include macrophages and neutrophils, respectively, the capsule allows virulent anthrax bacilli to grow virtually unimpeded in the infected host. Spores germinating in the presence of serum and elevated CO 2 release capsule through openings on the spore surface in the form of blebs which may coalesce before sloughing of the exosporium and outgrowth of the fully encapsulated vegetative cell. It has not been established that spore encapsulation plays a role in the early events of anthrax infection. The capsule appears exterior to the S-layer of the vegetative cell and does not require the S-layer for its attachment to the cell surface. There is only indirect evidence, albeit extensive, identifying the components of vaccin-induced immunity to anthrax and there is evidence that anti-PA neutralizing antibody titers can be a reliable surrogate marker for protective immunity (23). The protective antigen (PA), seems to be an essential component of all vaccines for anthrax (7, 18, 30): both mono and polyclonal antibodies to PA neutralize the anthrax toxin and confer immunity to B. anthracis in animal models. The US licensed vaccine for anthrax “Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed” (AVA) is produced from the formalin-treated culture supernatant of B. anthracis Sterne strain, V770-NP1-R (pXO1+, pXO2−), adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide (22). Although AVA has been shown to be effective against cutaneous infection in animals and humans and against inhalation anthrax by rhesus monkeys (12), it has several limitations: 1) AVA elicits relatively high degree of local and systemic adverse reactions probably mediated by variable amounts of undefined bacterial products, making standardization difficult; 2) the immunization schedule requires administration of six doses within an eighteen-month period, followed by annual boosters for those at risk; and 3) there is no defined vaccine-induced protective level of serum PA to evaluate new lots of vaccines. Development of a well-characterized, standardized, effective and safe vaccine that would require fewer doses to confer immunity to both inhalational and cutaneous anthrax is needed (9, 30). It has been suggested that a vaccine composed of modified purified recombinant PA would be effective, safer, allow precise standardization, and probably would require fewer injections (27). Such a PA can be designed to be biologically inactive, more stable, and still maintained high immunogenicity. In the examples herein, we describe the development of a production and purification process for recombinant PA from the non-sporogenic avirulent B. anthracis BH445 (pXO1−, pXO2−) strain. Following an 18-hour fermentation and three purification steps, large quantities of protective antigen suitable for vaccine production were obtained. The purified PA was tested in mice and was able to elicit neutralizing antibodies (for related disclosure, see U.S. Provisional Application 60/344,505, filed Nov. 9, 2001, incorporated herein by reference).
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to improved methods of preparing Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA). The invention also relates to PA and/or compositions thereof, which are useful for inducing or eliciting an immunogenic response in mammals, including responses that provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, infections caused by B. anthracis . In particular, the invention relates to methods of using PA, and/or compositions thereof, to induce or elicit serum antibodies which have neutralizing activity against B. anthracis toxin. PA and/or compositions thereof are useful as vaccines to induce serum antibodies which are useful to prevent, treat or reduce the severity of infections caused by B. anthracis , such as inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax and/or gastrointestinal anthrax. The invention also relates to nucleic acids encoding PA of B. anthracis , and compositions thereof, which produce PA in sufficient amounts to be useful as pharmaceutical compositions or vaccines to induce serum antibodies for preventing and/or treating illnesses caused by B. anthracis . The invention also relates to suitable expression systems, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, and transformed host cells containing those nucleic acids. The invention also relates to antibodies which immunoreact with the PA of B. anthracis , and/or compositions thereof. Such antibodies may be isolated, or may be provided in the form of serum containing these antibodies. The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositions and/or vaccines comprising at least one of the PAs, nucleic acids, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, transformed host cells or antibodies of the invention. The invention also relates to methods for the prevention or treatment of B. anthracis infection n a mammal, by administration of pharmaceutical or vaccine compositions of the invention. The invention also provides kits comprising one or more of the agents of the invention which are useful for vaccinating mammals for the treatment or prevention of B. anthracis infection.
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RELATED APPLICATION This is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/638,006 filed Aug. 8, 2003, which claims the benefit under 35 USC §119(e) to Provisional Application No. 60/402,285 filed Aug. 9, 2002. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to improved methods for preparing Bacillus anthracis mutants and for producing recombinant Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA) for use in vaccines. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Anthrax, a potentially fatal disease, is caused by Bacillus anthracis. The virulence of this pathogen is mediated by a capsule of a poly-D-γ-glutamic acid and an exotoxin composed of three proteins (14, 16, 17). The three protein components are the protective antigen (PA, 82 KDa), lethal factor (LF, 90.2 KDa) and edema factor (EF, 88.8 KDa). These proteins, non-toxic by themselves, form lethal toxins when combined with an activated PA (16). The genes coding for these three protein components and the capsule are found in the endogenous plasmids pXO1 and pXO2, respectively (29). The capsule of Bacillus anthracis, composed of poly-D-glutamic acid, serves as one of the principal virulence factors during anthrax infection. By virtue of its negative charge, the capsule is purported to inhibit host defence through inhibition of phagocytosis of the vegetative cells by macrophages. In conjunction with lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF), whose target cells include macrophages and neutrophils, respectively, the capsule allows virulent anthrax bacilli to grow virtually unimpeded in the infected host. Spores germinating in the presence of serum and elevated CO2 release capsule through openings on the spore surface in the form of blebs which may coalesce before sloughing of the exosporium and outgrowth of the fully encapsulated vegetative cell. It has not been established that spore encapsulation plays a role in the early events of anthrax infection. The capsule appears exterior to the S-layer of the vegetative cell and does not require the S-layer for its attachment to the cell surface. There is only indirect evidence, albeit extensive, identifying the components of vaccin-induced immunity to anthrax and there is evidence that anti-PA neutralizing antibody titers can be a reliable surrogate marker for protective immunity (23). The protective antigen (PA), seems to be an essential component of all vaccines for anthrax (7, 18, 30): both mono and polyclonal antibodies to PA neutralize the anthrax toxin and confer immunity to B. anthracis in animal models. The US licensed vaccine for anthrax “Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed” (AVA) is produced from the formalin-treated culture supernatant of B. anthracis Sterne strain, V770-NP1-R (pXO1+, pXO2−), adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide (22). Although AVA has been shown to be effective against cutaneous infection in animals and humans and against inhalation anthrax by rhesus monkeys (12), it has several limitations: 1) AVA elicits relatively high degree of local and systemic adverse reactions probably mediated by variable amounts of undefined bacterial products, making standardization difficult; 2) the immunization schedule requires administration of six doses within an eighteen-month period, followed by annual boosters for those at risk; and 3) there is no defined vaccine-induced protective level of serum PA to evaluate new lots of vaccines. Development of a well-characterized, standardized, effective and safe vaccine that would require fewer doses to confer immunity to both inhalational and cutaneous anthrax is needed (9, 30). It has been suggested that a vaccine composed of modified purified recombinant PA would be effective, safer, allow precise standardization, and probably would require fewer injections (27). Such a PA can be designed to be biologically inactive, more stable, and still maintained high immunogenicity. In the examples herein, we describe the development of a production and purification process for recombinant PA from the non-sporogenic avirulent B. anthracis BH445 (pXO1−, pXO2−) strain. Following an 18-hour fermentation and three purification steps, large quantities of protective antigen suitable for vaccine production were obtained. The purified PA was tested in mice and was able to elicit neutralizing antibodies (for related disclosure, see U.S. Provisional Application 60/344,505, filed Nov. 9, 2001, incorporated herein by reference). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to improved methods of preparing Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA). The invention also relates to PA and/or compositions thereof, which are useful for inducing or eliciting an immunogenic response in mammals, including responses that provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, infections caused by B. anthracis. In particular, the invention relates to methods of using PA, and/or compositions thereof, to induce or elicit serum antibodies which have neutralizing activity against B. anthracis toxin. PA and/or compositions thereof are useful as vaccines to induce serum antibodies which are useful to prevent, treat or reduce the severity of infections caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax and/or gastrointestinal anthrax. The invention also relates to nucleic acids encoding PA of B. anthracis, and compositions thereof, which produce PA in sufficient amounts to be useful as pharmaceutical compositions or vaccines to induce serum antibodies for preventing and/or treating illnesses caused by B. anthracis. The invention also relates to suitable expression systems, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, and transformed host cells containing those nucleic acids. The invention also relates to antibodies which immunoreact with the PA of B. anthracis, and/or compositions thereof. Such antibodies may be isolated, or may be provided in the form of serum containing these antibodies. The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositions and/or vaccines comprising at least one of the PAs, nucleic acids, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, transformed host cells or antibodies of the invention. The invention also relates to methods for the prevention or treatment of B. anthracis infection n a mammal, by administration of pharmaceutical or vaccine compositions of the invention. The invention also provides kits comprising one or more of the agents of the invention which are useful for vaccinating mammals for the treatment or prevention of B. anthracis infection. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1. Production and proteolytic activity of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) and PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5). (a) PA production (mg/g cells) λSNKE, ▪ N657A; proteolytic activity μSNKE, □ N657A; (b) SDS-PAGE analysis of partially purified PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5) and PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4). FIG. 2. Effect of EDTA and PMSF on proteolytic activity. Supernatants from two different cultures taken after 24 hours of growth were analyzed without inhibitors (control), with 1 μg/μL PMSF, and with 15 mM EDTA. Fluorescence is proportional to proteolytic activity. FIG. 3. Fermentation process for the production of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) from B. anthracis BH445. Acid and base values are cumulative. FIG. 4. SDS-PAGE analysis of culture supernatants obtained throughout the fermentation. Samples were taken at 13, 14, 16, 18, 22, and 34 hours of growth. Arrow indicates the location of PA(83 KDa) in the gel. FIG. 5. PA production and proteolytic activity of B. anthracis BH445 [pSY5:SNKE-ΔFF-E308D; SEQ ID NO: 4] in fed-batch cultures supplied with tryptone/yeast extract or glucose. λ Specific PA production in tryptone/yeast extract (mg/g cells); ν Volumetric PA production in tryptone/yeast extract (mg/liter); σ Proteolytic activity in tryptone/yeast extract; μ Specific PA production in glucose (mg/g cells); □ Volumetric PA production in glucose (mg/liter); Δ Proteolytic activity in glucose. FIG. 6. SDS-PAGE analysis of purified PA fractions. (a) PA purified by packed bed chromatography; (b) PA after hydrophobic interaction chromatography and gel filtration; (c) PA fraction shown in Lane (b) after 3 months; (d) PA after expanded bed hydrophobic interaction chromatography, anion exchange, and gel filtration. MW indicates molecular weight markers. Arrows indicate the location of PA(83 KDa) in the gel. FIG. 7. Exemplary amino acid sequence of a double mutant rPA (SEQ ID NO: 1). The double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Ser at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop. FIGS. 8A and 8B. Amino acid sequence alignment of wild-type PA protein (upper sequence; SEQ ID NO: 2) and the exemplary double mutant PA protein shown in FIG. 7 (lower sequence; SEQ ID NO: 1). FIGS. 9A and 9B. Nucleotide sequence of an exemplary polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 3) encoding the double mutant rPA shown in FIGS. 7, 8A and 8B. SEQUENCE LISTING SEQ ID NO: 1 is a protein sequence showing an exemplary double mutant PA. SEQ ID NO: 2 is a protein sequence showing a wild-type PA protein. SEQ ID NO: 3 is a nucleic acid coding sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. SEQ ID NO: 4 is a protein sequence showing the PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D mutant. SEQ ID NO: 5 is a protein sequence showing the PA-N657A mutant. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only, and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate an embodiment of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. The invention relates to methods of producing and recovering PA from a cell or organism, particularly a recombinant cell or microorganism. Exemplified herein is the production and purification of modified PA from a non-sporgenic strain of Bacillus anthracis. As discussed further herein, greater quantities of PA are obtainable from these cells or microorganisms than were obtainable by previously described methods. The invention also relates to PA, and/or compositions thereof, which are useful for eliciting an immunogenic response in mammals, in particular humans, including responses which provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, infections caused by B. anthracis. The invention also relates to methods of using such PA, and/or compositions thereof, to induce serum antibodies against PA. PA, and/or compositions thereof, are useful as vaccines to induce serum antibodies that are useful to prevent, treat or reduce the severity of infections caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax and/or cutaneous anthrax. The PAs of this invention are expected to induce a strong protective IgG antibody response in mammals, including humans. The invention also relates to nucleic acids encoding PA and mutant forms of PA of this invention. Nucleic acids encoding PA, and compositions thereof, are also useful as pharmaceutical compositions or vaccines to induce serum antibodies that are useful to prevent and/or treat illnesses caused by B. anthracis. The invention also relates to antibodies which immunoreact with the PA of B. anthracis that are induced by PAs of the invention, and/or compositions thereof. Such antibodies may be isolated, or may be provided in the form of serum containing these antibodies. The invention also relates to a method for the prevention or treatment of B. anthracis infection in a mammal, by administration of compositions containing one or more of a PA of the invention, nucleic acids encoding a PA if the invention, antibodies and/or serum containing antibodies of the invention. The invention also provides kits for vaccinating mammals for the treatment or prevention of B. anthracis infection in a mammal comprising one or more of the agents of the invention. The present invention also encompasses methods of using mixtures of one or more of the PA, nucleic acids, and/or antibodies of the invention, either in a single composition or in multiple compositions containing other immunogens, to form a multivalent vaccine for broad coverage against either B. anthracis itself or a combination of B. anthracis and one or more other pathogens, which may also be administered concurrently with other vaccines, such as the DTP vaccine. Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention are capable, upon injection into a human, of inducing serum antibodies against B. anthracis. The induced anti-PA antibodies have anthrax toxin neutralizing activity which are preferably at least comparable to those induced by the currently licensed anthrax vaccine. The vaccines of this invention are intended for active immunization for prevention of B. anthracis infection, and for preparation of immune antibodies. The vaccines of this invention are designed to confer specific immunity against infection with B. anthracis, and to induce antibodies specific to B. anthracis PA. The B. anthracis vaccine is composed of non-toxic bacterial components, suitable for infants, children of all ages, and adults. The methods of using the agents of this invention, and/or compositions thereof will be useful in increasing resistance to, preventing, ameliorating, and/or treating B. anthracis infection in humans. This invention also provides compositions, including but not limited to, mammalian serum, plasma, and immunoglobulin fractions, which contain antibodies which are immunoreactive with B. anthracis PA. These antibodies and antibody compositions may be useful to prevent, treat, and/or ameliorate infection and disease caused by the microorganism. The invention also provides such antibodies in isolated form. High titer anti-PA sera, or antibodies isolated therefrom, may be used for therapeutic treatment for patients with B. anthracis infection. Antibodies elicited by the agents of this invention may be used for the treatment of established B. anthracis infections, and may also be useful in providing passive protection to an individual exposed to B. anthracis. The present invention also provides kits comprising vaccines for the prevention and/or treatment of B. anthracis, containing the one or more of the PAs, nucleic acids, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, or transformed host cells or antibodies of the invention and/or compositions thereof. The PAs, nucleic acids viral particles vectors, host cells and/or antibodies of the present invention may be isolated and purified by methods known in the art. Preferably, the PA of the invention is purified by one of the methods exemplified herein. The vaccines of the invention are intended to be included in the immunization schedule of individuals at risk for B. anthracis infection. They are also planned to be used for intervention in the event of the use of B. anthracis in bioterrorism or biowarfare. For example, it is anticipated that the vaccines of the invention may be provided to the entire U.S. population. Additionally, they may be used as component(s) of a multivalent vaccine for B. anthracis and/or other pathogens. DEFINITIONS As used herein, unless otherwise specifically noted, “PA” refers to all forms of PA which are useful in the compositions and/or methods of the invention, including unmodified native or recombinant B. anthracis protective antigen (PA), or a modified form (variant) or fragment thereof, for use in vaccines. Variants and fragments of PA must be able to produce an immune response in a mammal to whom they are administered. The immune response is suitably protective against infection by Bacillus anthracis although the protective effect may be seen only after repeated applications, as would be determinable by methods known in the art. Modified PA variants comprise peptides and proteins which resemble PA in their ability to induce or elicit antibodies which bind to native PA, but have different amino acid sequence. For example, variants may be 60% homologous to PA protein, suitably 80% homologous and more particularly at least 90% homologous. Fragments are suitably peptides that contain at least one antigenic determinant of PA. A modified (variant) PA of the invention includes any substituted analog or chemical derivative of PA, so long as the modified (variant) PA is capable of inducing or eliciting the production of antibodies capable of binding native (or naturally-occurring) PA. Preferably, the antibodies are neutralizing antibodies. PA can be subject to various changes that provide for certain advantages in its use. For example, PA with changes which increase in vitro and/or in vivo stability of PA, while still retaining the desired immunogenic activity, are preferred. In the modified PA used in the examples herein (SEQ ID NO: 4), two regions were altered, i.e., the furin cleavage site region (RKKR167 to SNKE167), and the chymotrypsin and thermolysin cleavage site region (two Phe at positions 313-314 were deleted and Glu acid at position 308 was substituted with Asp), resulting in a more stable PA. As used herein, the terms “immunoreact” and “immunoreactivity” refer to specific binding between an antigen or antigenic determinant-containing molecule and a molecule having an antibody combining site, such as a whole antibody molecule or a portion thereof. As used herein, the term “antibody” refers to immunoglobulin molecules and immunologically active portions of immunoglobulin molecules. Exemplary antibody molecules are intact immunoglobulin molecules, substantially intact immunoglobulin molecules and portions of an immunoglobulin molecule, including those portions known in the art as Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2 and F(v), as well as chimeric antibody molecules. As used herein, the term “transduction” generally refers to the transfer of genetic material into the host via infection, e.g., in this case by the lentiviral vector. The term “transfection” generally refers to the transfer of isolated genetic material into cells via the use of specific transfection agents (e.g., calcium phosphate, DEAE Dextran, lipid formulations, gold particles, and other microparticles) that cross the cytoplasmic membrane and deliver some of the genetic material into the cell nucleus. Monomers, Polymers and Polymeric Carriers The present invention encompasses monomers of PA, as well as homogeneous or heterogeneous polymers of PA (e.g., concatenated, cross-linked and/or fused identical polypeptide units or concatenated, cross-linked and/or fused diverse peptide units), and mixtures of the polypeptides, polymers, and/or conjugates thereof. The present invention also encompasses PA bound to a non-toxic, preferably non-host, protein carrier to form a conjugate. Linkers useful in the invention may, for example, be simply peptide bonds, or may comprise amino acids, including amino acids capable of forming disulfide bonds, but may also comprise other molecules such as, for example, polysaccharides or fragments thereof. The linkers for use with this invention may be chosen so as to contribute their own immunogenic effect which may be either the same, or different, than that elicited by the consensus sequences of the invention. For example, such linkers may be bacterial antigens which also elicit the production of antibodies to infectious bacteria. In such instances, for example, the linker may be a protein or protein fragment of an infectious bacteria. Carriers are chosen to increase the immunogenicity of the PA and/or to raise antibodies against the carrier which are medically beneficial. Carriers that fulfill these criteria are well known in the art. A polymeric carrier can be a natural or a synthetic material containing one or more functional groups, for example primary and/or secondary amino groups, azido groups, or carboxyl groups. Carriers can be water soluble or insoluble. Methods for Attaching PA to a Protein Carrier PA of the invention may be covalently attached to other proteins, with or without a linker, by methods known in the art, such as via their side chains or via peptide bonds in the primary chain. Cysteine molecules may provide a convenient attachment point through which to chemically conjugate other proteins or non-protein moieties to PA. Dosage for Vaccination The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention contain a pharmaceutically and/or therapeutically effective amount of at least one PA, nucleic acid, vector, viral particle, host cell immunogen or antibody of the invention. The effective amount of immunogen per unit dose is an amount sufficient to induce an immune response which is sufficient to prevent, treat or protect against the adverse effects of infection with B. anthracis. The effective amount of immunogen per unit dose depends, among other things, on the species of mammal inoculated, the body weight of the mammal and the chosen inoculation regimen, as is well known in the art. In such circumstances, inocula for a human or similarly sized mammal typically contain PA concentrations of 0.5 μg to 1 mg per mammal per inoculation dose. Initial tests of the PA vaccine in humans will use approximately 10 μg or 20 μg per dose. Preferably, the route of inoculation of the peptide will be subcutaneous or intramuscular. The dose is administered at least once. To monitor the antibody response of individuals administered the compositions of the invention, antibody levels may be determined. In most instances it will be sufficient to assess the antibody titer in serum or plasma obtained from such an individual. Decisions as to whether to administer booster inoculations or to change the amount of the composition administered to the individual may be at least partially based on the level. The level may be based on either an immunobinding assay which measures the concentration of antibodies in the serum which bind to a specific antigen, i.e. PA. The ability to neutralize in vitro and in vivo biological effects of the B. anthracis toxins may also be assessed to determine the effectiveness of the treatment. The term “unit dose” as it pertains to the inocula refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for mammals, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired immunogenic effect in association with the required diluent. Inocula are typically prepared in physiologically and/or pharmaceutically tolerable (acceptable) carrier, and are preferably prepared as solutions in physiologically and/or pharmaceutically acceptable diluents such as water, saline, phosphate-buffered saline, or the like, to form an aqueous pharmaceutical composition. Adjuvants, such as aluminum hydroxide, may also be included in the compositions. Depending on the intended mode of administration, the compounds of the present invention can be in various pharmaceutical compositions. The compositions will include, as noted above, an effective amount of the selected immunogen and/or antibody of the invention in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and, in addition, may include other medicinal agents, pharmaceutical agents, carriers, adjuvants, diluents, etc. By “pharmaceutically acceptable” is meant a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, i.e., the material may be administered to an individual along with the immunogen and/or antibody or other composition without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained. The route of inoculation may be intramuscular, subcutaneous or the like, which results in eliciting antibodies protective against B. anthracis. In order to increase the antibody level, a second or booster dose may be administered approximately 4 to 6 weeks after the initial injection. Subsequent doses may be administered as indicated herein, or as desired by the practitioner. Parenteral administration, if used, is generally characterized by injection. Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either as liquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution or suspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. A more recently revised approach for parenteral administration involves use of a slow release or sustained release system, such that a constant level of dosage is maintained. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 3,710,795, which is incorporated by reference herein. Antibodies An antibody of the present invention in one embodiment is characterized as comprising antibody molecules that immunoreact with B. anthracis PA. An antibody of the present invention is typically produced by immunizing a mammal with an immunogen or vaccine containing an B. anthracis PA to induce, in the mammal, antibody molecules having immunospecificity for the immunizing PA. Antibody molecules having immunospecificity for the protein carrier will also be produced. The antibody molecules may be collected from the mammal and, optionally, isolated and purified by methods known in the art. Human or humanized monoclonal antibodies are preferred, including those made by phage display technology, by hybridomas, or by mice with human immune systems. The antibody molecules of the present invention may be polyclonal or monoclonal. Monoclonal antibodies may be produced by methods known in the art. Portions of immunoglobulin molecules, such as Fabs, may also be produced by methods known in the art. The antibody of the present invention may be contained in blood plasma, serum, hybridoma supernatants and the like. Alternatively, the antibodies of the present invention are isolated to the extent desired by well-known techniques such as, for example, ion exchange chromatography, sizing chromatography, or affinity chromatography. The antibodies may be purified so as to obtain specific classes or subclasses of antibody such as IgM, IgG, IgA, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4 and the like. Antibodies of the IgG class are preferred for purposes of passive protection. The antibodies of the present invention have a number of diagnostic and therapeutic uses. The antibodies can be used as an in vitro diagnostic agent to test for the presence of B. anthracis in biological samples or in meat and meat products, in standard immunoassay protocols. Such assays include, but are not limited to, agglutination assays, radioimmunoassays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, fluorescence assays, Western blots and the like. In one such assay, for example, the biological sample is contacted first with antibodies of the present invention which bind to B. anthracis PA, and then with a labeled second antibody to detect the presence of B. anthracis to which the first antibodies have bound. Such assays may be, for example, of direct format (where the labeled first antibody is reactive with the antigen), an indirect format (where a labeled second antibody is reactive with the first antibody), a competitive format (such as the addition of a labeled antigen), or a sandwich format (where both labeled and unlabelled antibody are utilized), as well as other formats described in the art. The antibodies of the present invention are also useful in prevention and treatment of infections and diseases caused by B. anthracis. In providing the antibodies of the present invention to a recipient mammal, preferably a human, the dosage of administered antibodies will vary depending upon such factors as the mammal's age, weight, height, sex, general medical condition, previous medical history and the like. In general, it is desirable to provide the recipient with a dosage of antibodies that is in the range of from about 1 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg body weight of the mammal, although a lower or higher dose may be administered. The antibodies of the present invention are intended to be provided to the recipient subject in an amount sufficient to prevent, or lessen or attenuate the severity, extent or duration of the infection by B. anthracis. When proteins of other organisms are used as carriers, antibodies which immunoreact with those proteins are intended to be provided to the recipient subject in an amount sufficient to prevent, lessen or attenuate the severity, extent or duration of an infection by the organisms producing those proteins. The administration of the agents of the invention may be for either “prophylactic” or “therapeutic” purpose. When provided prophylactically, the agents are provided in advance of any symptom. The prophylactic administration of the agent serves to prevent or ameliorate any subsequent infection. When provided therapeutically, the agent is provided at (or shortly after) the onset of a symptom of infection. The agent of the present invention may, thus, be provided prior to the anticipated exposure to B. anthracis, so as to attenuate the anticipated severity, duration or extent of an infection and disease symptoms, after exposure or suspected exposure to these bacteria, or after the actual initiation of an infection. For all therapeutic, prophylactic and diagnostic uses, one or more of the PAs or other agents of this invention, as well as antibodies and other necessary reagents and appropriate devices and accessories, may be provided in kit form so as to be readily available and easily used. Nucleic Acids, Vectors and Hosts Nucleic acids encoding the PAs of the invention can be introduced into a vector such as a plasmid, cosmid, phage, virus, viral particle or mini-chromosome and inserted into a host cell or organism by methods well known in the art. The vectors which can be utilized to clone and/or express these nucleic acids are the vectors which are capable of replicating and/or expressing the nucleic acids in the host cell in which the nucleic acids are desired to be replicated and/or expressed. See, e.g., F. Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley-Interscience (1992) and Sambrook et al. (1989) for examples of appropriate vectors for various types of host cells. Vectors and compositions for enabling production of the peptides in vivo, i.e., in the individual to be treated or immunized, are also within the scope of this invention. Strong promoters compatible with the host into which the gene is inserted may be used. These promoters may be inducible. The host cells containing these nucleic acids can be used to express large amounts of the protein useful in pharmaceuticals, diagnostic reagents, vaccines and therapeutics. Vectors include retroviral vectors and also include direct injection of DNA into muscle cells or other receptive cells, resulting in the efficient expression of the peptide, using the technology described, for example, in Wolff et al., Science 247:1465-1468 (1990), Wolff et al., Human Molecular Genetics 1(6):363-369 (1992) and Ulmer et al., Science 259:1745-1749 (1993). See also, for example, WO 96/36366 and WO 98/34640. In general, vectors containing nucleic acids encoding PA can be utilized in any cell, either eukaryotic or prokaryotic, including mammalian cells (e.g., human (e.g., HeLa), monkey (e.g., COS), rabbit (e.g., rabbit reticulocytes), rat, hamster (e.g., CHO and baby hamster kidney cells) or mouse cells (e.g., L cells), plant cells, yeast cells, insect cells or bacterial cells (e.g., E. coli)). However, bacterial vectors and host cells are preferred in the present invention. There are numerous E. coli expression vectors known to one of ordinary skill in the art useful for the expression of PA. Other microbial hosts suitable for use include bacilli, such as B. subtilus, and other enterobacteriaceae, such as Salmonella, Serratia, and various Pseudomonas species. In these prokaryotic hosts one can also make expression vectors, which will typically contain expression control sequences compatible with the host cell (e.g., an origin of replication). In addition, any number of a variety of well-known promoters will be present, such as the lactose promoter system, a tryptophan (Trp) promoter system, a beta-lactamase promoter system, or a promoter system from phage lambda. The promoters will typically control expression, optionally with an operator sequence, and have ribosome binding site sequences for example, for initiating and completing transcription and translation. If necessary an amino terminal methionine can be provided by insertion of a Met codon 5′ and in-frame with the antigen. Also, if desired, the carboxy-terminal or other region of the antigen can be removed using standard oligonucleotide mutagenesis procedures. The nucleotide (DNA) sequences can be expressed in hosts after the sequences have been operably linked to, i.e., positioned to ensure the functioning of, an expression control sequence. These expression vectors are typically replicable in the host organisms either as episomes or as an integral part of the host chromosomal DNA. Commonly, expression vectors can contain selection markers, e.g., tetracycline resistance or hygromycin resistance, to permit detection and/or selection of those cells transformed with the desired DNA sequences (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,704,362). Host bacterial cells may be chosen that are mutated to be reduced in or free of proteases, so that the proteins produced are not degraded. For bacillus expression systems in which the proteins are secreted into the culture medium, strains are available that are deficient in secreted proteases. Polynucleotides encoding a variant polypeptide may include sequences that facilitate transcription (expression sequences) and translation of the coding sequences such that the encoded polypeptide product is produced. Construction of such polynucleotides is well known in the art. For example, such polynucleotides can include a promoter, a transcription termination site (polyadenylation site in eukaryotic expression hosts), a ribosome binding site, and, optionally, an enhancer for use in eukaryotic expression hosts, and, optionally, sequences necessary for replication of a vector. Fermentation and Purification Procedures This invention relates to improved methods of preparing B. anthracis PA for use in vaccines. Procedures are exemplified herein for purifying modified PA from a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis. However, it is expected that these procedures will be useful for growing and purifying PA, including natural or recombinant PA, as well as various modified or truncated forms of PA, from other microorganisms, particularly other Bacillus species and strains. Bacillus strains and/or expression systems which are expected to be suitable include, for example, the B. anthracis strain described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,840,312 (Nov. 24, 1998) and the B. subtilis strain and PA expression system described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,966 (Jul. 31, 2001). In one aspect of the invention, the culture is preferably maintained at about pH 7 to about pH 8, most preferably about pH 7.5, substantially throughout the fermentation process. It has also been found to be advantageous to add EDTA before separating the culture supernatant from the cells, preferably at or near the end of fermentation, since if it is added during the fermentation stage, it may interfere somewhat with the growth of the cells. The purification procedure of the invention is preferably essentially a three-step procedure, including (1) hydrophobic interaction chromatography, (2) ion exchange chromatography and (3) gel filtration. While ion exchange chromatography may precede hydrophobic interaction chromatography in the purification process, and still permit obtaining a good yield of PA, it is a less efficient process. Therefore, in view of this, it is preferred that hydrophobic interaction chromatography precede ion exchange chromatography in the purification process. Alternatively, this three-step procedure need not be used and an alternative purification scheme may be used. In addition, the resins used in the exemplified purification procedure can be substituted. For example, in the hydrophobic interaction chromatography step, phenyl sepharose (Pharmacia) is used as the resin in the example, but any other hydrophobic resin can be used. Likewise, in the ion exchange chromatography step, Q sepharose (Pharmacia) is used as the resin in the example, but any other anion exchanger can be used. Likewise, for the gel filtration step, Superdex (Pharmacia) is the residue used in the example, but it can be replaced by other gel filtration resins. Furthermore, with respect to the fermentation conditions, similar compounds can replace the tryptone and the yeast extract that are obtained from Difco. In other detailed aspects of the invention, novel methods and materials are provided for producing and selecting genetically defined, non-reverting sporulation-deficient mutants of a sporulating bacterium. Exemplary bacteria for which these methods are well suited include Bacillus anthracis, B. thuringiensis, and B. cereus. The sporulation deficient mutants obtained according to the methods of the invention are useful, for example, as hosts for expressing recombinant proteins, including recombinant PA, lethal factor, edema factor, and mutant versions of these proteins, contemplated as components of improved anthrax vaccines. Bacillus anthracis efficiently secretes anthrax toxin proteins, and this feature has been employed herein to develop systems for expressing large amounts of recombinant anthrax toxin proteins, for example up to 100 mg per liter of culture. One disadvantage of B. anthracis strains, even those which are avirulent due to removal of the two large virulence plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2, is the formation of very stable spores. This presents certain challenges to the use of these strains for commercial vaccine production. Development of the BH445 sporulation-deficient strain, as described above, ameliorates this problem. However, there remains a need for yet additional modified strains to further enhance stability of by minimizing the potential for reversion to a sporulation-competent parental phenotype. This may occur, for example, if the selective antibiotic chloramphenicol is not present at effective concentrations. As used herein, “sporulation-deficient” refers to a mutant bacterial strain that exhibits a significant reduction in sporulation potential as compared to the fully sporulation competent, wild type (wt) counterpart strain. The term sporulation-deficient thus refers to sporulation-incompetent mutants, as well as substantially sporulation-impaired mutants. The current invention provides for the generation and selection of sporulation-deficient mutants of sporulating bacterial based on growth behavior and morphological appearance. In exemplary embodiments, B. anthracis is plated on a suitable, solid growth medium, for example LB agar in plates. Following plating the bacteria are allowed to grow for a suitable period to yield moderate to thick growth on the solid medium. Typically, the growth period is between about 24 hours and 72 hours, more typically between about 36 hours and 48 hours. In areas of thick growth, parental bacteria are induced by nutrient deprivation to initiate sporulation and cease normal growth. This is because moderate to heavy growth is attended by progressive nutrient depletion in the culture. Nutrient deprivation stress in turn stimulates sporulation in the culture by sporulation-competent bacteria, which cease normal growth. Within the methods of the invention, sporulation-deficient mutants are isolated within such nutrient-stressed cultures. Within areas of thick growth, rare, spontaneous sporulation-deficient mutants emerge. These are selected based on one or more selection criteria. In particular, the mutants may be isolated by picking from a central area of the culture colonies where nutrient deprivation is increased. Alternatively, the mutants can be selected by picking so-called “cancerous tumors” within in the colonies identified as nodules of protruding bacterial growth on a relatively smooth growth background. In addition, or alternatively, sporulation-incompetent and sporulation-impaired mutants can be selected based on other morphological characteristics exhibited by the mutants under nutrient-stress conditions, for example color and “wetness.” Sporulation-deficient mutants of B. anthracis are generally whiter in appearance and less “wet” (i.e., glossy or reflective) in comparison to wt. To further enrich for sporulation mutants according to the foregoing method, bacteria selected as above (e.g., picked from central areas of thick growth) can be grown up in an optional, liquid culture step and re-plated for single colonies. As noted in the examples below, this enrichment yields a large number of candidate mutants. In more detailed embodiments, the methods of the invention can produce plates on which between from 1-10%, 10-25%, 30-50% or more of the colonies exhibit distinct morphology from that of the parental strain. Unlike previous reports, the current mutant selection procedure does not require the incorporation of dyes (e.g., Congo Red, Aram Cresol Green, and Evans Blue) in the solid culture medium to identify sporulation-deficient variants. Although these dyes may facilitate selection in certain embodiments, the methods of the invention can be practice using a dye-free culture medium. As used herein, “dye free” means that the culture medium is substantially free of any added indicator dyes such that differential staining of mutant and wild type colonies by the indicator dye cannot be visually detected. The methods of the invention yield sporulation-deficient variants of B. anthracis and other sporulating species and strains of bacteria, which are often sporulation-incompetent. Typically, the subject mutants are highly stable by virtue of having deletions in genes required for the production of spores. Strains in which these genes have partial or complete deletions will not revert to sporulation-competence forms at a detectable frequency, and are therefore highly desired for use in vaccine production. Within exemplary embodiments of the foregoing methods, sporulation-deficient mutants were obtained from three different parental strains of B. anthracis: Ames plasmid-free, UM44-1C9, and BH441. These sporulation-deficient strains are useful for the expression of proteins, including recombinant PA, lethal factor, edema factor, and mutant versions of these proteins, contemplated as components of improved anthrax vaccines within the methods and compositions of the invention. Useful candidate strains mutated in particular genes required for sporulation will support higher levels of protein expression, for example from the pYS5-type plasmids typically used for expression. Within additional aspects of the invention, the expression and stability of two recombinant PA variants, PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) and PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5), were studied. Related methods are provided for producing and recovering native PA; PA wherein the receptor-binding domain has been altered; PA which cannot be cleaved at the chymotrypsin cleavage site; PA which cannot be cleaved at the furin cleavage site; other PA which cannot be cleaved at either the chymotrypsin or the furin cleavage site in addition to the one exemplified herein (see, e.g., those described in (22)); PA fragments (e.g., a PA fragment having aa 175-764 (36)); PA mutants having a strong dominant-negative effect (e.g., PA double mutants K397D and D425K) (37), and PA mutants with substitutions in domain 2 (37)). Considering the nature of the current anthrax (AVA) vaccine and the adverse events that have been associated with its administration, there is an urgent need for new, recombinant PA (rPA) molecules for use in second generation vaccine development. PA is an essential component of an effective anthrax vaccine. One problem with producing a rPA for vaccine use is that PA is sensitive to proteolytic cleavage at two locations. One target location for cleavage is the furin-cleavage loop, which contains the sequence ArgLysLysArg (residues 164-167 of the mature protein). Cleavage at this site activates PA, exposing the surface at which the two other toxin components bind. Removal of the furin loop will prevent intoxication mediated by the other toxin components. The second cleavage loop (residues 304-319) contains the sequence PhePheAsp (residues 313-315), making PA sensitive to cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin. One strategy for removing this cleavage site involves deleting Phe313 and Phe314. While deletion of these two Phe residues prevents cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin, preparations of this form of rPA still exhibit degradation products indicative of cleavage in the loop, presumably by a different protease. In related aspects of the invention, one or more contiguous amino acid residues are deleted or substituted in a “flexible”, exposed, or loop segment of a recombinant PA protein. Flexible, exposed, and loop segments of PA are identified by X-ray crystallography and other structural analytic methods known in the art. In this context, target segments of PA for mutagenesis include residues not seen in the crystal structure of PA, including cleavage loop segments identified as residues 162-174, residues 304-319, and other exposed or flexible segments including residues 1-13, 99-102, and 512-515 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). All of these segments are useful targets for mutation within the invention to yield a rPA having improved characteristics for vaccine development, including enhanced resistance to protolytic degradation. Within the foregoing targeted segments of PA, one or more amino acids will be deleted or modified (e.g., by chemical modification or substitution with another amino acid), and typically the deletion or modification will reduce succeptibility of the rPA to proteolytic degradation (e.g., by removing a cleavage target site or altering an amino acid side chain to interfere with a cleavage interaction that would target the native PA protein). Typically, 1-15 amino acids will be deleted, often in combination with substitution of one or more amino acid(s) within the targeted PA segment. In other embodiments, the number of contiguous amino acids deleted from the target segment encompasses 3-12, 4-10, 5-8, or 6-7 residues. In one exemplary embodiment, the invention provides a stable, recombinant PA molecule having a deletion of exemplary segments from both the chymotrypsin-sensitive loop and the furin-cleavage loop. This novel rPA double deletion mutant described here has both cleavage-sensitive loops removed to create a more stable, inactive, PA mutant protein suitable for vaccine production. This double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Set at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop (FIG. 8). This and other mutant rPAs produced according to the invention exhibit significantly increased stability compared to wt PA. In particular, the stability of selected mutant rPAs according to the invention to proteolytic degradation will be increased by at least 15%, often 20-30%, 50%, 75%, up to 100%, 200% or more compared to stability of wt PA under comparable conditions. In a related aspect of the invention, polynucleotides and expression vectors encoding a double deletion mutant form of rPA are provided. One such exemplary polynucleotide is shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B. Also provided are host cells incorporating an expression vector operable to direct expression of a mutant rPA of the invention within the host cell. In additional aspects of the invention, the methods herein are useful for producing and recovering PA in which the chymotrypsin site, FF, is replaced by a furin site. This may be a suicide protein, getting easily cleaved by furin after binding to receptor. Cleavage at that site inactivates PA. The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering PA with a protease cleavage site (thrombin, Factor IV, etc.) at approximately residue 605. PA made in large amounts in the expression system could be cleaved to produce a soluble domain 4, which would compete with PA for receptor, and could be a therapeutic agent. The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering PA with matrix metalloprotease or plasminogen activator sites replacing the furin site (38, 39). The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering other proteins, such as LF. See, e.g., (21), wherein expression system is the same, except the structural gene for PA is replaced by the LF gene. This can be generalized to include LF mutants altered in the catalytic site residues: HEFGH, 686-690. The system may also have utility with EF. The following examples are provided by way of illustration, not limitation. Example 1 In this example, the expression and the stability of two recombinant PA variants, PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) and PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5), were studied. These proteins were expressed in the non-sporogenic avirulent strain BH445. Initial results indicated that PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4), which lacks two proteolysis-sensitive sites, is more stable than PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5). Process development was conducted to establish an efficient production and purification process for PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4). Various parameters such as pH, media composition, growth strategy, and protease inhibitors composition were analyzed. The production process chosen was based on batch growth of B. anthracis using tryptone and yeast extract as the only sources of carbon, pH control at 7.5, and antifoam 289. Optimal harvest time was found to be 14-18 hours after inoculation, and EDTA (5 mM) was added upon harvesting for proteolysis control. In one of the processes described herein, recovery of the PA was performed by expanded bed adsorption (EBA) on a hydrophobic interaction resin, eliminating the need for centrifugation, microfiltration, and diafiltration. The EBA step was followed by ion exchange and gel filtration. PA yields before and after purification were 130 mg/L and 90 mg/L, respectively. Materials and Methods Strains and Plasmids The non-sporogenic, protease deficient, avirulent strain B. anthracis BH445 (pXO1−, pXO2−, cmr) was used (17). The Bacillus-E. coli shuttle vector pYS5 (ampr, kanr) (26) was used to clone two recombinant forms of the protective antigen: N657A and SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) (28). In the N657A mutant (SEQ ID NO: 5), the receptor-binding domain of PA was altered by substitution of Asn with Ala at position 657 (domain 4). In the SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) mutant two regions were altered, the furin site (RKKR167 to SNKE167) and the chymotrypsin site (two Phe at positions 313-314 were deleted and Glu acid at position 308 was substituted with Asp). Both PA constructs contain the DNA sequence encoding the signal peptide of PA. Culture and Expression Conditions Modified FA medium (21) containing (per liter) 35 g tryptone (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.), 5 g yeast extract (Difco Laboratories), and 100 mL of 10× salts was used in all experiments. The 10× salt solution (per liter) consisted of 60 g Na2HPO4.7H2O, 10 g KH2PO4, 55 g NaCl, 0.4 g L-tryptophan, 0.4 g L-methionine, 0.05 g thiamine, and 0.25 g uracil. It was filter-sterilized and added to the fermentor after cooling. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 7.5; 100 μg/mL kanamycin and 20 μg/mL chloramphenicol were added. Fermentation experiments were performed by inoculating a 12-14 hour-old starter culture grown from a frozen stock. The medium in the fermentor was supplemented with 0.2 mL/L of antifoam 289 (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Three- to ten-liter fermentations were done using B. Braun Biostat MD DCU (Melsungen, Germany), controlling dissolved oxygen (DO) at 30% saturation, temperature at 37° C., and pH at 7.5 with HCl and NH4OH. At harvest time, 5 mM EDTA and 10 μg/mL PMSF (phenylmethyl sulfonyl fluoride) (in one of the experiments described herein) were added to the culture. Shake flask experiments (100 mL) utilizing modified FA medium were supplemented with glucose, lactose, glycerol, and casitone at a concentration of 10 g/L. Analytical Methods Optical density (OD) was measured at 600 nm. Protease analysis was done on supernatant samples collected during growth and stored frozen at −20° C. EDTA was added to supernatant samples used for SDS-PAGE and radial immunodiffusion to a final concentration of 10 mM. Extracellular protease activity was detected using the EnzChek green fluorescence assay kit (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.). Fluorescence was measured with a LS50B luminescence spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer, Boston, Mass.). This assay was conducted at pH of 7.5 or 6.0 depending on the experiment. Proteolytic activity is reported as fluorescence change per unit sample. Protein was determined using BCA assay (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.). PA expression was quantified by SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen/Novex, Carlsbad, Calif.) gel analysis and by the Mancini immunodiffusion assay (19) using agarose plates containing polyclonal PA antibody. Pure PA was used as the standard, both polycolonal PA antibodies and pure PA were supplied by Dr. Stephen Leppla. Purification a. Packed Bed Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography The cell suspension containing 5 mM EDTA was centrifuged and the supernatant passed through a 0.2 μm hollow fiber filter (AGT, Needham, Mass.). The filtered broth was then concentrated 20× using a 10K membrane in a Pellicon-2 (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). 200 g (NH4)2SO4 per liter (1.5 M) were added to the concentrated supernatant. The small amount of precipitate produced after addition of (NH4)2SO4 was eliminated with centrifugation and filtration. Phenyl Sepharose Fast Flow (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was equilibrated with buffer containing 1.5 M (NH4)2SO4/10 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA pH=7.0 (equilibration buffer) at a flow rate of 15 cm/h. After sample loading, the column was washed with 10 column volumes (CV) of equilibration buffer and PA was eluted with a 30 CV linear gradient from 1.5 M to 0 M (NH4)2SO4 in 10 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA; pH=7.0. Fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and the PA-containing samples were pooled for further purification. b. Expanded Bed Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography The cell suspension containing 5 mM EDTA was diluted 1:1 with buffer containing 3.0 M (NH4)2SO4/20 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA and 0.005% Pluronic F-68 (Life Technologies, Inc. Gaithersburg, Md.). STREAMLINE™ Phenyl adsorbent, (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was expanded in a streamline column in equilibration buffer. The diluted cell suspension was loaded upward at 300 cm/h. The column was washed in expanded mode (2) with 10 CV of equilibration buffer containing 0.005% pluronic F-68. Elution was performed in packed bed mode with 8 CV of elution buffer at 100 cm/h. The eluent was analyzed by SDS-PAGE and radial immunodifussion. c. Anion Exchange Chromatography Fractions from HIC were dialyzed against 20 mM Tris pH=8.9 and loaded on a Q Sepharose Fast Flow (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) column equilibrated with 20 mM Tris pH=8.9 at 15 cm/h. The protein was eluted using a 20 CV linear gradient from 0 to 0.5 M NaCl in the same buffer. PA containing fractions were concentrated and dialyzed against PBS. d. Gel Filtration The pooled PA was further purified using a Superdex 75 column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) in PBS/5 mM EDTA pH=7.4 at 12 cm/h. Results and Discussion a. Expression of Two Recombinant PAs: PA-N657A and PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D The expression of two recombinant versions of PA and the extracellular proteolytic activity of the culture were analyzed (FIG. 1). Production of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4), the protein lacking the furin and chymotrypsin cleavage sites, was nearly 60% higher than that of PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5), the protein containing a mutation in the receptor-binding domain (FIG. 1a). The extracellular proteolytic activity (fluorescence/OD) of both cultures was similar. SDS-PAGE analysis of partially purified PA recovered from these cultures shows higher concentration of smaller fragments in the sample from PA-N657A (SEQ ID NO: 5) compared to the sample from PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (FIG. 1b; SEQ ID NO: 4). Western blot analysis with polyclonal PA antibody confirmed that the smaller fragments were reactive against PA (data not shown). As indicated in FIG. 1a, the proteolytic activity was similar in both strains. Therefore, it was apparent that PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) is a better candidate, due to its stability, and it was selected for further studies. b. pH Effect Based on previous information (5, 21), initial production studies with PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) were done by controlling pH with NH4OH only, which resulted in pH 8.7 at the end of the fermentation. When pH was controlled at 7.4 during the entire fermentation, the PA production was 30 mg per g cell and the proteolytic activity per OD unit was 8, compared to values of 20 mg PA per g cells and proteolytic activity per OD of 30 when the pH control was done only by NH4OH. When the process was performed at a lower pH, both PA production and protease activity were lower. At pH 6.1 production declined nearly six times and protease activity two times compared to what was found at pH 7.4. Possibly, intracellular expression is lower or secretion is inhibited at low pH. From the above information it is obvious that pH significantly affects the proteolytic activity and the PA expression. Controlling pH throughout the fermentation process resulted in a 30% increase in PA yield, compared to previously reported strategies. c. Effect of Various Carbon Sources and Protease Inhibitors Attempts to increase PA expression by supplementing the basic growth medium with different carbon sources is summarized in Table 1. TABLE 1 Effect of various carbon sources on PA production. PA production Medium mg PA/g cell mg PA/L culture Basic medium 31.3 129.5 Glycerol + basic medium 23.7 117.3 Glucose + basic medium 25.3 113.3 Lactose + basic medium 33.9 116.0 Casitone + basic medium 28.3 135.1 Neither the volumetric production nor the production per gram cells could be enhanced with the addition of various carbon sources. The effect of PMSF and EDTA on extracellular proteolysis was also examined. As shown in FIG. 2, addition of EDTA (15 mM) significantly reduced proteolytic activity whereas the proteolytic activity of the PMSF-containing fraction (1 g/mL) was similar to that of the control. Based on this information, EDTA was added at the end of the fermentation, before the protein was processed. d. Growth and Production Conditions Based on the parameters determined previously, a production process for the recombinant PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (SEQ ID NO: 4) from B. anthracis BH445 was established. The process is based on growth in a batch fermentation controlled at pH 7.5 with NH4OH/HCl and at 30% dissolved oxygen saturation for a period of 18 hours. A typical fermentation is seen in FIG. 3. In general, the final OD600 values fluctuated between 16 to 20. During the first five hours, growth was exponential and the pH was controlled by base addition. Later in the fermentation the pH was controlled by acid addition. Accumulation of PA occurred mostly during the stationary phase and reached a final concentration of 160 mg per liter. The results shown in FIG. 4 indicate that PA degraded if the fermentation was extended for more than 18 hours, therefore, a harvest time between 14 and 18 hours was selected. Attempts to increase the PA production by implementing a fed-batch growth strategy were conducted. The addition of 10× tryptone/yeast extract/salts or 50% glucose/10× salts resulted in a 50% increase in cell density but not an increase in protein production (FIG. 5). The observations that PA production was not improved by the implementation of a fed batch growth strategy or by the addition of various carbon sources such as casein, glucose, glycerol or lactose is an indication that perhaps a specific nutritional factor is missing. It is also important to mention that the specific proteolytic activity was almost five times lower when glucose was added to the tryptone/yeast extract media (FIG. 6). This was expected since glucose is known to be a repressor of proteases in Bacillus (10, 25). e. Purification The purification protocol developed for PA (Materials and Methods) consisted of hydrophobic interaction chromatography (Phenyl Sepharose) followed by anion exchange (Q Sepharose) and gel filtration (Superdex 75). Replacing the initial capturing step with expanded bed chromatography (2) can simplify and shorten the recovery process since it eliminates the clarification steps. Therefore, the use of expanded bed adsorption (EBA) was investigated by substituting the traditional packed-bed resin (Phenyl Sepharose) with the expanded bed hydrophobic resin STREAMLINE™ Phenyl adsorbent. The static binding capacity for STREAMLINE™ Phenyl adsorbent was approximately 15 mg protein/mL of resin, which is comparable to the capacity of Phenyl Sepharose. Optimal binding of PA to STREAMLINE™ Phenyl adsorbent occurred at 1.5 M (NH4)2SO4. Preliminary experiments performed with cell-containing broth in expanded mode resulted in the formation of aggregates and eventual collapse of the bed. It was possible to stabilize the expanded column only after the addition of a detergent which probably altered some of the hydrophobic interactions but did not prevent PA from binding. Pluronic F-68 was chosen due its non-toxicity in humans. The static binding capacities of STREAMLINE Phenyl adsorbent were 15, 11, and 5 mg protein/mL resin with 0%, 0.005%, and 0.01% pluronic F-68, respectively. Successful operation of the HIC EBA column occurred when using a load concentration of 15 g wet cells/L, 0.8 mL resin/g wet cells, and 0.005% pluronic F-68 in the load as well as the wash buffer. Under these conditions some signs of aggregation appeared at the end of the loading phase but cell debris was eliminated in the washing phase. A 70% recovery was obtained. PA purity after hydrophobic interaction chromatography was higher than 80%. Further purification was achieved by adding gel filtration step (FIG. 6, Lane b). However, this material was not stable when stored at 4° C. for three months (FIG. 6, Lane c). In contrast, pure and stable PA was obtained after hydrophobic interaction chromatography on expanded bed, followed by anion exchange and gel filtration (FIG. 6, Lane d). Similar results to the expanded bed process were obtained when packed bed hydrophobic interaction chromatography was followed by ion exchange and gel filtration (FIG. 6, Lane a). Replacing the packed-bed capturing step with expanded bed adsorption proved to be more efficient since it eliminated the centrifugation and filtration steps, however, twenty times more (NH4)2SO4 and three times more resin were required to process the same amount of culture (Table 2). TABLE 2 Comparison of packed bed and expanded bed absorption as capturing processes for PA Packed Bed Expanded Bed Adsorption 1. Total processing time 15.5 h 1. Total processing time: 8 h a) downstream processing: 6 h a) downstream processing: 1 h (4 unit operations) (1 unit operation) b) loading: 2 h b) loading: 4 h c) column wash: 3.5 h c) column wash: 1.5 h d) elution: 4 h d) elution: 1.5 h 2. 400 g (NH4)2SO4 needed 2. 8000 g (NH4)2SO4 needed 3. 100 mL resin needed 3. 300 mL resin needed 4. Load/wash steps require little attention 4. Load/wash steps cannot be left unattended 5. 82% recovery 5. 70% recovery Initial work with hydrophobic interaction chromatography using expanded bed ad sorption to capture PA resulted in bed collapse. This was avoided after the addition of a surfactant (pluronic F-68). These results suggest that the characteristics of the cell membrane were most likely the cause of cell aggregation. Since no polyglutamic acid capsule is present in the recombinant strain, the two hydrophobic membrane proteins forming the S-layer (4, 6) may be responsible for associating with neighboring cell membranes and the resin. After evaluating the possible interactions affecting the system, it was found that successful operation of the expanded bed was possible by carefully adjusting the cell concentration of the load, increasing the adsorbent-to-cell ratio, and choosing the appropriate detergent type and concentration. The expanded bed approach was more efficient in spite of the slightly lower yield (70% vs. 82%) and the higher amount of (NH4)2SO4 and resin needed since it eliminated the need for centrifugation and filtration. To obtain stable and highly purified protein, anion exchange and gel filtration steps were added. CONCLUSIONS Once the gene encoding PA (pagA) was cloned (31) and sequenced (32), several researchers have reported on the expression of PA in hosts like B. subtilis (1, 13, 20, 26), E. coli (8, 24, 31), Salmonella typhimurium (3), viruses (11), and avirulant B. anthracis (5, 15). From these reports, the highest PA yield achieved has been in the order of 50 mg/L in B. anthracis (15). In this work, a scalable fermentation and purification process suitable for vaccine development which produced almost three times more product than what has been reported earlier, is presented. This was accomplished by using a biologically inactive protease-resistant PA variant in a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis. Example 2 Composition of the Vaccines Four combinations of the recombinant (modified) protective antigen (“rPA”) were made: (1) rPA in PBS (“phosphate buffered saline”), (2) rPA in formalin, (3) rPA in aluminum hydroxide and (4) rPA in formalin and aluminum hydroxide. Another formulation of succinylated rPA was prepared and tested (data not shown). Example 3 Immunogenicity in Mice The four formulations described above were immunogenic in mice, and induced antibody levels comparable to those induced by the currently licensed anthrax vaccine. The induced antibodies had anthrax toxin neutralizing activity. It is planned to evaluate these formulations in humans, and to choose the best one for use as a vaccine. The data from the mice experiments are set forth in the tables 3 to 5 below: TABLE 3 Number of Mice and Immunogen Group Number Number of Mice Immunogen 1056 11 PA (2.5 μg)-Untreated 1057 11 PA (12.5 μg)-Untreated 1058 11 PA (2.5 μg) + Alum 1059 10 PASUCC 10:1.25 (2.5 μg) 1060 10 PASUCC 10:1.25 (12.5 μg) 1061 10 PASUCC 10:3 (2.5 μg) 1062 10 PASUCC 10:3 (12.5 μg) 1063 10 PA-Formalin 0.3 (2.5 μg) 1064 10 PA-Formalin 0.3 (12.5 μg) 1065 10 PA-Formalin 3.0 (2.5 μg) 1066 10 PA-Formalin 3.0 (12.5 μg) 1067 10 PA-Formalin 7.12 (2.5 μg) 1068 10 PA-Formalin 7.12 (12.5 μg) 1069 11 Anthrax Vaccine 0.1 ml 1070 10 Control TABLE 4 Antibody Levels and Neutralization Titers Mice μg/ml Neutral, Titer 1056A 130.64 4000 1056B 11.24 200 1056K 21.3 1000 1057A 146.65 3000 1057I 490.14 7000 1058A 725.31 8000 E 710.46 7000 J 513.46 4000 1059A 53.89 1500 1060A 125.92 850 1061A 97.1 1500 C 21.2 200 E 54.22 700 1062A 24.9 1500 J 14.35 2000 1063A 68.31 1500 C 179.16 2000 H 564.94 2000 1064A 581.34 10,000 1064D 204.56 8000 E 742.21 11,000 F 418.95 7000 G 814.91 10,000 1065A 77.73 1250 E 214.37 5000 1066C 65.47 4000 D 513.32 10,000 E 248.91 4000 F 260.36 8000 J 1041.65 10,000 1067A 261.54 3000 G 415 5000 1068A 512.99 10,000 I 414.82 5000 1069A 339.18 3000 1069J 879.65 3000 1070E <.05 20 5-6 weeks old female general purpose mice were injected subcutaneously with 0.1 mL of the immunogens depicted in Table 3, 2 or 3 times 2 weeks apart. The mice were exsanguinated one week after the last injection and their sera assayed for IgG anti PA and anthrax toxin neutralization. Antibodies measured by Elisa were related to a standard containing 1.8 mg/ml of anti-PA monoclonal activity. TABLE 5 IgG anti PA levels induced in mice by various rPA formulations dose × number PA lot formulation of injections μg/ml 0 PA 2.5μ × 2 1.3 0 PA 2.5μ × 3 109.1 2 PA 2.5μ × 3 24.9 2 PA 12.5μ × 3 226 0 PA/Al (OH)3 2.5μ × 2 86.1 0 PA/Al (OH)3 2.5μ × 3 312. 2 PA/Al (OH)3 2.5μ × 3 435. 2 PA formalin 0.3 2.5μ × 3 182 2 PA formalin 0.3 12.5μ × 3 350. 0 PA formalin 3.0 2.5μ × 2 2.79 0 PA formalin 3.0 2.5μ × 3 136.4 0 PA formalin 3.0 5.0μ × 2 1.98 2 PA formalin 3.0 2.5μ × 3 220 2 PA formalin 3.0 12.5μ × 3 270 0 PA formalin 7.12 2.5μ × 3 266 0 PA formalin 7.12 12.5μ × 3 229 Anthrax Vaccine 1/10 human dose × 2 43.15 1/10 human dose × 3 297 PBS control ×2 <.05 ×3 <.05 5-6 weeks old female mice, 10 per group, were injected subcutaneously with the listed formulations, 2 or 3 times, two weeks apart and exsanguinated one week after the last injection. Antibodies were measured by Elisa, calculated relative to a standard containing 1.8 mg/ml of anti-PA monoclonal antibody, and expressed as geometric means of the groups. Example 4 The present example describes novel methods and materials for production of genetically defined, non-reverting sporulation-deficient mutants of Bacillus anthracis for use as a host for expression of recombinant proteins. Through analysis of the growth behavior and morphological appearance of B. anthracis growing on certain solid media (e.g., LB agar plates), it was discovered that in areas of thick growth, parental bacteria are induced by nutrient deprivation to initiate sporulation and cease normal growth. Briefly, inocula of B. anthracis were plated on LB agar plates and cultured for approximately 36-48 hrs to yield moderate to heavy growth. In areas of thick growth rare, spontaneous sporulation-deficient mutants emerged that were then identified and isolated. The sporulation-deficient mutants were successfully isolated by picking from central portions of the culture colonies where nutrient deprivation is presumptively increased. Additional mutant isolates were obtained by picking cancerous tumors that appeared as nodules of protruding bacterial growth on a relatively smooth growth background. Mutant selection was also achieved by observation of alternative morphological characteristics exhibited by sporulation-incompetent and sporulation-impaired mutants, including increased whiteness of color and decreased wetness compared to wt. To further enrich for sporulation mutants, bacteria selected as above were grown up in liquid culture and re-plated for single colonies. This enrichment routinely produced plates on which 1-50% of the colonies exhibit distinct morphology from that of the parental strain. The morphological variants, when purified and tested, were almost always found to be unable to produce spores. Analysis of many such mutants by PCR demonstrates that the subject mutants have deletions in genes known to be required for the production of spores. Strains in which these genes have deletions will not revert to sporulation-competence forms at a detectable frequency, and are therefore highly desired for use in vaccine production. To illustrate the broad applicability of the foregoing mutant selection protocols, sporulation-deficient mutants were obtained from three different parental strains: Ames plasmid-free, UM44-1C9, and BH441. Accordingly, a large collection of mutant strains can be generated and selected following the disclosure herein. Example 5 The present example describes the creation of a novel, stable, recombinant PA molecule by deletion of exemplary segments of both the chymotrypsin-sensitive loop and the furin-cleavage loop. Considering the nature of the current anthrax (AVA) vaccine and the adverse events that have been associated with its administration, second generation vaccines there is an urgent need for new, recombinant PA (rPA) molecules for use in vaccine development. PA is an essential component of an effective anthrax vaccine. One problem with producing a rPA for vaccine use is that PA is sensitive to proteolytic cleavage at two locations. One target location for cleavage is the furin-cleavage loop, which contains the sequence ArgLysLysArg (residues 164-167 of the mature protein). Cleavage at this site activates PA, exposing the surface at which the two other toxin components bind. Removal of the furin loop will prevent intoxication mediated by the other toxin components. The second cleavage loop (residues 304-319) contains the sequence PhePheAsp (residues 313-315), making PA sensitive to cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin. As described above, one strategy for removing this cleavage site involves deleting Phe313 and Phe314. While deletion of these two Phe residues prevents cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin, preparations of this form of rPA still exhibit degradation products indicative of cleavage in the loop, presumably by a different protease. The novel rPA described in the present example has both cleavage-sensitive loops removed to create a more stable, inactive, PA mutant protein suitable for vaccine production. This double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Ser at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop (FIG. 8). An exemplary polynucleotide encoding this rPA is shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B. Expression of the double mutant and comparative expression of wt PA was achieved using a sporulation-incompetent (spo-) anthrax strain as previously described. Supernatant protein samples from the resulting cultures were analyzed on non-reducing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (non-reducing PAGE). The bands corresponding to the rPA and wt PA were compared to estimate degradation in the compared samples. In this context, expression levels and secretion efficiency are expected to be similar for the rPA and wt PA samples. The results of this study showed that the double mutant rPA was significantly more stable to enzymatic degradation than the wild-type (wt) PA. In further detailed studies, both avirulent BH441 and UM44-1C9 parents were plated at high cell density and putative sporulation-deficient mutants selected based on growth retardation and colony morphology as above. A panel of sub-clones from each parent tested was cultured as described above in the absence of selection and using the 48 hr passage interval, designed to enrich for spores. Following heat treatment and plating on agar in the absence of selection, all sub-clones were completely asporogenic with no germination detected. The newly identified BH441 and UM44-1C9 sub-clones are stable in the absence of selection and show no signs of reversion to the wild-type phenotype under growth limiting conditions designed to enrich for revertants. No antibiotic is required to maintain this phenotype. Although the foregoing invention has been described in detail by way of example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be apparent to the artisan that certain changes and modifications may be practiced within the scope of the appended claims which are presented by way of illustration not limitation. In this context, various publications and other references have been cited within the foregoing disclosure for economy of description. Each of these references is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
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A
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39
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07
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11796200
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US20070197783A1-20070823
|
Compositions and methods of treating cell proliferation disorders
|
ACCEPTED
|
20070808
|
20070823
|
[]
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A61K315377
|
["A61K315377", "C07D41302", "C07D40302", "C07D40102"]
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8003641
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20070426
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20110823
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514
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235500
|
94416.0
|
ANDERSON
|
REBECCA
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Hangauer", "inventor_name_first": "David", "inventor_city": "East Amherst", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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The invention relates to compounds and methods for treating cell proliferation disorders.
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1. A compound according to formula I or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, wherein: T is a bond; Xy is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; Xz is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; at least one of Xy and Xz is CZ; Y is selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, and O-benzyl; Xa is CRa or N, or N—O; Xb is CRb, N, or N—O; Xc is CRc or N, or N—O; Xd is CRd or N, or N—O; Xe is CRe, N, or N—O; Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd, Re, R4, R5, and R6 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3-5 C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—; R12, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17, and R18, are, independently, H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; Z is: (CHR1)n—C(O)—NR2(CHR3)m—Ar, where Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl or nitrogen-containing heteroaryl group, R1, R2, and R3 are independently H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; n is 0, 1, or 2; and m is 1 or 2, wherein at least one of Xa, Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is N. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein Xy is CY, and Xz is CZ. 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein Y is hydrogen. 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein Z is 5. The compound of claim 1, wherein Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. 6. The compound of claim 1, wherein Rb is hydrogen. 7. The compound of claim 1, wherein Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 8. The compound of claim 9, wherein V is a bond. 9. The compound of claim 1, wherein Xa is N and each of Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is CR. 10. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is a solvate. 11. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is a hydrate. 12. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. 13. A composition comprising a compound according to claim 1 and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 14. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is Compound 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. 15. A compound according to Formula II: or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, wherein: Rb, R4, R5, R8, and R10 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 16. The compound of claim 15, wherein R8 is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. 17. The compound of claim 15, wherein Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. 18. The compound of claim 15, wherein Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 19. The compound of claim 15, wherein R4 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. 20. The compound of claim 15, wherein R4 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 21. The compound of claim 15, wherein R5 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. 22. The compound of claim 15, wherein R5 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 23. The compound of claim 15, wherein R10 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. 24. The compound of claim 15, wherein R10 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. 25. A method of preventing or treating a cell proliferation disorder comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim 1 or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. 26. A method of preventing or treating a cell proliferation disorder comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the compound is selected from Compound 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, and 137. 28. A method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim 1 or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. 29. A method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the compound is selected from Compound 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, and 137.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>With more than 563,000 deaths in the United States annually, cancer is the second leading cause of death behind heart disease (UBS Warburg “Disease Dynamics: The Cancer Market,” Nov. 8, 2000). Surgery and radiotherapy may be curative if the disease is found early, but current drug therapies for metastatic disease are mostly palliative and seldom offer a long-term cure. Even with the new chemotherapies entering the market, improvement in patient survival is measured in months rather than in years, and the need continues for new drugs effective both in combination with existing agents as first line therapy and as second and third line therapies in treatment of resistant tumors. A need remains in the art for improved cell proliferation disorder and cancer treatments.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates to compounds and methods of using the compounds to treat cell proliferation disorders. The compounds of the present invention are useful as pharmaceutical agents. For example the compounds may be useful as anti-proliferative agents, for treating mammals, such as for treating humans and animals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-metastatic, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. The compounds of the invention are useful, for example, in treating lung cancer. The compounds of the invention are also useful, for example, in treating colon cancer. The compounds of the invention are also useful, for example, in treating breast cancer. The compounds of the invention are useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition. For example, the compounds of the invention are useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by Src kinase. The compounds of the invention may also be useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Compounds of the invention include compounds of Formula I, and salts, solvates, hydrates, or prodrugs thereof: T is absent (i.e., the rings are connected by a bond), CR 12 R 13 , C(O), O, S, S(O), S(O) 2 , NR 14 , C(R 15 R 16 )C(R 17 R 18 ), CH 2 O, or OCH 2 ; X y is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; X z is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; at least one of X y and X z is CZ; Y is selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl-aryl, and O-benzyl; X a is CR a , N, or N—O; X b is CR b , N, or N—O; X c is CR c , N, or N—O; X d is CR d , N, or N—O; X e is CR e , N, or N—O; R a , R b , R c , R d , R e , R 4 , R 5 , and R 6 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-OH, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, SO 2 H, SO 2 -lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, or where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —; R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , R 16 , R 17 , and R 18 , are, independently, H or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl; Z is: (CHR 1 ) n —C(O)—NR 2 (CHR 3 ) m —Ar, where Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl or nitrogen-containing heteroaryl group, such as benzene, pyridine, or pyrimidine. For example, Z is; R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 are independently H or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl; n and m are, independently 0, 1, or 2; R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , and R 11 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-OH, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-O—C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 —, or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. In certain compounds of the invention, Z is Certain compounds of the invention are selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. Compounds of the invention include Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. In certain Compounds of Formula I, at least one of X a , X b , X c , X d and X e is N. For example, in the compound of Formula I, X a is N and each of X b , X c , X d and X e is CR. In certain compounds of Formula I, X y is CY, and X z is CZ. For example, in certain compounds of Formula I, Y is hydrogen. In certain compounds of Formula I, R b is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy. For example, R b is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula I, R b is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, R b is selected from F, Cl, Br, and I. In other compounds of Formula I, R b is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, R c is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy. For example, R c is methoxy or ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, R c is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds of Formula I, R c is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, R d is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy. For example, R d is methoxy or ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, R d is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds of Formula I, R d is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl. The invention includes a solvate of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes a hydrate of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes an acid addition salt of a compound according to Formula I. For example, a hydrochloride salt. The invention also includes a prodrug of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of Formula I. The invention also includes a composition of a compound according to Formula I and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. The invention relates to a compound of Formula I, having a structure according to one of Formulae II-XIII: a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, where: R b , R 4 , R 5 , R 8 , and R 10 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-OH, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-O-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, SO 2 H, SO 2 -lower (C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 ) alkyl, where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R 8 is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R 8 is F. In certain compounds, R 8 is H. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R b is C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy. For example, R b is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R b is hydrogen, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R b is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R 4 is hydrogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R 4 is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R 5 is hydrogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R 5 is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R 10 is hydrogen, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R 10 is methoxy, ethoxy or isobutoxy. In other compounds of Formula II-XIII, R 10 is where W is H, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl, C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 —, —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —, —O—CH 2 —, —OCH 2 CH 2 — or —OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 —. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, W is hydrogen, or C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , or C 6 alkyl. Certain compounds of the invention include compounds according to Formula II. The invention relates to a solvate of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to a hydrate of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to an acid addition salt of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. For example, a hydrochloride salt. Further, the invention relates to a prodrug of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention includes compositions comprising a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Certain compounds of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. The invention also includes a method of preventing or treating a cell proliferation disorder by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. For example, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a cancer, such as, for example, colon cancer or lung cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a hyperproliferative disorder The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be psoriases. For example, the treatment or prevention of the proliferative disorder may occur through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. For example, the tyrosine kinase can be a Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). The invention relates to a method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition, by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. For example, the disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition is cancer, pre-cancer, a hyperproliferative disorder, or a microbial infection. For example, the compound is a compound according to Formula I or II. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase pathway. For example, the kinase pathway is a Src kinase pathway, or a focal adhesion kinase pathway. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase directly. For example, the kinase is Src kinase, or focal adhesion kinase. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. The compounds of the invention are also useful to treat or prevent a microbial infection, such as a bacterial, fungal, parasitic or viral infection. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, and 137. For example, the pharmaceutical composition includes Compound 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 or 137. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. A compound of the invention may be used as a pharmaceutical agent. For example, a compound of the invention is used as an anti-proliferative agent, for treating humans and/or animals, such as for treating humans and/or other mammals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. Additionally, the compounds may be used for other cell proliferation-related disorders such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration and psoriases. Anti-cancer agents include anti-metastatic agents. The compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent may be selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is selected from Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. Certain pharmaceutical agents include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. In one aspect of the invention, a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, is used to treat or prevent a cell proliferation disorder in an subject. In one aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. In another aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is a hyperproliferative disorder. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). In another embodiment, the subject is a mammal. Preferably, the subject is human. The invention is also drawn to a method of treating or preventing cancer or a proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII. For example, the compound of the invention may be a kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may be a non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may inhibit a kinase directly, or it may affect the kinase pathway. The above description sets forth rather broadly the more important features of the present invention in order that the detailed description thereof that follows may be understood, and in order that the present contributions to the art may be better appreciated. Other objects and features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description considered in conjunction with the examples. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 11/321,419, filed on Dec. 28, 2005, which claims priority to provisional patent applications U.S. Ser. No. 60/639,834, filed on Dec. 28, 2004, U.S. Ser. No. 60/704,551, filed on Aug. 1, 2005, and U.S. Ser. No. 60/727,341, filed on Oct. 17, 2005, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION With more than 563,000 deaths in the United States annually, cancer is the second leading cause of death behind heart disease (UBS Warburg “Disease Dynamics: The Cancer Market,” Nov. 8, 2000). Surgery and radiotherapy may be curative if the disease is found early, but current drug therapies for metastatic disease are mostly palliative and seldom offer a long-term cure. Even with the new chemotherapies entering the market, improvement in patient survival is measured in months rather than in years, and the need continues for new drugs effective both in combination with existing agents as first line therapy and as second and third line therapies in treatment of resistant tumors. A need remains in the art for improved cell proliferation disorder and cancer treatments. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to compounds and methods of using the compounds to treat cell proliferation disorders. The compounds of the present invention are useful as pharmaceutical agents. For example the compounds may be useful as anti-proliferative agents, for treating mammals, such as for treating humans and animals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-metastatic, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. The compounds of the invention are useful, for example, in treating lung cancer. The compounds of the invention are also useful, for example, in treating colon cancer. The compounds of the invention are also useful, for example, in treating breast cancer. The compounds of the invention are useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition. For example, the compounds of the invention are useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by Src kinase. The compounds of the invention may also be useful in treating diseases and disorders that are modulated by focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Compounds of the invention include compounds of Formula I, and salts, solvates, hydrates, or prodrugs thereof: T is absent (i.e., the rings are connected by a bond), CR12R13, C(O), O, S, S(O), S(O)2, NR14, C(R15R16)C(R17R18), CH2O, or OCH2; Xy is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; Xz is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; at least one of Xy and Xz is CZ; Y is selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, and O-benzyl; Xa is CRa, N, or N—O; Xb is CRb, N, or N—O; Xc is CRc, N, or N—O; Xd is CRd, N, or N—O; Xe is CRe, N, or N—O; Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd, Re, R4, R5, and R6 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, or where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—; R12, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17, and R18, are, independently, H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; Z is: (CHR1)n—C(O)—NR2(CHR3)m—Ar, where Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl or nitrogen-containing heteroaryl group, such as benzene, pyridine, or pyrimidine. For example, Z is; R1, R2, and R3 are independently H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; n and m are, independently 0, 1, or 2; R7, R8, R9, R10, and R11 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O—C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2—, or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of the invention, Z is Certain compounds of the invention are selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. Compounds of the invention include Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. In certain Compounds of Formula I, at least one of Xa, Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is N. For example, in the compound of Formula I, Xa is N and each of Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is CR. In certain compounds of Formula I, Xy is CY, and Xz is CZ. For example, in certain compounds of Formula I, Y is hydrogen. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rb is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is selected from F, Cl, Br, and I. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rc is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rc is methoxy or ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, Rc is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds of Formula I, Rc is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rd is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rd is methoxy or ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, Rd is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds of Formula I, Rd is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. The invention includes a solvate of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes a hydrate of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes an acid addition salt of a compound according to Formula I. For example, a hydrochloride salt. The invention also includes a prodrug of a compound according to Formula I. The invention also includes a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of Formula I. The invention also includes a composition of a compound according to Formula I and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. The invention relates to a compound of Formula I, having a structure according to one of Formulae II-XIII: a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, where: Rb, R4, R5, R8, and R10 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R8 is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R8 is F. In certain compounds, R8 is H. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rb is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, Rb is hydrogen, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R4 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R4 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R5 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R5 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R10 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R10 is methoxy, ethoxy or isobutoxy. In other compounds of Formula II-XIII, R10 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, W is hydrogen, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. Certain compounds of the invention include compounds according to Formula II. The invention relates to a solvate of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to a hydrate of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to an acid addition salt of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. For example, a hydrochloride salt. Further, the invention relates to a prodrug of a compound according to one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention also relates to a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of one of Formulae II-XIII. The invention includes compositions comprising a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Certain compounds of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. The invention also includes a method of preventing or treating a cell proliferation disorder by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. For example, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a cancer, such as, for example, colon cancer or lung cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a hyperproliferative disorder The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be psoriases. For example, the treatment or prevention of the proliferative disorder may occur through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. For example, the tyrosine kinase can be a Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). The invention relates to a method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition, by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. For example, the disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition is cancer, pre-cancer, a hyperproliferative disorder, or a microbial infection. For example, the compound is a compound according to Formula I or II. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase pathway. For example, the kinase pathway is a Src kinase pathway, or a focal adhesion kinase pathway. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase directly. For example, the kinase is Src kinase, or focal adhesion kinase. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. The compounds of the invention are also useful to treat or prevent a microbial infection, such as a bacterial, fungal, parasitic or viral infection. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, and 137. For example, the pharmaceutical composition includes Compound 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 or 137. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. A compound of the invention may be used as a pharmaceutical agent. For example, a compound of the invention is used as an anti-proliferative agent, for treating humans and/or animals, such as for treating humans and/or other mammals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. Additionally, the compounds may be used for other cell proliferation-related disorders such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration and psoriases. Anti-cancer agents include anti-metastatic agents. The compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent may be selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is selected from Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. Certain pharmaceutical agents include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. In one aspect of the invention, a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, is used to treat or prevent a cell proliferation disorder in an subject. In one aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. In another aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is a hyperproliferative disorder. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). In another embodiment, the subject is a mammal. Preferably, the subject is human. The invention is also drawn to a method of treating or preventing cancer or a proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII. For example, the compound of the invention may be a kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may be a non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may inhibit a kinase directly, or it may affect the kinase pathway. The above description sets forth rather broadly the more important features of the present invention in order that the detailed description thereof that follows may be understood, and in order that the present contributions to the art may be better appreciated. Other objects and features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description considered in conjunction with the examples. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying description below. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description. In the specification, the singular forms also include the plural unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. In the case of conflict, the present specification will control. The invention relates to compounds and methods of using compounds to treat cell proliferation disorders. The compounds of the present invention are useful as pharmaceutical agents, particularly as anti-proliferative agents, for treating humans and animals, particularly for treating humans and other mammals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-metastatic, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. The compounds may be used for other cell proliferation-related disorders such as psoriases. Compounds of the invention include compounds of formula I, and salts thereof: T is absent (i.e., the rings are connected by a bond), CR12R13, C(O), O, S, S(O), S(O)2, NR14, C(R15R16)C(R17R18), CH2O, or OCH2; Xy is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; Xz is CZ, CY, N, or N—O; at least one of Xy and Xz is CZ; Y is selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, and O-benzyl; Xa is CRa or N, or N—O; Xb is CRb, N, or N—O; Xc is CRc or N, or N—O; Xd is CRd or N, or N—O; Xe is CRe, N, or N—O; Ra, Rb, Rc, Rd, Re, R4, R5, and R6 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—; R12, R13, R14, R15, R16, R17, and R18, are, independently, H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; Z is (CHR1)n—C(O)—NR2(CHR3)m—Ar, where Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl or nitrogen-containing heteroaryl group, such as benzene, pyridine, or pyrimidine. For example, Z is: where R1, R2, and R3 are independently H or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl; n and m are, independently 0, 1, or 2; R7, R8, R9, R10, and R11 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O—C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2—, or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of the invention, Z is Certain compounds of the invention are selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. Compounds of the invention include Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. In certain Compounds of Formula I, at least one of Xa, Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is N. For example, in the compound of Formula I, Xa is N and each of Xb, Xc, Xd and Xe is CR. In certain compounds of Formula I, Xy is CY, and Xz is CZ. For example, in certain compounds of Formula I, Y is hydrogen. The compounds of the invention can tolerate a wide variety of functional groups, so various substituted starting materials can be used to synthesize them. The syntheses described herein generally provide the desired final bi-aryl compound at or near the end of the overall process, although it may be desirable in certain instances to further convert the compound to a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rb is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is selected from F, Cl, Br, and I. For example, Rb is F. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In some compounds, W is methyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rc is halogen, for example, Rc is F, Cl, Br, or I. In some compounds, Rc is F. In other compounds, Rc is Cl. In some compounds, Rc is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. In some compounds, Rc is methoxy or ethoxy. In some embodiments, Rc is ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, Rc is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, Rc is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In some compounds, V is a bond. In other compounds, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In some compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In certain compounds, W is methyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rb is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rb is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is selected from F, Cl, Br, and I. For example, Rb is F. In other compounds of Formula I, Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, V is a bond. In certain compounds of Formula I, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In some compounds, W is methyl. In certain compounds of Formula I, Rd is halogen, for example, Rd is F, Cl, Br, or I. In some compounds, Rd is F. In other compounds, Rd is Cl. In some compounds, Rd is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. In some compounds, Rd is methoxy or ethoxy. In some embodiments, Rd is ethoxy. In other compounds of Formula I, Rd is hydrogen. In other compounds of Formula I, Rd is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In some compounds, V is a bond. In other compounds, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In some compounds of Formula I, W is hydrogen. In other compounds, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In certain compounds, W is methyl. The invention relates to a compound of Formula I, having a structure according to one of Formulae II-XIII: a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, where: Rb, R4, R5, R8, and R10 are, independently, hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl-aryl, O-benzyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-OH, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-O-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, COOH, COO-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, SO2H, SO2-lower (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6) alkyl, where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R8 is hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R8 is F. In certain compounds, R8 is H. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, Rb is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, Rb is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds, Rb is ethoxy. In certain compounds, Rb is hydrogen. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, Rb is Cl, Br, or I. For example, Rb is F or Cl. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, Rb is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl, and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In some compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds W is H. In other compounds, W is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. For example, W is methyl. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R4 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In some compounds, R4 is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, R4 is methoxy or ethoxy. In certain compounds, R4 is ethoxy. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R4 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds, V is a bond. In other compounds, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R5 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, R5 is hydrogen. In some compounds, R5 is ethoxy. In certain compounds R5 is F. In other compounds, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, R5 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds, V is a bond. In other compounds, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds of Formula II-XIII, R10 is hydrogen, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy, F, Cl, Br, or I. In some compounds R10 is C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkoxy. For example, R10 is methoxy or ethoxy. In some compounds, R10 is isobutoxy. In some compounds, R10 is hydrogen. In certain compounds, R10 is halogen. For example, R10 is F or Cl. In other compounds of Formula II-XIII, R10 is where W is H, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl-aryl; and V is a bond, —CH2—, —CH2CH2—, —CH2CH2CH2—, —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. In certain compounds, V is a bond. In other compounds, V is —CH2—, —CH2CH2— or —CH2CH2CH2—. In other compounds, V is —O—CH2—, —OCH2CH2— or —OCH2CH2CH2—. For example, in the compound of Formula II-XIII, W is hydrogen, or C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, or C6 alkyl. In some compounds, W is methyl. Certain compounds of the invention include compounds according to Formula II. Compounds of the invention include those listed in Table 1: TABLE 1 Compound # KX # Compound 1 1-136 2 1-305 3 1-306 4 1-307 5 1-308 6 1-309 7 1-310 8 1-311 9 1-312 10 1-313 11 1-314 12 1-315 13 1-316 14 1-317 15 1-318 16 1-319 17 1-320 18 1-321 19 1-322 20 1-323 21 1-324 22 1-325 23 1-326 24 1-327 25 1-329 26 1-357 27 1-358 28 2-359 29 2-368 30 2-380 31 2-378 32 33 2-381 34 35 36 2-375 37 2-386 38 2-377 39 2-387 40 2-365 41 2-367 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 2-360 55 2-369 56 57 58 59 60 2-389 61 62 63 64 2-384 65 66 2-388 67 68 2-382 69 70 2-379 71 72 2-373 73 74 2-376 75 2-366 76 2-361 77 2-370 78 2-362 79 2-363 80 2-372 81 2-371 82 2-364 83 2-385 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108A 1-072 (Chiral Center) 108B 1-121 (Opposite Enantiomer Of 108A) 109 1-75 110 1-62 111 1-64 112 1-117 113 114 2-390 115 2-374 116 2-383 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 2-392 134 2-391 135 329-N oxide 136 2-393 137 2-394 Other Compounds are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 The invention relates to a solvate of a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII. The invention also relates to a hydrate of a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII. The invention also relates to an acid addition salt of a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII. For example, a hydrochloride salt. Further, the invention relates to a prodrug of a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII. The invention also relates to a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of one of Formulae I-XIII. The invention includes compositions comprising a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Certain compounds of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. The invention also includes a method of preventing or treating a cell proliferation disorder by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to one of Formulae I-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient to a subject in need thereof. For example, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a cancer, such as, for example, colon cancer or lung cancer. The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be a hyperproliferative disorder The cell proliferation disorder treated or prevented by the compounds of the invention may be psoriases. For example, the treatment or prevention of the proliferative disorder may occur through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. For example, the tyrosine kinase can be a Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). The invention relates to a method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition, by administering a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound according to Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, or a salt, solvate, hydrate, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. For example, the disease or disorder that is modulated by tyrosine kinase inhibition is cancer, pre-cancer, a hyperproliferative disorder, or a microbial infection. For example, the compound is a compound according to Formula I or II. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase pathway. For example, the kinase pathway is a Src kinase pathway, or focal adhesion kinase pathway. The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may modulate a kinase directly. For example, the kinase is Src kinase, or focal adhesion kinase. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. For example, the compounds of the invention are useful to treat or prevent a microbial infection, such as a bacterial, fungal, parasitic or viral infection. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, and 137. For example, the pharmaceutical composition includes Compound 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 or 137. Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. A compound of the invention may be used as a pharmaceutical agent. For example, a compound of the invention is used as an anti-proliferative agent, for treating humans and/or animals, such as for treating humans and/or other mammals. The compounds may be used without limitation, for example, as anti-cancer, anti-angiogenesis, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic and/or anti-viral agents. Additionally, the compounds may be used for other cell proliferation-related disorders such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration and psoriases. Anti-cancer agents include anti-metastatic agents. The compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent may be selected from Compounds 1-136 and 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is Compound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, or 137. For example, the compound of the invention used as a pharmaceutical agent is selected from Compounds 33, 38, 40, 76, 133, 134, 136 and 137. Certain pharmaceutical agents include a compound selected from the compounds listed in Table 2. In one aspect of the invention, a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII, is used to treat or prevent a cell proliferation disorder in an subject. In one aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is pre-cancer or cancer. In another aspect of the embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is a hyperproliferative disorder. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of a tyrosine kinase. In another embodiment, prevention or treatment of the cell proliferation disorder, cancer or hyperproliferative disorder occurs through the inhibition of Src kinase or focal adhesion kinase (FAK). In another embodiment, the subject is a mammal. Preferably, the subject is human. The invention is also drawn to a method of treating or preventing cancer or a proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of the invention, for example, a compound of Formula I or one of Formulae II-XIII. For example, the compound of the invention may be a kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may be a non-ATP competitive kinase inhibitor. The compound of the invention may inhibit a kinase directly, or it may affect the kinase pathway. Definitions For convenience, certain terms used in the specification, examples and appended claims are collected here. Protein kinases are a large class of enzymes which catalyze the transfer of the γ-phosphate from ATP to the hydroxyl group on the side chain of Ser/Thr or Tyr in proteins and peptides and are intimately involved in the control of various important cell functions, perhaps most notably: signal transduction, differentiation, and proliferation. There are estimated to be about 2,000 distinct protein kinases in the human body, and although each of these phosphorylate particular protein/peptide substrates, they all bind the same second substrate ATP in a highly conserved pocket. About 50% of the known oncogene products are protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), and their kinase activity has been shown to lead to cell transformation. The PTKs can be classified into two categories, the membrane receptor PTKs (e.g. growth factor receptor PTKs) and the non-receptor PTKs (e.g. the Src family of proto-oncogene products and focal adhesion kinase (FAK)). The hyperactivation of Src has been reported in a number of human cancers, including those of the colon, breast, lung, bladder, and skin, as well as in gastric cancer, hairy cell leukemia, and neuroblastoma. “Treating”, includes any effect, e.g., lessening, reducing, modulating, or eliminating, that results in the improvement of the condition, disease, disorder, etc. “Treating” or “treatment” of a disease state includes: (1) preventing the disease state, i.e. causing the clinical symptoms of the disease state not to develop in a subject that may be exposed to or predisposed to the disease state, but does not yet experience or display symptoms of the disease state; (2) inhibiting the disease state, i.e., arresting the development of the disease state or its clinical symptoms; or (3) relieving the disease state, i.e., causing temporary or permanent regression of the disease state or its clinical symptoms. “Disease state” means any disease, disorder, condition, symptom, or indication. As used herein, the term “cell proliferative disorder” refers to conditions in which the unregulated and/or abnormal growth of cells can lead to the development of an unwanted condition or disease, which can be cancerous or non-cancerous, for example a psoriatic condition. As used herein, the terms “psoriatic condition” or “psoriasis” refers to disorders involving keratinocyte hyperproliferation, inflammatory cell infiltration, and cytokine alteration. In a preferred embodiment, the cell proliferation disorder is cancer. As used herein, the term “cancer” includes solid tumors, such as lung, breast, colon, ovarian, brain, liver, pancreas, prostate, malignant melanoma, non-melanoma skin cancers, as well as hematologic tumors and/or malignancies, such as childhood leukemia and lymphomas, multiple myeloma, Hodgkin's disease, lymphomas of lymphocytic and cutaneous origin, acute and chronic leukemia such as acute lymphoblastic, acute myelocytic or chronic myelocytic leukemia, plasma cell neoplasm, lymphoid neoplasm and cancers associated with AIDS. In addition to psoriatic conditions, the types of proliferative diseases which may be treated using the compositions of the present invention are epidermic and dermoid cysts, lipomas, adenomas, capillary and cutaneous hemangiomas, lymphangiomas, nevi lesions, teratomas, nephromas, myofibromatosis, osteoplastic tumors, and other dysplastic masses and the like. The proliferative diseases can include dysplasias and disorders of the like. An “effective amount” of a compound of the disclosed invention is the quantity which, when administered to a subject having a disease or disorder, results in regression of the disease or disorder in the subject. Thus, an effective amount of a compound of the disclosed invention is the quantity which, when administered to a subject having a cell proliferation disorder, results in regression of cell growth in the subject. The amount of the disclosed compound to be administered to a subject will depend on the particular disorder, the mode of administration, co-administered compounds, if any, and the characteristics of the subject, such as general health, other diseases, age, sex, genotype, body weight and tolerance to drugs. The skilled artisan will be able to determine appropriate dosages depending on these and other factors. As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of a compound, or a combination of compounds, of the present invention effective when administered alone or in combination as an anti-proliferative agent. For example, an effective amount refers to an amount of the compound present in a formulation or on a medical device given to a recipient patient or subject sufficient to elicit biological activity, for example, anti-proliferative activity, such as e.g., anti-cancer activity or anti-neoplastic activity. The combination of compounds optionally is a synergistic combination. Synergy, as described, for example, by Chou and Talalay, Adv. Enzyme Regul. vol. 22, pp. 27-55 (1984), occurs when the effect of the compounds when administered in combination is greater than the additive effect of the compounds when administered alone as a single agent. In general, a synergistic effect is most clearly demonstrated at sub-optimal concentrations of the compounds. Synergy can be in terms of lower cytotoxicity, or increased anti-proliferative effect, or some other beneficial effect of the combination compared with the individual components. “A therapeutically effective amount” means the amount of a compound that, when administered to a mammal for treating a disease, is sufficient to effect such treatment for the disease. The “therapeutically effective amount” will vary depending on the compound, the disease and its severity and the age, weight, etc., of the mammal to be treated. A therapeutically effective amount of one or more of the compounds can be formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for administration to a human or an animal. Accordingly, the compounds or the formulations can be administered, for example, via oral, parenteral, or topical routes, to provide an effective amount of the compound. In alternative embodiments, the compounds prepared in accordance with the present invention can be used to coat or impregnate a medical device, e.g., a stent. The term “prophylactically effective amount” means an effective amount of a compound or compounds, of the present invention that is administered to prevent or reduce the risk of unwanted cellular proliferation. “Pharmacological effect” as used herein encompasses effects produced in the subject that achieve the intended purpose of a therapy. In one preferred embodiment, a pharmacological effect means that primary indications of the subject being treated are prevented, alleviated, or reduced. For example, a pharmacological effect would be one that results in the prevention, alleviation or reduction of primary indications in a treated subject. In another preferred embodiment, a pharmacological effect means that disorders or symptoms of the primary indications of the subject being treated are prevented, alleviated, or reduced. For example, a pharmacological effect would be one that results in the prevention or reduction of primary indications in a treated subject. With respect to the chemical compounds useful in the present invention, the following terms can be applicable: The term “substituted,” as used herein, means that any one or more hydrogens on the designated atom is replaced with a selection from the indicated group, provided that the designated atom's normal valency is not exceeded, and that the substitution results in a stable compound. When a substitutent is keto (i.e., ═O), then 2 hydrogens on the atom are replaced. Keto substitutents are not present on aromatic moieties. Ring double bonds, as used herein, are double bonds that are formed between two adjacent ring atoms (e.g., C═C, C═N, or N═N). The present invention is intended to include all isotopes of atoms occurring in the present compounds. Isotopes include those atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. By way of general example and without limitation, isotopes of hydrogen include tritium and deuterium, and isotopes of carbon include C-13 and C-14. The compounds described herein may have asymmetric centers. Compounds of the present invention containing an asymmetrically substituted atom may be isolated in optically active or racemic forms. It is well known in the art how to prepare optically active forms, such as by resolution of racemic forms or by synthesis from optically active starting materials. Many geometric isomers of olefins, C═N double bonds, and the like can also be present in the compounds described herein, and all such stable isomers are contemplated in the present invention. Cis and trans geometric isomers of the compounds of the present invention are described and may be isolated as a mixture of isomers or as separated isomeric forms. All chiral, diastereomeric, racemic, and geometric isomeric forms of a structure are intended, unless the specific stereochemistry or isomeric form is specifically indicated. All tautomers of shown or described compounds are also considered to be part of the present invention. When any variable (e.g., R1) occurs more than one time in any constituent or formula for a compound, its definition at each occurrence is independent of its definition at every other occurrence. Thus, for example, if a group is shown to be substituted with 0-2 R1 moieties, then the group may optionally be substituted with up to two R1 moieties and R1 at each occurrence is selected independently from the definition of R1. Also, combinations of substitutents and/or variables are permissible, but only if such combinations result in stable compounds. When a bond to a substitutent is shown to cross a bond connecting two atoms in a ring, then such substitutent may be bonded to any atom in the ring. When a substitutent is listed without indicating the atom via which such substitutent is bonded to the rest of the compound of a given formula, then such substitutent may be bonded via any atom in such substitutent. Combinations of substitutents and/or variables are permissible, but only if such combinations result in stable compounds. Compounds of the present invention that contain nitrogens can be converted to N-oxides by treatment with an oxidizing agent (e.g., 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (m-CPBA) and/or hydrogen peroxides) to afford other compounds of the present invention. Thus, all shown and claimed nitrogen-containing compounds are considered, when allowed by valency and structure, to include both the compound as shown and its N-oxide derivative (which can be designated as N→O or N+—O−). Furthermore, in other instances, the nitrogens in the compounds of the present invention can be converted to N-hydroxy or N-alkoxy compounds. For example, N-hydroxy compounds can be prepared by oxidation of the parent amine by an oxidizing agent such as m-CPBA. All shown and claimed nitrogen-containing compounds are also considered, when allowed by valency and structure, to cover both the compound as shown and its N-hydroxy (i.e., N—OH) and N-alkoxy (i.e., N—OR, wherein R is substituted or unsubstituted C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 alkenyl, C1-6 alkynyl, C3-14 carbocycle, or 3-14-membered heterocycle) derivatives. When an atom or chemical moiety is followed by a subscripted numeric range (e.g., C1-6), the invention is meant to encompass each number within the range as well as all intermediate ranges. For example, “C1-6 alkyl” is meant to include alkyl groups with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1-6, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3, 1-2, 2-6, 2-5, 2-4, 2-3, 3-6, 3-5, 3-4, 4-6, 4-5, and 5-6 carbons. As used herein, “alkyl” is intended to include both branched and straight-chain saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon groups having the specified number of carbon atoms. For example, C1-6 alkyl is intended to include C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6 alkyl groups. Examples of alkyl include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, s-pentyl, and n-hexyl. “Alkyl” further includes alkyl groups that have oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorous atoms replacing one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has six or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C1-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain), and more preferably four or fewer. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyls have from three to eight carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have five or six carbons in the ring structure. Unless the number of carbons is otherwise specified, “lower alkyl” includes an alkyl group, as defined above, but having from one to ten, more preferably from one to six, carbon atoms in its backbone structure. “Lower alkenyl” and “lower alkynyl” have chain lengths of, for example, 2-5 carbon atoms. The term “alkyl” also includes both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls”, the latter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substitutents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substitutents can include, for example, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Cycloalkyls can be further substituted, e.g., with the substitutents described above. An “alkylaryl” or an “aralkyl” moiety is an alkyl substituted with an aryl (e.g., phenylmethyl(benzyl)). “Alkenyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but that contain at least one double bond. For example, the term “alkenyl” includes straight-chain alkenyl groups (e.g., ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl), branched-chain alkenyl groups, cycloalkenyl (e.g., alicyclic) groups (e.g., cyclopropenyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptenyl, cyclooctenyl), alkyl or alkenyl substituted cycloalkenyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkenyl groups. The term “alkenyl” further includes alkenyl groups, which include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorous atoms replacing one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbons. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkenyl group has six or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). Likewise, cycloalkenyl groups may have from three to eight carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have five or six carbons in the ring structure. The term “C2-C6” includes alkenyl groups containing two to six carbon atoms. The term “C3-C6” includes alkenyl groups containing three to six carbon atoms. The term “alkenyl” also includes both “unsubstituted alkenyls” and “substituted alkenyls”, the latter of which refers to alkenyl moieties having substitutents replacing a hydrogen on one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbon atoms. Such substitutents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. “Alkynyl” includes unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but which contain at least one triple bond. For example, “alkynyl” includes straight-chain alkynyl groups (e.g., ethynyl, propynyl, butynyl, pentynyl, hexynyl, heptynyl, octynyl, nonynyl, decynyl), branched-chain alkynyl groups, and cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl substituted alkynyl groups. The term “alkynyl” further includes alkynyl groups having oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorous atoms replacing one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbons. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkynyl group has six or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C2-C6 for straight chain, C3-C6 for branched chain). The term “C2-C6” includes alkynyl groups containing two to six carbon atoms. The term “C3-C6” includes alkynyl groups containing three to six carbon atoms. The term “alkynyl” also includes both “unsubstituted alkynyls” and “substituted alkynyls”, the latter of which refers to alkynyl moieties having substitutents replacing a hydrogen on one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbon atoms. Such substitutents can include, for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. “Aryl” includes groups with aromaticity, including 5- and 6-membered “unconjugated”, or single-ring, aromatic groups that may include from zero to four heteroatoms, as well as “conjugated”, or multicyclic, systems with at least one aromatic ring. Examples of aryl groups include benzene, phenyl, pyrrole, furan, thiophene, thiazole, isothiazole, imidazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazole, oxazole, isooxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyridazine, and pyrimidine, and the like. Furthermore, the term “aryl” includes multicyclic aryl groups, e.g., tricyclic, bicyclic, e.g., naphthalene, benzoxazole, benzodioxazole, benzothiazole, benzoimidazole, benzothiophene, methylenedioxyphenyl, quinoline, isoquinoline, napthridine, indole, benzofuran, purine, benzofuran, deazapurine, or indolizine. Those aryl groups having heteroatoms in the ring structure may also be referred to as “aryl heterocycles”, “heterocycles,” “heteroaryls” or “heteroaromatics”. The aromatic ring can be substituted at one or more ring positions with such substitutents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, aralkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. Aryl groups can also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic rings, which are not aromatic so as to form a multicyclic system (e.g., tetralin, methylenedioxyphenyl). As used herein, “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo. The term “perhalogenated” generally refers to a moiety wherein all hydrogens are replaced by halogen atoms. “Counterion” is used to represent a small, negatively charged species such as chloride, bromide, hydroxide, acetate, and sulfate. The term “non-hydrogen substitutent” refers to substitutents other than hydrogen. Non-limiting examples include alkyl groups, alkoxy groups, halogen groups, hydroxyl groups, aryl groups, etc. As used herein, “carbocycle” or “carbocyclic ring” is intended to mean any stable monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic ring having the specified number of carbons, any of which may be saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic. For example a C3-14 carbocycle is intended to mean a mono-, bi-, or tricyclic ring having 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14 carbon atoms. Examples of carbocycles include, but are not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclobutenyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptenyl, cycloheptyl, cycloheptenyl, adamantyl, cyclooctyl, cyclooctenyl, cyclooctadienyl, fluorenyl, phenyl, naphthyl, indanyl, adamantyl, and tetrahydronaphthyl. Bridged rings are also included in the definition of carbocycle, including, for example, [3.3.0]bicyclooctane, [4.3.0]bicyclononane, [4.4.0]bicyclodecane, and [2.2.2]bicyclooctane. A bridged ring occurs when one or more carbon atoms link two non-adjacent carbon atoms. Preferred bridges are one or two carbon atoms. It is noted that a bridge always converts a monocyclic ring into a tricyclic ring. When a ring is bridged, the substitutents recited for the ring may also be present on the bridge. Fused (e.g., naphthyl and tetrahydronaphthyl) and spiro rings are also included. As used herein, the term “heterocycle” or “heterocyclic” is intended to mean any stable monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic ring which is saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic and comprises carbon atoms and one or more ring heteroatoms, e.g., 1 or 1-2 or 1-3 or 1-4 or 1-5 or 1-6 heteroatoms, independently selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. A bicyclic or tricyclic heterocycle may have one or more heteroatoms located in one ring, or the heteroatoms may be located in more than one ring. The nitrogen and sulfur heteroatoms may optionally be oxidized (i.e., N→O and S(O)p, where p=1 or 2). When a nitrogen atom is included in the ring it is either N or NH, depending on whether or not it is attached to a double bond in the ring (i.e., a hydrogen is present if needed to maintain the tri-valency of the nitrogen atom). The nitrogen atom may be substituted or unsubstituted (i.e., N or NR wherein R is H or another substitutent, as defined). The heterocyclic ring may be attached to its pendant group at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure. The heterocyclic rings described herein may be substituted on carbon or on a nitrogen atom if the resulting compound is stable. A nitrogen in the heterocycle may optionally be quaternized. It is preferred that when the total number of S and O atoms in the heterocycle exceeds 1, then these heteroatoms are not adjacent to one another. Bridged rings are also included in the definition of heterocycle. A bridged ring occurs when one or more atoms (i.e., C, O, N, or S) link two non-adjacent carbon or nitrogen atoms. Preferred bridges include, but are not limited to, one carbon atom, two carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom, two nitrogen atoms, and a carbon-nitrogen group. It is noted that a bridge always converts a monocyclic ring into a tricyclic ring. When a ring is bridged, the substitutents recited for the ring may also be present on the bridge. Spiro and fused rings are also included. As used herein, the term “aromatic heterocycle” or “heteroaryl” is intended to mean a stable 5, 6, or 7-membered monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic heterocyclic ring or 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12-membered bicyclic aromatic heterocyclic ring which consists of carbon atoms and one or more heteroatoms, e.g., 1 or 1-2 or 1-3 or 1-4 or 1-5 or 1-6 heteroatoms, independently selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In the case of bicyclic heterocyclic aromatic rings, only one of the two rings needs to be aromatic (e.g., 2,3-dihydroindole), though both may be (e.g., quinoline). The second ring can also be fused or bridged as defined above for heterocycles. The nitrogen atom may be substituted or unsubstituted (i.e., N or NR wherein R is H or another substitutent, as defined). The nitrogen and sulfur heteroatoms may optionally be oxidized (i.e., N→O and S(O)p, where p=1 or 2). It is to be noted that total number of S and O atoms in the aromatic heterocycle is not more than 1. Examples of heterocycles include, but are not limited to, acridinyl, azocinyl, benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, benzothiofuranyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, benzoxazolinyl, benzthiazolyl, benztriazolyl, benztetrazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzimidazolinyl, carbazolyl, 4aH-carbazolyl, carbolinyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, cinnolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, 2H,6H-1,5,2-dithiazinyl, dihydrofuro[2,3-b]tetrahydrofuran, furanyl, furazanyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolyl, 1H-indazolyl, indolenyl, indolinyl, indolizinyl, indolyl, 3H-indolyl, isatinoyl, isobenzofuranyl, isochromanyl, isoindazolyl, isoindolinyl, isoindolyl, isoquinolinyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, methylenedioxyphenyl, morpholinyl, naphthyridinyl, octahydroisoquinolinyl, oxadiazolyl, 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,5-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4-oxadiazolyl, oxazolidinyl, oxazolyl, oxindolyl, pyrimidinyl, phenanthridinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxathinyl, phenoxazinyl, phthalazinyl, piperazinyl, piperidinyl, piperidonyl, 4-piperidonyl, piperonyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, pyranyl, pyrazinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolyl, pyridazinyl, pyridooxazole, pyridoimidazole, pyridothiazole, pyridinyl, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolinyl, 2H-pyrrolyl, pyrrolyl, quinazolinyl, quinolinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinuclidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrazolyl, 6H-1,2,5-thiadiazinyl, 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,5-thiadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl, thianthrenyl, thiazolyl, thienyl, thienothiazolyl, thienooxazolyl, thienoimidazolyl, thiophenyl, triazinyl, 1,2,3-triazolyl, 1,2,4-triazolyl, 1,2,5-triazolyl, 1,3,4-triazolyl, and xanthenyl. “Acyl” includes compounds and moieties that contain the acyl radical (CH3CO—) or a carbonyl group. “Substituted acyl” includes acyl groups where one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by for example, alkyl groups, alkynyl groups, halogens, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. “Acylamino” includes moieties wherein an acyl moiety is bonded to an amino group. For example, the term includes alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido groups. “Aroyl” includes compounds and moieties with an aryl or heteroaromatic moiety bound to a carbonyl group. Examples of aroyl groups include phenylcarboxy, naphthyl carboxy, etc. “Alkoxyalkyl”, “alkylaminoalkyl” and “thioalkoxyalkyl” include alkyl groups, as described above, which further include oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms replacing one or more hydrocarbon backbone carbon atoms, e.g., oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. The term “alkoxy” or “alkoxyl” includes substituted and unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups covalently linked to an oxygen atom. Examples of alkoxy groups (or alkoxyl radicals) include methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, propoxy, butoxy, and pentoxy groups. Examples of substituted alkoxy groups include halogenated alkoxy groups. The alkoxy groups can be substituted with groups such as alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties. Examples of halogen substituted alkoxy groups include, but are not limited to, fluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, dichloromethoxy, and trichloromethoxy. The term “thiocarbonyl” or “thiocarboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to a sulfur atom. The term “ether” includes compounds or moieties which contain an oxygen bonded to two different carbon atoms or heteroatoms. For example, the term includes “alkoxyalkyl” which refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group covalently bonded to an oxygen atom which is covalently bonded to another alkyl group. The term “ester” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon or a heteroatom bound to an oxygen atom which is bonded to the carbon of a carbonyl group. The term “ester” includes alkoxycarboxy groups such as methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl, pentoxycarbonyl, etc. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl groups are as defined above. The term “thioether” includes compounds and moieties which contain a sulfur atom bonded to two different carbon or heteroatoms. Examples of thioethers include, but are not limited to alkthioalkyls, alkthioalkenyls, and alkthioalkynyls. The term “alkthioalkyls” include compounds with an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group bonded to a sulfur atom which is bonded to an alkyl group. Similarly, the term “alkthioalkenyls” and alkthioalkynyls” refer to compounds or moieties wherein an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group is bonded to a sulfur atom which is covalently bonded to an alkynyl group. The term “hydroxy” or “hydroxyl” includes groups with an —OH or —O−. “Polycyclyl” or “polycyclic radical” refers to two or more cyclic rings (e.g., cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls and/or heterocyclyls) in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings. Rings that are joined through non-adjacent atoms are termed “bridged” rings. Each of the rings of the polycycle can be substituted with such substitutents as described above, as for example, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, aralkylaminocarbonyl, alkenylaminocarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, aralkylcarbonyl, alkenylcarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkylamino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), amidino, imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. An “anionic group,” as used herein, refers to a group that is negatively charged at physiological pH. Preferred anionic groups include carboxylate, sulfate, sulfonate, sulfinate, sulfamate, tetrazolyl, phosphate, phosphonate, phosphinate, or phosphorothioate or functional equivalents thereof. “Functional equivalents” of anionic groups are intended to include bioisosteres, e.g., bioisosteres of a carboxylate group. Bioisosteres encompass both classical bioisosteric equivalents and non-classical bioisosteric equivalents. Classical and non-classical bioisosteres are known in the art (see, e.g., Silverman, R. B. The Organic Chemistry of Drug Design and Drug Action, Academic Press, Inc.: San Diego, Calif., 1992, pp. 19-23). A particularly preferred anionic group is a carboxylate. In the present specification, the structural formula of the compound represents a certain isomer for convenience in some cases, but the present invention includes all isomers such as geometrical isomer, optical isomer based on an asymmetrical carbon, stereoisomer, tautomer and the like which occur structurally and an isomer mixture and is not limited to the description of the formula for convenience, and may be any one of isomer or a mixture. Therefore, an asymmetrical carbon atom may be present in the molecule and an optically active compound and a racemic compound may be present in the present compound, but the present invention is not limited to them and includes any one. In addition, a crystal polymorphism may be present but is not limiting, but any crystal form may be single or a crystal form mixture, or an anhydride or hydrate. Further, so-called metabolite which is produced by degradation of the present compound in vivo is included in the scope of the present invention. “Isomerism” means compounds that have identical molecular formulae but that differ in the nature or the sequence of bonding of their atoms or in the arrangement of their atoms in space. Isomers that differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “stereoisomers”. Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed “diastereoisomers”, and stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images are termed “enantiomers”, or sometimes optical isomers. A carbon atom bonded to four nonidentical substitutents is termed a “chiral center”. “Chiral isomer” means a compound with at least one chiral center. It has two enantiomeric forms of opposite chirality and may exist either as an individual enantiomer or as a mixture of enantiomers. A mixture containing equal amounts of individual enantiomeric forms of opposite chirality is termed a “racemic mixture”. A compound that has more than one chiral center has 2n−1 enantiomeric pairs, where n is the number of chiral centers. Compounds with more than one chiral center may exist as either an individual diastereomer or as a mixture of diastereomers, termed a “diastereomeric mixture”. When one chiral center is present, a stereoisomer may be characterized by the absolute configuration (R or S) of that chiral center. Absolute configuration refers to the arrangement in space of the substitutents attached to the chiral center. The substitutents attached to the chiral center under consideration are ranked in accordance with the Sequence Rule of Cahn, Ingold and Prelog. (Cahn et al., Angew. Chem. Inter. Edit. 1966, 5, 385; errata 511; Cahn et al., Angew. Chem. 1966, 78, 413; Cahn and Ingold, J. Chem. Soc. 1951 (London), 612; Cahn et al., Experientia 1956, 12, 81; Cahn, J., Chem. Educ. 1964, 41, 116). “Geometric Isomers” means the diastereomers that owe their existence to hindered rotation about double bonds. These configurations are differentiated in their names by the prefixes cis and trans, or Z and E, which indicate that the groups are on the same or opposite side of the double bond in the molecule according to the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules. Further, the structures and other compounds discussed in this application include all atropic isomers thereof. “Atropic isomers” are a type of stereoisomer in which the atoms of two isomers are arranged differently in space. Atropic isomers owe their existence to a restricted rotation caused by hindrance of rotation of large groups about a central bond. Such atropic isomers typically exist as a mixture, however as a result of recent advances in chromatography techniques, it has been possible to separate mixtures of two atropic isomers in select cases. The terms “crystal polymorphs” or “polymorphs” or “crystal forms” means crystal structures in which a compound (or salt or solvate thereof) can crystallize in different crystal packing arrangements, all of which have the same elemental composition. Different crystal forms usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectral, melting points, density hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability and solubility. Recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, storage temperature, and other factors may cause one crystal form to dominate. Crystal polymorphs of the compounds can be prepared by crystallization under different conditions. Additionally, the compounds of the present invention, for example, the salts of the compounds, can exist in either hydrated or unhydrated (the anhydrous) form or as solvates with other solvent molecules. Nonlimiting examples of hydrates include monohydrates, dihydrates, etc. Nonlimiting examples of solvates include ethanol solvates, acetone solvates, etc. “Solvates” means solvent addition forms that contain either stoichiometric or non stoichiometric amounts of solvent. Some compounds have a tendency to trap a fixed molar ratio of solvent molecules in the crystalline solid state, thus forming a solvate. If the solvent is water the solvate formed is a hydrate, when the solvent is alcohol, the solvate formed is an alcoholate. Hydrates are formed by the combination of one or more molecules of water with one of the substances in which the water retains its molecular state as H2O, such combination being able to form one or more hydrate. “Tautomers” refers to compounds whose structures differ markedly in arrangement of atoms, but which exist in easy and rapid equilibrium. It is to be understood that compounds of Formula I may be depicted as different tautomers. It should also be understood that when compounds have tautomeric forms, all tautomeric forms are intended to be within the scope of the invention, and the naming of the compounds does not exclude any tautomer form. Some compounds of the present invention can exist in a tautomeric form which are also intended to be encompassed within the scope of the present invention. The compounds, salts and prodrugs of the present invention can exist in several tautomeric forms, including the enol and imine form, and the keto and enamine form and geometric isomers and mixtures thereof. All such tautomeric forms are included within the scope of the present invention. Tautomers exist as mixtures of a tautomeric set in solution. In solid form, usually one tautomer predominates. Even though one tautomer may be described, the present invention includes all tautomers of the present compounds A tautomer is one of two or more structural isomers that exist in equilibrium and are readily converted from one isomeric form to another. This reaction results in the formal migration of a hydrogen atom accompanied by a switch of adjacent conjugated double bonds. In solutions where tautomerization is possible, a chemical equilibrium of the tautomers will be reached. The exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including temperature, solvent, and pH. The concept of tautomers that are interconvertable by tautomerizations is called tautomerism. Of the various types of tautomerism that are possible, two are commonly observed. In keto-enol tautomerism a simultaneous shift of electrons and a hydrogen atom occurs. Ring-chain tautomerism, is exhibited by glucose. It arises as a result of the aldehyde group (—CHO) in a sugar chain molecule reacting with one of the hydroxy groups (—OH) in the same molecule to give it a cyclic (ring-shaped) form. Tautomerizations are catalyzed by: Base: 1. deprotonation; 2. formation of a delocalized anion (e.g. an enolate); 3. protonation at a different position of the anion; Acid: 1. protonation; 2. formation of a delocalized cation; 3. deprotonation at a different position adjacent to the cation. Common tautomeric pairs are: ketone-enol, amide-nitrile, lactam-lactim, amide-imidic acid tautomerism in heterocyclic rings (e.g. in the nucleobases guanine, thymine, and cytosine), amine-enamine and enamine-enamine. Examples include: It will be noted that the structure of some of the compounds of the invention include asymmetric carbon atoms. It is to be understood accordingly that the isomers arising from such asymmetry (e.g., all enantiomers and diastereomers) are included within the scope of the invention, unless indicated otherwise. Such isomers can be obtained in substantially pure form by classical separation techniques and by stereochemically controlled synthesis. Furthermore, the structures and other compounds and moieties discussed in this application also include all tautomers thereof. Alkenes can include either the E- or Z-geometry, where appropriate. The compounds of this invention may exist in stereoisomeric form, therefore can be produced as individual stereoisomers or as mixtures. As used herein, the term “analog” refers to a chemical compound that is structurally similar to another but differs slightly in composition (as in the replacement of one atom by an atom of a different element or in the presence of a particular functional group, or the replacement of one functional group by another functional group). Thus, an analog is a compound that is similar or comparable in function and appearance, but not in structure or origin to the reference compound. As defined herein, the term “derivative”, refers to compounds that have a common core structure, and are substituted with various groups as described herein. For example, all of the compounds represented by formula I are indole derivatives, and have formula I as a common core. The term “bioisostere” refers to a compound resulting from the exchange of an atom or of a group of atoms with another, broadly similar, atom or group of atoms. The objective of a bioisosteric replacement is to create a new compound with similar biological properties to the parent compound. The bioisosteric replacement may be physicochemically or topologically based. Examples of carboxylic acid bioisosteres include acyl sulfonimides, tetrazoles, sulfonates, and phosphonates. See, e.g., Patani and LaVoie, Chem. Rev. 96, 3147-3176 (1996). A “pharmaceutical composition” is a formulation containing the disclosed compounds in a form suitable for administration to a subject. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is in bulk or in unit dosage form. The unit dosage form is any of a variety of forms, including, for example, a capsule, an IV bag, a tablet, a single pump on an aerosol inhaler, or a vial. The quantity of active ingredient (e.g., a formulation of the disclosed compound or salt, hydrate, solvate, or isomer thereof) in a unit dose of composition is an effective amount and is varied according to the particular treatment involved. One skilled in the art will appreciate that it is sometimes necessary to make routine variations to the dosage depending on the age and condition of the patient. The dosage will also depend on the route of administration. A variety of routes are contemplated, including oral, pulmonary, rectal, parenteral, transdermal, subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, inhalational, buccal, sublingual, intrapleural, intrathecal, intranasal, and the like. Dosage forms for the topical or transdermal administration of a compound of this invention include powders, sprays, ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, solutions, patches and inhalants. In a preferred embodiment, the active compound is mixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and with any preservatives, buffers, or propellants that are required. The term “flash dose” refers to compound formulations that are rapidly dispersing dosage forms. The term “immediate release” is defined as a release of compound from a dosage form in a relatively brief period of time, generally up to about 60 minutes. The term “modified release” is defined to include delayed release, extended release, and pulsed release. The term “pulsed release” is defined as a series of releases of drug from a dosage form. The term “sustained release” or “extended release” is defined as continuous release of a compound from a dosage form over a prolonged period. A “subject” includes mammals, e.g., humans, companion animals (e.g., dogs, cats, birds, and the like), farm animals (e.g., cows, sheep, pigs, horses, fowl, and the like) and laboratory animals (e.g., rats, mice, guinea pigs, birds, and the like). Most preferably, the subject is human. As used herein, the phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to those compounds, materials, compositions, carriers, and/or dosage forms which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problem or complication, commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. “Pharmaceutically acceptable excipient” means an excipient that is useful in preparing a pharmaceutical composition that is generally safe, non-toxic and neither biologically nor otherwise undesirable, and includes excipient that is acceptable for veterinary use as well as human pharmaceutical use. A “pharmaceutically acceptable excipient” as used in the specification and claims includes both one and more than one such excipient. The compounds of the invention are capable of further forming salts. All of these forms are also contemplated within the scope of the claimed invention. “Pharmaceutically acceptable salt” of a compound means a salt that is pharmaceutically acceptable and that possesses the desired pharmacological activity of the parent compound. As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” refer to derivatives of the disclosed compounds wherein the parent compound is modified by making acid or base salts thereof. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such as amines, alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as carboxylic acids, and the like. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts include the conventional non-toxic salts or the quaternary ammonium salts of the parent compound formed, for example, from non-toxic inorganic or organic acids. For example, such conventional non-toxic salts include, but are not limited to, those derived from inorganic and organic acids selected from 2-acetoxybenzoic, 2-hydroxyethane sulfonic, acetic, ascorbic, benzene sulfonic, benzoic, bicarbonic, carbonic, citric, edetic, ethane disulfonic, 1,2-ethane sulfonic, fumaric, glucoheptonic, gluconic, glutamic, glycolic, glycollyarsanilic, hexylresorcinic, hydrabamic, hydrobromic, hydrochloric, hydroiodic, hydroxymaleic, hydroxynaphthoic, isethionic, lactic, lactobionic, lauryl sulfonic, maleic, malic, mandelic, methane sulfonic, napsylic, nitric, oxalic, pamoic, pantothenic, phenylacetic, phosphoric, polygalacturonic, propionic, salicyclic, stearic, subacetic, succinic, sulfamic, sulfanilic, sulfuric, tannic, tartaric, toluene sulfonic, and the commonly occurring amine acids, e.g., glycine, alanine, phenylalanine, arginine, etc. Other examples include hexanoic acid, cyclopentane propionic acid, pyruvic acid, malonic acid, 3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, 4-chlorobenzenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, 4-toluenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, 4-methylbicyclo-[2.2.2]-oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, 3-phenylpropionic acid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, muconic acid, and the like. The invention also encompasses salts formed when an acidic proton present in the parent compound either is replaced by a metal ion, e.g., an alkali metal ion, an alkaline earth ion, or an aluminum ion; or coordinates with an organic base such as ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, tromethamine, N-methylglucamine, and the like. It should be understood that all references to pharmaceutically acceptable salts include solvent addition forms (solvates) or crystal forms (polymorphs) as defined herein, of the same salt. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the present invention can be synthesized from a parent compound that contains a basic or acidic moiety by conventional chemical methods. Generally, such salts can be prepared by reacting the free acid or base forms of these compounds with a stoichiometric amount of the appropriate base or acid in water or in an organic solvent, or in a mixture of the two; generally, non-aqueous media like ether, ethyl acetate, ethanol, isopropanol, or acetonitrile are preferred. Lists of suitable salts are found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed. (Mack Publishing Company, 1990). For example, salts can include, but are not limited to, the hydrochloride and acetate salts of the aliphatic amine-containing, hydroxylamine-containing, and imine-containing compounds of the present invention. The compounds of the present invention can also be prepared as esters, for example pharmaceutically acceptable esters. For example a carboxylic acid function group in a compound can be converted to its corresponding ester, e.g., a methyl, ethyl, or other ester. Also, an alcohol group in a compound can be converted to its corresponding ester, e.g., an acetate, propionate, or other ester. The compounds of the present invention can also be prepared as prodrugs, for example pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs. The terms “pro-drug” and “prodrug” are used interchangeably herein and refer to any compound which releases an active parent drug in vivo. Since prodrugs are known to enhance numerous desirable qualities of pharmaceuticals (e.g., solubility, bioavailability, manufacturing, etc.) the compounds of the present invention can be delivered in prodrug form. Thus, the present invention is intended to cover prodrugs of the presently claimed compounds, methods of delivering the same and compositions containing the same. “Prodrugs” are intended to include any covalently bonded carriers that release an active parent drug of the present invention in vivo when such prodrug is administered to a subject. Prodrugs the present invention are prepared by modifying functional groups present in the compound in such a way that the modifications are cleaved, either in routine manipulation or in vivo, to the parent compound. Prodrugs include compounds of the present invention wherein a hydroxy, amino, sulfhydryl, carboxy, or carbonyl group is bonded to any group that, may be cleaved in vivo to form a free hydroxyl, free amino, free sulfhydryl, free carboxy or free carbonyl group, respectively. Examples of prodrugs include, but are not limited to, esters (e.g., acetate, dialkylaminoacetates, formates, phosphates, sulfates, and benzoate derivatives) and carbamates (e.g., N,N-dimethylaminocarbonyl) of hydroxy functional groups, esters groups (e.g. ethyl esters, morpholinoethanol esters) of carboxyl functional groups, N-acyl derivatives (e.g. N-acetyl) N-Mannich bases, Schiff bases and enaminones of amino functional groups, oximes, acetals, ketals and enol esters of ketone and aldehyde functional groups in compounds of Formula I, and the like, See Bundegaard, H. “Design of Prodrugs” p 1-92, Elesevier, New York-Oxford (1985). “Protecting group” refers to a grouping of atoms that when attached to a reactive group in a molecule masks, reduces or prevents that reactivity. Examples of protecting groups can be found in Green and Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Chemistry, (Wiley, 2nd ed. 1991); Harrison and Harrison et al., Compendium of Synthetic Organic Methods, Vols. 1-8 (John Wiley and Sons, 1971-1996); and Kocienski, Protecting Groups, (Verlag, 3rd ed. 2003). The term “amine protecting group” is intended to mean a functional group that converts an amine, amide, or other nitrogen-containing moiety into a different chemical group that is substantially inert to the conditions of a particular chemical reaction. Amine protecting groups are preferably removed easily and selectively in good yield under conditions that do not affect other functional groups of the molecule. Examples of amine protecting groups include, but are not limited to, formyl, acetyl, benzyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl, t-butdyldiphenylsilyl, t-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc), p-methoxybenzyl, methoxymethyl, tosyl, trifluoroacetyl, trimethylsilyl (TMS), fluorenyl-methyloxycarbonyl, 2-trimethylsilyl-ethyoxycarbonyl, 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethoxycarbonyl, allyloxycarbonyl, benzyloxycarbonyl (CBZ), 2-trimethylsilyl-ethanesulfonyl (SES), trityl and substituted trityl groups, 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (FMOC), nitro-veratryloxycarbonyl (NVOC), and the like. Other suitable amine protecting groups are straightforwardly identified by those of skill in the art. Representative hydroxy protecting groups include those where the hydroxy group is either acylated or alkylated such as benzyl, and trityl ethers as well as alkyl ethers, tetrahydropyranyl ethers, trialkylsilyl ethers and allyl ethers. “Stable compound” and “stable structure” are meant to indicate a compound that is sufficiently robust to survive isolation to a useful degree of purity from a reaction mixture, and formulation into an efficacious therapeutic agent. In the specification, the singular forms also include the plural, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. In the case of conflict, the present specification will control. All percentages and ratios used herein, unless otherwise indicated, are by weight. “Combination therapy” (or “co-therapy”) includes the administration of a compound of the invention and at least a second agent as part of a specific treatment regimen intended to provide the beneficial effect from the co-action of these therapeutic agents. The beneficial effect of the combination includes, but is not limited to, pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic co-action resulting from the combination of therapeutic agents. Administration of these therapeutic agents in combination typically is carried out over a defined time period (usually minutes, hours, days or weeks depending upon the combination selected). “Combination therapy” may, but generally is not, intended to encompass the administration of two or more of these therapeutic agents as part of separate monotherapy regimens that incidentally and arbitrarily result in the combinations of the present invention. “Combination therapy” is intended to embrace administration of these therapeutic agents in a sequential manner, that is, wherein each therapeutic agent is administered at a different time, as well as administration of these therapeutic agents, or at least two of the therapeutic agents, in a substantially simultaneous manner. Substantially simultaneous administration can be accomplished, for example, by administering to the subject a single capsule having a fixed ratio of each therapeutic agent or in multiple, single capsules for each of the therapeutic agents. Sequential or substantially simultaneous administration of each therapeutic agent can be effected by any appropriate route including, but not limited to, oral routes, intravenous routes, intramuscular routes, and direct absorption through mucous membrane tissues. The therapeutic agents can be administered by the same route or by different routes. For example, a first therapeutic agent of the combination selected may be administered by intravenous injection while the other therapeutic agents of the combination may be administered orally. Alternatively, for example, all therapeutic agents may be administered orally or all therapeutic agents may be administered by intravenous injection. The sequence in which the therapeutic agents are administered is not narrowly critical. “Combination therapy” also embraces the administration of the therapeutic agents as described above in further combination with other biologically active ingredients and non-drug therapies (e.g., surgery or radiation treatment). Where the combination therapy further comprises a non-drug treatment, the non-drug treatment may be conducted at any suitable time so long as a beneficial effect from the co-action of the combination of the therapeutic agents and non-drug treatment is achieved. For example, in appropriate cases, the beneficial effect is still achieved when the non-drug treatment is temporally removed from the administration of the therapeutic agents, perhaps by days or even weeks. Throughout the description, where compositions are described as having, including, or comprising specific components, it is contemplated that compositions also consist essentially of, or consist of, the recited components. Similarly, where processes are described as having, including, or comprising specific process steps, the processes also consist essentially of, or consist of, the recited processing steps. Further, it should be understood that the order of steps or order for performing certain actions are immaterial so long as the invention remains operable. Moreover, two or more steps or actions may be conducted simultaneously. The compounds, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, is administered orally, nasally, transdermally, pulmonary, inhalationally, buccally, sublingually, intraperintoneally, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intravenously, rectally, intrapleurally, intrathecally and parenterally. In a preferred embodiment, the compound is administered orally. One skilled in the art will recognize the advantages of certain routes of administration. The dosage regimen utilizing the compounds is selected in accordance with a variety of factors including type, species, age, weight, sex and medical condition of the patient; the severity of the condition to be treated; the route of administration; the renal and hepatic function of the patient; and the particular compound or salt thereof employed. An ordinarily skilled physician or veterinarian can readily determine and prescribe the effective amount of the drug required to prevent, counter or arrest the progress of the condition. Techniques for formulation and administration of the disclosed compounds of the invention can be found in Remington: the Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 19th edition, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. (1995). In an embodiment, the compounds described herein, and the pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, are used in pharmaceutical preparations in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include inert solid fillers or diluents and sterile aqueous or organic solutions. The compounds will be present in such pharmaceutical compositions in amounts sufficient to provide the desired dosage amount in the range described herein. In one embodiment, the compound is prepared for oral administration, wherein the disclosed compounds or salts thereof are combined with a suitable solid or liquid carrier or diluent to form capsules, tablets, pills, powders, syrups, solutions, suspensions and the like. The tablets, pills, capsules, and the like contain from about 1 to about 99 weight percent of the active ingredient and a binder such as gum tragacanth, acacias, corn starch or gelatin; excipients such as dicalcium phosphate; a disintegrating agent such as corn starch, potato starch or alginic acid; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate; and/or a sweetening agent such as sucrose, lactose, saccharin, xylitol, and the like. When a dosage unit form is a capsule, it often contains, in addition to materials of the above type, a liquid carrier such as a fatty oil. In some embodiments, various other materials are present as coatings or to modify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, in some embodiments, tablets are coated with shellac, sugar or both. In some embodiments, a syrup or elixir contains, in addition to the active ingredient, sucrose as a sweetening agent, methyl and propylparabens as preservatives, a dye and a flavoring such as cherry or orange flavor, and the like. For some embodiments relating to parental administration, the disclosed compounds, or salts, solvates, tautomers or polymorphs thereof, can be combined with sterile aqueous or organic media to form injectable solutions or suspensions. Injectable compositions are preferably aqueous isotonic solutions or suspensions. The compositions may be sterilized and/or contain adjuvants, such as preserving, stabilizing, wetting or emulsifying agents, solution promoters, salts for regulating the osmotic pressure and/or buffers. In addition, they may also contain other therapeutically valuable substances. The compositions are prepared according to conventional mixing, granulating or coating methods, respectively, and contain about 0.1 to 75%, preferably about 1 to 50%, of the active ingredient. For example, injectable solutions are produced using solvents such as sesame or peanut oil or aqueous propylene glycol, as well as aqueous solutions of water-soluble pharmaceutically-acceptable salts of the compounds. In some embodiments, dispersions are prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols and mixtures thereof in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The terms “parenteral administration” and “administered parenterally” as used herein means modes of administration other than enteral and topical administration, usually by injection, and includes, without limitation, intravenous, intramuscular, intraarterial, intrathecal, intracapsular, intraorbital, intracardiac, intradermal, intraperitoneal, transtracheal, subcutaneous, subcuticular, intraarticular, subcapsular, subarachnoid, intraspinal and intrasternal injection and infusion. For rectal administration, suitable pharmaceutical compositions are, for example, topical preparations, suppositories or enemas. Suppositories are advantageously prepared from fatty emulsions or suspensions. The compositions may be sterilized and/or contain adjuvants, such as preserving, stabilizing, wetting or emulsifying agents, solution promoters, salts for regulating the osmotic pressure and/or buffers. In addition, they may also contain other therapeutically valuable substances. The compositions are prepared according to conventional mixing, granulating or coating methods, respectively, and contain about 0.1 to 75%, preferably about 1 to 50%, of the active ingredient. In some embodiments, the compounds are formulated to deliver the active agent by pulmonary administration, e.g., administration of an aerosol formulation containing the active agent from, for example, a manual pump spray, nebulizer or pressurized metered-dose inhaler. In some embodiments, suitable formulations of this type also include other agents, such as antistatic agents, to maintain the disclosed compounds as effective aerosols. A drug delivery device for delivering aerosols comprises a suitable aerosol canister with a metering valve containing a pharmaceutical aerosol formulation as described and an actuator housing adapted to hold the canister and allow for drug delivery. The canister in the drug delivery device has a headspace representing greater than about 15% of the total volume of the canister. Often, the polymer intended for pulmonary administration is dissolved, suspended or emulsified in a mixture of a solvent, surfactant and propellant. The mixture is maintained under pressure in a canister that has been sealed with a metering valve. For nasal administration, either a solid or a liquid carrier can be used. The solid carrier includes a coarse powder having particle size in the range of, for example, from about 20 to about 500 microns and such formulation is administered by rapid inhalation through the nasal passages. In some embodiments where the liquid carrier is used, the formulation is administered as a nasal spray or drops and includes oil or aqueous solutions of the active ingredients. Also contemplated are formulations that are rapidly dispersing dosage forms, also known as “flash dose” forms. In particular, some embodiments of the present invention are formulated as compositions that release their active ingredients within a short period of time, e.g., typically less than about five minutes, preferably less than about ninety seconds, more preferably in less than about thirty seconds and most preferably in less than about ten or fifteen seconds. Such formulations are suitable for administration to a subject via a variety of routes, for example by insertion into a body cavity or application to a moist body surface or open wound. Typically, a “flash dosage” is a solid dosage form that is administered orally, which rapidly disperses in the mouth, and hence does not require great effort in swallowing and allows the compound to be rapidly ingested or absorbed through the oral mucosal membranes. In some embodiments, suitable rapidly dispersing dosage forms are also used in other applications, including the treatment of wounds and other bodily insults and diseased states in which release of the medicament by externally supplied moisture is not possible. “Flash dose” forms are known in the art; see for example, effervescent dosage forms and quick release coatings of insoluble microparticles in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,578,322 and 5,607,697; freeze dried foams and liquids in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,642,903 and 5,631,023; melt spinning of dosage forms in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,855,326, 5,380,473 and 5,518,730; solid, free-form fabrication in U.S. Pat. No. 6,471,992; saccharide-based carrier matrix and a liquid binder in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,587,172, 5,616,344, 6,277,406, and 5,622,719; and other forms known to the art. The compounds of the invention are also formulated as “pulsed release” formulations, in which the compound is released from the pharmaceutical compositions in a series of releases (i.e., pulses). The compounds are also formulated as “sustained release” formulations in which the compound is continuously released from the pharmaceutical composition over a prolonged period. Also contemplated are formulations, e.g., liquid formulations, including cyclic or acyclic encapsulating or solvating agents, e.g., cyclodextrins, polyethers, or polysaccharides (e.g., methylcellulose), or more preferably, polyanionic β-cyclodextrin derivatives with a sodium sulfonate salt group separate from the lipophilic cavity by an alkyl ether spacer group or polysaccharides. In a preferred embodiment, the agent is methylcellulose. In another preferred embodiment, the agent is a polyanionic β-cyclodextrin derivative with a sodium sulfonate salt separated from the lipophilic cavity by a butyl ether spacer group, e.g., CAPTISOL® (CyDex, Overland, Kans.). One skilled in the art can evaluate suitable agent/disclosed compound formulation ratios by preparing a solution of the agent in water, e.g., a 40% by weight solution; preparing serial dilutions, e.g. to make solutions of 20%, 10, 5%, 2.5%, 0% (control), and the like; adding an excess (compared to the amount that can be solubilized by the agent) of the disclosed compound; mixing under appropriate conditions, e.g., heating, agitation, sonication, and the like; centrifuging or filtering the resulting mixtures to obtain clear solutions; and analyzing the solutions for concentration of the disclosed compound. All publications and patent documents cited herein are incorporated herein by reference as if each such publication or document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. Citation of publications and patent documents is not intended as an admission that any is pertinent prior art, nor does it constitute any admission as to the contents or date of the same. The invention having now been described by way of written description, those of skill in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced in a variety of embodiments and that the foregoing description and examples below are for purposes of illustration and not limitation of the claims that follow. EXAMPLES Example 1 Syntheses Representative syntheses of compounds of the invention are described herein. Synthesis of Compounds 1 and 2 (KX1-136 and KX1-305) 3-benzyloxybenzonitrile To a solution of 3-cyanophenol (5.00 g, 42.00 mmol) in acetone (100 ml), potassium carbonate (5.79 g, 42.0 mmol), potassium iodide (335 mg, 21.0 mmol) and benzyl bromide (4.20 ml, 42.00 mmol) were added and the reaction mixture refluxed for 12 hrs (TLC, ethyl acetate:hexane 1:1, Rf=0.6), then the solvent removed under vacuum and the residue portioned between water (50 ml) and ethyl acetate (50 ml), the organic layer washed with water twice and dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and evaporated under reduced pressure to give the target ether as a yellow oil (8.46 g) 96% yield; 1H NMR (DMSO (dimethylsulfoxide), 400 MHz): δ 7.51-7.33(m, 9H), 5.16(s, 2H). 3-benzyloxybenzylaminehydrochloride To a suspension of lithium aluminum hydride, LAH (4.314 g, 113.684 mmol) in dry ether (200 ml) a solution of the 3-benzyloxybenzonitrile in ether (7.92 g, 37.894 mmol) was added drop-wise during 10 min at room temperature, and allowed to stir for 4 hrs (TLC, ethyl acetate:hexane 1:3, Rf=0.5), the reaction was quenched with 10 ml ethyl acetate and 10 ml water and filtered. The organic layer washed with water, dried over Na2SO4 and treated with 10 ml conc. HCl to form instant white precipitate (6 g) 68% yield. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.33(s, 3H), 7.45-7.37(m, 4H), 7.34-7.30(m, 2H), 7.19(s, 1H), 7.02(t, J=10 Hz, 2H), 5.10(s, 2H), 3.97(s, 2H). N(3-benzyloxy-benzyl)-4-biphenylacetamide To a solution of 4-biphenyl acetic acid (2.29 g, 10.45 mmol) in dimethylformamide, DMF, (30 ml) was added diisopropylethylamine, DIEA, (5.47 ml, 31.35 mmol) and stirred at room temperature for 15 min, then benzotriazolyloxy-tris[pyrrolidino]-phosphonium hexafluorophosphate, PyBOP™, (5.43 g, 10.45 mmol) was added and the stirring was continued for further 30 min, then 3-benzyloxybenzylaminehydrochloride (2.6 g, 10.45 mmol) was added and the stirring continued for 24 hrs. The reaction mixture was then poured on to ice cooled water acidified with (10 ml) 1 N HCl and extracted with ethyl acetate (100 ml) and the organic layer washed with saturated solution of NaHCO3, water and brine, dried over Na2SO4 and the solvent removed under vacuum to give a yellowish-white powder of the desired compound (2.65 g) 62% yield. Another procedure involves use amide formation using the acid chloride as shown in the following reaction. To 4-biphenylacetic acid (2.5 g) in a flask, thionylchloride (20 ml) was added and heated to reflux for 1 h, cooled, and the excess thionylchloride removed under vacuum to dryness, then the produced crude acid chloride 2.8 g, dissolved in dry DCM (dichloromethane) (30 ml), and added drop wise at 0° C. to equimolar amount of the 3-benzyloxybenzylamine solution in DCM (10 ml) with (1.5 mol) of triethylamine (TEA) and stirred for 5 hrs, then poured onto acidified cold water, the organic layer washed with water, brine and the solvent removed under reduced pressure to give the target amide in 80% yield. 1H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz): δ 8.58 (t, J=12 Hz 1H), 7.60-7.57 (m, 4H), 7.44-7.29(m, 10H), δ 7.21(t, J=16.5 Hz, 2H), 6.85(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 6.81(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 5.00(s, 2H), 4.24(d, J=6 Hz, 2H), 3.51(s, 2H). Compound 1: N(3-hydroxy-benzyl)-4-biphenylacetamide To remove the benzyl group of this ether (5.00 g, 13.35 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (20 ml), to this solution was added a catalytic amount of 10% Pd/C (355 mg, 2.21 mmol) in a Parr hydrogenator (55 psi) for 5 hrs, filtered through celite and the solvent removed under vacuum to give the target phenol as yellowish powder (3.20 g) 84% yield, which crystallized from methanol to give (1.5 g) of white crystalline material, mp=169-170° C. 1HNMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 9.34(s, 1H), 8.53(s, 1H), 7.63(d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.58(d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.44(t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 7.35(d, J=8 Hz, 3H), 7.07(t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 6.65-6.60(m, 3H), 4.17(d, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 3.5(s, 2H). FAB (fast atom bombardment) HRMS m/e calcd. For (M+H) C21H20NO2: 318.1449; found: 318.1484. Compound 2: N(3-fluoro-benzyl)-4-biphenylacetamide To a solution of 4-biphenyl acetic acid (2.00 g, 9.42 mmol) in DMF (20 ml) was added DIEA (3.29 ml, 18.84 mmol) and stirred at room temperature for 15 min, then PyBOP (4.90 g, 9.42 mmol) added and the stirring continued for further 30 min, then 3-fluorobenzylamine (1.18 g, 9.42 mmol) added and the stirring continued for 24 hrs, then the reaction mixture poured on to ice cooled water acidified with (10 ml) 1 N HCl and extracted with ethyl acetate (100 ml) and the organic layer washed with saturated solution of NaHCO3, water and brine, dried over Na2SO4 and the solvent removed under vacuum to give a white powder of the desired compound (1.00 g) 33% yield. Another method involves the acid chloride coupling method described below. 4-biphenylacetic acid (2.5 g, 11.78 mmol) charged in a flask then thionylchloride (15 ml) was added and heated to reflux for 1 h, cooled, and the excess thionylchloride removed under vacuum to dryness, then the produced crude acid chloride (2.8 g, 12.13 mmol) dissolved in dry DCM (30 ml), and added drop wise at 0° C. to (1.38 ml, 12.13 mmol) of the 3-fluorobenzylamine solution in DCM (10 ml) along with (1.69 ml, 12.13 mmol) of TEA and stirred for 5 hrs, then poured onto acidified cold water, the organic layer washed with water, brine and the solvent removed under reduced pressure to give the target amide (3.1 g) 80% yield. Recrystallized from methanol, mp=170-172° C. 1H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz): δ 8.62(t, J=11 Hz, 1H), 7.63(d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.59(d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 7.44(t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.37-7.31(m, 4H), 7.08-7.01(m, 3H), 4.28(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 3.52(s, 2H). FAB HRMS m/e calcd. For (M+H) C21H18FNO: 320.1406; found: 320.2, and the base peak found: 342.1262 for (M+Na); calcd. 342.1372. Synthesis of Compound 3, KX1-306 The synthesis, outlined in Scheme 1, began with acid chloride formation of biphenylacetic acid followed by amide coupling with 3,5-dibenzyloxybenzylamine. A large number of impurities were introduced by acid chloride formation. However, other amide coupling procedures such as, for example, PyBOP or carbodiimides, can also be used in this reaction. Cleavage of one of the benzyl groups was accomplished under high pressure hydrogen (50-60 psi) for 15 hours. The reaction was monitored by TLC. Silica gel chromatography was used to separate the product from the starting material as well as the dihydroxy side-product. Biphenyl acetic acid (220 mg, 1.00 mmol) was dissolved in DCM, 5 eq (0.38 mL) of thionyl chloride were added and the reaction was refluxed for 4 hours. Solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was dissolved in DCM. 3,5-Dibenzyloxybenzylamine (1.1 eq) was added followed by TEA (1 eq). The reaction was then stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction was diluted to 45 mL (with DCM) and washed with 1 N HCl (3×20 L), saturated sodium bicarbonate (3×20 mL), and brine (3×20 mL). The Reaction was then dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo to give 330 mg of crude product. Silica gel chromatography (1:1 DCM:EtOAc (ethyl acetate)) gave 220 mg pure product. TLC Rf=0.2 (single spot, 7:3 hexanes:EtOAc). LCMS 514.2 (m+H) 536.2(m+Na). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.65(s, 2H), 4.50 (d, 5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.96 (s, 4H), 5.71 (s, 1H), 6.43 (s, 2H), 6.49 (s, 1H), 7.58-7.26 (m, 19H). The dibenzyloxyamide (1) was dissolved in 15 ml EtOAc (ethyl acetate) with gentle heating in a Parr bottle. This was put on the hydrogenator at 50 psi hydrogen for 15 hr. The reaction was filtered through celite and the solvent was removed in vacuo to give a crude mixture of starting material and product. Silica gel chromatography gave 50 mg 1 and 41 mg desired product KX1-306; LCMS 424.1(m+H), 446.2(m+Na), 847.0(2 m+H), 868.9(2 m+Na). 1HNMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.66(s, 2H), 4.38 (d, 5.6 Hz, 2H), 4.98 (s, 2H), 5.71(s, 1H), 6.43 (s, 2H), 6.49 (s, 1H), 7.30-7.45 (m, 10H), 7.54-7.57(m, 4H). Synthesis of Compound 4 KX1-307 The synthesis is outlined in Scheme 2. In one synthesis, the reaction commenced with amide bond formation to give 2, followed by a Suzuki coupling with phenylboronic acid to give the meta-biphenyl product Compound 4, KX1-307. In the Suzuki reaction, the biphenyl product was formed but the reaction did not go to completion (by NMR and LCMS) despite additional, time, heat, and extra catalyst. Using silica gel chromatography, the product could not be separated from the bromo starting material 2. Reversing the Suzuki and amide coupling solved the separation problem and successfully produced the metabiphenyl amide KX1-307 as well as 2′-Fluorobiphenyl-4-acetamide KX1-309 (compound 6, Scheme 3). 3-Bromophenylacetic acid (250 mg, 1.163 mmol) and 156 mg (1.1 eq) of phenylboronic acid were dissolved in 6 mL water:isopropanol (6:1). Sodium carbonate (160 mg, 1.3 eq) was dissolved in 0.5 mL distilled water and added to the reaction followed by Pd(OH)2/C (74 mg, 3 mol %). This was rotated in a 65° C. water bath for 5 hours. The reaction was filtered through filter paper. Filter paper washed with 25 mL isopropanol:water: 1 N NaOH (35:5:1). Washes were combined and acidified to pH 2 with 1 N sulfuric acid. Isopropanol was removed in vacuo and water (10 mL) was added. This aqueous layer washed with dichloromethane (3×20 mL). Organic washes were combined, dried with sodium sulfate, and removed in vacuo to give 215 mg (87% yield) of the biphenyl product 3. TLC Rf=0.7(long streak, 1:1 EtOAc:DCM). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.72 (s, 2H), 7.26-7.60 (m, 9H). 3-Biphenylacetic acid (3) (100 mg, 0.472 mmol), 3-Fluorobenzylamine (1.1 eq), 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride, EDCl, (1.1 eq), and HOBT (1-hydroxyenzotriazole, 1.0 eq) were all dissolved in 10 mL anhydrous DCM. After 10 min DIEA (1.1 eq) was added and the reaction was allowed to go overnight. The reaction was diluted to 25 mL and washed with 1N HCl (3×10 L), saturated sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), and brine (2×20 mL). The reaction was dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo to give 124 mg pure KX1-307 (83% yield). TLC Rf=0.7(single spot, 1:1 EtOAc:DCM). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.69 (s, 2H) 4.40 (d, 6.0 Hz) 5.77 (s, 1H) 6.86-6.96 (m, 3H) 7.10-7.26 (m, 2H) 7.32 (m, 8H). Synthesis of Compound 6, KX-309 The synthesis is outlined in Scheme 3. 4-Bromophenylacetic acid (500 mg, 2.33 mmol) and 358 mg of 2-fluorophenylboronic acid (1.1 eq) were dissolved in 12 mL, 6:1 water:isopropanol. Sodium carbonate (320 mg, 1.3 eq) was dissolved in 1 mL distilled water and added to the reaction followed by Pd(OH)2/C (148 mg, 3 mol %). This was rotated in a 65° C. water bath for 5 hours. The reaction was filtered through filter paper. Filter paper washed with 50 mL isopropanol:water:1 N NaOH (35:5:1). Washes were combined and acidified to pH 2 with 1 N sulfuric acid. Isopropanol was removed in vacuo, water (20 mL) was added and washed with dichloromethane (3×30 mL). Organic washes were combined, dried with sodium sulfate, and removed in vacuo to give 177 mg (35% yield) of the biphenyl product 4. TLC Rf=0.7(long streak, 1:1 EtOAc:DCM). 1HNMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.73 (s, 2H), 7.16 (t, 10.5 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (t, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (qd, 1.5 Hz, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.38 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.44 (td, 1.5 Hz, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.54 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H). 2′-Fluorobiphenylacetic acid (4) (103 mg, 0.448 mmol), 3-Fluorobenzylamine (1.1 eq), EDCl (1.1 eq), and HOBT (1.0 eq) were all dissolved in 6 mL anhydrous DCM. After 10 min DIEA (1.1 eq) was added and the reaction was allowed to go overnight. Reaction was diluted to 25 mL and washed with 1 N HCl (3×10 L), saturated sodium bicarbonate (3×10 mL), and brine (2×20 mL). The reaction was dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo to give 126 mg pure Compound 6, KX1-309 (83% yield). LCMS 360.1 (m+Na) 696.8(2 m+Na). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.67 (s, 2H) 4.21 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H) 5.79 (s, 1H) 6.87-6.98 (m, 3H) 7.10-7.44 (m, 7H) 7.53 (dd, 1.5 Hz, 7.5 Hz, 2H). Synthesis of Compound 5: N-(3-fluorophenyl)-4-biphenylacetamide, KXI-308 Thionyl chloride (0.38 ml, 5.0 mmole) was added to an ice water cooled solution of 4-Biphenylacetic acid (0.2 g, 0.9 mmole) in 5 ml dichloromethane, solution allowed to warm to room temperature then heated under reflux for 1 hr, the solvent and excess thionyl chloride was evaporated under vacuum, the oil formed was redissolved in 5 ml dichloromethane followed by addition of 4-Dimethylaminopyridine (0.12 gm, 1.0 mmole) and 3-Fluoroaniline (0.11 gm, 1.0 mmole), stirred at room temperature over night, then the reaction mixture was diluted with 10 ml dichloromethane and 20 ml water, the organic layer washed with 1 N HCl, saturated NaHCO3 solution, and saturated NaCl solution, dried using Na2SO4 and evaporated dryness (0.2 gm, 72%), H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.805 (s, 2H), 6.815 (t, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 7.068(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.218-7.284(m, 2H), 7.380-7.499(m, 6H) 7.620-7.664(m, 4H). MS (m/z) 306.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 7: N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-4-(3-fluorophenyl)phenylacetamide, KX1-310 Synthesis of (4′-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid: 4-Bromo-phenylacetic acid (0.5 gm, 2.3 mmole), 3-fluorophenylboronic acid (0.36 gm, 2.4 mmole) and 50% water wet 10% Palladium carbon (0.16 gm, 0.075 mmole Pd) were added to 10 ml of 5:1 water isopropanol mixture, then Na2CO3 (0.32 gm, 3 mmole) dissolved in 3 ml of water was added to the above mixture, the reaction was heated at 65-70° C. overnight, the reaction was cooled to room temperature, diluted with 20 ml of 70:15:1 i-PrOH/H2O/10% NaOH, filtered, the catalyst was washed with 20 ml×3 using the above mixture, the filtrate was acidified using 20% H2SO4, filtered and dried (3′-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid: (0.4 gm, 75%) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.623 (s, 2H), 7.192 (m, 1H), 7.358(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.474-7.515(m, 3H), 7.652(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 12.316(s, 1H). 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.14 ml, 1.1 mmole), PyBOP (0.57 gm, 1.1 mmole), and DIEA (0.36 ml, 2.2 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.22 gm, 76%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.550(s, 2H), 4.303(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 7.027-7.097(m, 3H), 7.197(m, 1H), 7.350(m, 1H), 7.389(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.477-7.518(m, 3H), 7.657(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 8.652(t, J=5.5 Hz, 1H). MS (m/z) 338.1 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 8, N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)phenylacetamide, KX1-311 Synthesis of (4′-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid: 4-Bromo-phenylacetic acid (0.5 gm, 2.3 mmole), 4-fluorophenylboronic acid (0.36 gm, 2.4 mmole) and 50% water wet 10% Palladium carbon (0.16 gm, 0.075 mmole Pd) were added to 10 ml of 5:1 water isopropanol mixture, then Na2CO3 (0.32 gm, 3 mmole) dissolved in 3 ml of water was added to the above mixture, the reaction was heated at 65-70° C. overnight, the reaction was cooled to room temperature, diluted with 20 ml of 70:15:1 i-PrOH/H2O/10% NaOH, filtered, the catalyst was washed with 20 ml×3 using the above mixture, the filtrate was acidified using 20% H2SO4, filtered and dried (0.4 gm, 75%) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.621(s, 2H), 7.290(t, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 7.351(d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.593(d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.695(t, J=7 Hz, 2H), 12.386(s, 1H). (4′-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 0.9 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.14 ml, 1.1 mmole), PyBOP (0.57 gm, 1.1 mmole), and DIEA (0.36 ml, 2.2 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.26 gm, 90%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.541(s, 2H), 4.304(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 7.027-7.098(m, 3H), 7.273-7.382(m, 5H), 7.582(d, J=8.0, 2H), 7.694(m, 2H), 8.641(t, J=5.5 Hz, 2H) MS (m/z) 338.1 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 9, N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-N-methyl-4-biphenylacetamide, KX1-312 4-biphenylacetic acid (0.25 gm, 1.2 mmole), N-methyl-3-fluorobenzylamine (0.16 gm, 1.2 mmole), EDCl (0.23 gm, 1.2 mmole), and DIEA (0.42 ml, 2.4 mmole) was dissolved in 10 ml DCM and stirred overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with 10 ml of DCM washed with 10% HCl, saturated NaHCO3 solution, and saturated NaCl solution, dried using Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce viscous clear oil (160 mg, 43%), H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) indicated the presence of a mixture of cis and trans isomers in a ratio of 1:2, running the NMR experiment was run at 50° C. slightly change the value for the chemical shift, but had almost no effect on the ratio. Protons are labeled Ha or Hb to indicate it belongs to one isomer or the other. H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) 2.813(s, 3Ha), 3.000(s, 3Hb), 3.784(s, 2Ha), 3.841(s, 2Hb), 4.543(s, 2Hb), 4.681(s, 2Ha), 6.931-7.649(m, 13Ha+13 Hb). MS (m/z) 334.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 10, N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-4-phenyl-2-fluorophenylacetamide, KX1-313 Synthesis of 4-Bromo-2-fluoro-phenylacetamide: 4-Bromo-2-fluorobenzylbromide (5 gm, 18.7 mmole) was dissolved in 30 ml ethanol, to which water solution (10 ml) of KCN (2.43 gm, 37.4 mmole) was added, refluxed overnight, then it was cooled to room temperature, poured into 200 ml of crushed ice, filtered, chromatographed using 1:1 ethyl acetate followed by ethyl acetate (the cyano compound was hydrolyzed on the silica gel to produce the carboxamide), which was evaporated to produce white solid, (1.3 gm, 32%) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.436 (s, 2H), 7.005(s, 1H), 7.289(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.361(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.478(m, 1H), 7.517(s, 1H). Synthesis of 4-Bromo-2-fluoro-phenylacetic acid: 4-Bromo-2-fluoro-phenylacetamide (1.3 gm) was suspended in 100 ml of 30% NaOH, heating at reflux temperature for 24 hrs, cooled to room temperature, washed with DCM and ethyl acetate. The aqueous layer was acidified with conc. HCl, extracted with ethyl acetate, evaporated; the residue was crystallized from isopropanol-water to give needle crystals (0.5 gm, 38%) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.619(s, 2H), 7.316(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.379(dd, J=8.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 7.516(dd, J=8.0, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 12.555(s, 1H). Synthesis of 4-phenyl-2-fluorophenylacetic acid: 4-Bromo-2-fluoro-phenylacetic acid (0.25 gm, 1.1 mmole), phenylboronic acid (0.15 gm, 1.2 mmole) and 50% water wet 10% Palladium carbon (0.07 gm, 0.033 mmole Pd) were added to 10 ml of 5:1 water isopropanol mixture, then Na2CO3 (0.14 gm, 1.3 mmole) dissolved in 3 ml of water was added to the above mixture, the reaction was heated at 65-70° C. overnight, the reaction was cooled to room temperature, diluted with 20 ml of 70:15:1 i-PrOH/H2O/10% NaOH, filtered, the catalyst was washed with 20 ml×3 using the above mixture, the filtrate was acidified using 20% H2SO4, filtered and dried (0.2 gm, 83%) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.675(s, 2H), 7.382-7.518(m, 6H), 7.707(d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 12.498(s, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-fluorobenzyl)-4-phenyl-2-fluorophenylacetamide: 4-phenyl-2-fluorophenylacetic acid (0.2 gm, 0.9 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.14 ml, 1.1 mmole), PyBOP (0.57 gm, 1.1 mmole), and DIEA (0.36 ml, 2.2 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.20 gm, 70%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.612(s, 2H), 4.318(d, J=6 Hz, 2H), 7.064-7.117(m, 3H), 7.345-7.503(m, 7H), 7.695(d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 8.660(t, J=6 Hz, 1H). MS (m/z) 338.1 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 11, N(3-fluorobenzyl)-2-phenylpyridine-5-acetamide, KX1-314 Synthesis of 2-phenylpyridine-5-acetic acid: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), phenylboronic acid (0.16 gm, 1.3 mmole) and 50% water wet 10% Palladium carbon (0.08 gm, 0.036 mmole Pd) were added to 10 ml of 5:1 water isopropanol mixture, then Na2CO3 (0.15 gm, 1.4 mmole) dissolved in 3 ml of water was added to the above mixture, the reaction was heated at 65-70° C. overnight, the reaction was cooled to room temperature, diluted with 20 ml of 70:15:1 i-PrOH/H2O/10% NaOH, filtered, the catalyst washed with 20 ml×3 using the above mixture, the filtrate was dried under vacuum and crude mixture was used without any purification in the next step. Synthesis of N(3-fluorobenzyl)-2-phenylpyridine-5-acetamide: To the crude from the above reaction, 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 gm, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.32 gm, 2.6 mmole) and was stirred in DMF overnight. The reaction mixture was then poured into water; solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol (0.06 gm, 18% in two steps). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ3.645(s, 2H), 4.438(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 5.867(s, 1H), 6.925-7.009(m, 3H), 7.268(m, 1H), 7.408-7.493(m, 3H), 7.735(m, 2H), 7.965-7.982(m, 2H), 8.582(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 321.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 12, N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-(4-pyridin-2-yl-phenyl)-acetamide, KX1-315 Synthesis of 4-(2-Pyridinyl)benzylalcohol: 4-(2-Pyridinyl)benzaldehyde (2 gm, 11 mmole), and NaBH4 (0.42 gm, 11 mmole) were stirred at room temperature for 2 hr, ethanol was evaporated, residue dissolved in ethyl acetate washed with saturated NaHCO3 solution, and saturated NaCl solution, dried using Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce white solid (1.5 gm, 75%). Synthesis of (4-Pyridin-2-yl-phenyl)-acetic acid: The crude of 4-(2-Pyridinyl)benzylalcohol was dissolved in 20 ml DCM, cooled using ice/methanol, triethylamine (1.25 ml, 8.9 mmole) was added followed by methanesulfonylchloride (0.7 ml, 8.9 mmole) added drop wise over 5 minutes. The reaction was allowed to stir at room temperature till the TLC indicated consumption of the starting material (3 hrs), after completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture washed with water, saturated NaHCO3 solution, and saturated NaCl solution, dried using Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce yellow oil, the oil produced was dissolved in 25 ml of 90% ethanol, KCN (1.05 gm, 16.2 mmole) was then added and it was heated under reflux overnight. Ethanol was evaporated; solid washed with 50 ml water and filtered. The solid was dissolved in 30 ml of conc. HCl, refluxed for 48 hr; charcoal was added refluxed for 1 hr, filtered. The HCl was evaporated, the solid formed was dissolved in 5 ml of water, NaOH 1 N was added drop wise while extracting with ethyl acetate, the ethyl acetate extract was dried with Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce white solid (0.6 gm, 35% in 3 steps) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.641(s, 2H), 7.345(t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.381(d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 7.879(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.951(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.034(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 8.662(d, J=4.0 Hz, 1H), 12.390(s, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-(4-pyridin-2-yl-phenyl)-acetamide: (4-Pyridin-2-yl-phenyl)-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 0.9 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.14 ml, 1.1 mmole), PyBOP (0.57 gm, 1.1 mmole), and DIEA (0.36 ml, 2.2 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.13 gm, 45%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.563(s, 2H), 4.305(d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.032-7.095(m, 3H), 7.332-7.360(m, 2H), 7.404(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.874(t, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.948(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.034(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 8.659(d, J=4. Hz, 2H). MS (m/z) 321.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compounds 13 and 24 Syntheses of the pyridyl derivatives, Compound 13, KX1-316, and Compound 24, KX1-327, are shown in Scheme 4. The amide was made first with an EDCl coupling to give amide 5. The Suzuki with 3- or 4-pyridylboronic acids was then performed. The basic nature of the pyridine ring was exploited to purify the product from and remaining starting material. The product was pulled into the aqueous phase away from the starting material using 1 N HCl. After several organic washes the aqueous layer was basified and the product extracted with ethyl acetate. This purification procedure worked well and eliminated the need for chromatography. KX1-316 (Compound 13) A flame dried 50 mL round bottom flask with two condensers was charged with argon. Dimethoxyethane, 15 mL and 1 mL 2 M potassium carbonate was heated to 45° C. while argon was bubbled through the solution. After 1 hour the bromo amide (240 mg, 0.7475 mmol) and 3-pyridylboronic acid (92 mg, 1.1 eq) were added. After one hour, Pd(PPh3)4 (43 mg, 5 mol %) was added neat. Reaction was heated at 65-75° C. for 48 hours. The solvent was poured into a round bottom flask, the remaining residue washed with ethyl acetate. Solvents were combined and removed in vacuo. The residue was taken up in 20 mL 1 N HCl and washed with ethyl acetate (3×10 mL). The acid layer was then basified with a combination of 2 N NaOH and saturated sodium bicarbonate to pH 8-9. The aqueous layer was then washed with ethyl acetate (3×20 mL). Solvent extracts were combined, dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo. Residue was purified on silica gel column (1:1 DCM: EtOAc) to give 90 mg of the desired product (38% yield). TLC, Rf 0.2 (1:1 DCM:EtOAc). LCMS 321.3 (m+H) 640.8 (2 m+Na) 662.9 (2M+Na). 1HNMR (500 MHz, DMSO) 3.54 (s, 2H) 4.29 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H) 7.00-7.08 (m, 3H) 7.34 (q, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 7.40 (d, 10.0 Hz, 2H) 7.47 (dd, 6.0 Hz, 10.0 Hz, 1H) 7.66 (d, 10.0 Hz, 2H) 8.05 (dt, 2.5 Hz, 10.0 Hz, 1H) 8.55 (dd, 2.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H) 6.40 (t, 7.0 Hz, 1H) 8.78 (d, 2.5 Hz, 1H). KX1-327 (Compound 24) A flame dried 50 mL round bottom flask with two condensers was charged with argon. Dimethoxyethane, 15 mL and 1 mL 2 M potassium carbonate was heated to 45° C. while argon was bubbled through the solution. After 1 hour the bromo amide (150 mg, 0.4672 mmol) and 4-pyridylboronic acid (57 mg, 1 eq) were added. After one hour Pd(PPh3)4 (27 mg, 5 mol %) was added neat. Reaction was heated at 65-75° C. for 72 hours. The solvent was poured into a round bottom flask, the remaining residue washed with ethyl acetate. Solvents were combined and removed in vacuo. The residue was taken up in 20 mL 1 N HCl and washed with ethyl acetate (3×10 mL). The acid layer was then basified with a combination of 2 N NaOH and saturated sodium bicarbonate to pH 8-9. The aqueous layer was then washed with ethyl acetate (3×20 mL). Solvent extracts were combined, dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo to give 71 mg of the desired product (48% yield). TLC, Rf 0.2 (1:1 DCM:EtOAc). LCMS 321.3 (m+H). 1HNMR (500 MHz, DMSO) 3.56 (s, 2H) 4.29 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H) 7.04 (m, 3H) 7.34 (q, 6.5 Hz, 1H) 7.42 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H) 7.69 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H) 7.75 (d, 8.5 Hz, 2H) 8.61(d, 6.0 Hz, 2H) 8.64 (t, 5.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of Compound 14, 2-[6-(3-Chloro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-317 Synthesis of 2-(3-Chloro-phenyl)-pyridine-5-acetic acid: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-chlorophenylboronic acid (0.2 gm, 1.3 mmole) and 50% water wet 10% Palladium carbon (0.08 gm, 0.036 mmole Pd) were added to 10 ml of 5:1 water isopropanol mixture, then Na2CO3 (0.15 gm, 1.4 mmole) dissolved in 3 ml of water was added to the above mixture, the reaction was heated at 65-70° C. overnight, the reaction was cooled to room temperature, diluted with 20 ml of 70:15:1 i-PrOH/H2O/10% NaOH, filtered, the catalyst was washed with 20 ml×3 using the above mixture, the filtrate was dried under vacuum and crude mixture was used without any purification in the next step. Synthesis of 2-[6-(3-Chloro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: To the crude from the above reaction, 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 gm, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.32 gm, 2.6 mmole) and was stirred in DMF overnight. The reaction mixture was then poured into water; solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol (0.02 gm, 6% in two steps). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.611(s, 2H), 4.314(d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.048-7.106(m, 3H), 7.364(m, 1H), 7.500-7.545(m, 2H), 7.808(dd, J=8.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.997(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.046(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.126(d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.578(s, 1H), 8.699(bs, 1H). MS (m/z) 355.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 14, 2-[6-(4-Ethyl-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-318 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of 2-[6-(4-ethyl-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.125 gm, 0.5 mmole), 4-ethylbenzeneboronic acid (0.083 gm, 0.55 mmole) was dissolved in dimethoxymethane (DME), Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.029 gm, 0.025 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 3:2. The product is white solid (0.08 gm, 47%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 1.228(t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.669(q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.590(s, 2H), 4.321(d, J=6 Hz, 2H), 7.053-7.113(m, 3H), 7.324-7.375(m, 3H), 7.766(dd, J=9.0, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.887(d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 7.994(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 8.548(s, 1H), 8.696(t, J=5.5 Hz, 1H). MS (m/z) 349.3 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 16, N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetamide, KX1-319 Synthesis of 2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-carbaldehyde: 4-Bromo-2-fluoro-biphenyl (2 gm, 8 mmole) was dissolved in 20 ml of anhydrous tetrahydrofuran, THF, cooled to −78° C. under argon (Ar), n-Butyl lithium 2.5 M (3.5 ml, 8.8 mmole) was added drop wise over 10 min, and was stirred for additional 1 hr, DMF anhydrous (0.68 ml, 8.8 mmole) was then added, stirred for additional 1 hr, then warmed to room temperature over 4 hr, It was then quenched with water, extracted with ether, ether was dried, evaporated, the produced compound was purified using 9:1 hexane/ethyl acetate, to produce white solid (1 gm, 62.5%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 7.416-7.495(m, 3H), 7.581-7.661(m, 4H), 7.723(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 9.991(s, 1H). Synthesis of (2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-methanol: 2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-carbaldehyde (1 gm, 5 mmole), NaBH4 were dissolved in ethanol stirred for 2 hrs, NaOH 10% was added, ethanol was evaporated, the reaction mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate, the ethyl acetate extract was dried with Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce white solid (0.8 gm, 80%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 2.266(s, 1H), 4.683(s, 2H), 7.142-7.168(m, 2H), 7.339-7.442(m, 4H), 7.519-7.535(m, 2H). Synthesis of (2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid: (2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-methanol (0.75 gm, 3.7 mmole) was dissolved in 20 ml DCM, cooled using ice/methanol, triethylamine (0.55 ml, 4.0 mmole) was added followed by methanesulfonylchloride (0.3 ml, 4.0 mmole) added drop wise over 5 minutes. The reaction was allowed to stir at room temperature till the TLC indicated consumption of the starting material (2 hrs), after completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture washed with water, saturated NaHCO3 solution, and saturated NaCl solution, dried using Na2SO4 and evaporated to produce yellow oil, the oil produced was dissolved in 25 ml of 70% ethanol, KCN (0.4 gm, 6 mmole) was then added and it was heated under reflux overnight. Ethanol was evaporated; solid washed with 50 ml water and filtered. The solid was dissolved in 20 ml of ethanol, then 20 ml of conc. H2SO4 was added, and was refluxed overnight; the solution was allowed to cool to room temperature, poured to 200 ml of crushed ice, the solid was collected by vacuum filtration, suspended in 25 ml of NaOH 30%, heated at reflux temperature for 24 hrs, cooled to room temperature, washed with DCM and ethyl acetate. The aqueous layer was acidified with conc. HCl, extracted with ethyl acetate, evaporated; the residue was crystallized from isopropanol-water to give white solid (0.15 gm, 18% in 3 steps) H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.672(s, 2H), 7.191-7.254(m, 2H), 7.389-7.560(m, 6H), 12.494(s, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetamide: (2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)-acetic acid (0.12 gm, 0.5 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.0.8 ml, 0.6 mmole), PyBOP (0.34 gm, 0.6 mmole), and DIEA (0.22 ml, 1.3 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.140 gm, 83%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.580(s, 2H), 4.316(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 7.037-7.110(m, 3H), 7.210-7.247(m, 2H), 7.343-7.372(m, 2H), 7.457-7.501(m, 3H), 7.544(d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 8.660(t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H). MS (m/z) 338.1 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 17, N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide, KX1-320 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.093 gm, 0.33 mmole), 4-fluorobenzeneboronic acid (0.052 gm, 0.37 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.07 gm, 0.66 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.016 gm, 0.015 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 3:2. then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce white solid (0.013 gm, 12%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.587(s, 2H), 4.306(d, J=5.0 Hz, 2H), 7.041-7.099(m, 3H), 7.295-7.363(m, 3H), 7.777(d, J=7.5, 1H), 7.913(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.119(s, 2H), 8.546(s, 1H), 8.702(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 339.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 18, N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide, KX1-321 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.125 gm, 0.5 mmole), 3-fluorobenzeneboronic acid (0.08 gm, 0.55 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.0 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.029 gm, 0.025 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 3:2, then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce white solid (0.075 gm, 45%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.614(s, 2H), 4.318(d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.053-7.099(m, 3H), 7.273(t, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.367(q, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.542(q, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.812(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.891(d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.942(d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.992(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.583(s, 1H), 8.717(s, 1H). MS 339.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 19, 2-[6-(3-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-322 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.15 gm, 0.54 mmole), 3-ethoxybenzeneboronic acid (0.096 gm, 0.6 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.08 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.031 gm, 0.027 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 3:2. then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce white solid (0.03 gm, 17%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 1.366(t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 3.591 (s, 2H), 4.110(q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 4.312(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 6.985(d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.048-7.105(m, 3H), 7.342-7.402(m, 2H), 7.621(m, 2H), 7.770(d, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.826(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.942(d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.550(s, 1H), 8.701(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 365.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 20, 4-{5-[(3-Fluoro-benzylcarbamoyl)-methyl]-pyridin-2-yl}-benzoic Acid, KX1-323 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(3-fluoro-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.15 gm, 0.54 mmole), 4-carboxybenzeneboronic acid (0.096 gm, 0.6 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.08 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.031 gm, 0.027 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate, NaOH 10%, the aqueous layer washed several times with ethyl acetate, neutralized by drop wise addition of HCl 1% having ethyl acetate in the medium with shaking after each addition of the HCl, ethyl acetate was evaporated and the solid formed was crystallized from methanol-water to produce a white solid (0.07 gm, 40%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.625(s, 2H), 4.318(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 7.053-7.111(m, 3H), 7.376(q, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.8341(d, J=8.0, 1H), 8.015-8.063(m, 3H), 8.206(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.613(s, 1H), 8.724(t, J=5.5, 1H). MS (m/z) 365.3 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 21, 2-[6-(2-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-324 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of 2-[6-(2-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.15 gm, 0.54 mmole), 2-ethoxybenzeneboronic acid (0.096 gm, 0.6 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.08 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.031 gm, 0.027 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 2:1, then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce a white solid (0.075 gm, 40%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 1.339(t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 3.581(s, 2H), 4.112(q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 4.322(d, J=5.5 Hz, 2H), 7.032-7.135(m, 5H), 7.358-7.387(m, 2H), 7.703(d, J=7.0, 1H), 7.748(d, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.871(d, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 8.548(s, 1H), 8.725(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 365.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 22, 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-325 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol. (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.15 gm, 0.54 mmole), 4-ethoxybenzeneboronic acid (0.096 gm, 0.6 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.08 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.031 gm, 0.027 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 2:1, then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce a white solid (0.08 gm, 42%). H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 1.357(t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 3.564(s, 2H), 4.090(q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 4.309(d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.012-7.103(m, 5H), 7.361(q, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.726(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.842(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.012(d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 8.503(s, 1H), 8.686(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 365.2 (M+H)+. Scale-up Synthesis of Compound 22 HCl, 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide HCl, KX1-325 HCl Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide HCl: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (6.0 gm, 34 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (4.5 ml, 34 mmole), PyBOP (18 gm, 36 mmole), and DIEA (12.5 ml, 75 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol (6.3 gm, 70%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (4.8 gm, 17.2 mmole), 4-ethoxybenzeneboronic acid (3.14 gm, 18.9 mmole) was suspended in DME (100 ml), Na2CO3 (3.6 gm, 34.4 mmole) in 15 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.99 gm, 0.86 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed overnight. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, the solid washed with cold ethyl acetate and saturated NaHCO3 solution, the solid was then recrystallized from methanol to produce white solid (4.8 gm). 4.6 gm of the free amine was dissolved in 50 ml ethanol with gentle heating, then 25 ml of 4 N HCl in ethyl acetate was added, the solution was concentrated to 20 ml, then diluted with 100 ml of cold ethyl acetate, the solid formed was filtered washed with more ethyl acetate (50×2) and dried (4.3 gm, 65%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 1.386 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 3.822(s, 2H), 4.179(q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 4.339(d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.074-7.182(m, 5H), 7.374(m, 1H), 8.106(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.263(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.312(s, 2H), 8.718(s, 1H), 8.981(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 365.2 (M+H)+. Melting Point of the free base: 0.1 gm of the HCl salt was stirred in 10 ml of 20% NaOH for 10 min, filtered; the solid was crystallized from ethanol water, dried in the oven at 100° C. for 2 hrs. Melting point was found to be 173-176° C. Synthesis of Compound 23, N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(4-methanesulfonyl-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide KX1-326 Synthesis of 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide: 2-chloropyridine-5-acetic acid (0.2 gm, 1.21 mmole), 3-fluorobenzylamine (0.15 ml, 1.2 mmole), PyBOP (0.67 gm, 1.3 mmole), and DIEA (0.43 ml, 2.6 mmole) was dissolved in DMF stirred overnight, the reaction mixture was then poured into water, solid was collected by filtration, re-crystallized using water-methanol (0.3 gm, 85%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (CDCl3) δ 3.562(s, 2H), 4.429(d, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 5.868(s, 1H), 6.929-7.015(m, 3H), 7.300-7.333(m, 2H), 7.668(dd, J=8, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 8.280(d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of N-(3-Fluoro-benzyl)-2-[6-(4-methanesulfonyl-phenyl)-pyridin-3-yl]-acetamide: 2-(6-Chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide and (0.15 gm, 0.54 mmole), 4-methanesulfonyl benzeneboronic acid (0.12 gm, 0.6 mmole) was dissolved in DME, Na2CO3 (0.11 gm, 1.08 mmole) in 5 ml of water was added to the DME solution, the solution was then degassed for 30 min (Ar through the solution and vacuum applied for the first 5 min), Palladiumtetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.031 gm, 0.027 mmole) was added, degassed for additional 15 min, refluxed for 24 hr. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature, filtered, solid washed with ethyl acetate; the organic layer was dried, evaporated. The residue was chromatographed using ethyl acetate/hexane 2:1, then it crystallized from methanol-water to produce a white solid (0.02 gm, 10%); H1-NMR INOVA-500 (DMSO d6) δ 3.341(s, 3H), 3.635(s, 2H), 4.315(d, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 7.047-7.110(m, 3H), 7.366(q, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.857(d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 8.027-8.081(m, 3H), 8.343(d, J=10.5 Hz, 2H), 8.631(s, 1H), 8.731(s, 1H). MS (m/z) 399.2 (M+H)+. Synthesis of Compound 24, KX1-327, and Compound 26, KX1-357 The syntheses are shown in Scheme 5. Compound 24, KX1-327 HCl A solution of 75 mL 1,2-Dimethoxyethane and 16 mL 2 M sodium carbonate was thoroughly degassed by heating at 50° C. with an argon stream through the solvent. 5.00 g of the 4-bromophenyl acetamide (5, 15.6 mmol) and 1.95 grams of 4-pyridylboronic acid (1.00 eq) were added to and degassing continued for 1 hour. Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine) palladium (5 mol %) was added neat and the reaction was refluxed for 24 hours. The reaction was cooled and poured into 300 mL distilled water and filtered to give 5.014 g crude product. This crude product was taken up in 1 L of a 1 to 1 mix of 1 N HCl and ethyl acetate. The organic layer was discarded and the aqueous layer washed two more times with EtOAc. The aqueous layer was the basified with solid sodium bicarbonate to pH 7.5. This was then extracted 3×300 mL EtOAc to give about 3.25 g of semi-pure product. Pure crystals of the free base were made by dissolving 200 mg in a minimum amount of ethyl acetate with gentle heating and sonication. Hexanes was added to this solution until it became cloudy. This was heated until clear. Addition of more hexanes followed by heating was repeated two more times. This clear solution was allowed to stand overnight in a sealed vessel. White crystals formed which were washed with hexanes and dried to give about 50 mg (mp 145-146° C.). The rest of the product was dissolved in ethanol and two equivalents of hydrochloric acid (1.1 M in EtOAc) were added. After 1 hour the ethanol was removed and redissolved in the least amount of ethanol at 40° C. EtOAc was added until the solution became cloudy. The solution was allowed to stand and the desired product crystallized as pure white crystals. The crystals were filtered off, washed with EtOAc and dried to give 2.4 grams (48% overall yield); LCMS 321.3 (m+H). 1HNMR (500 MHz, DMSO) 3.61 (s, 2H) 4.29 (d, 7.5 Hz, 2H) 7.04 (m, 3H) 7.34 (q, 9.5 Hz, 1H) 7.50 (d, 10.5 Hz, 2H) 7.95 (d, 10.5 Hz, 2H) 8.24 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H) 8.70 (s, 1H) 8.87(d, 8.0 Hz, 2H). Compound 26, KX1-357 47.0 mg of KX1-327 were dissolved in 5 mL DCM. Meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (35.0 mg, 1.4 eq) were added and the reaction was allowed to stir for 13 hours. The reaction was washed 3×5 mL saturated sodium bicarbonate, dried with sodium sulfate and concentrated to give 45 mg of a yellow solid. NMR revealed the product contained about 15% impurity, which may have been m-chlorobenzoic acid (or the peroxide). The solid was redissolved in 5 mL DCM and washed 3×5 mL saturated sodium bicarbonate, dried with sodium sulfate and concentrated to give 26 mg of the desired product as a yellow solid; LCMS 337.2 (M+H), 672.9 (2M+H), 694.8 (2M+Na). 1HNMR (400 MHz, DMSO) 3.54 (s, 2H), 4.28 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.00-7.08 (m, 3H), 7.34 (q, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.40 (d, 8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.72 (d, 8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, 7.2 Hz, 2H), 8.24 (d, 8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.63 (t, 5.6 Hz, 1H). 4-Bromophenylacetic acid (6.00 g, 47.9 mmol) was dissolved in 40 mL of anhydrous dichloromethane under an argon atmosphere and cooled in an ice bath. 3-Fluorobenzylamine (1.00 eq) was added and unintended precipitation of the acetic acid/benzylamine salt occurred. More dichloromethane (20 mL) was added followed by DIEA (2.2 eq), HOBT (1.0 eq), and EDCl (1.1 eq). After about 2 hours the solid broke up, 4 hours after that the reaction was finished by TLC. The reaction was diluted with 200 mL of dichloromethane and 200 mL of 1 N hydrochloric acid. Upon shaking in a separatory funnel an emulsion formed. This emulsion was divided in half and dichloromethane was removed. 500 mL ethyl acetate and another 300 mL 1 N HCl was added to each half. The organic layer washed 2 more times with 1 N HCl, 3×300 mL saturated sodium bicarbonate, and 3×200 mL with saturated sodium chloride. Organic layers from each extraction were combined and dried with sodium sulfate, and solvent was removed to give 13.12 g (85% yield) desired product; 1HNMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ (ppm) 3.58 (s, 2H), 4.45 (d, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 5.70(bs, 1H) 6.93 (m, 3H), 7.16 (d, 8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (m, 1H) 7.48 (d, 8.1 Hz, 2H). Synthesis of Compound 25 KX1-329 As shown in Scheme 6, 5-Hydroxy-2-methylpyridine was converted to the triflate, 6, followed by Suzuki reaction to give the 5-phenyl-2-methylpyridine. The methylpyridine, 7, was deprotonated with n-butyllithium and added to a solution of ethyl carbonate. Saponification followed by amide coupling with PyBOP gave the desired product. 5-Hydroxy-2-methylpyridine (3.00 g, 27.5 mmol) was dissolved in 15 mL anhydrous pyridine and cooled to 0° C. Triflic anhydride (7.76 g, 1.1 eq) was added drop wise over 3 minutes. Following the addition the reaction was removed from the ice bath and allowed to stir for 6 hr. The volume was then reduced to 8 mL in vacuo, diluted with 50 mL distilled water, and then extracted with 75 mL EtOAc. The organic layer was then washed with 1 N HCl (3×50 mL), dried with sodium sulfate, and removed in vacuo to give 2.78 g (42%) of an amber oil (6); LCMS 242.1 (m+H). 1HNMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) 2.58 (s, 3H) 7.26 (d, 8.4 Hz, 1H) 7.52 (dd, 2.8 Hz, 8.4 Hz, 1H) 8.47 (d, 2.8 Hz, 1H). A flame dried 50 mL round bottom flask with two condensers was charged with argon. Dimethoxyethane, 25 mL and 6 mL 2 M sodium carbonate was heated to 45° C. while argon was bubbled through the solution. After 1 hour, the pyridyl triflate (6) (1.538 g, 6.382 mmol) and phenylboronic acid (856 mg, 1.1 eq) were added. After one hour Pd(PPh3)4 (370 mg, 5 mol %) was added, the reaction was heated at 65-75° C. for 48 hours. The solvent was poured into a round bottom flask, the remaining residue washed with ethyl acetate. Solvents were combined and removed in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel chromatography (hexanes:EtOAc) to give 702 mg of the desired product 7 (65% yield); LCMS 170.2(m+H). 1HNMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) 3.60 (s, 3H) 7.22 (d, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 7.38 (t, 7.2 Hz, 1H) 7.46 (t, 7.2 Hz, 2H) 7.56 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H) 7.77(dd, 2.4 Hz, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 8.73 (d, 2.4 Hz, 1H). 5-Phenyl-2-methylpyridine (7, 205 mg, 1.223 mmol) was dissolved in freshly distilled THF in flame dried glassware under argon. Cooled to −78° C. in a dry ice/acetone bath for 20 minutes. N-Butyllithium (0.485 mL, 1.0 eq) was added drop wise over 5 minutes. This solution was added to a THF solution of ethyl carbonate (1.5 eq) via a cannula. The solution was stirred for 2 hours before being quenched with methanol added drop wise. 1 N sodium hydroxide (1 mL) was added before removing the organic solvents in vacuo. The remaining aqueous solution was extracted with ether (3×15 mL). Organic layers were combined and dried with sodium sulfate and removed in vacuo to give 208 mg 8 (71% yield) 1HNMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) 1.30 (m, 3H) 2.61 (s, 2H) 4.20 (m, 3H) 7.22 (d, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 7.38 (t, 7.5 Hz, 1H) 7.48 (t, 7.5 Hz, 2H) 7.58(m, 2H) 7.78 (dd, 2.5 Hz, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 8.73 (d, 2.5 Hz, 1H). Ethyl ester 8 (208 mg, 0.86 mmol) was dissolved in 5 mL THF. 1 N NaOH (about 1 mL) was added and the reaction was put in a 35° C. water bath overnight. The volume of the reaction was reduced to about 1 mL and then acidified with 1 N HCl to precipitate the desired product. The precipitate was isolated by decanting and drying in vacuo to give 54 mg (30% yield) of 9; LCMS 214.1 (m+H) 236.0(m+Na). 1HNMR (400 MHz, CD3OD) 3.64 (s, 2H) 7.24-7.28 (m, 4H) 7.25 (t, 8.4 Hz, 2H) 7.52 (d, 8.4 Hz, 2H) 7.87 (dd, 2.0 Hz, 8.0 Hz, 1H) 8.53 (d, 2.0 Hz, 1H). Carboxylic acid 9 (54 mg, 0.232 mmol), 3-Fluorobenzylamine (1.1 eq), and PyBOP (1.1 eq) were dissolved in 3 ml anhydrous DMF. After 10 minutes DIEA (1.1 eq) was added and the reaction was allowed to stir overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue was taken up with methanol and crystallized from methanol/water to give 44 mg Compound 25, KX1-329 (55%) as clear, needle crystals; TLC, Rf 0.2 (1:1 DCM:EtOAc). LCMS 321.2 (m+H), 343.1 (m+Na), 662.9 (2 m+Na). 1HNMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) 3.82 (s, 2H), 4.46 (d, 8.8 Hz, 2H), 6.91(t, 9.2 Hz, 2H) 6.99 (d, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (t, 8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (d, 8.0 Hz, 2H) 7.40 (tt, 1.2 Hz, 7.2 Hz, 2H) 7.55 (d, 7.6 Hz, 2H) 7.80 (b, 1H) 7.86 (dd, 2.0 Hz, 7.6 Hz, 1H) 8.73 (d, 2.0 Hz, 1H). Synthesis of Compound 27, 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)-1-oxo-pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide, KX1-358 To an ice cooled solution of 0.2 gm of 2-[6-(4-Ethoxy-phenyl)pyridin-3-yl]-N-(3-fluoro-benzyl)-acetamide in 80 ml DCM, 0.13 gm of m-chloroperbenzoic acid was added as solid. After stirring overnight, the reaction washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, dried with sodium sulfate, evaporated to dryness under vacuum, then chromatographed (silica gel) using ethyl acetate followed by 10% methanol in ethyl acetate to produce 0.16 gm (78%); H1-NMR INOVA-400 (DMSO d6) δ 1.357(t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 3.564(s, 2H), 4.090(q, J=6.8 Hz, 2H), 4.309(d, J=5.60 Hz, 2H), 7.012-7.103(m, 5H), 7.245(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.729(m, 1H), 7.529(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.800(d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 8.225(s, 1H), 8.663(t, J=5.6 Hz, 1H). MS (m/z) 380 (M+H)+. For the following syntheses, unless otherwise noted, reagents and solvents were used as received from commercial suppliers. Proton and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were obtained on a Bruker AC 300 or a Bruker AV 300 spectrometer at 300 MHz for proton and 75 MHz for carbon. Spectra are given in ppm (6) and coupling constants, J, are reported in Hertz. Tetramethylsilane was used as an internal standard for proton spectra and the solvent peak was used as the reference peak for carbon spectra. Mass spectra and LC-MS mass data were obtained on a Perkin Elmer Sciex 100 atmospheric pressure ionization (APCI) mass spectrometer. LC-MS analyses were obtained using a Luna C8(2) Column (100×4.6 mm, Phenomenex) with UV detection at 254 nm using a standard solvent gradient program (Method B). Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed using Analtech silica gel plates and visualized by ultraviolet (UV) light, iodine, or 20 wt % phosphomolybdic acid in ethanol. HPLC analyses were obtained using a Prevail C18 column (53×7 mm, Alltech) with UV detection at 254 nm using a standard solvent gradient program (Method A). Method A: Time Flow (min) (mL/min) % A % B 0.0 3.0 95.0 5.0 10.0 3.0 0.0 100.0 11.0 3.0 0.0 100.0 A = Water with 0.1 v/v Trifluoroacetic Acid B = Acetonitrile with 0.1 v/v Trifluoroacetic Acid Method B: Time Flow (min) (mL/min) % A % B 0.0 2.0 95.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 95.0 A = Water with 0.02 v/v Trifluoroacetic Acid B = Acetonitrile with 0.02 v/v Trifluoroacetic Acid Synthesis of N-benzyl-2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)acetamide A flask was charged with 5-(5-bromopyridin-2(1H)-ylidene)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane-4,6-dione (1.039 g, 3.46 mmol), benzylamine (0.50 mL, 4.58 mmol), and toluene (20 mL). The reaction was brought to reflux under nitrogen for 18 hours, then cooled and placed in a freezer until cold. The product was collected by filtration and washed with hexanes to yield a mass of bright white crystals (1.018 g, 96%). Synthesis of 4-(2-(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl[1,3,2]dioxaborolan-2-yl)-phenoxy)ethyl)morpholine To a stirring solution of 4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl[1,3,2]dioxaborolan-2-yl)-phenol (2.55 g, 11.58 mmol), 2-morpholin-4-ylethanol (1.60 mL, 1.73 g, 13.2 mmol) and triphenyl phosphine (3.64 g, 13.9 mmol) in methylene chloride (60 mL) at 0° C. was added dropwise DIAD (2.82 g, 13.9 mmol). The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stir overnight. After 18 hours, additional portions of triphenyl phosphine (1.51 g, 5.8 mmol), 2-morpholin-4-ylethanol (0.70 mL, 5.8 mmol), and DIAD (1.17 g, 5.8 mmol) were added. After stirring an additional 2 hours at room temperature the reaction was concentrated and the residue purified by flash chromatography (5% to 25% EtOAc in CHCl3) to provide the product as a white solid (2.855 g, 74%). Synthesis of Compound 134, KX2-391 A 10 mL reaction tube with a septum closure and stir bar was charged with N-benzyl-2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)acetamide (123 mg, 0.403 mmol), 4-(2-(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl[1,3,2]dioxaborolan-2-yl)-phenoxy)ethyl)morpholine (171 mg, 0.513 mmol), and FibreCat 10071 (30 mg, 0.015 mmol). Ethanol (3 mL) was added, followed by aqueous potassium carbonate solution (0.60 mL, 1.0 M, 0.60 mmol). The tube was sealed and heated under microwave conditions at 150° C. for 10 minutes. The reaction was cooled and concentrated to remove the majority of the ethanol, and then taken up in 10 mL of ethyl acetate and washed successively with water and saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried with MgSO4, filtered and concentrated to a white solid. This white solid was triturated with ethyl ether to give ALB 30349 as a white solid (137 mg, 79%): mp 135-137° C.; 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.70 (d, 1H, J=2.0 Hz), 7.81 (dd, 1H, J=2.4 Hz, J=8.0 Hz), 7.65 (br s, 1H), 7.49 (d, 2H, J=8.8 Hz), 7.37-7.20 (m, 6H), 7.01 (d, 2H, J=8.8 Hz), 4.49 (d, 2H, J=5.8 Hz), 4.16 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz, 3.82 (s, 2H), 3.78-3.72 (m, 4H), 2.84 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz), 2.62-2.58 (m, 4H); HPLC (Method B) 98.0% (AUC), tR=1.834 min.; APCI MS m/z 432 [M+H]+. 1 Polymer bound di(acetato)dicyclohexylphenylphosphinepalladium(II), manufactured by Johnson Matthey, Inc. and available from Aldrich (catalog #590231). (4-bromo-3-fluorophenyl)(morpholino)methanone A 500 mL flask was charged with 4-bromo-3-fluorobenzoic acid (5.00 g, 22.83 mmol), 100 mL DMF, morpholine (2.4 ml, 27.5 mmol), and 4-Ethylmorpholine (8.6 ml, 67.9 mmol). HOBt (4.32 g, 32.0 mmol) was added followed by EDC (5.25 g, 27.4 mmol) and the reaction allowed to stir at room temperature for 18 hours. The reaction was concentrated and the resulting orange syrup taken up in 100 mL EtOAc and 100 mL water. The organic layer was washed with 100 mL 2N HCl, 100 mL saturated sodium bicarbonate, and 100 mL saturated sodium chloride. The organic was then dried with MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated to give 6.476 g (98%) of a viscous yellow oil. This material was used without further purification. 4-(4-bromo-3-fluorobenzyl)morpholine A 250 ml flask was charged with (4-bromo-3-fluorophenyl)(morpholino)methanone (4.569 g, 15.86 mmol) and dissolved in 16 mL of THF. Diphenylsilane (6.2 ml, 33.4 mmol) was added followed by carbonyltris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium(I)hydride (100 mg, 0.109 mmol) and the reaction stirred at room temperature for 20 hours. The reaction was diluted with 200 mL of ether and extracted with 1N HCl (2×150 mL). This resulted in the formation of a white precipitate in the separatory funnel. The acid layer and the resulting white precipitate were washed with ether (2×100 mL), and then basified with solid NaOH pellets (23 g). The aqueous layer was then extracted with ether (3×125 mL), dried over MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated to give 1.35 g (31%) of a colorless oil. This material was used without further purification. 4-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)benzyl)morpholine A 10 mL microwave reaction tube with septum closure was charged with 4-(4-bromo-3-fluorobenzyl)morpholine (405 mg, 1.48 mmol), Bis(pinacolato)diboron (516 mg, 2.03 mmol), Pd(dppf)Cl2.CH2Cl2 (62 mg, 0.076 mmol), potassium acetate (659 mg, 6.72 mmol), and DMF (3.6 mL). The vial was placed under nitrogen by evacuation/backfilling (5 cycles) and stirred at 80° C. for 8 hours. The reaction was cooled, diluted with ethyl acetate (25 mL) and filtered. The organics were washed with water (25 mL) and saturated sodium chloride (25 mL). The organic layer was then dried over MgSO4 and concentrated to a dark oil. The product was purified by silica gel chromatography eluting with 2% MeOH in CHCl3 to give 310 mg (65%) of an off-white solid. Synthesis of Compound 136, KX2-393 A 10 mL microwave reaction tube with septum closure was charged with 4-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5- tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)benzyl)morpholine (307 mg, 0.96 mmol), 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-N-(3-fluorobenzyl)acetamide (247 mg, 0.77 mmol), and FibreCat 1007 (60 mg, 0.03 mmol). Ethanol (3 mL) was added followed by aqueous potassium carbonate solution (1.2 mL, 1.0 M, 1.2 mmol). The tube was sealed and heated under microwave conditions at 150° C. for 10 minutes. The reaction was cooled and concentrated to remove the majority of the ethanol, and then taken up in 10 mL of ethyl acetate and washed successively with water and saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried with MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated. The material was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 100:0 CHCl3/MeOH to 95:5 CHCl3/MeOH) to provide ALB 30351 as a white solid (240 mg, 74%): mp 91-92° C.; 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.71 (br s, 1H), 7.86-7.84 (m, 1H), 7.78 (br s, 1H), 7.37 (t, 2H, J=7.5 Hz), 7.28-7.21 (m, 3H), 7.02 (dd, 1H, J=0.6 Hz, J=7.7 Hz), 6.98-6.90 (m, 2H), 4.49 (d, 2H, J=5.9 Hz), 3.84 (s, 2H), 372-3.75 (m, 4H), 3.52 (s, 2H), 2.47-2.50 (m, 4H); HPLC (Method A) 98.7% (AUC), tR=3.866 min.; APCI MS m/z 438 [M+H]+. 4-(2-(4-bromo-3-fluorophenoxy)ethyl)morpholine A flask was charged with 4-bromo-3-fluorophenol (4.999 g, 26.2 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (10.298 g, 39.3 mmol). Methylene chloride (120 mL) was added followed by 2-morpholinoethanol (4 mL, 33.0 mmol) and the solution was stirred on an ice water bath to cool. After 5 minutes, diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (7.6 ml, 39.1 mmol) was added over 6 to 8 minutes. The reaction was left stirring on the cold bath to slowly warm to room temperature overnight. The reaction was concentrated and the residue purified by flash chromatography (25% to 100% EtOAc in hexanes) to provide the product as a colorless oil (2.621 g, 33%). 4-(2-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenoxy)ethyl)morpholine A 40 mL microwave reaction tube with a septum closure and stir bar was charged with 4-(2-(4-bromo-3-fluorophenoxy)ethyl)morpholine (307 mg, 1.0 mmol), Bis(pinacolato)diboron (318 mg, 1.25 mmol), Pd(dppf)Cl2—CH2Cl2 (68 mg, 83 μmol), and Potassium acetate (316 mg, 3.22 mmol). DME (20 ml) was added and the tube sealed. The tube was evacuated/backfilled w. N2 (5 cycles) and microwaved at 125° C. for 30 minutes. The reaction was cooled to room temperature, concentrated and the residue purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 2% MeOH in CHCl3) to provide the product as a colorless oil (356 mg, >99%). The 1H NMR spectrum shows the product to contain a small amount of pinacol-like impurity. The material was used as-is. Synthesis of Compound 133, KX2-392 A 10 mL microwave reaction tube with septum closure was charged with 4-(2-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenoxy)ethyl)morpholine (175 mg, 0.50 mmol), 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-N-(3-fluorobenzyl)acetamide (121 mg, 0.37 mmol), and FibreCat 1007 (30 mg, 0.03 mmol). Ethanol (3 mL) was added followed by aqueous potassium carbonate solution (0.600 mL, 1.0 M, 0.60 mmol). The tube was sealed and heated under microwave conditions at 150° C. for 10 minutes. The reaction was cooled, filtered, and concentrated to remove the majority of the ethanol. The residue was then taken up in 10 mL of ethyl acetate and washed successively with water and saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried with MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated. The material was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 100:0 CHCl3/MeOH to 95:5 CHCl3/MeOH) to provide ALB 30350 as a white solid (70 mg, 40%): mp 126-127° C.; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.67 (br s, 1H), 7.77-7.85 (m, 2H), 7.21-7.37 (m, 3H), 7.02 (d, 1H, J=7.7 Hz), 6.90-6.97 (m, 2H), 6.82 (dd, 1H, J=2.5 Hz, J=8.6 Hz), 6.76 (dd, 1H, J=2.4 Hz, J=12.4 Hz), 4.49 (d, 2H, J=5.9 Hz), 4.15 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz), 3.83 (s, 2H), 3.71-3.78 (m, 4H), 2.83 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz), 2.56-2.63 (m, 4H); HPLC (Method A)>99% (AUC), tR=4.026 min.; APCI MS m/z 468 [M+H]+. 1-(2-(4-bromo-3-fluorophenoxy)ethyl)-4-methylpiperazine A flask was charged with 4-bromo-3-fluorophenol (5.00 g, 26 mmol) and triphenylphosphine (10.30 g, 39 mmol). Methylene chloride (120 mL) was added followed by 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethanol (4.61 g, 32 mmol) and the solution was stirred on an ice water bath to cool. After 5 minutes, diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (7.6 ml, 39.1 mmol) was added over 6 to 8 minutes. The reaction was left stirring on the cold bath to slowly warm to room temperature overnight. The reaction was concentrated and the residue purified by flash chromatography (25% to 100% EtOAc in hexanes) to provide the product as a colorless oil (2.62 g, 33%). 1-(2-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenoxy)ethyl)-4-methylpiperazine A 40 mL microwave reaction tube with a septum closure and stir bar was charged with 1-(2-(4-bromo-3-fluorophenoxy)ethyl)-4-methylpiperazine (428 mg, 1.35 mmol), Bis(pinacolato)diboron (375 mg, 1.48 mmol), Pd(dppf)Cl2—CH2Cl2 (63 mg, 77 μmol), and Potassium acetate (410 mg, 4.18 mmol). DME (10 ml) was added and the tube sealed. The tube was evacuated/backfilled w. N2 (5 cycles) and microwaved at 100° C. for 30 minutes. Additional Pd(dppf)Cl2—CH2Cl2 (63 mg, 77 μmol) was added and the reaction microwaved at 100° C. for 60 minutes. The reaction was cooled to room temperature, concentrated and the residue purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 1% to 2% MeOH in CHCl3) to provide the product as a dark oil (354 mg, 72%). Synthesis of Compound 137, KX2-394 A 10 mL microwave reaction tube with septum closure was charged with 1-(2-(3-fluoro-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenoxy)ethyl)-4-methylpiperazine (340 mg, 0.93 mmol), 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-N-(3-fluorobenzyl)acetamide (201 mg, 0.62 mmol), and FibreCat 1007 (125 mg, 0.06 mmol). Ethanol (3 mL) was added followed by aqueous potassium carbonate solution (1.00 mL, 1.0 M, 1.00 mmol). The tube was sealed and heated under microwave conditions at 150° C. for 10 minutes. The reaction was cooled, filtered, and concentrated to remove the majority of the ethanol. The residue was then taken up in 10 mL of ethyl acetate and washed successively with water and saturated sodium chloride solution. The organic layer was dried with MgSO4, filtered, and concentrated. The material was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 98:2 CHCl3/MeOH to 90:10 CHCl3/MeOH) to provide ALB 30352-2 as a tan gum (28 mg, 9%): 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.66 (br s, 1H), 7.78-7.94 (m, 2H), 7.20-7.40 (m, 3H), 6.88-7.06 (m, 3H), 6.70-6.85 (m, 2H), 4.47 (d, 2H, J=5.9 Hz), 4.14 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz), 3.83 (s, 2H), 2.85 (t, 2H, J=5.7 Hz), 2.41-2.77 (m, 8H), 2.34 (s, 3H); HPLC (Method A)>99% (AUC), tR=3.778 min.; APCI MS m/z 481 [M+H]+. Example 2 Cell Growth Inhibition The drug concentration required to block net cell growth by 50% relative to a control sample is measured as the GI50. The GI50s for several of the compounds of the invention were assayed as described herein. The HT29 cell line is a NCl standard human colon carcinoma cell line. HT-29 cells were obtained from ATCC at passage 125 and were used for inhibition studies between passage 126-151. HT29 cells were routinely cultured in McCoy's 5A medium supplemented with Fetal Bovine Serum (1.5% v/v) and L-glutamine (2 mM). The c-Src 3T3 is a mouse fibroblast NIH 3T3 normal cell line that has been transfected with a point-mutant of human c-Src wherein tyrosine 527 has been converted to a phenylalanine. This mutation results in “constitutively active” c-Src because phosphorylation on tyrosine 527 results in auto-inhibition of Src by having it fold back on its own SH2 domain. With a Phe there, this phosphorylation can't occur and therefore auto-inhibition can't occur. Thus, the always fully active mutant Src then converts the normal mouse fibroblasts into rapidly growing tumor cells. Since the hyperactive Src is the main factor driving growth in these cells (particularly when cultured under low growth serum conditions), compounds active in blocking this growth are thought to work by blocking Src signaling (e.g. as a direct Src kinase inhibitor or as an inhibitor acting somewhere else in the Src signaling cascade). The cells were routinely cultured in DMEM supplemented with Fetal Bovine Serum (2.0% v/V), L-glutamine (2 mM) and Sodium Pyruvate (1 mM). In the BrdU Assay for cell growth inhibition, quantitation of cell proliferation was based on the measurement of BrdU incorporation during DNA synthesis. The Cell Proliferation ELISA BrdU assay kit (colorimetric) was obtained from Roche Applied Science and performed as per vendor instructions. Growth inhibition was expressed as a GI50 where the GI50 is the sample dose that inhibits 50% of cell growth. The growth inhibition (GI) is determined from the formula GI=(T0−Tn×100/T0−CONn) where T0 is the BrdU growth of untreated cells at time “0”, Tn is the BrdU growth of treated cells at day “n” and CONn is the control BrdU growth of control cells at day “n”. The GI50 was extrapolated and the data plotted using XL-Fit 4.0 software. Actively growing cultures were trypsinized and cells were resuspended in 190 μL of appropriate culture medium supplemented with 1.05% FBS in each well of a 96-well culture plate (1000 HT-29 cells; 2500 c-Src 3T3 cells). For 96 well culture plate experiments, c-Src 3T3 medium was supplemented with 10 mM HEPES buffer. HT-29 cells were seeded in standard tissue culture 96-well plates and c-Src 3T3 cells were seeded in 96-well plates coated with Poly-D-lysine (BIOCOAT™). To increase CO2 diffusion, c-Src 3T3 96-well plates were incubated with their lids raised by ˜2 mm using sterile rubber caps. Seeded 96 well plates were allowed to attach overnight for 18-24 hours, either at 37° C. and 5% CO2 for HT-29 or at 37° C. and 10% CO2 for c-Src 3T3. Approx 18-24 hours after seeding, the initial growth of cells (T0) was determined for untreated cells using the BrdU assay. Samples were reconstituted in DMSO at 20 mM and intermediate dilutions made using DMEM containing 10% FBS. The final assay concentrations were 1.5% for FBS and 0.05% for DMSO. Samples were added as 10 μL aliquots in triplicate and plates were incubated as above for ˜72 hours. Negative (vehicle) and positive controls (e.g., AZ (KX-328)) were included. Plates were assayed for BrdU and the data analyzed as above for GI50. The results are shown in Table 3. In this table, the data is listed as Growth % of Control, such that a lower number at an indicated concentration indicates a greater potency of the compound in blocking growth of that tumor cell line. All compounds were initially prepared as 20 mM DMSO stock solutions and then diluted into buffer for the in vitro tumor growth assays. NG means no cell growth beyond the control and T means the number of cells in the drug treated wells was less than in the control (i.e. net cell loss). NT indicates that the test was not performed. Compound AZ (KX-328) is an ATP-competitive tyrosine kinase inhibitor, as described in Plé et al., J. Med. Chem., 47:871-887 (2004). As shown in Table 3, GI50s were obtained for a number of the compounds in other cell lines. These GI50's were determined using the standard tumor growth inhibition assays, similar to that described in detail for the HT29 cell line above, and the following cell lines: colon tumor cell lines KM12, lung cancer cell line H460 and lung cancer cell line A549 (all are NCl standard tumor cell lines). TABLE 3 HT-29 c-Src 3T3 Growth, % of Control Growth, % of Control Mean, n = 3 Mean, n = 3 KX-# CMPD 5 uM 500 nM 50 nM GI50 10 uM 1.0 uM 100 nM KX2-328 AZ T 10.0 73.0 99 nM (c-Src 3T3), 794 nM (HT29) T T 13.0 KX1-136 1 T T 83.1 53 nM (c-Src 3T3), 484 nM (HT29) T T 46.3 105 nM (KM12) 280 nM (H460) 330 nM (A549) KX1-305 2 T T 107.7 349 nM (c-Src 3T3), 877 nM (HT29), T T 35.0 410 nM (KM12) 890 nM (H460) 1.03 uM (A549) KX1-307 4 39.4 93.8 85.9 4.2 45.3 65.7 KX1-308 5 32.3 76.1 87.9 67.1 77.7 94.5 KX1-312 9 33.7 67.6 93.7 12.1 94.5 98.5 KX1-306 3 T T 124.4 T T 47.0 KX1-313 10 T T 80.2 T T 91.6 KX1-319 16 T T 101.2 T T 88.2 KX1-309 6 T T 29.5 T T T KX1-310 7 T T 93.3 T T 101.8 KX1-311 8 T T 60.4 T T 81.3 KX1-327 24 T T 31.6 >200 nM (c-Src 3T3), 680 nM (HT29) T T 81.3 KX1-316 13 T 45.1 77.8 >200 nM (c-Src 3T3) T T 88.2 KX1-315 12 T 50.3 66.0 T 88.1 89.3 KX1-314 11 14.4 83.7 53.21 39.3 88.4 93.6 KX1-317 14 T 64.0 83.5 T 85.6 94.2 KX1-318 15 T 93.2 164.7 T 71.0 91.4 KX1-320 17 86.2 132.0 111.2 73.1 86.5 90.4 KX1-321 18 23.7 118.1 127.2 55.8 96.2 95.5 KX1-322 19 T 87.2 114.1 3,730 nM (Src 3T3) T T 94.6 KX1-323 20 60.8 106.9 105.6 93.2 97.3 96.6 KX1-324 21 NG 95.7 91.0 T 90.0 96.0 KX1-325 22 T T 85.0 207 nM (c-Src 3T3), 215 nM (HT29) T 54.2 97.6 KX1-326 23 43.7 73.2 65.4 55.7 87.3 92.2 KX1-329, 25 T T 101 269 nM (c-Src 3T3), 338 nM (HT29) T T 96.0 KX1-357 26 NT NT NT 9.0 95.4 101.3 KX1-358 27 NT NT NT 82.7 91.4 92.2 KX2-359 28 T T T 34 nM (c-Src 3T3), 45 nM (HT29) T T T KX2-360 54 T T 91 T T 106.0 KX2-361 76 T T T 11 nM (c-Src 3T3), 10 nM (HT29) T T T KX2-362 78 T T 86 56 nM (c-Src 3T3), 56 nM (HT29) T T 101 KX2-363 79 T 67 92 100 70 92 KX2-364 82 T 80 105 T 81 92 KX2-365 40 T T 88 133 nM (c-Src 3T3), 93 nM (HT29) T T 88 KX2-366 75 T 54 89 T 83 103 KX2-367 41 T 6 64 T T 102 KX2-368, 29 T 70 107 27 101 99 slightly insoluble KX2-369 55 T 72 87 T 101 100 KX2-370 77 81 93 112 106 105 104 KX2-371 81 16 33 98 16 72 75 KX2-372 80 T T T 58 nM (c-Src 3T3); 67 nM (HT-29) T T T KX2-373 72 T T 64 96 nM (c-Src 3T3); 639 nM (HT-29) T T 97 KX2-374 115 T 57 74 T 84 110 KX2-375 36 T T 99 206 nM (c-Src 3T3); 354 nM (HT-29) T T T KX2-376 74 T 93 96 >1,600 nM (c-Src 3T3); >400 nM (HT-29) T T T KX2-377 38 T T T 118 nM (c-Src 3T3); 111 nM (HT-29) T T T KX2-378 31 T 61 88 48 107 122 KX2-379 70 T 88 89 T 104 106 KX2-380 30 T 50 100 T 119 124 KX2-381 33 T T 58 914 nM (c-Src 3T3); 375 nM (HT-29) T T 116 KX2-382 68 50 97 80 103 114 117 KX2-383 116 327 nM (c-Src 3T3); 248 nM (HT-29) KX2-384 64 1,430 nM (c-Src 3T3); inactive (HT-29) KX2-385 83 232 nM (c-Src 3T3) KX2-386 37 897 nM (c-Src 3T3); inactive (HT-29) KX2-387 38 inactive (c-Src 3T3); 1,860 nM (HT-29) KX2-388 66 >1,600 nM (c-Src 3T3); 906 nM (HT-29) KX2-389 60 Inactive (c-Src 3T3); inactive (HT-29) KX1-329 135 inactive (c-Src 3T3); inactive (HT-29) N-oxide KX2-390 114 797 nM (c-Src 3T3); 868 nM (HT-29) KX2-391 133 13 nM (c-Src 3T3); 23 nM (HT-29) KX2-392 134 13 nM (c-Src 3T3); 21 nM (HT-29) KX2-393 136 24 nM (c-Src 3T3); 52 nM (HT-29) KX2-394 137 13 nM (c-Src 3T3); 26 nM (HT-29) NG = No growth, total growth inhibition; T = Cytotoxic Effect on Cells, negative growth; NT = Not tested OTHER EMBODIMENTS While the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.
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A
| 7A61
| 22A61K
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3153
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77
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11934154
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US20090118292A1-20090507
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CYTOKINE INHIBITORS
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ACCEPTED
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20090423
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20090507
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[]
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A61K314985
|
["A61K314985", "C07D48704"]
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7868001
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20071102
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20110111
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514
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233200
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65153.0
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JAISLE
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CECILIA
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Deng", "inventor_name_first": "Wei", "inventor_city": "Shanghai", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Su", "inventor_name_first": "Wei-Guo", "inventor_city": "Shanghai", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Cai", "inventor_name_first": "Yu", "inventor_city": "Shanghai", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Duan", "inventor_name_first": "Jeff", "inventor_city": "Shanghai", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}]
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A compound of Formula I: Each variable is defined in the specification. This invention relates to a method of decreasing a level of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine such as IL-1β) in a subject with a compound of Formula I. It also relates to a method of treating a disorder mediated by an overproduction of a cytokine with such a compound.
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1. A compound of Formula I: wherein A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO2, CO, COO, CONRc′, NRc′, or NRc′CONRd′, in which each of Ra′, Rb′, Rc′, and Rd′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl; each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORa2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein A is deleted, CH2, or 3. The compound of claim 2, wherein B is 4. The compound of claim 3, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 5. The compound of claim 4, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 6. The compound of claim 2, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 7. The compound of claim 6, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 8. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is 2-(3-(5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(2-morpholinoethyl)urea; 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(2-methoxyethyl)urea; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-methoxyethanamine; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-morpholinoethanamine; 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N,N-dimethylmethanamine; 2-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methylamino)ethanol; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethanamine; 2-(3-(5-((4-fluorophenoxy)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(ethoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(methoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl acetate; 2-(3-(5-isopropyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanol; 2-(3-(5-cyclopropyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(fluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-ethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; N-methyl-2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-amine; ethyl 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylate; ethyl 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetate; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylic acid; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetic acid; 2-(3-(5-(methylthiomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(methylsulfonylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; (3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)methanamine; 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(fluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-(methoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2-(3-(5-(ethoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanol; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylic acid; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-N-(pyridin-2-yl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-N-(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)acetamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroacetamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2-chloroacetamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-chlorobenzamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-nitrobenzenesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-cyanobenzamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-bromobenzamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-fluorobenzenesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-chlorobenzenesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2-fluorobenzenesulfonamide; N-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl)-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide; N-butyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide; 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N-(((S)-tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)methyl)acetamide; N-cyclopentyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide; 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N-(2-methoxyethyl)acetamide; 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-1-morpholinoethanone; N-cyclopropyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(2-morpholinoethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; N-ethyl-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; N-cyclopentyl-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)(morpholino)methanone; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(2-methoxyethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; N-(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; (4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanone; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(thiophen-2-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N,N-dimethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)(pyrrolidin-1-yl)methanone; 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide; 2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide; (2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)pyridin-3-yl)(pyrrolidin-1-yl)methanone; N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide; ethyl 2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinate; N-cyclopropyl-2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide; (2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)pyridin-3-yl)(morpholino)methanone; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(piperidin-1-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-((2-methoxyethylamino)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; N-(3-(5-((2-(dimethylamino)ethylamino)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(piperazin-1-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; N-(3-(5-(aminomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide; 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; N1-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethane-1,2-diamine; N1-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-N2,N2-dimethylethane-1,2-diamine; 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine; 2,2,2-trifluoro-N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)acetamide; ethyl 2-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl-amino)-2-oxoacetate; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-methoxyacetamide; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)cyclopentanecarboxamide; ethyl 3-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl-amino)-3-oxopropanoate; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)cyclopropanecarboxamide; N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4- oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)isobutyramide; 3-((3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzylamino)methyl)benzonitrile; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-4-chlorobenzamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-2-methoxyacetamide; N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-cyanobenzenesulfonamide; 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(thiophen-2-ylmethyl)urea; 3-bromo-N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)benzamide; 4-chloro-N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)benzamide; N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)butyramide; N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)cyclopropanecarboxamide; N-((3-(3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)(4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl)methanamine; 2-methoxy-N-((3-(3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethanamine; N-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-2-methoxyacetamide; ethyl 2-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methylamino)nicotinate; 1-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-3-(2-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)urea; or 1-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-3-(4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)urea. 9. A method of decreasing a level of a cytokine in a subject, the method comprising administering to a subject with an effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO2, CO, COO, CONRc′, NRc′, or NRc′CONRd′, in which each of Ra′, Rb′, Rc′, and Rd′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl; each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORa2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, OR2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the cytokine is TNFα or interleukin. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the interleukin is IL-1β, IL-2, or IL-6. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein A is deleted, CH2, or 13. The method of claim 12, wherein B is 14. The method of claim 13, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 16. The method of claim 12, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 18. A method of treating a disorder mediated by an overproduction of a cytokine, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a compound of Formula I. wherein A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO2, CO, COO, CONRc′, NRc′, or NRc′CONRd′, in which each of Ra′, Rb′, Rc′, and Rd′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl; each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2b1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORb2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the cytokine is TNFα or interleukin. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the interleukin is IL-1β, IL-2, or IL-6. 21. The method of claim 20, wherein A is deleted, CH2, or 22. The method of claim 21, wherein B is 23. The method of claim 22, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 25. The method of claim 21, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 27. The method of claim 18, wherein the disorder is an inflammatory disease, an autoimmune disease, cancer, diabetes, allergy or atherosclerosis. 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the autoimmune disease is rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, or septic shock. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the inflammatory bowel disease is ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease. 30. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a compound of Formula I: wherein A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO2, CO, COO, CONRc′, NRc′, or NRc′CONRd′, in which each of Ra′, Rb′, Rc′, and Rd′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl; each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORa2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. 31. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 30, wherein A is deleted, CH2, or 32. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 31, wherein B is 33. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 32, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 34. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 33, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 35. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 31, wherein X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONc′, or NRc′CONRd′. 36. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 35, wherein X is CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. 37. A process for the preparation of a compound of Formula I as defined in claim 1 or its salt or solvate, the process comprising: (a) coupling a compound of the following formula: wherein B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl, and each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc1 and Rd1 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; with a compound of the following formula: R3—X1—C(O)-L, wherein L is a leaving group, X1 is deleted or (CRa′Rb′)m, in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of Ra′ and Rb′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R3a is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; or (b) coupling a compound of the following formula: wherein A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, B, R1, and R2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: L-X2—R3b, wherein L is a leaving group, X2 is deleted, SO, SO2, or CO, and R3b is NRc2Rd2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which Rc2 and Rd2 are defined above; or (c) coupling a compound of the following formula: wherein L is a leaving group, A′ is a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″ independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group, B, R1, and R2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: H—R3c, wherein R3c is OC(O)Ra2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which Ra2, Rb2, Rc2, and Rd2 are defined above; and after (a), (b), or (c), optionally forming a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate of the compound of Formula I obtained.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), a mononuclear cytokine, is predominately produced by monocytes and macrophages. It possesses various biological activities: (1) killing cancer cells or inhibiting growth of cancer cells, (2) enhancing the phagocytosis of neutrophilic granulocytes, (3) up-regulating the production of peroxide, and (4) killing infection pathogens. Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), a cytokine secreted by cells such as monocyte macrophages and dendritic cells, mediates immune and inflammatory responses. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a pro-inflammatory transcription factor. It upregulates cytokines, including TNFα and IL-1β, and thereby mediates the inflammatory response. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is induced by endotoxins or cytokines (e.g., TNFα). It catalyzes the production of nitric oxide, an important pleiotropic molecule, from L-aginine and oxygen. TNFα, IL-1β, NF-κB, and iNOS play important roles in many key physiological and pathological processes relating to a wide range of diseases, e.g., autoimmune diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis, and diabetes. Therefore, modulating the expression or activity of TNFα, IL-1β, NF-κB, or iNOS can lead to treatment of these diseases. See, e.g., Ogata H, Hibi T. et al Curr Pharm Des. 2003; 9(14): 1107-13; Taylor P C. et al Curr Pharm Des. 2003; 9(14): 1095-106; Fan C., et al. J. Mol. Med 1999,. 77, 577-592; and Alcaraz et al., Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2002: 8, 215.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>This invention is based on surprising discoveries that imidazole compounds significantly inhibited production of cytokines, including TNFα and interleukin (e.g., IL-1β, IL-2, or IL-6) in mice and rats. These compounds are potentially useful in treating disorders mediated by abnormal levels of cytokines, such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases, diabetes, atherosclerosis and cancer. Accordingly, one aspect of this invention features imidazole compounds of Formula I: In this formula, A is deleted, (CR′R″) n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C 1-10 alkyl, and R is H or C 1-10 alkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)R a , OR b , SR b , S(O) 2 R b , NR c R d , C(O)NR c NR d , in which each of R a and R b , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of R c and R d , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or R c and R d together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CR a ′R b ′) m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO 2 , CO, COO, CONR c ′, NR c ′, or NR c ′CONR d ′, in which each of R a ′, R b ′, R c ′, and R d ′, independently, is H or C 1-10 alkyl; each of R 1 and R 2 , independently, is H, halo, NR c1 C(O)R a1 , OR b1 , NR c1 R d1 , NR c1 C(O)OR b1 , NR c1 S(O) 2 R b1 , C 1-10 alkyl, or C 1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of R a1 and R b1 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of R c1 and R d1 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or R c1 and R d1 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and R 3 is H, halo, OC(O)R a2 , C(O)OR b2 , OR b2 , SR b2 , SO 2 R b2 , C(O)NR c2 R d2 , NR c2 R d2 , NR c2 C(O)R a2 , NR c2 C(O)C(O)OR a2 , NR c2 S(O) 2 R b2 , C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C 1-4 alkyl, C 1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO 2 , OR b2 , C(O)OR c2 , C(O)NR c2 R 2 , or NR c2 R d2 , in which each of R a2 and R b2 , independently, is H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C 1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO 2 , or halo, and each of R c2 and R d2 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C 1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C 1-4 alkylamino, C 2-8 dialkylamino, S(O) 2 R b2 , C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or R c2 and R d2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. Referring to Formula I, a subset of the indazole compounds described above are those in which each A is deleted, CH 2 , or In these compounds, B can be X can be deleted, (CR a ′R b ′) m , CO, COO, NR c ′, CONR c ′, or NR c ′CONR d ′. More specifically, X can be CH 2 , NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. The term “alkyl” herein refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon, containing e.g. 1-20 carbon atoms. Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, and t-butyl. The term “alkoxyl” refers to an —O— alkyl. The term “haloakyl” refers to an alkyl group having one or more halogen substituents. Example haloalkyl groups include CF 3 , C 2 F 5 , CHF 2 , CCl 3 , CHCl 2 , C 2 Cl 5 , and the like. The term “arylalkyl” (or “heteroarylakyl”) refers to alkyl substituted by aryl (or heteroaryl) and “cycloalkylalkyl” (or “heterocycloalkylalkyl”) refers to alkyl substituted by cycloalkyl (or heterocycloalkyl). An example arylalkyl group is benzyl. The term “cycloalkyl” refers to a saturated, cyclic hydrocarbon moiety, such as cyclohexyl. The term “heterocycloalkyl” refers to a saturated, cyclic moiety having at least one ring heteroatom (e.g., N, O, or S), such as 4-tetrahydropyranyl. The term “aryl” refers to a hydrocarbon moiety having one or more aromatic rings. Examples of aryl moieties include phenyl (Ph), phenylene, naphthyl, naphthylene, pyrenyl, anthryl, and phenanthryl. The term “haloaryl” refers to an aryl group having one or more halogen substituents. The term “heteroaryl” refers to a moiety having one or more aromatic rings that contain at least one heteroatom (e.g., N, O, or S). Examples of heteroaryl moieties include furyl, furylene, fluorenyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, oxazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, quinazolinyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl and indolyl. The term “halo” or “halogen” includes fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo. The term “alkylamino” refers to an amino group substituted by an alkyl group. The term “dialkylamino” refers to an amino group substituted by two alkyl groups. Alkyl, haloalkyl, alkoxyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylakyl, heterocycloalkylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl mentioned herein include both substituted and unsubstituted moieties, unless specified otherwise. Possible substituents on cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl, and heteroaryl include, but are not limited to, C 1 -C 10 alkyl, C 2 -C 10 alkenyl, C 2 -C 10 alkynyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkenyl, C 1 -C 20 heterocycloalkyl, C 1 -C 20 heterocycloalkenyl, C 1 -C 10 alkoxy, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, amino, C 1 -C 10 alkylamino, C 1 -C 20 dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, C 1 -C 10 alkylsulfonamino, arylsulfonamino, C 1 -C 10 alkylimino, arylimino, C 1 -C 10 alkylsulfonimino, arylsulfonimino, hydroxyl, halo, thio, C 1 -C 10 alkylthio, arylthio, C 1 -C 10 alkylsulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, acylamino, aminoacyl, aminothioacyl, amido, amidino, guanidine, ureido, thioureido, cyano, nitro, nitroso, azido, acyl, thioacyl, acyloxy, carboxyl, and carboxylic ester. On the other hand, possible substituents on alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl include all of the above-recited substituents except C 1 -C 10 alkyl. Cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl, and heteroaryl can also be fused with each other. Another aspect of this invention relates to a method of decreasing a level of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine) by contacting the cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine) with an effective amount of one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I. The interlukine include but is not limited to IL-1β, IL-2, and IL-6. Still another aspect of this invention relates to a method of treating a disorder mediated by an overproduction of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine), such as, inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), chronic heart failure, diabetes mellitus, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyositis/dermatomyositis, psoriasis, acute myelogenous leukemia, AIDS dementia complex, hematosepsis, septic shock, graft-versus-host disease, uveitis, asthma, acute pancreatitis, allergy, atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis, or periodontal disease. The method includes administering to a subject in need of the treatment an effective amount of one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I. The compounds of Formula I as described above include the compounds themselves, as well as their salts, prodrugs, and solvates, if applicable. A salt, for example, can be formed between an anion and a positively charged group (e.g., ammonium) on a compound of Formula I. Suitable anions include chloride, bromide, iodide, sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, citrate, methanesulfonate, trifluoroacetate, acetate, malate, tosylate, tartrate, fumurate, glutamate, glucuronate, lactate, glutarate, and maleate. Likewise, a salt can also be formed between a cation and a negatively charged group (e.g., carboxylate) on a compound of Formula I. Suitable cations include sodium ion, potassium ion, magnesium ion, calcium ion, and an ammonium cation such as tetramethylammonium ion. The compounds also include those salts containing quaternary nitrogen atoms. Examples of prodrugs include esters and other pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives, which, upon administration to a subject, are capable of providing active compounds of Formula I. A solvate refers to a complex formed between an active compound of Formula I and a pharmaceutically acceptable solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable solvents include water, ethanol, isopropanol, ethyl acetate, acetic acid, and ethanolamine. In a further aspect, this invention features a chemical process for preparing the aforementioned compounds (including their salts and solvates) and/or their intermediates. In one implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl, and each of R 1 and R 2 , independently, is H, halo, NR c1 C(O)R a1 , OR b1 , NR c1 R d1 , NR c1 C(O)OR b1 , NR c1 S(O) 2 R b1 , C 1-10 alkyl, or C 1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of R a1 and R b1 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of R c1 and R d1 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or R c1 and R d1 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; with a compound of the following formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 3a —X 1 —C(O)-L, in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in which L is a leaving group (e.g., chloro, or OC(O)R), X 1 is deleted or (CR a ′R b ′) m , in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of R a ′ and R b ′, independently, is H or C 1-10 alkyl, and R 3a is H, halo, OC(O)R a2 , C(O)OR b2 , C(O)NR c2 R d2 , C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C 1-4 alkyl, C 1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO 2 , OR b2 , C(O)OR b2 , C(O)NR c2 R d2 , or NR c2 R d2 , in which each of R a2 and R b2 , independently, is H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C 1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO 2 , or halo, and each of R c2 and R d2 , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C 1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C 1-4 alkylamino, C 2-8 dialkylamino, S(O) 2 R b2 , C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or R c2 and R d2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. In another implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which A is deleted, (CR′R″) n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C 1-10 alkyl, B, R 1 , and R 2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? L-X 2 —R 3b , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in which L is a leaving group, X 2 is deleted, SO, SO 2 , or CO, and R 3b is NR c2 R d2 , C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C 1-4 alkyl, C 1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO 2 , OR b2 , C(O)OR b2 , C(O)NR c2 R d2 , or NR c2 R d2 , in which R c2 and R d2 are defined above. In still another implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which L is a leaving group, A′ is a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C 1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C 1-10 alkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)R a , OR b , SR b , S(O) 2 R b , NR c R d , C(O)NR c NR d , in which each of R a and R b , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of R c and R d , independently, is H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or R c and R d together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group, B, R 1 , and R 2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? H—R 3c , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein R 3c is OC(O)R a2 , OR b2 , SR b2 , SO 2 R b2 , NR c2 R d2 , NR c2 C(O)R a2 , NR c2 C(O)C(O)OR a2 , NR c2 S(O) 2 R b2 , C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C 1-4 alkyl, C 1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO 2 , OR 2 , C(O)OR b2 , C(O)NR c2 R d2 , or NR c2 R d2 , in which R a2 , R b2 , R c2 , and R d2 are defined above. After each coupling described above, the process can also include forming a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate of the compound of Formula I obtained. Preparation of compounds can involve the protection and deprotection of various chemical groups. The need for protection and deprotection, and the selection of appropriate protecting groups can be readily determined by one skilled in the art. The chemistry of protecting groups can be found, for example, in Greene, et al., Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 2d. Ed., Wiley & Sons, 1991, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Also within the scope of this invention is a pharmaceutical composition containing one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I for use in treating any above-described disorder, as well as this use and use of one or more of the imidazole compounds the for the manufacture of a medicament for the just-mentioned treatment. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and the claims. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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BACKGROUND Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), a mononuclear cytokine, is predominately produced by monocytes and macrophages. It possesses various biological activities: (1) killing cancer cells or inhibiting growth of cancer cells, (2) enhancing the phagocytosis of neutrophilic granulocytes, (3) up-regulating the production of peroxide, and (4) killing infection pathogens. Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), a cytokine secreted by cells such as monocyte macrophages and dendritic cells, mediates immune and inflammatory responses. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a pro-inflammatory transcription factor. It upregulates cytokines, including TNFα and IL-1β, and thereby mediates the inflammatory response. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is induced by endotoxins or cytokines (e.g., TNFα). It catalyzes the production of nitric oxide, an important pleiotropic molecule, from L-aginine and oxygen. TNFα, IL-1β, NF-κB, and iNOS play important roles in many key physiological and pathological processes relating to a wide range of diseases, e.g., autoimmune diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis, and diabetes. Therefore, modulating the expression or activity of TNFα, IL-1β, NF-κB, or iNOS can lead to treatment of these diseases. See, e.g., Ogata H, Hibi T. et al Curr Pharm Des. 2003; 9(14): 1107-13; Taylor P C. et al Curr Pharm Des. 2003; 9(14): 1095-106; Fan C., et al. J. Mol. Med 1999,. 77, 577-592; and Alcaraz et al., Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2002: 8, 215. SUMMARY This invention is based on surprising discoveries that imidazole compounds significantly inhibited production of cytokines, including TNFα and interleukin (e.g., IL-1β, IL-2, or IL-6) in mice and rats. These compounds are potentially useful in treating disorders mediated by abnormal levels of cytokines, such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases, diabetes, atherosclerosis and cancer. Accordingly, one aspect of this invention features imidazole compounds of Formula I: In this formula, A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl; X is deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, SO, SO2, CO, COO, CONRc′, NRc′, or NRc′CONRd′, in which each of Ra′, Rb′, Rc′, and Rd′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl; each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc1 and Rd1 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; and R3 is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORb2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORc2, C(O)NRc2R2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. Referring to Formula I, a subset of the indazole compounds described above are those in which each A is deleted, CH2, or In these compounds, B can be X can be deleted, (CRa′Rb′)m, CO, COO, NRc′, CONRc′, or NRc′CONRd′. More specifically, X can be CH2, NH, CO, COO, CONH, or NHCONH. The term “alkyl” herein refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon, containing e.g. 1-20 carbon atoms. Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, i-propyl, n-butyl, i-butyl, and t-butyl. The term “alkoxyl” refers to an —O— alkyl. The term “haloakyl” refers to an alkyl group having one or more halogen substituents. Example haloalkyl groups include CF3, C2F5, CHF2, CCl3, CHCl2, C2Cl5, and the like. The term “arylalkyl” (or “heteroarylakyl”) refers to alkyl substituted by aryl (or heteroaryl) and “cycloalkylalkyl” (or “heterocycloalkylalkyl”) refers to alkyl substituted by cycloalkyl (or heterocycloalkyl). An example arylalkyl group is benzyl. The term “cycloalkyl” refers to a saturated, cyclic hydrocarbon moiety, such as cyclohexyl. The term “heterocycloalkyl” refers to a saturated, cyclic moiety having at least one ring heteroatom (e.g., N, O, or S), such as 4-tetrahydropyranyl. The term “aryl” refers to a hydrocarbon moiety having one or more aromatic rings. Examples of aryl moieties include phenyl (Ph), phenylene, naphthyl, naphthylene, pyrenyl, anthryl, and phenanthryl. The term “haloaryl” refers to an aryl group having one or more halogen substituents. The term “heteroaryl” refers to a moiety having one or more aromatic rings that contain at least one heteroatom (e.g., N, O, or S). Examples of heteroaryl moieties include furyl, furylene, fluorenyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, oxazolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, quinazolinyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl and indolyl. The term “halo” or “halogen” includes fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo. The term “alkylamino” refers to an amino group substituted by an alkyl group. The term “dialkylamino” refers to an amino group substituted by two alkyl groups. Alkyl, haloalkyl, alkoxyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylakyl, heterocycloalkylalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl mentioned herein include both substituted and unsubstituted moieties, unless specified otherwise. Possible substituents on cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl, and heteroaryl include, but are not limited to, C1-C10 alkyl, C2-C10 alkenyl, C2-C10 alkynyl, C3-C20 cycloalkyl, C3-C20 cycloalkenyl, C1-C20 heterocycloalkyl, C1-C20 heterocycloalkenyl, C1-C10 alkoxy, aryl, aryloxy, heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, amino, C1-C10 alkylamino, C1-C20 dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, C1-C10 alkylsulfonamino, arylsulfonamino, C1-C10 alkylimino, arylimino, C1-C10 alkylsulfonimino, arylsulfonimino, hydroxyl, halo, thio, C1-C10 alkylthio, arylthio, C1-C10 alkylsulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, acylamino, aminoacyl, aminothioacyl, amido, amidino, guanidine, ureido, thioureido, cyano, nitro, nitroso, azido, acyl, thioacyl, acyloxy, carboxyl, and carboxylic ester. On the other hand, possible substituents on alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl include all of the above-recited substituents except C1-C10 alkyl. Cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl, and heteroaryl can also be fused with each other. Another aspect of this invention relates to a method of decreasing a level of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine) by contacting the cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine) with an effective amount of one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I. The interlukine include but is not limited to IL-1β, IL-2, and IL-6. Still another aspect of this invention relates to a method of treating a disorder mediated by an overproduction of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine), such as, inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), chronic heart failure, diabetes mellitus, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyositis/dermatomyositis, psoriasis, acute myelogenous leukemia, AIDS dementia complex, hematosepsis, septic shock, graft-versus-host disease, uveitis, asthma, acute pancreatitis, allergy, atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis, or periodontal disease. The method includes administering to a subject in need of the treatment an effective amount of one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I. The compounds of Formula I as described above include the compounds themselves, as well as their salts, prodrugs, and solvates, if applicable. A salt, for example, can be formed between an anion and a positively charged group (e.g., ammonium) on a compound of Formula I. Suitable anions include chloride, bromide, iodide, sulfate, nitrate, phosphate, citrate, methanesulfonate, trifluoroacetate, acetate, malate, tosylate, tartrate, fumurate, glutamate, glucuronate, lactate, glutarate, and maleate. Likewise, a salt can also be formed between a cation and a negatively charged group (e.g., carboxylate) on a compound of Formula I. Suitable cations include sodium ion, potassium ion, magnesium ion, calcium ion, and an ammonium cation such as tetramethylammonium ion. The compounds also include those salts containing quaternary nitrogen atoms. Examples of prodrugs include esters and other pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives, which, upon administration to a subject, are capable of providing active compounds of Formula I. A solvate refers to a complex formed between an active compound of Formula I and a pharmaceutically acceptable solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable solvents include water, ethanol, isopropanol, ethyl acetate, acetic acid, and ethanolamine. In a further aspect, this invention features a chemical process for preparing the aforementioned compounds (including their salts and solvates) and/or their intermediates. In one implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which B is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl, and each of R1 and R2, independently, is H, halo, NRc1C(O)Ra1, ORb1, NRc1Rd1, NRc1C(O)ORb1, NRc1S(O)2Rb1, C1-10 alkyl, or C1-10 haloalkyl, in which each of Ra1 and Rb1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc1 and Rd1, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc1 and Rd1 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group; with a compound of the following formula: R3a—X1—C(O)-L, in which L is a leaving group (e.g., chloro, or OC(O)R), X1 is deleted or (CRa′Rb′)m, in which m is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of Ra′ and Rb′, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R3a is H, halo, OC(O)Ra2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which each of Ra2 and Rb2, independently, is H, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl in which C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl is optionally substituted by OH, C1-6 alkoxyl, CN, NO2, or halo, and each of Rc2 and Rd2, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by C1-6 alkoxyl, OH, amino, C1-4 alkylamino, C2-8 dialkylamino, S(O)2Rb2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl or heterocycloalkyl, or Rc2 and Rd2 together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group. In another implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which A is deleted, (CR′R″)n in which n is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, and each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, B, R1, and R2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: L-X2—R3b, in which L is a leaving group, X2 is deleted, SO, SO2, or CO, and R3b is NRc2Rd2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, ORb2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which Rc2 and Rd2 are defined above. In still another implementation, the process includes coupling a compound of the following formula: in which L is a leaving group, A′ is a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of in which each of R′ and R″, independently, is H or C1-10 alkyl, and R′″ is H or C1-10 alkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C(O)Ra, ORb, SRb, S(O)2Rb, NRcRd, C(O)NRcNRd, in which each of Ra and Rb, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, and each of Rc and Rd, independently, is H, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or Rc and Rd together with the N atom to which they are attached form a 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl group, B, R1, and R2 are defined as above; with a compound of the following formula: H—R3c, wherein R3c is OC(O)Ra2, ORb2, SRb2, SO2Rb2, NRc2Rd2, NRc2C(O)Ra2, NRc2C(O)C(O)ORa2, NRc2S(O)2Rb2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl, in which C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 haloalkyl, aryl, haloaryl, cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, arylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl or heterocycloalkylalkyl is optionally substituted by halo, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, CN, NO2, OR2, C(O)ORb2, C(O)NRc2Rd2, or NRc2Rd2, in which Ra2, Rb2, Rc2, and Rd2 are defined above. After each coupling described above, the process can also include forming a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate of the compound of Formula I obtained. Preparation of compounds can involve the protection and deprotection of various chemical groups. The need for protection and deprotection, and the selection of appropriate protecting groups can be readily determined by one skilled in the art. The chemistry of protecting groups can be found, for example, in Greene, et al., Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 2d. Ed., Wiley & Sons, 1991, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Also within the scope of this invention is a pharmaceutical composition containing one or more of the imidazole compounds of Formula I for use in treating any above-described disorder, as well as this use and use of one or more of the imidazole compounds the for the manufacture of a medicament for the just-mentioned treatment. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and the claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Shown below are exemplary compounds, compounds 1-106, of this invention. The compounds described above can be prepared by methods well known in the art. Examples 1-106 below provide detailed descriptions of how compounds 1-106 were actually prepared. The compounds described above have one or more non-aromatic double bonds, and one or more asymmetric centers. They can occur as racemates, racemic mixtures, single enantiomers, individual diastereomers, diastereomeric mixtures, and cis- or trans- or E- or Z-double isomeric forms. Compounds of the invention also include tautomeric forms, such as keto-enol tautomers. Compounds of the invention can also include all isotopes of atoms occurring in the intermediates or final compounds. Isotopes include those atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For example, isotopes of hydrogen include tritium and deuterium. One aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the level of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or IL-1β), e.g., by inhibiting the production of the cytokine in a subject. A subject refers to any animal, including mammals, preferably mice, rats, other rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats, swine, cattle, sheep, horses, or primates, and most preferably humans. The method includes administering to the subject with an effective amount of one or more of the compounds described above. The term “an effective amount” is the amount of the compound which is required to confer the desired effect. Effective amounts may vary, as recognized by those skilled in the art, depending on route of administration, excipient usage, and the possibility of co-usage with other agents. As the compounds described above lower the level of a cytokine in a subject, they can be used to treat a disorder caused by over-production of the cytokine. Thus, also within the scope of this invention is a method of treating a disorder related to cytokine over-production, i.e., an inflammatory disease, an autoimmune disease, cancer, diabetes, allergy or atherosclerosis. An autoimmune disease includes but is not limited to rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, or septic shock. The method includes administering to a subject in need of the treatment an effective amount of one of the compounds described above. The term “treating” or “treatment” refers to the application or administration of a composition including the compound to a subject, who has one of the above-mentioned disorders, a symptom of the disorder, or a predisposition toward the disorder, with the purpose to cure, heal, alleviate, relieve, alter, remedy, ameliorate, improve, or affect the disorder, the symptoms of the disorder, or the predisposition toward the disorder. To practice the treatment method of this invention, one or more of the compounds described above are mixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and then administered orally, rectally, parenterally, by inhalation spray, or via an implanted reservoir. The term “parenteral” as used herein includes subcutaneous, intracutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intraarticular, intraarterial, intrasynovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intralesional and intracranial injection or infusion techniques. A composition for oral administration can be any orally acceptable dosage form including, but not limited to, tablets, capsules, emulsions and aqueous suspensions, dispersions and solutions. Commonly used carriers for tablets include lactose and corn starch. Lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, are also typically added to tablets. For oral administration in a capsule form, useful diluents include lactose and dried corn starch. When aqueous suspensions or emulsions are administered orally, the active ingredient can be suspended or dissolved in an oily phase combined with emulsifying or suspending agents. If desired, certain sweetening, flavoring, or coloring agents can be added. A sterile injectable composition (e.g., aqueous or oleaginous suspension) can be formulated according to techniques known in the art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents (such as, for example, Tween 80) and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation can also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that can be employed are mannitol, water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium (e.g., synthetic mono- or di-glycerides). Fatty acids, such as oleic acid and its glyceride derivatives are useful in the preparation of injectables, as are natural pharmaceutically-acceptable oils, such as olive oil or castor oil, especially in their polyoxyethylated versions. These oil solutions or suspensions can also contain a long-chain alcohol diluent or dispersant, or carboxymethyl cellulose or similar dispersing agents. An inhalation composition can be prepared according to techniques well-known in the art of pharmaceutical formulation and can be prepared as solutions in saline, employing benzyl alcohol or other suitable preservatives, absorption promoters to enhance bioavailability, fluorocarbons, and/or other solubilizing or dispersing agents known in the art. One or more active compounds can be administered rectally. One example is a suppository, which comprises the active compounds with a suppository base. Suitable suppository bases are, for example, natural or synthetic triglycerides, or paraffin hydrocarbons. Another example is a gelatin rectal capsule which comprise the active compounds and a base. Possible base materials include, for example, liquid triglycerides, polyethylene glycols, or paraffin hydrocarbons. A composition that is applied to the skin can be formulated in form of oil, cream, lotion, ointment and the like. Suitable carriers for the composition include vegetable or mineral oils, white petrolatum (white soft paraffin), branched chain fats or oils, animal fats and high molecular weight alcohols (greater than C12). The preferred carriers are those in which the active ingredient is soluble. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, humectants and antioxidants may also be included as well as agents imparting color or fragrance, if desired. Additionally, transdermal penetration enhancers may be employed in these topical formulations. Examples of such enhancers can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,989,816 and 4,444,762. Creams are preferably formulated from a mixture of mineral oil, self-emulsifying beeswax and water in which mixture the active ingredient, dissolved in a small amount of an oil, such as almond oil, is admixed. An example of such a cream is one which includes about 40 parts water, about 20 parts beeswax, about 40 parts mineral oil and about 1 part almond oil. Ointments may be formulated by mixing a solution of the active ingredient in a vegetable oil, such as almond oil, with warm soft paraffin and allowing the mixture to cool. An example of such an ointment is one which includes about 30% almond and about 70% white soft paraffin by weight. A carrier in a pharmaceutical composition must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the active ingredient of the formulation (and preferably, capable of stabilizing it) and not deleterious to the subject to be treated. For example, solubilizing agents, such as cyclodextrins (which form specific, more soluble complexes with the active compounds), can be utilized as pharmaceutical excipients for delivery of the active compounds. Examples of other carriers include colloidal silicon dioxide, magnesium stearate, cellulose, sodium lauryl sulfate, and D&C Yellow #10. A suitable in vitro assay can be used to preliminarily evaluate the efficacy of any of the above-described compounds in decreasing the level of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or IL-1β). Compounds that demonstrate high activity in the preliminary screening can further be screened by in vivo assays (Example 107 below). For example, a test compound is administered to an animal (e.g., a mouse model) and its effects in lowering the level of a cytokine are then assessed. The compounds can further be examined to verify their efficacy in treating a disorder mediated by cytokine overproduction. For example, a compound can be administered to an animal (e.g., a mouse model) having inflammatory bowl disease and its therapeutic effects are then assessed. Based on the results, appropriate dosage ranges and administration routes can also be determined. The specific examples below are to be construed as merely illustrative, and not limitative of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever. Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, based on the description herein, utilize the present invention to its fullest extent. All publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. EXAMPLE 1 Compound 1: 2-(3-(5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared as outlined and described below. 1 mmol 3-(2-bromoacetyl)benzonitrile and 1 mmol 6-chloropyridazin-3-amine in 10 ml EtOH were heated to reflux for 12 h, then cooled to room temperature. The orange-red precipitate was collected by filtration, washed with cold EtOH, and air-dried to give the 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (125 mg, 50%). 2.5 mg 10% Pd-C were added to the solution of 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (50 mg, 0.2 mmol) in THF/MeOH 25 ml. The reaction mixture was stirred vigorously at room temperature for 4 h under hydrogen and the Pd—C was then removed. The filtrate was concentrated in vacuo to give the 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile as a yellow-white solid. A mixture of 0.5 mmol 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile, 1 mmol NH2OH.HCl and 1 mmol Et3N in EtOH were stirred at reflux for 4 h then cooled. Excess of solvent was removed in vacuo to afford the crude product. Acetic anhydride (2 mmol) was added to the mixture solution of the crude product, THF (15 ml), and DMAP (cat.) at room temperature and then the mixture was heated to reflux for 12 h. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the 2-(3-(5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine. 1H NMR (MeOD, 400 MHz): δ 8.676˜8.650 (m, 1H), 8.606 (s, 1H), 8.444˜8.424 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.150˜8.113 (m, 1H), 8.041˜7.988 (m, 2H), 7.631˜7.580 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.266˜7.220 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 278.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 2 Compound 2: 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(2-morpholinoethyl)urea was prepared as outlined and described below. Raney-Ni (cat.) and NH3.H2O (4˜5 drops) were added to the solution of 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (25 mg) in MeOH. The mixture was stirred vigorously at room temperature for 1 h under hydrogen and the Raney-Ni was then removed. The filtration was concentrated in vacuo to give the (3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanamine. 0.2 mmol (3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanamine and 1 mmol K2CO3 in dry Toluene were stirred for 30 min at 30° C., added with CDI (0.2 mmol), and kept to stir for 2 h. Then 0.2 mmol 2-morpholinoethanamine and DMAP (cat.) were added and the solution was heated to 60° C. for 2 h. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(2-morpholinoethyl)urea. 1H NMR (MeOD, 400 MHz): δ 8.526 (s,1H), δ 8.430˜8.409 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 8.001˜7.971 (d, J=12 Hz, 1H), 7.910 (s, 1H), 7.866˜7.847 (d, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.445˜7.394 (t, J=10 Hz, 1H), 7.325˜7.301 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.251˜7.206 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 5.6 Hz, 1H), 3.733˜3.666 (m, 4H), 3.336˜3.268 (m, 4H), 2.615˜2.543 (m, 6H); MS (m/e): 381.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 3 Compound 3: 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(2-methoxyethyl)urea was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.533 (s, 1H), 8.429˜8.411 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 8.005˜7.970 (dd, J=12.4 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.897 (s, 1H), 7.874˜7.850 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.444˜7.394 (t, J=9.6˜10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.321˜7.298 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.251˜7.206 (dd, J=12.4 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 3.694˜3.662 (m, 3H), 3.440˜3.402 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 3.329 (s, 2H), 3.277˜3.240 (t, J=6.8˜8.0 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 326.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 4 Compound 4: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-methoxyethanamine was prepared as outlined and described below. A mixture of 0.5 mmol 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile, 1 mmol NH2OH.HCl and 1 mmol Et3N in EtOH was stirred at reflux for 4 h then cooled. Excess of solvent was removed in vacuo to afford the crude product. 2-chloroacetyl chloride (2 mmol) was added to the mixture solution of the crude product in Toluene (15 ml) at room temperature and then the mixture was heated to reflux for 5 h. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the 2-(3-(5-(chloromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine. A mixture of 2-(3-(5-(chloromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine(1.5 mmol), sodium iodide(cat.) and 2-methoxyethanamine(3 mmol) in 25 mL EtOH was stirred under reflux for 2 h. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-methoxyethanamine. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.667 (s, 1H), 8.386 (s, 1H), 8.326˜8.306 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.211˜8.181 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 1.6Hz, 1H), 8.109˜8.080 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.999˜7.969 (d, J=12 Hz, 1H), 7.619˜7.566 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.082˜7.037 (dd, J=11.6 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.188 (s, 2H), 3.577˜3.544 (t, J=6˜7.2 Hz, 2H), 3.378 (s, 3H), 2.967˜2.935 (t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 351.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 5 Compound 5: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-morpholinoethanamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.663 (s, 1H), 8.370 (s, 1H), 8.323˜8.303 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.177˜8.146 (dd, J=6.4 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.077˜8.052 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 8.000˜7.967 (d, J=13.2 Hz, 1H), 7.612˜7.560 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.082˜7.038 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.188 (s, 2H), 3.811˜3.781 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 4 H), 2.914˜2.875 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.662˜2.536 (m, 6H); MS (m/e): 406.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 6 Compound 6: 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.670 (s, 1H), 8.383 (s, 1H), 8.326˜8.307 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.209˜8.180 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 8.114˜8.084 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.997˜7.962 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.620˜7.568 (t, J=10˜10.8 Hz, 1H), 7.085˜7.040 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.948 (s, 2H), 3.803˜3.772 (m, 4H), 2.704˜2.674 (m, 4H); MS (m/e): 363.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 7 Compound 7: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N,N-dimethylmethanamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.682˜8.671 (t, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.382 (s, 1H), 8.318˜8.297 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.4Hz, 1H), 8.210˜8.176 (dd, J=14.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.125˜8.094 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.990˜7.955 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.614˜7.563 (t, J=10˜12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.073˜7.029 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.895 (s, 2H), 2.451 (s, 6H); MS (m/e): 321.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 8 Compound 8: 2-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methylamino)ethanol was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.656 (s, 1H), 8.376(s, 1H), 8.318˜8.298 (dd, J=10.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.190˜8.164 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 8.083˜8.057 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.993˜7.960 (d, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.613˜7.561 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.078˜7.032 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.184 (s, 2H), 3.751˜3.718 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 2.968˜2.934 (t, J=6.4˜7.8 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 337.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 9 Compound 9: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethanamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.669˜8.659 (t, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.382(s, 1H), 8.321˜8.301 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.202˜8.176 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 8.101˜8.075 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.996˜7.965 (d, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.615˜7.567 (t, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 7.080˜7.033 (dd, J=12.8 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.152 (s, 2H), 2.834˜2.762 (q, J=9.6 Hz, 2H), 1.213˜1.166 (t, J=9.6 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 321.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 10 Compound 10: 2-(3-(5-((4-fluorophenoxy)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.660 (s, 1H), 8.378(s, 1H), 8.330˜8.315 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 8.211˜8.182 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 8.106˜8.079 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.996˜7.963 (d, J=11.2 Hz, 1H), 7.625˜7.569 (t, J=11.2 Hz, 1H), 7.088˜6.764 (m, 5H), 5.340 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 388.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 11 Compound 11: 2-(3-(5-(ethoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.675 (s, 1H), 8.381(s, 1H), 8.339˜8.305 (m, 1H), 8.216˜8.180 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 8.117˜8.088 (dd, J=9.2 Hz, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.000˜7.971 (d, J=11.6 Hz, 1H), 7.619˜7.568 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.082˜7.038 (dd, J=12 Hz, 5.6 Hz, 1H), 4.819 (s, 2H), 3.776˜3.707 (q, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 1.343˜1.278 (t, J=9.2 Hz,3H); MS (m/e): 322.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 12 Compound 12 2-(3-(5-(methoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.673 (s, 1H), 8.378(s, 1H), 8.317˜8.298 (dd, J=5.6 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.210˜8.183 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 8.113˜8.088 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.988˜7.958 (d, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.618˜7.566 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.074˜7.030 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 5.6 Hz, 1H), 4.778 (s, 2H), 3.579 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 308.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 13 Compound 13 2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.712 (s, 1H), 8.386(s, 1H), 8.332˜8.313 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.237˜8.207 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.127˜8.098 (dd, J=10.0 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.007˜7.977 (d, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.653˜7.603 (t, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.095˜7.050 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 332.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 14 Compound 14: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl acetate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.663 (s, 1H), 8.381(s, 1H), 8.327˜8.307 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.214˜8.184 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 8.096˜8.065 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.999˜7.968 (d, J=12.4 Hz, 1H), 7.624˜7.571 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.087˜7.040 (dd, J=12.8 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 5.388 (s,2H), 2.241 (s,3H); MS (m/e): 336.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 15 Compound 15: 2-(3-(5-isopropyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.647 (s, 1H), 8.385(s, 1H), 8.313 (s, 1H), 8.207˜8.166 (m, 1H), 8.094˜8.068 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.998˜7.966 (d, J=12.8 Hz, 1H), 7.652˜7.564 (m, 1H), 7.112˜7.066 (m, 1H), 3.339˜3.292 (m, 1H), 1.496˜1.473 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 6H); MS (m/e): 306.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 16 Compound 16: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanol was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 8.979 (s, 1H), 8.735(s, 1H), 8.522˜8.507 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.251˜8.229 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.174˜8.140 (d, J=12.4 Hz, 1H), 7.996˜7.969 (d, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 7.677˜7.623 (t, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 7.274˜7.229 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 5.733 (s,2H); MS (m/e): 294.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 17 Compound 17: 2-(3-(5-cyclopropyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.611˜8.602 (t, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.374(s, 1H), 8.318˜8.297 (dd, J=6.0 Hz, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 8.185˜8.149 (dt, J=10.0 Hz, 2.0Hz, 1H), 8.058˜8.024 (dt, J=10.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.994˜7.958 (dd, J=12.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.595˜7.543 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.075˜7.029 (dd, J=12.4 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 3.308˜3.253 (m, 1H), 1.376˜1.229 (m, 4H); MS (m/e): 304.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 18 Compound 18: 2-(3-(5-(fluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.684 (s, 1H), 8.382(s, 1H), 8.327˜8.312 (dd, J=10.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.222˜8.193 (dd, J=10.0 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.111˜8.084 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.999˜7.958 (m, 1H), 7.635˜7.582 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.249˜7.192 (dd, J=10.0 Hz, 6.0 Hz, 1H), 5.729˜5.717 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 1H), 5.573˜5.562 (d, J=4.4Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 296.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 19 Compound 19: 2-(3-(5-ethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.613 (s, 1H), 8.438˜8.424 (d, J=6.4Hz, 1H), 8.397(s, 1H), 8.314˜8.287 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 8.241˜8.213 (d, J=11.2 Hz, 1H), 8.132˜8.106 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 7.659˜7.606 (t, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 7.249˜7.165 (m, 1H), 3.044˜2.969 (q, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 1.504˜1.463 (t, J=10.0 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 292.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 20 Compound 20: N-methyl-2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-amine was prepared as outlined and described below. A mixture of 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (0.25 mmol) and 10 mL methylamine methanol solution was heated at 125° C. in microwave synthesizer for 30 min. After purification to provide 3-(6-(methylamino)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile. A mixture of 0.2 mmol 3-(6-(methylamino)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile, 0.8 mmol NH2OH.HCl and 1 mmol Et3N in EtOH were stirred at reflux for 4 h then cooled. Excess of solvent was removed in vacuo to afford the crude product. Trifluoroacetic anhydride (2 mmol) was added to the mixture solution of the crude product, THF (15 ml), and DMAP (cat.) at room temperature and then the mixture was heated to reflux for 12 h. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the 2,2,2-trifluoro-N-methyl-N-(2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1 ,2-b]pyridazin-6-yl)acetamide. A mixture of 2,2,2-trifluoro-N-methyl-N-(2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-yl)acetamide(0. 15 mmol) and K2CO3 (0.3 mmol)in 20 mL methanol -water(4:1) was heated at 60° C. for 1 h. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel to give the N-methyl-2-(3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-amine. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 8.636˜8.626 (t, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.513(s, 1H), 8.166˜8.130 (dt, J=10.4 Hz, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.947˜7.916 (dd, J=10.4 Hz, 2.0Hz, 1H), 7.714˜7.682 (d, J=12.8 Hz, 1H), 7.652˜7.600 (t, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 6.707˜6.674 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.095˜7.050 (dd, J=13.2 Hz, 1H), 3.350 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 360.92 (M+1). EXAMPLE 21 Compound 21: ethyl 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.013 (s, 1H), 8.765 (s, 1H), 8.522˜8.511 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.287˜8.267 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.173˜8.151 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.034˜8.015 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.702˜7.662 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.273˜7.239 (dd, J=9.2 Hz, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.492˜4.438 (q, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 1.394˜1.359 (t, J=6.8Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 336.0 (M+1). EXAMPLE 22 Compound 22: ethyl 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.007 (s, 1H), 8.743˜8.736 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.538˜8.522 (dd, J=4.8 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.277˜8.254 (dd, J=7.6 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.187˜8.162 (dd, J=9.6 Hz, 0.8 Hz, 1H), 8.004˜7.981 (dd, J=8.0 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.693˜7.655 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.288˜7.253 (dd, J=9.6 Hz, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 4.408 (s, 2H), 4.218˜4.165 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.146˜1.210 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 350.0 (M+1). EXAMPLE 23 Compound 23: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylic acid was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.991 (s, 1H), 8.525˜8.515 (d, J=4.0 Hz, 1H), 8.452 (s, 1H), 8.378˜8.359 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.154˜8.131 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 8.808˜7.788 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.689˜7.650 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.273˜7.239 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, 4.0 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 307.8 (M+1). EXAMPLE 24 Compound 24 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 8.985 (s, 1H), 8.775 (s, 1H), 8.524˜8.514 (d, J=4.0 Hz, 1H), 8.275˜8.256 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.161˜8.139 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.026˜8.006 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.701˜7.661 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.273˜7.240 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, 4.0 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 307.0 (M+1). EXAMPLE 25 Compound 25: 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetic acid was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.003 (s, 1H), 8.739 (s, 1H), 8.535˜8.520 (dd, J=4.4 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.269˜8.249 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.186˜8.163 (dd, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.999˜7.980 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.688˜7.649 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.284˜7.251 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.277 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 321.8 (M+1). EXAMPLE 26 Compound 26: 2-(3-(5-(methylthiomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 8.881 (s, 1H), 8.728(s, 1H), 8.484˜8.469 (dd, J=4.4 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.228˜8.221 (m, 1H), 8.128˜8.105 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.999˜7.980 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.646˜7.607 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.245˜7.211 (dd, J=9.2 Hz, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.112 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 323.8 (M+1). EXAMPLE 27 Compound 27: 2-(3-(5-(methylsulfonylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 8.776 (s, 1H), 8.522(s, 1H), 8.302˜8.286 (dd, J=4.8 Hz, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.051˜8.031 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.962˜7.936 (d, J=8.8Hz, 1H), 7.789˜7.770 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.470˜7.431 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.050˜7.016 (dd, J=9.2 Hz, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.112 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 355.9 (M+1). EXAMPLE 28 Compound 28: (3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)methanamine was prepared as outlined and described below. 1-bromo-2-methoxyethane(5.8 mmol), dimethyl 5-hydroxyisophthalate(5 mL), K2CO3 (6 mmol) in DMF(10 mL) were stirred for 12 h at 60° C., then the solution was poured into water and the aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc. The organic phase was washed with brine, dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to give dimethyl 5-(2-methoxyethoxy)isophthalate (93.7%). NaOH (45 mmol) was added to the solution of dimethyl 5-(2-methoxyethoxy)isophthalate (30 mmol) in 50 ml EtOH and stirred for 4 h at 40° C. Excess of solvent was removed in vacuo and the residue was treated with 1N HCl (aqueous) and extracted with EtOAc. The organic phase was washed with brine, dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to afford 3-(methoxycarbonyl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoic acid (87.3%). 3-(methoxycarbonyl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoic acid (30 mmol) in 20 mL SOCl2 was stirred at reflux for 4 h. Excess of SOCl2 was removed in vacuo and the residue was dissolved in THF. Ammonia hydrate solution was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 h. The solution was poured to the water and extracted with EtOAc. The organic phase was washed with brine, dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to provide methyl 3-carbamoyl-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoate(69.8%). POCl3 (20 mmol) was added to the solution of methyl 3-carbamoyl-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoate (15 mmol) in 35 ml 1,2-dichloroethane and stirred for 5 h at reflux. Then the solution was cooled to room temperature, poured to the ice-water and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic phases were dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to yield methyl 3-cyano-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoate (90.5%). Solution of AlMe3 in hexane (19 mmol) was dropped to the solution of DMEDA (24 mmol) in 60 ml dry toluene slowly at 0° C. under N2. The solution was then continued to stir at room temperature for another 1 h and added methyl 3-cyano-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzoate (17.3 mmol) and stirred at reflux for 8 h. The mixture was poured to the water and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic phases were dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to give 3-acetyl-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (58.6%). Br2 (31.5 mmol) was dropped into the solution of 3-acetyl-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (30 mmol) in 150 ml ether at 0° C., then stirred at room temperature for 5 h. The solution was washed with brine, dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated to afford 3-(2-bromoacetyl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (94.2%). 3-(2-bromoacetyl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (15.3 mmol) and 6-chloropyridazin-3-amine (18 mmol) in 100 ml EtOH were stirred at reflux for 5 h, then cooled, filtered. The filter cake was 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (85.7%). 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (10 mmol) in 100 ml MeOH was added Pd/C(1 mmol) and stirred at room temperature for 4 h. Pd-C was removed and the filtrate was concentrated to provide 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (98.9%). 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzonitrile (6 mmol) in 40 ml MeOH and 30 ml THF was added Raney-Ni (0.6mmol) and 1 ml ammonia hydrate solution and stirred at room temperature for 4 h. Raney-Ni was removed and the filtrate was concentrated to yield (3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)methanamine (70.2%). 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.441 (s,3H), 3.792 (t, J=4.2 Hz, 2H), 4.092 (s,2H), 4.241 (t, J=4.2 Hz, 2H), 7.034(s,1H), 7.243 (m,1H), 7.601 (s,2H), 7.993 (d,1H), 8.438 (m,1H), 8.581(s,1H); MS (m/e): 299.7 (M+1). EXAMPLE 29 Compound 29: 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.358 (s,3H), 3.756(t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.302 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 7.256 (m, 1H), 7.567 (m, 1H), 7.954 (m, 1H), 8.200 (m, 1H), 8.397 (s, 1H), 8.567(s, 1H), 9.103 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 406.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 30 Compound 30: 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 2.7532 (s,3H), 3.397 (s, 3H), 3.793(t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.283 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 7.245 (m, 1H), 7.489 (s, 1H), 7.803 (s, 1H), 8.183 (m, 1H), 8.384 (s, 1H), 8.653(m, 1H), 9.019 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 352.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 31 Compound 31: 2-(3-(5-(fluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.489 (s,3H), 3.822(t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.305 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.771 (s, 2H), 7.055 (m, 1H), 7.667 (m, 1H), 7.807 (m, 1H), 7.988 (m, 1H), 8.308(m, 1H), 8.323 (m, 1H), 8.359 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 370.9 (M+1). EXAMPLE 32 Compound 32: 2-(3-(2-methoxyethoxy)-5-(5-(methoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.330 (s, 3H), 3.487 (s,3H), 3.714 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.270 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.900 (s, 2H), 7.260(dd, J1=3.6 Hz, J2=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.471 (s, 1H), 7.834 (s, 1H), 8.155 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.349 (s,1H), 8.515 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1 H), 9.040 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 382.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 33 Compound 33: 2-(3-(5-(ethoxymethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.189 (s, 3H), 3.340 (s, 3H), 3.364 (m, 2H), 3.716 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.271 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.881 (s, 2H), 7.269 (dd, J1=3.6 Hz, J2=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.488 (s, 1H), 7.845 (s, 1H), 8.165 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.354 (s, 1H), 8.525 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.034 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 396.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 34 Compound 34: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanol was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.329 (s, 3H), 3.713 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.259 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.815 (s, 2H), 7.251 (dd, J1=3.6 Hz, J2=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.469 (s, 1H), 7.829 (s, 1H), 8.150 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.347 (s, 1H), 8.513 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.027 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 368.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 35 Compound 35: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxylic acid was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.325 (s, 3H), 3.702 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.254 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 7.272 (dd, J=4 Hz, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.432 (s, 1H), 7.940 (s, 1H), 8.058 (s, 1H), 8.160 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.536 (d, J=4 Hz, 1H), 9.035 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 382.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 36 Compound 36: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.359 (s, 3H), 3.747 (t, J=4.4Hz, 2H), 4.291 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 7.281 (dd, J=4 Hz, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.552 (s, 1H), 7.883 (s, 1H), 8.169 (s, 1H), 8.420 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.540 (d, J=4 Hz, 1H), 9.054 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 381.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 37 Compound 37: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-N-(pyridin-2-yl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.333 (s, 3H), 3.704 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.262 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 5.877 (m, 3H), 6.451 (m, 1H), 7.280 (dd, J=4 Hz, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.425 (s, 1H), 7.952 (s, 1H), 8.059 (s, 1H), 8.160 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.547 (d, J=4 Hz, 1H), 9.047 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 458.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 38 Compound 38: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl)-N-(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 3.362 (s, 3H), 3.750 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.171 (m, 2H), 4.304 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 7.284 (dd, J=4 Hz, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.571 (s, 1H), 7.899 (s, 1H), 8.176 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.546 (d, J=4 Hz, 1H), 9.066 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 463.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 39 Compound 39: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 1.845 (m, 3H), 3.546 (s, 3H), 3.726 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.140 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.278 (m, 2H), 7.815 (s, 1H), 7.210 (m, 1H), 7.546 (m, 2H), 8.143 (m, 1H), 8.514 (m, 1H), 8.846 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 341.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 40 Compound 40: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroacetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.389 (s, 3H), 3.678 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.178 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.453 (m, 2H), 6.843 (s, 1H), 7.243 (m, 1H), 7.630 (m, 2H), 8.102 (m, 1H), 8.513 (m, 1H), 8.874 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 395.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 41 Compound 41: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2-chloroacetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.325 (s, 3H), 3.689 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.193 (m, 4H), 4.348 (m, 2H), 7.813 (s, 1H), 7.212 (m, 1H), 7.547 (m, 2H), 8.144 (m, 1H), 8.511 (m, 1H), 8.843 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 375.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 42 Compound 42: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-chlorobenzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.448 (s, 3H), 3.784 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.238 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.702 (m, 2H), 6.954 (s, 1H), 7.084 (m, 1H), 7.430 (m, 3H), 7.600 (s, 1H), 7.901 (m, 3H), 8.304 (m, 2H); MS (m/e): 438.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 43 Compound 43: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-nitrobenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.447 (s, 3H), 3.785 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.178 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.354 (m, 2H), 5.403 (m, 1H), 6.783 (s, 1H), 7.105 (m, 1H), 7.314 (m,2H), 7.608 (m, 1H), 7.945 (m, 1H), 7.600 (s, 1H), 8.189 (m, 2H), 8.389 (m, 2H), 8.732 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 484.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 44 Compound 44: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-cyanobenzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.410 (s, 3H), 3.800 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.223 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.704 (m, 2H), 7.083 (m, 2H), 7.492 (s, 1H), 7.600 (s, 1H), 7.763 (m,2H), 7.845 (m, 1H), 7.904 (m, 1H), 8.154 (m, 1H), 8.304 (m, 2H); MS (m/e): 428.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 45 Compound 45: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-bromobenzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.454 (s, 3H), 3.783 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.225 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.674 (m, 2H), 6.945 (s, 1H), 7.083 (m, 1H), 7.324 (m, 1H), 7.483 (s, 1H), 7.587 (s, 1H), 7.613 (m, 1H), 7.735 (m, 1H), 8.034 (m, 2H), 8.225 (s, 1H), 8.300 (m, 1H); MS (m/e): 482.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 46 Compound 46: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-fluorobenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.456 (s, 3H), 3.800 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.206 (m, 4H), 5.034 (m, 1H), 6.800 (s, 1H), 7.107 (m, 1H), 7.203 (m, 2H), 7.453 (m, 2H), 7.904 (m, 3H), 8.200 (s, 1H), 8.367 (m, 1H); MS (m/e): 457.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 47 Compound 47: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-3-chlorobenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.453 (s, 3H), 3.782 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.187 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.213 (m, 2H), 5.934 (m, 1H), 6.800 (s, 1H), 7.083 (m, 1H), 7.425 (m, 2H), 7.500 (m, 1H), 7.760 (m, 1H), 7.900 (m, 1H), 7.968 (m, 1H), 8.200 (s, 1H), 8.324 (m, 1H); MS (m/e): 473.9 (M+1). EXAMPLE 48 Compound 48: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 2.400 (s, 3H), 3.456 (s, 3H), 3.753 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.134 (m, 4H), 5.532 (m, 1H), 6.800 (s, 1H), 7.086 (m, 1H), 7.300 (m, 2H), 7.400 (s, 1H), 7.805 (m, 2H), 7.913 (m, 1H), 8.200 (s, 1H), 8.315 (m, 1H); MS (m/e): 453.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 49 Compound 49: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(2-methoxyethoxy)benzyl)-2-fluorobenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 28. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.478 (s, 3H), 3.782 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.187 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 4.232 (m, 2H), 6.800 (s, 1H), 7.058 (m, 1H), 7.160 (m, 1H), 7.287 (m, 1H), 7.400 (m, 2H), 7.545 (m, 1H), 7.964 (m, 2H), 8.200 (s, 1H), 8.342 (m, 1H); MS (m/e): 457.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 50 Compound 50: N-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl)-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.007 (m, 6H), 1.244 (m, 2H), 2.607 (m, 4H), 3.241 (m, 2H), 4.086 (s, 2H), 7.280 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.674 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 7.984 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.177 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.263 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.540 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.742 (s, 1H), 9.014 (s,1H); MS (m/e): 420.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 51 Compound 51: N-butyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 0.898 (t, 3H, J=7.2 Hz), 1.338 (m, 2H), 1.443 (m, 2H), 3.125 (m, 2H), 4.050 (s, 2H), 7.280 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.674 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 7.984 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.177 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.263 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.540 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.742 (s, 1H), 9.014 (s,1H); MS (m/e): 377.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 52 Compound 52: 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N-(((S)-tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)methyl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.844 (m, 4H, ), 3.209 (m, 3H), 3.651 (m, 2H), 4.105 (s, 2H), 7.279 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.670 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 7.984 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.176 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.260 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.538 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.741 (s, 1H), 9.011 (s,1H); MS (m/e): 350.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 53 Compound 53: N-cyclopentyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.491 (m, 4H), 1.658 (m, 2H), 1.821 (m, 2H), 4.031 (m, 1H), 4.067 (s, 2H), 7.279 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.669 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 7.983 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.186 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.263 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.540 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.731 (s, 1H), 9.018 (s,1H); MS (m/e): 389.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 54 Compound 54: 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-N-(2-methoxyethyl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 3.423 (s, 3H), 3.572 (m, 4H), 4.020 (s, 2H), 7.100 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.629 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.004 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.110 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 379.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 55 Compound 55: 2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-1-morpholinoethanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-dd, 400 MHz): δ 3.594 (m, 8H), 4.443 (s, 2H), 7.266 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.668 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 7.979 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.170 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.254 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.526 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.736 (s, 1H), 8.991 (s, 1H); MS (m/e): 391.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 56 Compound 56: N-cyclopropyl-2-(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-dd, 400 MHz): δ 0.631 (m, 2H), 0.864(m, 2H), 2.820 (m, 1H), 3.986 (s, 2H), 7.100 (dd, 1H, J=8 Hz, J=8.4 Hz), 7.636 (t, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.014 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.077 (d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 8.213 (d, 1H, J=8 Hz), 8.351 (dd, 1H, J1=J2=8 Hz), 8.396 (s, 1H), 8.680 (s,1H); MS (m/e): 361.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 57 Compound 57: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(2-morpholinoethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CD3Cl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.769 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.406 (s, 1H), 8.354 (dd, J=1.6-4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.199 (dt, J=1.2-7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.143 (dt, J=1.2-7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.016 (m,1H), 7.644 (t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.099 (dd, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 3.811 (t, J=4.4 Hz,4H), 3.656 (dd, J=6-12 Hz,2H), 2.682 (t, J=6 Hz,2H), 2.577 (m,4H); MS (m/e): 420 (M+1). EXAMPLE 58 Compound 58: N-ethyl-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.020(d, J=0.8 Hz, 1H), 8.820(dd, J=1.2, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.550(dd, J=1.6, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.300(m, 1H), 8.186(m, 1H), 8.063(m, 1H), 7.712(m, 1H), 7.290(dd, J=4.8, 9.6 Hz, 1H), 3.323(m, 2H), 1.180(t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 335.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 59 Compound 59: N-cyclopentyl-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.737(s, 1H), 8.409(s, 1H), 8.350(d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.180(d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.136(d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.016(d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.626(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.098(dd, J=4.4, 9.6 Hz, 1H), 1.802(m, 2H), 1.674(m, 6H); MS (m/e): 375.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 60 Compound 60: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)(morpholino)methanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.717(t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.400(s, 1H), 8.347(dd, J=1.6, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.228(m, 1H), 8.136(m, 1H), 7.996(m, 1H), 7.639(t, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.096(dd, J=4.4, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 3.983(m, 2H), 3.899(m, 4H), 3.828(m, 2H); MS (m/e): 377.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 61 Compound 61: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(2-methoxyethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.746(t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.420(s, 1H), 8.355(dd, J=1.6, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.189(m, 1H), 8.154(m, 1H), 8.021(dd, J=1.6, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.639(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.107(dd, J=4.8, 9.6 Hz, 1H), 3.747(dd, J=4.8, 10.4 Hz, 2H), 3.639(t, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 3.467(s, 3H); MS (m/e): 365.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 62 Compound 62: N-(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.774(s, 1H), 8.665(s, 1H), 8.478(dd, J=2.0, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.218(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.155(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.058(m, 1H), 7.676(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.280(dd, J=4.0, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 3.666(t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.790(t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.472(s, 6H); MS (m/e): 378.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 63 Compound 63: (4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)(3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.034(s ,1H), 8.757(t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.549(dd, J=1.6, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.315(m, 1H), 8.157(m, 1H), 8.046(m, 1H), 7.712(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.290(dd, J=4.4, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 3.741(m, 4H), 2.487(m, 4H), 2.398(dd, J=7.2, 14 Hz, 2H), 2.091(s, 3H); MS (m/e): 404.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 64 Compound 64: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-(thiophen-2-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.703(s, 1H), 8.388(s, 1H), 8.344(m, 1H), 8.186(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.113(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.007(d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.611(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.336(d, J=5.6 Hz, 1H), 7.154(d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 7.084(dd, J=4.4, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.040(dd, J=3.6, 5.2 Hz, 1H), 4.914(d, J=5.2 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 403.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 65 Compound 65: N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.034(s, 1H), 8.757(s, 1H), 8.549(s, 1H), 8.315(s, 1H), 8.157(s, 1H), 8.046(s, 1H), 7.712(s, 1H), 7.290(s, 1H), 3.625(m, 2H), 3.380(m, 2H); MS (m/e): 351.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 66 Compound 66: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N,N-dimethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.100(s, 1H), 8.757(s, 1H), 8.549(s, 1H), 8.315(s, 1H), 8.157(s, 1H), 8.046(s, 1H), 7.712(s, 1H), 7.290(s, 1H), 3.100(s, 3H), 3.281(s, 3H); MS (m/e): 335.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 67 Compound 67: (3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)(pyrrolidin-1-yl)methanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.034(s, 1H), 8.757(s, 1H), 8.549(s, 1H), 8.315(s, 1H), 8.157(s, 1H), 8.046(s, 1H), 7.712(s, 1H), 7.290(s, 1H), 3.952(m, 2H), 3.590(m, 2H), 1.967(m, 4H); MS (m/e): 361.1 (M+1). EXAMPLE 68 Compound 68: 3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-N-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole-5-carboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1H NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 9.034(s, 1H), 8.757(s, 1H), 8.549(s, 1H), 8.315(s, 1H), 8.157(s, 1H), 8.046(s, 1H), 7.712(s, 1H), 7.290(s, 1H), 2.875(s, 3H); MS (m/e): 321.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 69 Compound 69: 2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide was prepared as outlined and described below. Br2 (1 mmol) was dropwise added to a solution of 3-acetylbenzonitrile (1 mmol) in Et2O (15 ml) at 0° C., and then the mixture was stirred at r.t. for 4 h. Water was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was dried over Na2SO4, and was concentrated to give an oil, i.e., 3-(2-bromoacetyl)benzonitrile, which was directly used for the next step without purification. A solution of 3-(2-bromoacetyl)benzonitrile and 6-chloropyridazin-3-amine (1 mmol) in EtOH was heated to reflux overnight. Then the mixture was cooled to r.t., and the precipitate was filtered to give 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile with a yield of52.8%. A mixture of 3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (1 mmol) and Pd/C (20 mg) in DMF/THF (10 ml/10 ml) was stirred at r.t. for 6 h equipped with a H2 balloon. Then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure and 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile was obtained with a yield of 88.5%. A solution of 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzonitrile (1 mmol) and 6M NaOH (2 ml) in EtOH was heated to reflux for 2 h. Then the mixture was diluted with water and acidified with HCl. The precipitate was filtered to give 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzoic acid with a yield of 60%. A solution of 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzoic acid (1 mmol), DPPA (3 mmol) and Et3N (3 mmol) in toluene was heated to reflux for 4 h. Then t-BuOH (1 ml) was added and reflux was continued overnight. Water was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with diluted HCl, brine and NaHCO3 (aq), and was concentrated to give a solid. After purification by chromatography, tert-butyl 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylcarbamate was obtained with a yield of 38.5%. A solution of tert-butyl 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylcarbamate (1 mmol) and TFA (4 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 ml) was stirred at 35° C. overnight. Then 1 M NaOH (4 ml) was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was concentrated to give 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)aniline with a yield of 75%. A solution of 3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)aniline (1 mmol) and 2-chloronicotinamide (1.2 mmol) in C4H9OH was added TsOH (1.2 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 160° C. overnight. Then water was added, and the reaction solution was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was washed with brine and solvent was removed. 2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide was purified by TLC with a yield of 31%. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 11.287(s, 1H), 8.854(s, 1H), 8.506(dd, J=2, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.363(dd, J=1.6, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.227(t, J=2 Hz, 1H), 8.163(m, 2H), 7.859(dd, J=1.2, 4 Hz, 1H), 7.650(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.394(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.242(dd, J=4.4, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 6.871(dd, J=4.8, 8.0 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 331.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 70 Compound 70: (2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)pyridin-3-yl)(pyrrolidin-1-yl)methanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 69. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.544 (s, 1H), 8.264(m, 1H), 8.146(s, 1H), 8.029(d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.765(m, 1H), 7.663(d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 7.572(m, 1H), 7.418(t, J=8 Hz, 1H), 7.263(dd, J=4.8, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.944(s, 1H), 6.907(dd, J=5.2, 7.6 Hz, 1H),3.619(m,2H), 3.552(m, 2H), 1.952(m, 4H); MS (m/e): 385.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 71 Compound 71: N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 69. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.541(s, 1H), 8.447(dd, J=1.2, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.318(m, 2H), 8.056(dd, J=1.6, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.016(d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 8.687(dd, J=1.6, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.640(d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.422(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.253(dd, J=4.4, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 6.943(s,1H), 6.851(dd, J=4.4, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 3.764(t, J=6 Hz, 2H), 3.554(t, J=6 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 375.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 72 Compound 72: ethyl 2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 69. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 10.261(s, 1H), 8.872(d, J=4 Hz, 1H), 8.484(m, 2H), 8.307(m, 2H), 8.149(d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.864(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.728(d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.430(t, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.248(dd, J=4.8, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 6.937(dd, J=4.4, 8.0 Hz, 1H), 4.414(m, 2H), 1.384(t, J=6.8 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 360.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 73 Compound 73: N-cyclopropyl-2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)nicotinamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 69. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.545(s, 1H), 8.456(d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.322(m, 2H), 8.030(dd, J=0.8, 8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.981(m, 1H), 7.667(m, 2H), 7.429(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.248(m, 1H), 6.943(s, 1H), 6.826(m, 1H), 2.892(m, 1H), 0.901(m, 2H), 0.682(m, 2H); MS (m/e): 371.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 74 Compound 74: (2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenylamino)pyridin-3-yl)(morpholino)methanone was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 69. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.539(s, 1H), 8.452(dd, J=1.6, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.273(dd, J=2, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.112(m, 1H), 8.024(m, 1H),7.666(m, 2H), 7.555(m, 1H), 7.420(t, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.263(dd, J=4.4, 9.2 Hz, 1H), 6.937(m, 2H), 3.704(m, 4H), 3.633(m, 4H); MS (m/e): 401.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 75 Compound 75: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared as outlined and described below. A mixture of 3-methoxycarbonyl-5-nitrobenzoic acid (44 mmol), SOCl2 (40 mL) and DMF (1 mL) was heated to reflux for 2 hours. Then the excessive SOCl2 was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in DCM (80 mL), and added with NH3.H2O (15 mL) dropwise after cooling by ice-water. After addition, it was continued to stir 5 min. The resulting mixture was filtrated to give methyl-3-carbamoyl-5-nitrobenzoate in 85% yield. POCl3 (33 mmol) was added to the solution of methyl-3-carbamoyl-5-nitrobenzoate (30 mmol) in 1,2-dichloroethane (100 mL). Then the solution was heated to reflux for 3 hours. After cooling, it was poured into water. The organic layer was washed with saturated NaHCO3 solution and brine sequentially, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated to give methyl-3-cyano-5-nitrobenoate in 90% yield. 10%Pd/C (0.9 g) was added to the solution of methyl-3-cyano-5-nitrobenoate (25 mmol) in MeOH (200 mL) and THF (100 mL). Then the solution was stirred at room temperature for 4 hours. After filtration, it was concentrated to give methyl-3-amine-5-cyanobenoate in 95% yield. CH3SO2Cl (40 mmol) was added to the solution of methyl-3-amine-5-cyanobenoate (10 mmol), pryridine (50 mmol) and DMAP (1 mmol) in DCM (150 mL). The solution was then heated to reflux for 4 hours. After cooling, diluted hydrochloric acid was poured into the solution. The organic layer was washed with water and brine sequentially, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated. The crude product was purified by column chromatography to afford methyl-3-cyano-5-(methylsulfonamido)benoate in 70% yield. Al(CH3)3 (20 mmol) was added dropwise to the ice-water cooled solution of DMEDA (4.4 mmol) in dry toluene (60 mL) under nitrogen. After addition, it was continued to stir for 2 hours at room temperature. Then, methyl-3-cyano-5-(methylsulfonamido)benzoate (4 mmol) was added, and the reaction mixture was heated to reflux overnight. After cooling, it was poured into diluted hydrochloric acid, the mixture was extracted with EtOAc, the combined organic layer was washed with water and brine sequentially, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated to afford N-(3-acetyl-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide with a yield of 35%. Br2 (1.2 mmol) was added dropwise to the solution of N-(3-acetyl-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide (1 mmol) in Et2O (50 mL). After addition, it was continued to stir for 1.5 hours. Then the reaction mixture was washed with water and brine sequentially, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, and concentrated to afford N-(3-(2-bromoacetyl)-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide with a yield of 85%. A mixture of N-(3-(2-bromoacetyl)-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide (0.8 mmol) and 6-chloropyridazin-3-amine (0.8 mmol) in EtOH (8 mL) was refluxed for 4 hours. After cooling, the resulting mixture was filtrated to give N-(3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide in 50% yield. 10% Pd/C (20 mg) was added to the solution of N-(3-(6-chloroimidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-cyanophenyl)methanesulfonamide (0.3 mmol) in THF (25 mL. Then it was stirred at room temperature for 4 hours. After filtration, it was concentrated to give N-(3-cyano-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide in 95% yield. A mixture of N-(3-cyano-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide (0.25 mmol), hydroxylamine hydrochloride (0.75 mmol) and triethylamine (1 mmol) in EtOH (12 mL) was refluxed for 4 hours. After removal of the solvent in vacuo, the residue was dissolved in THF (12 mL), added with (ClCH2CO)2O (0.75 mmol) and triethylamine (1 mmol), and stirred at room temperature for 1 hours. Then it was heated to reflux for another 8 hours. After removal of the solvent in vacuo and addition of water, the mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layer was washed with water and brine sequentially, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography to give N-(3-(5-(chloromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide in 90% yield. A mixture of N-(3-(5-(chloromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide (0.1 mmol), morpholine (0.4 mmol) and K2CO3 (0.2 mmol) in DMF (2 mL) was stirred at 80° C. for 1.5 hours. After cooling, it was poured into water, and extracted with CH2Cl2. The combined organic layer was washed with brine, dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography to give the title product in 60% yield. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.933 (s, 1H), 8.547 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.334 (s, 1H), 8.204 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 8.075 (s, 1H), 7.862 (s, 1H), 7.295 (dd, J1=9.2 Hz, J2=4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.015 (s, 2H), 3.634 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 4H), 3.043 (s, 3H), 2.591 (t, J=4.4 Hz, 4H); MS (m/e): 456.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 76 Compound 76: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(piperidin-1-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 75. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.959 (s, 1H), 8.551 (m, 1H), 8.386 (s, 1H), 8.207 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 8.125 (s, 1H), 7.888 (s, 1H), 7.302 (dd, J1=9.6 Hz, J2=4.8 Hz, 1H), 3.958 (s, 2H), 3.089 (s, 3H), 2.528 (m, 4H), 1.555 (m, 4H), 1.393 (m, 2H); MS (m/e): 454.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 77 Compound 77: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-((2-methoxyethylamino)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 75. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 10.178 (s, 1H), 9.002 (s, 1H), 8.587 (m, 1H), 8.451 (s, 1H), 8.246 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 8.163 (s, 1H), 7.930 (s, 1H), 7.341 (dd, J1=9.2 Hz, J2=4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.192 (s, 2H), 3.491 (t, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 3.295 (s, 3H), 3.142 (s, 3H), 2.866 (t, J=5.6 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 444.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 78 Compound 78: N-(3-(5-((2-(dimethylamino)ethylamino)methyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 75. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.971 (s, 1H), 8.557 (m, 1H), 8.416 (s, 1H), 8.211 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 8.117 (s, 1H), 7.898 (s, 1H), 7.308 (dd, J1=9.2 Hz, J2=5.2 Hz, 1H), 4.175 (s, 2H), 3.107 (s, 3H), 2.855 (m, 2H), 2.789 (m, 2H), 2.488 (s, 6H); MS (m/e): 457.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 79 Compound 79: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-5-(5-(piperazin-1-ylmethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 75. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.949 (s, 1H), 8.547 (m, 1H), 8.337 (s, 1H), 8.203 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 8.100 (s, 1H), 7.875 (s, 1H), 7.297 (dd, J1=8.8 Hz, J2=4.4 Hz, 1H), 3.973 (s, 2H), 3.080 (s, 3H), 2.760 (m, 4H), 2.511 (m, 4H); MS (m/e): 455.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 80 Compound 80: N-(3-(5-(aminomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)methanesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 75. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.540 (s, 1H), 8.382 (m, 1H), 8.351 (s, 1H), 7.956 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.908 (m, 2H), 7.203 (dd, J1=9.2 Hz, J2=4.4 Hz, 1H), 4.124 (s, 2H), 3.007 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 386.3 (M+1) EXAMPLE 81 Compound 81: 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 9.211 (s, 1H), 8.777 (s, 1H), 8.695-8.710 (m, 1H), 8.313 (t, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 8.082 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.740 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.457-7.491 (m, 1H), 4.433 (s, 1H), 3.244(bro s, 4H), 3.164(bro s, 4H); MS (m/e): 362.3(M+1). EXAMPLE 82 Compound 82: N1-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethane-1,2-diamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.749 (t, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 8.705 (s, 1H), 8.514-8.529 (m, 1H), 8.180-8.206 (m, 1H), 8.110-8.137 (m, 1H), 8.071-8.100 (m, 1H), 7.678 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.324-7.358 (m, 1H), 4.369 (s,2H), 3.191 (bro s, 2H), 1.306 (bro s, 2H); MS (m/e): 336.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 83 Compound 83: N1-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-N2,N2-dimethylethane-1,2-diamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.782 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.696 (s, 1H), 8.509-8.524 (m, 1H), 8.207-8.234 (m, 1H), 8.114-8.140 (m, 1H), 8.075-8.104 (m, 1H), 7.699 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.312-7.346 (m, 1H), 4.275 (s,2H), 3.307-3.339 (m, 2H), 3.164-3.192 (m, 2H), 2.983 (s, 6H); MS (m/e): 364.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 84 Compound 84: 2-(3-(5-(morpholinomethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.686 (t, J=1.4 Hz, 1H), 8.397 (s, 1H), 8.320-8.335 (m, 1H), 8.192-8.219 (m, 1H), 8.097-8.124 (m, 1H), 7.977-8.002 (m, 1H), 7.607 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.056-7.089 (m, 1H), 3.953 (s,2H), 3.801 (t, J=4.8 Hz, 1H), 2.705 (t, J=4.6 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 363.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 85 Compound 85: 2,2,2-trifluoro-N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)acetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 10.447 (bro s, 1H), 9.001 (s, 1H), 8.732 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.545-8.530(m, 1H), 8.282-8.256 (m, 1H), 8.202-8.174 (m, 1H), 8.000-7.974 (m, 1H), 7.682 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 1H),7.295-7.260 (m, 1H), 4.878 (d, J=4.0 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 389.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 86 Compound 86: ethyl 2-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2- yl) phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl- amino)-2-oxoacetate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.654 (t, J=1.4 Hz, 1H), 8.386 (s, 1H), 8.332-8.317(m, 1H), 8.195-8.172 (m, 1H), 8.078-8.055 (m, 1H), 8.012-7.987 (m, 1H), 7.596 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.091-7.057 (m, 1H), 4.900 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.453-4.400 (m, 2H), 1.428 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 393.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 87 Compound 87: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)- phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)-2-methoxyacetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 8.995 (s, 1H), 8.727 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.543-8.528(m, 1H), 8.271-8.245 (m, 1H), 8.197-8.171 (m, 1H), 7.994-7.968 (m, 1H), 7.672 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.294-7.259 (m, 1H), 4.701 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 3.955 (s, 2H), 3.389 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 365.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 88 Compound 88: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)cyclopentanecarboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.647 (t, J=1.4 Hz, 1H), 8.370 (s, 1H), 8.329-8.314(m, 1H), 8.177-8.150 (m, 1H), 8.065-8.040 (m, 1H), 8.006-7.980 (m, 1H), 7.585 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H),7.089-7.055 (m, 1H), 6.548 (bro s, 1H), 4.809 (d, J=5.2 Hz, 2H), 2.771-2.690 (m, 1H), 1.973-1.592 (m, 8H); MS (m/e): 389.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 89 Compound 89: ethyl 3-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2- yl) phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl- amino)-3-oxopropanoate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.654 (s, 1H), 8.390 (s, 1H), 8.337-8.322(m, 1H), 8.192 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.118 (bro s, 1H), 8.077 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.002 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 8.192 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.096-7.061 (m, 1H), 4.855 (d, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 4.248-4.301 (m, 2H), 3.487 (s, 2H), 1.337 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 407.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 90 Compound 90: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)-phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)cyclopropanecarboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.691 (s, 1H), 8.397 (s, 1H), 8.337 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.193 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.092 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.008 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.610 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.101-7.067 (m, 1H), 4.849 (d, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 1.608-1.557 (m, 1H), 1.113-1.075 (m, 2H), 0.897-0.849 (m, 2H); MS (m/e):361.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 91 Compound 91: N-((3-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)isobutyramide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.653 (t, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.373 (s, 1H), 8.311-8.327 (m, 1H), 8.169-8.196 (m, 1H), 8.052-8.078 (m, 1H), 7.969-7.996 (m, 1H), 7.594 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H),7.050-7.083 (m, 1H), 6.198 (bro s, 1H), 4.798 (d, J=5.2 Hz, 2H), 2.511-2.564 (m, 1H), 1.259 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H); MS (m/e): 363.2 (M+1). EXAMPLE 92 Compound 92: 3-((3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzylamino)methyl)benzonitrile was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 8.566 (s, 1H), 8.445 (d, J=2.4Hz, 1H), 7.946˜8.425 (m, 3H), 7.225˜7.839 (m, 5H), 6.105˜6.132( t, 1H), 5.600( m, 1H), 4.090(s, 2H), 4.079(s, 2H); MS (m/e): 340 (M+1). EXAMPLE 93 Compound 93: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-4-chlorobenzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD30D, 400 MHz): δ 8.535 (s, 1H), 8.430˜8.415 (q, J1=4.6 Hz, J2=1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.980˜7.960 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.888(d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.494˜7.428 (m, 4H), 7.393 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.248 (m, 1H), 4.658 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 363 (M+1). EXAMPLE 94 Compound 94: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-2-methoxyacetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD30D, 400 MHz): δ 8.510 (s, 1H), 8.413 (s, 1H), 7.986˜7.866 (m, 3H), 7.413(m, 3H), 4.503 (s, 2H), 3.971( s, 2H), 3.429 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 297 (M+1). EXAMPLE 95 Compound 95: N-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-cyanobenzenesulfonamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD30D, 400 MHz): δ 8.4580 (s, 1H), 8.456 (s, 1H), 7.982˜8.012 (m, 3H), 7.700˜7.715(m, 3H), 7.534˜7.563 (t, 1H ), 7.215˜7.309(m,3H ), 4.257 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 390 (M+1). EXAMPLE 96 Compound 96: 1-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-2-yl)benzyl)-3-(thiophen-2-ylmethyl)urea was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD30D, 400 MHz): δ 8.497 (s, 1H), 8.432 (d, J=3.2Hz, 1H), 7.998 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 7.886 (s, 1H), 7.975 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 2H ), 7.417 (t, 1H), 7.319 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.249(m, 2H), 6.960 (s, 1H ), 6.925 (t, J=5.2 Hz, 1H), 4.523 (s, 2H ), 4.423 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 364 (M+1). EXAMPLE 97 Compound 97: 3-bromo-N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)benzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 7.949 (s, 1H), 7.819 (s, 1H), 7.640 (m, 4H), 7.359 (t, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 7.265 (m, 2H ), 7.128 (s,1H), 4.645 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.414 (s,3H); MS (m/e): 427 (M+1). EXAMPLE 98 Compound 98: 4-chloro-N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)benzamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 7.835 (s, 1H), 7.726 (m, 3H), 7.640 (s, 1H), 7.388 (m, 3H), 7.270 (bs, 1H ), 7.143 (d, J=1.6 Hz, 1H ), 4.670(d, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.430 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 383 (M+1). EXAMPLE 99 Compound 99: N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)butyramide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 7.738 (s, 1H), 7.670 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.616 (s, 1H), 7.337(t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.180 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.133 (s, 1H), 4.464(d, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.419 (s,3H), 2.192(t, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 1.689(m, 2H), 0.951(t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H); MS (m/e): 314 (M+1). EXAMPLE 100 Compound 100: N-((3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)methyl)cyclopropanecarboxamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz): δ 7.773 (s, 1H), 7.684 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.634 (s, 1H), 7.353(t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.207 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.142( s, 1H), 4.492(d, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.427 (s, 3H), 1.355(m, 1H), 1.013(m, 2H), 0.755(m, 2H); MS (m/e): 312 (M+1). EXAMPLE 101 Compound 101: N-((3-(3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)(4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl)methanamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHZ): δ 8.447 (s, 1H), 7.943-7.995 (m, 2H), 7.896 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.711 (s, 1H), 7.851 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.486 (t, J=7.6-8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.153 (s, 1H), 4.123 (s, 2H), 4.017 (s, 2H), 3.017 (s, 3H), 2.418 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 480 (M+1). EXAMPLE 102 Compound 102: 2-methoxy-N-((3-(3-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)methyl)ethanamine was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 4. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHZ): δ 8.444 (s, 1H), 7.730 (s, 1H), 7.954-8.019 (m, 2H), 7.715 (s, 1H), 7.477 (t, J=7.6-8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.137(s, 1H), 4.158(s, 2H), 3.540 (t, J=5.2, 2H), 3.364 (s,3H), 2.972 (t, J=4.8, 2H), 2.413 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 370 (M+1). EXAMPLE 103 Compound 103: N-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-2-methoxyacetamide was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz): δ 8.118 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.806˜7.902 (m, 3H), 7.681 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 1H), 7.387 (t, J=15.3-7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.253 (s, 1H), 7.183 (t, J=15.6-7.8 Hz, 1H), 6.785 (t, J=13.8-5.7 Hz, 1H), 4.544 (d, J=5.7Hz, 2H), 3.953 (s, 2H), 3.390 (s, 3H); MS (m/e): 296.3 (M+1). EXAMPLE 104 Compound 104: ethyl 2-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methylamino)nicotinate was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.303 (m, 1H), 8.292 (m, 1H), 8.154˜8.092(m, 2H), 7.960 (s, 1H), 7.846 (s, 1H), 7.637 (d, J=10 Hz, 1H), 7.390˜7.355 (m, 2H), 7.156 (m, 1H), 6.562 (m, 1H), 4.819 (d, J=5.2 Hz, 2H) , 4.326 (m, 2H), 1.351 (t, J=14.4-6.8 Hz, 3H); MS (m/e): 373.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 105 Compound 105: 1-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-3-(2-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)urea was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.273 (d, J=9.2Hz, 1H), 8.078 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 7.923˜7.795 (m, 3H), 7.655 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.448˜7.169 (m, 5H), 6.796 (t, J=13.6-6.4 Hz, 1H), 4.706 (s, 2H); MS (m/e): 395.8 (M+1). EXAMPLE 106 Compound 106: 1-((3-(H-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)methyl)-3-(4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)urea was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 2. 1H NMR (d-DMSO, 400 MHz): δ 9.496 (s, 1H), 8.544 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H),8.401 (s, 1H), 8.114 (s, 1H), 7.968 (s, 1H), 7.560-7.194 (m, 6H), 6.892 (t, 1H), 4.373 (d, 2H); MS (m/e): 445.8 (M+1). EXAMPLE 107 In Vivo Assays Balb/c mice (female, body weight 18 g-20 g) were used. Test compound suspension in 0.25% Tween 80 and 1% carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) was administered orally or parenterally, the negative control group being adminitered with the vehicle alone and the positive control group being administered with Prednisone (10 mg/kg). Half an hour later, all mice were injected intraperitoneally with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (15 mg/kg, 10 mL/kg). Two hours after LPS injection, mice were bled for serum. Concentrations of TNF-α and IL-1β in the serum, stored at −20° C. overnight, were determined by ELISA. Tested compounds from this invention demonstrated significant inhibition of TNFα and IL-1β production at a dose ranging from 1 to 1000 mg/kg. Other Embodiments All of the features disclosed in this specification may be combined in any combination. Each feature disclosed in this specification may be replaced by an alternative feature serving the same, equivalent, or similar purpose. Thus, unless expressly stated otherwise, each feature disclosed is only an example of a generic series of equivalent or similar features. From the above description, one skilled in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of the present invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions. For example, compounds structurally analogous to compounds of Formula I can be made and screened for their inhibitory activities against the production of a cytokine (e.g., TNFα or interlukine) and treating cytokine-overproduction related disorders and used to practice this invention. Thus, other embodiments are also within the claims.
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A
| 7A61
| 22A61K
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3149
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85
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10581833
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US20080039469A1-20080214
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Muscarinic Agents as Therapeutic Compounds
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ACCEPTED
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20080131
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20080214
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[]
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A61K31437
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["A61K31437", "A61K314985", "A61P2528", "C07D47104", "C07D48704", "C07D49804"]
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7691857
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20070413
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20100406
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514
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249000
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63770.0
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RAHMANI
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NILOOFAR
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Buffat", "inventor_name_first": "Maxime", "inventor_city": "Cardiff", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Thomas", "inventor_name_first": "Eric James", "inventor_city": "Cardiff", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Davies", "inventor_name_first": "Robin Havard", "inventor_city": "Cardiff", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]
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Muscarinic agonists of the formula (I) with M1 selectivity which are useful as agents for stimulating the cognitive functions of the brain.
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1. A compound of the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A is CH or nitrogen; B is —CH2—, —CHF—, —CF2—, NR4 or O, with the proviso that when A is N, B is —CH2—, —CHF— or —CF2—; G is oxygen or ═N—CN, R1 is hydrogen or C1-6 alkyl; R2 is hydrogen; C1-10 alkyl optionally substituted with C1-6 alkoxy or halogen; aralkyl, a —CH2-heterocycle or a —CH2—C5 cycloalkyl ring each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxyl, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalky, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; R3 is hydrogen; a cyclic alkyl radical containing from 3-6 carbon atoms or a C1-C6 alkyl; R4 is hydrogen or lower alkyl; R5 is a 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring having one of the following structures: where L and M are independently O or N (or NH where the circumstances require) with the proviso that both of L and M cannot be O; Y is S, CH, O or N (or NH where the circumstances require); X is C or N; and R6 is lower alkyl; hydrogen; arylamino optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; aralkyl optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; or a group of formula: wherein n is an integer in the range from 1 to 4 and HET is a heterocyclic group optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; or R5 may also be C2-C4-aralkyl, —CH2-O—R7 where R7 is C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C2-C4 aralkyl which groups may be optionally substituted with fluoro or hydroxy; and R8 is hydrogen or aryl (optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxyl, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalky, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); with the proviso that when either R3 or R8 is not hydrogen, the other is hydrogen. 2. A compound according to claim 1, in which G is O; R1 is H or lower alkyl; R2 is C1-8 alkyl, —CH2-aryl or a —CH2-substituted heterocycle each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; R3 is hydrogen, cyclobutyl, cyclopropyl, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, butyl, sec-butyl; R4 is hydrogen; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; R8 is hydrogen, phenyl or halo-substituted phenyl. 3. A compound according to claim 2, wherein R1 is H; R2 is —CH2-aryl optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; R3 is hydrogen or cyclobutyl; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is phenyl, phenylamino substituted by one or more halo, phenylmethyl substituted by one or more halo, or phenethyl substituted by one or more halo; R8 is hydrogen or a fluoro-substituted phenyl. 4. A compound according to claim 3, wherein R2 is —CH2—C6H5 or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; R3 is H; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is a meta chloro-substituted phenylamino, a meta chloro-substituted phenylmethy or a meta chloro-substituted phenethyl; R8 is 3,5-difluorophenyl. 5. A compound according to claim 1, wherein A is CH; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl or —CH2-aryl (optionally substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkyny); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). 6. A compound according to claim 1, in which A is CH; B is O; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, —CH2-aryl (optionally substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is —CH2—O—CH3, —CH2—O—CH2—CH2—C6H5 or one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). 7. A compound according to claim 1, wherein A is CH; B is NH; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, —CH2-aryl, a —CH2-heterocyclic group or a —CH2-substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R4 is hydrogen; R5 is —CH2—O—CH3, —CH2—O—CH2—CH2—C6H5 or one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamno, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). 8. A compound according to claim 1, wherein A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, —CH2-aryl, a —CH2-heterocyclic group or a —CH2-substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl, substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). 9. A compound according to claim 1, wherein A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl —CH2-aryl, a —CH2-heterocyclic group or a —CH2-substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalky, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is —CH2—O—CH3; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). 10. A compound according to claim 1, wherein A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, —CH2-aryl or a —CH2-heterocyclic group, (optionally substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); R3 is hydrogen or cyclobutyl; R5 is one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: R6 is methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring; and R8 is phenyl, 3,5-difluorophenyl or H. 11. A compound according to claim 1, having the formula: 12. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of claim 1. 13. A compound in accordance with claim 1 for use as a medicament. 14. Use of a compound in accordance with claim 1 in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems. 15. The use of claim 14, wherein the disorder is Alzheimer's disease. 16. A method of treatment, prophylaxis and/or inhibition of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems comprising the administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound as claimed in claim 1 to a subject in need thereof.
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<SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to muscarinic agonists with M 1 selectivity which are useful as agents for stimulating the cognitive functions of the brain.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to a first embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound of the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A is CH or nitrogen; B is —CH 2 —, —CHF—, —CF 2 —, NR 4 or O, with the proviso that when A is N, B is —CH 2 —, —CHF— or —CF 2 —; G is oxygen or ═N—CN, R 1 is hydrogen or C 1-6 alkyl; R 2 is hydrogen; C 1-10 alkyl optionally substituted with C 1-6 alkoxy or halogen; aralkyl, a —CH 2 -heterocycle or a —CH 2 —C 5 cycloalkyl ring each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-8 alkoxy, C 1-6 haloalkoxy, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 haloalkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl or C 2-6 haloalkynyl; R 3 is hydrogen; a cyclic alkyl radical containing from 3-6 carbon atoms or a C 1 -C 6 alkyl; R 4 is hydrogen or lower alkyl; R 5 is a 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring having one of the following structures: where L and M are independently O or N (or NH where the circumstances require) with the proviso that both of L and M cannot be O; Y is S, CH, O or N (or NH where the circumstances require); X is C or N; and R 6 is lower alkyl; hydrogen; arylamino optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 haloalkoxy, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 haloalkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl or C 2-6 haloalkynyl; aralkyl optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 haloalkoxy, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 haloalkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl or C 2-6 haloalkynyl; or a group of formula: wherein n is an integer in the range from 1 to 4 and HET is a heterocyclic group optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 haloalkoxy, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 haloalkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl or C 2-6 haloalkynyl; or R 5 may also be C 2 -C 4 -aralkyl (e.g. CH 2 —CH 2 -phenyl), —CH 2 —O—R 7 where R 7 is C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, C 2 -C 4 aralkyl (e.g. CH 2 —CH 2 -phenyl) which groups may be optionally substituted with fluoro or hydroxy; and R 8 is hydrogen or aryl (optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 haloalkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 haloalkoxy, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 haloalkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl or C 2-6 haloalkynyl); with the proviso that when either R 3 or R 8 is not hydrogen, the other is hydrogen. In accordance with a second embodiment of the invention, there is provided a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of the first embodiment. In accordance with a third embodiment of the invention, there is provided a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention for use as a medicament. In accordance with a fourth embodiment of the invention, there is provided the use of a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems. In accordance with a fifth embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method for the treatment, prophylaxis and/or inhibition of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems comprising the administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention to a subject in need thereof. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to muscarinic agonists with M1 selectivity which are useful as agents for stimulating the cognitive functions of the brain. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION According to a first embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound of the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: A is CH or nitrogen; B is —CH2—, —CHF—, —CF2—, NR4 or O, with the proviso that when A is N, B is —CH2—, —CHF— or —CF2—; G is oxygen or ═N—CN, R1 is hydrogen or C1-6 alkyl; R2 is hydrogen; C1-10 alkyl optionally substituted with C1-6 alkoxy or halogen; aralkyl, a —CH2-heterocycle or a —CH2—C5 cycloalkyl ring each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; R3 is hydrogen; a cyclic alkyl radical containing from 3-6 carbon atoms or a C1-C6 alkyl; R4 is hydrogen or lower alkyl; R5 is a 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring having one of the following structures: where L and M are independently O or N (or NH where the circumstances require) with the proviso that both of L and M cannot be O; Y is S, CH, O or N (or NH where the circumstances require); X is C or N; and R6 is lower alkyl; hydrogen; arylamino optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; aralkyl optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; or a group of formula: wherein n is an integer in the range from 1 to 4 and HET is a heterocyclic group optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl; or R5 may also be C2-C4-aralkyl (e.g. CH2—CH2-phenyl), —CH2—O—R7 where R7 is C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C2-C4 aralkyl (e.g. CH2—CH2-phenyl) which groups may be optionally substituted with fluoro or hydroxy; and R8 is hydrogen or aryl (optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl); with the proviso that when either R3 or R8 is not hydrogen, the other is hydrogen. In accordance with a second embodiment of the invention, there is provided a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the compound of the first embodiment. In accordance with a third embodiment of the invention, there is provided a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention for use as a medicament. In accordance with a fourth embodiment of the invention, there is provided the use of a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems. In accordance with a fifth embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method for the treatment, prophylaxis and/or inhibition of disorders caused by the malfunction of the acetylcholine or muscarinic systems comprising the administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention to a subject in need thereof. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the embodiments of the invention, G is preferably oxygen. R1 is preferably hydrogen or lower alkyl such as methyl. R1 is most preferably hydrogen. R2 may be C1-8 alkyl, such as n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, preferably —CH2—C6H5 in which the aryl may be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. Alternatively, R2 may be —CH2—C5 cycloalkyl such as —CH2-cyclopentane or —CH2-cyclopenta-1,3-diene. Another preferred R2 radical is —CH2-heterocyclic aryl, for example —CH2-benzoxazole, in which the —CH2-heterocyclic aryl may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. The invention includes within its scope other —CH2-heterocyclic aryl groups such as —CH2-benzodioxole, —CH2-benzooxathiole, —CH2-benzoimidazole, —CH2-benzothiazole, —CH2-benzodithiole —CH2-pyridyl, —CH2-pyrimidyl all of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. The invention also includes within its scope other non-aromatic —CH2-heterocyclic groups such as —CH2-thiophene, —CH2-furan, —CH2-pyrrolidine, —CH2-oxathiolane, —CH2-thiazolidine, —CH2-oxazolidine, —CH2-dithiolane, —CH2-dioxolane, —CH2-imidazoline all of which may be optionally substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. Also in accordance with the present invention but presently less preferred is —CH2-naphthyl in which the naphthyl is unsubstituted or substituted with one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-6 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. R3 is preferably hydrogen, cyclobutyl, cyclopropyl, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, butyl, sec-butyl, more preferably hydrogen or cyclobutyl. R4 is preferably hydrogen. R5 is preferably one of the following 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures: where R6 is preferably methyl, aralkyl, arylamino, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having a methylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, aralkyl substituted by one or more halo and having an ethylene group linking the aryl to the unsaturated 5-membered ring, R6 is more preferably phenyl, phenylamino substituted by one or more halo (e.g. chloro), phenylmethyl substituted by one or more halo (e.g chloro), or phenethyl substituted by one or more halo (e.g. chloro), R6 is most preferably a meta chloro-substituted phenylamino, a meta chloro-substituted phenylmethyl or a meta chloro-substituted phenethyl. More preferred at present amongst the above unsaturated 5 membered heterocyclic rings are: 5-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazol-3-yl; 5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl; 5-methyl-1,4-oxazol-3-yl; 4-methyl-1,3-oxazol-2-yl; 5-methyl-1,3-oxazol-2-yl; 5-methyl-1,4-oxazol-2-yl. When R5 is —CH2—O—R7, R7 is preferably —C2-4-aralkyl, more preferably —CH2—CH2-aryl, most preferably —CH2—CH2-phenyl. R8 is preferably hydrogen, phenyl or halo-substituted phenyl, more preferably fluoro-substituted phenyl and most preferably 3,5-difluorophenyl. In one aspect of the first embodiment, A is CH; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example —CH2—C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl, for example —CH2-benzoxazole (optionally substituted as described below). R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is one of the preferred or more preferred 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures specified above; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In another aspect, A is CH; B is O; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example. —CH2—C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), —CH2—C10H7 (optionally substituted as described below) or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl, for example —CH2-benzoxazole (optionally substituted as described below). R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is one of the preferred or more preferred 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures specified above, —CH2—O—CH3 or —CH2—O—CH2—CH2—C6H5; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In another aspect, A is CH; B is NH; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example —CH2—C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), —CH2—C10H7 (optionally substituted as described below), —CH2-heterocyclic aryl, for example —CH2-benzoxazole, —CH2-pyridyl or —CH2-pyrimidyl (optionally substituted as described below), a —CH2-heterocyclic group (optionally substituted as described below), or a —CH2- substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted as described above); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R4 is hydrogen; R5 is one of the preferred or more preferred 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures specified above, —CH2—O—CH3 or —CH2—O—CH2—CH2—C6H5; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted with halo). Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In another aspect, A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example —CH2C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), —CH2—C10H7 (optionally substituted as described below) or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl for example —CH2-benzoxazole, CH2-pyridyl or CH2-pyrimidyl (optionally substituted as described below), a —CH2-heterocyclic group (optionally substituted as described below), or a —CH2-substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted as described above); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is one of the preferred or more preferred 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures specified above; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted by halo). Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In another aspect, A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example —CH2—C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl, for example —CH2-benzoxazole, CH2-pyridyl or CH2-pyrimidyl (optionally substituted as described below), a —CH2-heterocyclic group (optionally substituted as described below), or a —CH2- substituted C5 cycloalkyl (optionally substituted as described above); R3 is cyclobutyl or H; R5 is —CH2—O—CH3; and R8 is H or phenyl (optionally substituted by halo). Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In another aspect, A is N; B is —CH2—; G is oxygen; R1 is hydrogen; R2 is C1-10 alkyl, for example n-C5H11, or —CH2-aryl, for example —CH2—C6H5 (optionally substituted as described below), —CH2—C10H7 (optionally substituted as described below) or —CH2-heterocyclic aryl for example —CH2-benzoxazole, —CH2-pyridyl or —CH2-pyrimidyl (optionally substituted as described below) or a —CH2-heterocyclic group (optionally substituted as described below); R3 is hydrogen or cyclobutyl; R5 is one of the preferred or more preferred 5-membered unsaturated heterocyclic ring structures specified above; and R8 is phenyl, 3,5-difluorophenyl or H. Examples of compounds falling within this definition are: In the present context alkyl may be straight or branched. Where the alkyl is C1-6 alkyl, this may for example be methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, tert.butyl, pentyl or hexyl. The term “lower alkyl” designates C1-4 alkyl which may be straight or branched, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl or tert.butyl. The term “alkenyl” designates a C2-C6 straight or C3-C6 branched alkyl group which contains a double bond, such as 2-propenyl, 2-butenyl, 2-pentenyl, 2-hexenyl, 2-methyl-2-propenyl or 3-methyl-2-butenyl. The term “haloalkenyl” designates an alkenyl group as defined above which may be substituted by one or more halo e.g. F, Cl, Br or I. The term “alkynyl” designates a C2-C6 straight or C3-C6 branched alkyl group containing a triple bond, such as 2-propynyl, 2-butynyl, 2-pentynyl, 2-hexynyl or 4-methyl-2-pentynyl. The term “haloalkynyl” designates an alkynyl group as defined above which may be substituted by one or more halo e.g. F, Cl, Br or I. The term “aralkyl” designates a lower alkyl group (as herein defined) which, in turn, may be substituted with an aryl group, preferably a phenyl, heterocyclic aryl or naphthyl group which in turn may be substituted, for example by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. Preferred aralkyl are benzyl, 1- and 2-phenylethyl, 1-, 2- and 3-phenylpropyl, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl, 6-ethyl benzoxazole and —CH2-naphthyl. Where the aryl group, preferably phenyl, heterocyclic aryl or naphthyl group, of the aralkyl is substituted with haloalkyl (preferably C1-4 alkyl), halogen, lower alkyl, or C1-6 alkoxy, they may be mono-, di- or tri-substituted and when they are di-or tri-substituted the substituents may be the same or different. Preferred substituents on the phenyl are —CF3, chloro, bromo, C2-6 alkyl and C4-8 alkoxy. Preferred substituents on the naphthyl are —CF3, chloro, bromo, C1-4 alkyl (such as methyl), and C3-7 alkoxy. The term “heterocycle” designates a heterocyclic group, which may be a heterocyclic aryl group as described above or non-aromatic heterocyclic group each of which may be substituted by one or more of halo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 haloalkyl, C1-8 alkoxy, C1-6 haloalkoxy, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 haloalkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl or C2-6 haloalkynyl. The preferred heterocycles of the invention are 5 membered rings optionally substituted as described above. The term “halogen” designates F, Cl, Br, or I; Cl, Br and F are preferred. The term “alkoxy” denotes a C1-C6 straight or C3-C6 branched alkoxy group. Examples of such groups are methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, butoxy, pentoxy, hexoxy, 2-methyl ethoxy, 2-ethyl propoxy and 1-ethyl-2-methyl-propoxy. The term “haloalkoxy” designates an alkoxy group as defined above which may be substituted by one or more halo e.g. F, Cl, Br or I. Examples of suitable salts include inorganic and organic acid addition salts such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide, sulphate, phosphate, acetate, fumarate, maleate, citrate, lactate, tartrate, oxalate or similar pharmaceutically-acceptable inorganic and organic acid addition salts. The compounds of the invention exist in geometrical and/or optical isomers. The present invention encompasses all enantiomers and mixtures thereof. Preferred is the isomer shown below: The compounds of the invention are selective m1-muscarinic receptor agonists and therefore useful in methods for the treatment of disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, caused by malfunction of the acetylcholine (AcCh) or muscarinic system, by administering a non-toxic effective amount thereof to a mammalian, normally human, subject. Compounds of the invention may be made by methods known in the art. Thus, for example, compounds in which A is N, B is —CH2— and R5 is —CH2—O—Me may be made in accordance with the following synthetic pathway: Steps 1 & 2 Treatment of allyl alcohol 1 with hydrochloric acid in methanol gives the known ether 2, which is converted to the known dibromide 3, by addition of bromine. Steps 3 & 4 Nucleophilic displacement by excess benzylamine in the presence of a high boiling solvent, under an inert atmosphere yields the diamine 4. In the presence of air the geminal diamine 5 is formed. This may be reconverted to the diamine 4 by hydrogenolysis. In a similar manner, reaction with p-methoxybenzylamine gives analogous products which may be used in subsequent reactions in an identical way. The p-methoxybenzylamine derivatives have the advantage that they are cleaved more easily than the benzylamine derivatives (cf. step 6). Step 5 Reaction with ethyl chloroacetate or a range of other α-haloesters (eg α-bromo- or α-iodoesters bearing other alkyl substituents) yields the piperidinone 6, plus the regioisomer together with diacylated and dialkylated products. Reaction at −10° C., in methylene chloride, with 1.2 equivalents of α-chloroacetyl chloride gives a mixture from which the desired isomer 6 can be isolated in 70% yield. The piperidinone 6, serves as a common starting material for all subsequent reactions. Reactions shown in brackets (Steps 6 & 9) are used as appropriate according to the substituents/protecting groups present. The following examples illustrate the general methodology. Steps 6-9 (a) Compounds 7-11 where R1=Bn or p-MeOBn; R2=any alkyl, aryl or benzyl, R3=any alkyl, aryl or benzyl Cleavage of the amidic benzylamine substituent with sodium in liquid ammonia gives the amide 7 (R1=H), which is treated sequentially with sodium hydride in DMSO (or other strong bases) and the haloamide 8 (X=preferably Cl, but also Br or I) to give the tertiary amide 9. Reaction with an organometallic reagent such as a Grignard or organolithium reagent gives the aminol 10, which spontaneously cyclises and upon acidification yields the salt 11. (b) Compounds 7-11 where R1 is H; R2 is any alkyl, aryl or benzyl, R3 is H or any alkyl, aryl or benzyl Hydrogenolysis of the benzylic amine yields a secondary amine, which is protected as the silyl ether with tri-isopropylsilyl-, t-butyldimethylsilyl- or t-butyldiphenylsilyl-trifluoromethanesulfonate. Cleavage of the amidic benzylic substituent with sodium in liquid ammonia yields the secondary amide 7 (R1=iPr3Si, tBuMe2Si or tBuPh2Si). Subsequent reactions, follow the sequence outlined above under (a), except that deprotection with a nucleophilic fluoride source is required in Step 9. This is typically tetrabutylammonium fluoride, cesium fluoride or another comparable reagent known in the prior art. (c) Compounds 7-11 where R1 is any alkyl, aryl or benzyl; R2 is any alkyl, aryl or benzyl, R3 is H or any alkyl, aryl or benzyl This pathway follows the sequence under (b) above, except that in step 6b, the secondary amine is converted to a tertiary amine by reaction with an alkylating reagent (eg. haloalkane or benzylic halide) or an arylating reagent (eg ArBr, Cu or ArCl, PdCl2(PAr3)2 with the aminostannane). No deprotection is required in step 9. Compounds in which A is CH, B is O and R5 is 4-methyloxazol-2-yl or —CH2—O—Me may be made in accordance with the following alternative synthetic pathways: Scheme 1. Reagents: i. Br2, MeOH; ii. KCO2H, MeOH; iii. TBSCl, Imidazole, DCM; iv. (EtO)2PCH2CO2Et, NaH, THF; v. DIBAL-H, THF; vi. CF3CN, NaH, THF; vii. xylene; viii. NaBH4, EtOH; ix. CbzCl, Et3N, DCM; x. O3, PPh3, DCM; xi. CH2═CMeMgBr, THF; xii. mCPBA, DCM; xiii. TMP, n-BuLi, THF; xiv. BnBr, NaH, THF; xv. RI, NaH, THF; xvi. CBr4, PPh3, MeCN; xvii. RLi or RNa, THF; xviii. a. BH3, THF; b. EtOH, NaOAc, H2O2; xix. TBAF, THF; xx. MsCl, Et3N, DCM; xxi. BnNH2; xxii. Pd/C, HCO2H, MeOH; xxiii. CH2═CMeMgBr, THF; xxiv. BnBr, NaH, THF; xxv. O3, PPh3, DCM; xxvi. KHMDS, PhN(Tf)2, THF; xxvii. HC═CXLi or HC═CXMgBr, THF; xxviii. R′X, Pd(0), THF; xxix. Dess Martin periodinane, DCM; xxx. 2-methyl-2-butene, NaClO2, NaH2PO4, t-BuOH/water; xxxi. i-BuOCOCl, NMM, 2-aminopropanol, THF; xxxii. Dess Martin periodinane, DCM; xxxiii. 2,6-di-t-Butyl-4-methylpyridine, PPh3, Cl2BrCCCl2Br, DBU, DCM, CH3CN. M1-Muscarinic Receptor Agonist Synthesis The protected α-amino-aldehyde 4 was identified as a key intermediate in the synthesis of the target molecules 7 and 10 since stereoselective vinyl Grignard addition followed by functional group modification and cyclisation would lead to the required piperidines. The introduction of the tertiary amino group into the aldehyde 4 was as a key step in the synthesis which was to be accomplished by rearrangement of an allylic trifluoroacetimidate. The protected hydroxyketone 2 was prepared from the commercially available cyclobutyl methyl ketone 1 by bromination, hydrolysis of the bromoketone so obtained and protection. Condensation of the ketone 2 with triethyl phosphonoacetate followed by reduction using diisobutylaluminium hydride gave the corresponding allylic alcohol which was converted into the trifluoroacetimidate 3 using trifluoroacetonitrile. On reflux in xylene this trifluoroacetimidate rearranged to the isomeric tertiary trifluoroacetamide which was taken through to the aldehyde 4 by removal of the trifluoroacetyl group using sodium borohydride, N-protection and ozonolysis. Addition of prop-2-enyl magnesium bromide was stereoselective and on work-up was accompanied by cyclisation to give a carbamate which was converted into the intermediate 5 by epoxidation, lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide induced epoxide-allylic alcohol rearrangement and N- protection using sodium hydride benzyl bromide. The next steps involved modification of the hydroxyl groups to give access to various side-chains. Thus, for example, O-methylation using methyl iodide and sodium hydride gave the methyl ether 6 (R=OMe) which was taken through to the target 7 (R=OMe) by hydroboration with an oxidative work-up, removal of the silyl protecting group, mesylation of both hydroxyl groups, and displacement of the mesylates followed by hydrogenolysis of the N-benzyl group. In an approach to the analogue with a 4-methyloxazol-2-yl side chain 10 (R′=4-methyloxazol-2-yl), the alcohol 5 was oxidised to the corresponding acid over two steps, and the acid converted into its amide using 2-aminopropanol. Cyclisation was achieved by oxidation to the aldehyde using the Dess Martin periodinane followed by dehydration to give 9 (R′=4-methyloxaxol-2-yl) . However, in this case, conversion to the target 10 (R′=4-methyloxazol-2-yl) was inefficient because of competing elimination of the carbamate after the hydroboration step. Ozonolysis of the alkene 8 (X=Me) gave the corresponding ketone which was converted into its enol triflate 8 (X=OTf) for palladium cataylsed coupling with aryl halides. Compounds in which A is CH, B is N and R5 is —CH2—O—Me may be made in accordance with the following synthetic pathway: Step 1 The alkylation of the piperidinone 1 (R1=Bn; R3=H) using sodium hydride and dimethylcarbonate has been reported (S. Singh, G. P. Basnadjian, K. S. Avor, B. Pouw, T. W. Seale, Synthesis and ligand binding studies of 4′-iodobenzoyl esters of tropanes and piperidines at the dopamine transporter, J. Med. Chem., 1997, 40, 2474-2481). Moreover the compound 2 (R1=Bn; R3=H) has been reported to be commercially available (H.-J. Altenbach and G. Blanda, A novel building block for the synthesis of isofagomin analogues, Tetrahedron: Asymmetry, 1998, 9, 1519-1524) and has been converted into the compound 4 (R1=Bn, R3=H). Adaption of the known routes to these compounds enables the synthesis of compounds 1 and 2 in which R1=alkyl, benzyl and CH2-heteroaromatic. Step 2 Generation of the dianion of the β-ketoester 2, with LDA (lithium di-isopropylamide) or a comparable strong base and treatment with an electrophilic alkylating reagent (R3X, X=Cl, Br, I, OTs, OMs or a comparable nucleofuge), enables the synthesis of compounds 3 (R3=n-alkyl, benzyl, CH2-heteroaromatic, or allyl or derivatives thereof) . In the cases in which R3 cannot act as a suitable alkylating agent (eg. cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, isopropyl and other secondary and tertiary substituents), the desired compounds are prepared by an alternative route. Thus a ketone (CH3COCH2R3) is treated with formaldehyde (or a synthetic equivalent) and ammonia or an appropriate amine (eg. R1NH2) to give the piperidinone 1 directly. Step 3 Formation of the p-toluenesulfonylhydrazone with p-toluenesulfonylhydrazine and treatment with three equivalents of base, followed by lithium aluminium hydride reduction gives the desired compound 4 (R3=H; Shapiro reaction, cf. Altenbach & Blanda, as above). However when R3 is not hydrogen, it is more advantageous to reduce the ketone with sodium borohydride and to effect β-elimination with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride to give the α,β-unsaturated ester. Treatment with LDA generates the enolate which is reprotonated at the a-position with t-butyl bromide (or a comparable proton source) to give the β,γ-unsaturated ester, which in turn is reduced with lithium aluminium hydride to give the homoallylic alcohol 4. Steps 4 & 5 The homoallylic alcohol 4 is treated with potassium t-butoxide and butyl lithium at low temperatures in non-polar solvents to generate the potassium alkoxide. This is reacted in turn with a toluene solution of phosgene and an alkali or alkaline metal azide salt to yield the acyl azide 5. Alternatively the potassium alkoxide of the homoallylic alcohol 4 is treated with azidocarbonic acid methyl ester. Warming to room temperature or slightly higher effects cyclisation to yield the triazoline 6. Step 6 Reductive cleavage of the triazoline 6 to the aminourethane 7 may be achieved using a variety of conditions. Hydrogenolysis with hydrogen catalysed by palladium or platinium is cheapest and most effective, however if R1=Bn and it is desirable for this group to be retained, triphenylphosphine or a comparable trivalent phosphorus reagent plus water or ammonium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide is preferable. Reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yields 10 (R1 & R3 as 6; R2=H; R4=CH3). Step 7 The aminourethane 7 may be alkylated on the primary amino group with an electrophilic reagent R2X, within the usual scope of such reactions (R2=n-alkyl, benzyl, CH2-heteroaromatic, or allyl or derivatives thereof; X=Cl, Br, I, OTs, OMs or a comparable nucleofuge). Steps 8 and 9 Cleavage of the urethane group with refluxing concentrated sodium hydroxide or concentrated hydrochloric acid containing a trace of p-toluenesulfonic acid yields the primary amine 9, which may be alkylated (R4) as in step 7. In this case the regioselectivity is poorer and some multiple alkylation products are also formed. Step 10 Treatment with potassium t-butoxide and no more than one equivalent of dimethylsulfate yields the methyl ether 11. Step 11 Treatment with phosgene, diphosgene or triphosgene or any of a number of synthetic equivalents, plus a base yields the urea, which is converted to the salt 12, by treatment with an acid. If desired, the benzyl group (R1) may be removed by hydrogenolysis using hydrogen and platinium or palladium catalysts and the secondary amine so formed alkylated with an electrophilic reagent R4X, within the usual scope of such reactions (R1=n-alkyl, benzyl, CH2-heteroaromatic, or allyl or derivatives thereof; X Cl, Br, I, OTs, OMs or a comparable nucleofuge). Compounds in which A is CH, B is N and R5 is a 5-membered heterocyclic ring may be made following the pathway above for compounds in which A is CH, B is N and R5 is —CH2—O—R7 starting with compound 10 and applying step 11 gives compounds 12 in which the lower most substituent is a hydroxyl group instead of a methyl ether. The hydroxyl group may be oxidised to a carboxylic acid and converted to an ester as before. The practicality of step 11 in this specific context depends on the substituents R1, R2 and R4 on the amine groups. Compound 10 may be temporarily protected by reaction of the alkoxide (as in the original route, step 10), but with benzyl bromide to give a benzyl ether (11 Me═Bn). Step 11 follows as before to give (Me═Bn). The benzyl group is then removed using hydrogen and platinium on charcoal to give 12 (Me═H), which can be oxidised as above. In this alternative pathway, the designation 12 refers to the free amine rather than the ammonium salt shown in the scheme and the procedure is not applicable to the case where R1, R2 or R4=Bn. Similarly, compounds in which A is CH, B is O, G is O, R2 is benzyl, R3 is H, R5 is —CH2—O—CH3 or oxazole and R8 is phenyl may be made by the following reaction scheme: It will be appreciated that the above reaction scheme may be generalised or varied as appropriate in order to produce additional compounds in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention. This variation would be within the ability of one skilled in the art. M1 receptor activity of a compound of the invention may be examined with the rabbit vas deferens using a method developed from that described previously (Dorje F, Rettenmayr N, Mutschler E and Lambrecht G, Eur J Pharmacol 1991, 203, 417-420). The tissue is stimulated electrically to contract and the conditions are optimized so that M1 receptor agonists produce a concentration-related inhibition of contraction height. Any activity at M2 receptors is indicated by an increase in the contraction height. M2 receptor activity may also be recorded from increases in contraction of the guinea-pig paced left atria. M3 receptor activity is measured from the contraction of the guinea-pig ileum. Other methods for analysing M1 receptor activity may be employed, such as those described in EP-A-0336555 and EP-A-0384288 (the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference to the extent possible under the relevant national law). In accordance with the second embodiment, the compounds of the present invention, together with a conventional adjuvant, carrier, or diluent, and if desired in the form of a pharmaceutically-acceptable acid addition salt thereof, may be placed in the form of pharmaceutical compositions and unit dosages thereof, and in such form may be employed as solids, such as tablets or filled capsules, or liquids, such as solutions, suspensions, emulsions, elixirs, or capsules filled with the same, all for oral use, in the form of suppositories for rectal administration; or in the form of sterile injectable solutions for parenteral (including subcutaneous) use. Such pharmaceutical compositions and unit dosage forms thereof may comprise conventional ingredients in conventional proportions, with or without additional active compounds or principles, and such unit dosage forms may contain any suitable effective muscarinic cholinergic agonistic amount of the active ingredient commensurate with the intended daily dosage range to be employed. Tablets containing ten (10) milligrams of the active ingredient or, more broadly, one (1) to hundred (100) milligrams, per tablet, are accordingly suitable representative unit dosage forms. The compounds of this invention can thus be used for the formulation of pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. for oral and parenteral administration to mammals including humans, in accordance with conventional methods of galenic pharmacy. Conventional excipients are such pharmaceutically acceptable organic or inorganic carrier substances suitable for parenteral or enteral application which do not deleteriously react with the active compounds. Examples of such carriers are water, salt solutions, alcohols, polyethylene glycols, polyhydroxyethoxylated castor oil, gelatine, lactose, amylase, magnesium stearate, talc, silicic acid, fatty acid monoglycerides and diglycerides, pentaerythritol fatty acid esters, hydroxymethylcellulose and polyvinylpyrrolidone. The pharmaceutical preparations can be sterilized and mixed, if desired, with auxiliary agents, emulsifiers, salt for influencing osmotic pressure, buffers and/or colouring substances and the like, which do not deleteriously react with the active compounds. For parenteral application, particularly suitable are injectable solutions or suspensions, preferably aqueous solutions with the active compound dissolved in polyhydroxylated castor oil. Ampoules are convenient unit dosage forms. Tablets, dragees or capsules having talc and/or a carbohydrate carrier or binder or the like, the carrier preferably being lactose and/or corn starch and/or potato starch, are particularly suitable for oral application. A syrup, elixir or the like can be used in cases where a sweetened vehicle can be employed. Generally, the compounds of this invention are dispensed in unit form comprising 1-100 mg in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier per unit dosage. The dosage of the compounds according to this invention is 1-100 mg/day, preferably 10-70 mg/day, when administered to patients, e.g. humans, as a drug. A typical tablet which may be prepared by conventional tabletting techniques contains: Active compound 5.0 mg Lactosum 67.8 mg Ph.Eur. Avicel ® 31.5 mg Amberlite ® 1.0 Magnesli stearas 0.25 mg Ph.Eur. In accordance with the third, fourth and fifth embodiments, the compounds of the invention are useful in the treatment and manufacture of medicaments for the treatment of symptoms related to a reduction of the cognitive functions of the brain of mammals, when administered in an amount effective for stimulating the cognitive functions of the forebrain and hippocampus. The important stimulating activity of the compounds of the invention includes both activity against the pathophysiological disease, Alzheimer's disease, as well as against normal degeneration of brain function. The compounds of the invention may accordingly be administered to a subject, e.g. a living animal body, including a human, in need to stimulation of the cognitive functions of the forebrain and hippocampus, and if desired in the form of a pharmaceutically-acceptable acid addition salt thereof (such as hydrobromide, hydrochloride, or sulfate, in any event prepared in the usual or conventional manner, e.g. evaporation to dryness of the free base in solution together with the acid) ordinarily concurrently, simultaneously, or together with a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier or diluent, especially and preferably in the form of a pharmaceutical composition thereof, whereof by oral, rectal, or parenteral (including subcutaneous) route, in an effective forebrain and hippocampus stimulating amount, and in any event an amount which is effective for improving the cognitive function of mammals due to their muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonistic activity. Suitable dosage ranges are 1-100 milligrams daily, 10-100 milligrams daily, and especially 30-70 milligrams daily, depending as usual upon the exact mode of administration, form in which administered, the indication toward which the administration is directed, the subject involved and the body weight of the subject involved, and the preference and experience of the physician or veterinarian in charge. EXAMPLES The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limiting example. Example 1 3-Benzyl-3a-cyclobutyl-7-methoxymethyl-2-oxo-octahydro-oxazolo[4,5-c]pyridin-5-ium The above compound was synthesised by the method of reaction scheme 2 above. The compound was characterised by IR spectroscopy. Pharmacology Functional Assays of M1 Receptor Activity Initial evaluation of the test compound is by assay of functional tissue responses. This has the advantage that it readily discriminates between agonist, partial agonist and antagonist activity. M1—Vas Deferens Preparations Male New Zealand white rabbits (1.47-3.4 Kg) are killed by a blow to the back of the head and vasa deferentia removed, dissected free of connective tissue and divided into prostatic and epididmyal portions. Each segment is mounted on a tissue holder and passed through two ring electrodes (5 mm apart). They are immersed in a modified low Ca2+ Krebs solution at 32+/−0.5° C. and gassed with 5% CO2 in oxygen. Yohimibine (1.0 mM) is present throughout to block prejunctional a2-adrenoceptors. The upper end of the tissue is attached by cotton thread to an isometric transducer (MLT020, ADInstruments). Tissues are left to equilibrate for at least 45 min at passive force of 0.75-1 g. Field stimulation is then applied by repeated application of single pulses (30V, 0.05 Hz, 0.5 ms). Isometric tension is recorded by computer at a sampling rate of 100 Hz, using Powerlab/200 (ADInstruments) software and MacLab bridge amplifiers. M2—Pig Atria Guinea-pigs are killed by a blow to the back of the head and left atrium removed. The atrium is secured to a pari of stainless steel electrodes by means of a cotton thread and immersed in the organ bath containing gassed Krebs solution with normal Ca2+ at 32+/−0.5° C. Atria are paced at 2 Hz with square-wave pulses of 0.5 ms pulse width. Isometric contractions are recorded by computer or polygraph. M3—Guinea-Pig Ileum Sections (2 cm) are cut from the ilium of the killed guinea-pigs, 10 cm from the ileo-caecal junction. One end is attached to a tissue holder/aerator and the other end via a cotton thread to an isometric transducer. The tissue is immersed in gassed normal Ca2+ Krebs solution at 32+/−0.5° C. A resting tension of 0.5 g is applied and isometric contractions measured by computer or polygraph. Agonist Concentration-Response Curves Following at least 30 min equilibration to allow twitches or tension to stabilize, cumulative concentration-response curves for the muscarinic agonists are constructed. The concentration is increased in half logarithmic increments after the contraction in the presence of each concentration has plateaued. Steady-state contractions at each concentration are measured and the inhibition expressed as a percentage of the baseline twitch height in atria and vas deferens or as the maxi contraction in the ileum. EC50 values for the muscarinic agonists are determined from individual curves as the molar concentration required for 50% inhibition of twitch height or the 50 maximum contraction (ileum). Geometric mean EC50 values and their 95% confidence limits are calculated. It was found that the compound of Example 1 was a 50% partial M1 agonist with a potency (EC50 value) of 10−7M.
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A
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| 22A61K
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314
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37
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11986456
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US20090082281A1-20090326
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Compositions and methods for counteracting effects of reactive oxygen species and free radicals
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ACCEPTED
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20090311
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20090326
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[]
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A61K3806
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["A61K3806", "A61K3805", "C07K500"]
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8034774
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20071121
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20111011
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514
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014000
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98145.0
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DESAI
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ANAND
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Shashoua", "inventor_name_first": "Victor E.", "inventor_city": "Brookline", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Peptide compounds and methods for upregulating expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme, such as superoxide dismutase or catalase, to counteract harmful oxidative effects of reactive oxygen species and other free radicals are described. The peptide compounds may be used to treat or prevent diseases and conditions characterized by undesirable elevation of reactive oxygen species and other free radicals, to upregulate AP-1 gene expression, and to treat pain. The peptide compounds may be used as components of pharmaceuticals and dietary supplements.
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1. A method of treating an ischemic injury in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a peptide compound having the amino acid sequence set forth as: Asp Gly Asp, Asp Gly, Thr Val Ser, or Glu Ala, wherein the peptide compound is administered in an amount effective to treat the ischemic injury. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the peptide compound comprises an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the amino terminal capping group is a lipoic acid moiety (Lip). 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the ischemic injury is a reperfusion injury. 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the ischemic injury results from a stroke. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the ischemic injury is a myocardial infarction. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the ischemic injury results from an occlusion. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the ischemic injury results from a heart attack. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the ischemic injury is a drug-induced injury. 10-11. (canceled) 12. The method of claim 3, wherein the peptide compound is [Lip]-Asp Gly. 13. The method of claim 3, wherein the peptide compound is [Lip]-Glu Ala. 14-15. (canceled) 16. The method of claim 3, wherein the peptide compound is [Lip]-Asp Gly Asp. 17. The method of claim 3, wherein the peptide compound is [Lip]-Thr Val Ser. 18. A method for reducing an elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or free radicals in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a peptide compound having the amino acid sequence set forth as: Asp Gly Asp, Asp Gly, Thr Val Ser, or Glu Ala, wherein the peptide compound is administered in an amount effective to reduce the elevated level of ROS and/or free radicals in the subject. 19-35. (canceled) 36. An isolated peptide compound having the amino acid sequence Asp Gly Asp, Thr Val Ser, Glu Ala, or Asp Gly, wherein the peptide compound comprises an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. 37-46. (canceled) 47. A composition comprising a peptide compound having the amino acid sequence Asp Gly Asp, Thr Val Ser, Glu Al, or Asp Gly, wherein the peptide compound comprises an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group; and the composition comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 48-53. (canceled) 54. A method for treating an ischemic injury in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a peptide compound having the amino acid sequence set forth as: Glu Gly, Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, Asp Ala (SEQ ID NO:4), or Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala (SEQ ID NO:6), wherein the peptide compound is administered in an amount effective to treat the ischemic injury in the subject. 55-70. (canceled) 71. A method for reducing an elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or free radicals in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a peptide compound having the amino acid sequence set forth as: Glu Gly, Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp (SEQ ID NO:4), Asp Ala, or Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala (SEQ ID NO:6), wherein the peptide compound is administered in an amount effective to reduce the elevated level of ROS and/or free radical in the subject. 72-88. (canceled) 89. An isolated peptide compound having the amino acid sequence Glu Gly, Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp (SEQ ID NO:4), Asp Ala, or Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala (SEQ ID NO:6), wherein the peptide compound comprises an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. 90-99. (canceled) 100. A peptide compound comprising the formula: R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Xaa3 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Thr, or Tyr; Xaa2 is absent or any amino acid; Xaa3 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Thr, Ser, Gly, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group. 101-146. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>Biological organisms generate harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) and various free radicals in the course of normal metabolic activities of tissues such as brain, heart, lung, and muscle tissue (Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J. M. C., eds. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine , (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989)). The most reactive and, therefore, toxic ROS and free radicals include the superoxide anion (O 2 . − , singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), lipid peroxides, peroxinitrite, and hydroxyl radicals. Even a relatively small elevation in ROS or free radical levels in a cell can be damaging. Likewise, a release or increase of ROS or free radicals in extracellular fluid can jeopardize the surrounding tissue and result in tissue destruction and necrosis. Indeed, hydrogen peroxide, which is somewhat less reactive than the superoxide anion, is a well known, broad spectrum, antiseptic compound. In eukaryotes, a major source of superoxide anion is the electron transport system during respiration in the mitochondria. The majority of the superoxide anion is generated at the two main sites of accumulation of reducing equivalents, i.e., the ubiquinone-mediated and the NADH dehydrogenase-mediated steps in the electron transport mechanism. Hydrogen peroxide is generated metabolically in the endoplasmic reticulum, in metal-catalyzed oxidations in peroxisomes, in oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, and in the cytosolic oxidation of xanthine (see, for example, Somani et al., “Response of Antioxidant System to Physical and Chemical Stress,” In Oxidants, Antioxidants, and Free Radicals , chapter 6, pp. 125-141, Baskin, S. I. and H. Salem, eds. (Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C., 1997)). In normal and healthy individuals, several naturally occurring antioxidant defense systems detoxify the various ROS or free radicals and, thereby, preserve normal cell and tissue integrity and function. These systems of detoxification involve the stepwise conversion of ROS or free radicals to less toxic species by the concerted activities of certain antioxidative enzymes. These antioxidative enzymes are members of a larger class of molecules known as “oxygen radical scavengers” or “lazaroids” that have an ability to scavenge and detoxify ROS and free radicals. Vitamins A, C, E, and related antioxidant compounds, such as β-carotene and retinoids, are also members of this larger class. In healthy individuals, sufficient levels of antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids are present both intracellularly and extracellularly to efficiently scavenge sufficient amounts of ROS and free radicals to avoid significant oxidative damage to cells and tissues. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) are among the most important and studied of the antioxidative enzymes. These enzymes function in concert to detoxify ROS and free radicals. SOD is present in virtually all oxygen-respiring organisms where its major function is the dismutation (breakdown) of superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide, itself, is a highly reactive and oxidative molecule, which must be further reduced to avoid damage to cells and tissues. In the presence of the appropriate electron acceptors (hydrogen donors), CAT catalyzes the further reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water. In the presence of reduced glutathione (GSH), GSH-Px also mediates reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water by a separate pathway. Each of the antioxidative enzymes described above can be further subdivided into classes. There are three distinct classes of SOD based on metal ion content: copper-zinc (Cu—Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). In mammals, only the Cu—Zn and Mn SOD classes are present. Mammalian tissues contain a cytosolic Cu—Zn SOD, a mitochondrial Mn SOD, and a Cu—Zn SOD referred to as EC-SOD, which is secreted into the extracellular fluid. SOD is able to catalyze the dismutation of the highly toxic superoxide anion at a rate of 10 million times faster than the spontaneous rate (see, Somani et al., p. 126). Although present in virtually all mammalian cells, the highest levels of SOD activity are found in several major organs of high metabolic activity, i.e., liver, kidney, heart, and lung. Expression of the gene encoding SOD has been correlated with tissue oxygenation; high oxygen tension elevates SOD biosynthesis in rats (Toyokuni, S., Pathol. Int., 49: 91-102 (1999)). CAT is a soluble enzyme present in nearly all mammalian cells, although CAT levels can vary widely between tissues and intracellular locations. CAT is present predominately in the peroxisomes (microbodies) in liver and kidney cells and also in the microperoxisomes of other tissues. There are two distinct classes of GSH-Px: selenium-dependent and selenium independent. Furthermore, GSH-Px species can be found in the cytosol, as a membrane-associated protein, and as a circulating plasma protein. A recognition of the role of ROS and free radicals in a variety of important diseases and drug side effects has grown appreciably over recent years. Many studies have demonstrated that a large number of disease states and harmful side effects of therapeutic drugs are linked with a failure of the antioxidant defense system of an individual to keep up with the rate of generation of ROS and various free radicals (see, for example, Chan et al., Adv. Neurol., 71:271-279 (1996); DiGuiseppi, J. and Fridovich, I., Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 12:315-342 (1984)). For example, abnormally high ROS levels have been found under conditions of anoxia elicited by ischemia during a stroke or anoxia generated in heart muscle during myocardial infarction (see, for example, Walton, M. et al., Brain Res. Rev., 29:137-168 (1999); Pulsinelli, W. A. et al., Ann. Neurol., 11: 499-502 (1982); Lucchesi, B. R., Am. J. Cardiol., 65:14I-23I (1990)). In addition, an elevation of ROS and free radicals has also been linked with reperfusion damage after renal transplants. Accordingly, an elevation of ROS and free radicals has been linked with the progression and complications developed in many diseases, drug treatments, traumas, and degenerative conditions including oxidative stress induced damage with age, Tardive dyskinesia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, degenerative eye diseases, septic shock, head and spinal cord injuries, Alzheimer's disease, ulcerative colitis, human leukemia and other cancers, and diabetes (see, for example, Ratanis, Pharmaceutical Executive , pp. 74-80 (April 1991)). One approach to reducing elevated levels of damaging ROS and free radicals has involved an attempt to increase the levels of antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids by administering those agents therapeutically. As a result, the commercial market for antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids is estimated to exceed $1 billion worldwide. Not surprisingly, research and development of various lazaroids as therapeutic agents has become a highly competitive field. Interest in developing SOD itself as a therapeutic agent has been especially strong. This is due, in part, to SOD's status as a recognized anti-inflammatory agent and the belief that SOD might provide a means for penetrating the nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) market as well (Id., at p. 74). Despite many years of focused research effort, the use of SOD and other lazaroids has not provided a successful prophylactic or therapeutic tool for addressing the diseases, disorders and other conditions caused by or characterized by the generation of ROS and free radicals. Clearly, there remains a need for additional therapeutics and methods of treating diseases and conditions characterized by the destructive effect of elevated levels of ROS and free radicals.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention described herein solves the problem of how to counteract the destructive oxidative effect of elevated levels of ROS and free radicals by providing peptide compounds that stimulate (i.e., upregulate) expression of genes encoding antioxidative enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and/or catalase (CAT), to reduce, eliminate, or prevent an undesirable elevation in the levels of ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues, and to restore age-related reduction of constitutive antioxidative enzymes. Furthermore, the peptide compounds of this invention may have antioxidative activity independent of their ability to stimulate expression of genes encoding antioxidative enzymes. The formulas of the peptide compounds described herein use the standard three-letter abbreviation for amino acids known in the art. In one embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln R 2 (SEQ ID NO:1), in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg R 2 (SEQ ID NO:2), in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Xaa Gly Xaa 2 Xaa 3 Xaa 4 Xaa 5 Xaa 6 R2 (SEQ ID NO:3), in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein Xaa 1 and Xaa 2 are, independently, aspartic acid or asparagine; R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group of the peptide compound; Xaa 3 is absent or Gly; Xaa 4 is absent, Asp, or Phe; Xaa 5 is absent, Ala, or Phe; Xaa 6 is absent or Ala; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula, upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly Asp Asp Gly Asn Asn Gly Asn Asn Gly Asp Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:8) and Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala. (SEQ ID NO:9) The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Asn Ser Thr R 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Phe Asp Gln R 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: (SEQ ID NO:10) R 1 Xaa 1 Xaa 2 Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro R 2 , wherein Xaa 1 is absent or Ser; Xaa 2 is absent or Lys; R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula, upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro (SEQ ID NO:11) and Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro (SEQ ID NO:12) The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Xaa 1 Xaa 2 Xaa 3 R 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein Xaa 1 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Thr, or Tyr; Xaa 2 is absent or any amino acid (i.e., is variable); Xaa 3 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Thr, Ser, Gly, or Leu; R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. Preferably, a peptide compound of the invention comprises the above formula wherein Xaa 2 is selected from the group consisting of Val, Gly, Glu, and Gln. More preferably, the peptide compound is selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Thr Val Ser, Asp Gly Asp, and Asn Gly Asn. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Leu Xaa 1 Xaa 2 R 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein Xaa 1 is any amino acid; Xaa 2 is Gln or Tyr; R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Met Thr Xaa 1 R 2 , in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein Xaa 1 is Asn, Asp, Glu, Thr, or Leu; R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In a preferred embodiment, a peptide compound of any of the formulas described herein has the R 1 amino terminal capping group. More preferably, the R 1 amino terminal capping group is selected from the group consisting of a lipoic acid moiety (Lip, in reduced or oxidized form); a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety (Gga); 1 to 6 lysine residues; 1 to 6 arginine residues; an acyl group of the formula R 3 —CO—, where CO is a carbonyl group, and R 3 is a hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbon atoms, and preferably 1 to 22 carbon atoms, and where the hydrocarbon chain may be saturated or unsaturated and branched or unbranched; and combinations thereof. More preferably, when the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group it is acetyl or a fatty acid. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, palmitic acid (Palm), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In another embodiment, the amino terminal capping group is a peptide consisting of any combination of arginine and lysine wherein the peptide is not less than two amino acids in length and not more than six amino acids in length. Preferred peptide compounds that upregulate expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and that are useful in compositions and methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, those peptides comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: (SEQ ID NO:1) Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln, (SEQ ID NO:2) Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:13) Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:14) Gln Tyr Ser Ile Gly Gly Pro Gln, (SEQ ID NO: 15) Ser Asp Arg Ser Ala Arg Ser Tyr, (SEQ ID NO:12) Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:13) Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:16) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:8) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:17) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:18) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:9) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:19) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:20) Asn Gly Asp Gly, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:21) Asn Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:22) Asp Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:23) Asn Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, Asp Gly Asp, Asn Gly Asn, Asp Gly Asn, Asn Gly Asp, Asn Ser Thr, Phe Asp Gln, Met Thr Leu, Met Thr Asp, Met Thr Asn, Met Thr Thr, Met Thr Glu, Met Thr Gln, Thr Val Ser, Leu Thr Gln, Leu Thr Gly, Leu Thr Tyr, Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Glu Ala, Gln Ala, Gln Gly, Asp Ala, and Asn Ala. Even more preferred peptide compounds that are useful in compositions and methods of the invention comprise an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of Asp Gly Asp, Asp Gly, Thr Val Ser, and Glu Ala. In a more preferred embodiment, the invention provides the above-listed preferred peptide compounds that also have an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. Even more preferred, the amino terminal capping group is selected from a group consisting of a reduced or oxidized lipoic acid moiety (Lip), a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid (Gga) moiety, 1 to 6 lysine residues, 1 to 6 arginine residues, an acyl group having the formula R 3 —CO—, where CO represents a carbonyl group and R 3 is a saturated or an unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated) hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbons, and combinations thereof. Still more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is the R 3 —CO— acyl group wherein R 3 is a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon chain having 1 to 22 carbons. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is the acyl group that is an acetyl group (Ac), palmitic acid (Palm), or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In another preferred embodiment, the above-listed preferred peptide compounds have a carboxy terminal capping group selected from the group consisting of a primary or secondary amine. The peptide compounds useful in the compositions and/or methods of the invention may also be prepared and used as one or more various salt forms, including acetate salts and trifluoroacetic acid salts, depending on the needs for a particular composition or method. The invention also provides methods of counteracting the effects of ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues comprising contacting the cells or tissues with a peptide compound described herein. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the peptide compounds of the invention stimulate (upregulate) expression of a gene(s) encoding superoxide dismutase (SOD) and/or catalase (CAT) enzymes, which enzymes are capable of detoxifying ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues of animals, including humans and other mammals. Preferably, gene expression for both SOD and CAT proteins are upregulated by contacting cells or tissues with a peptide compound of this invention. Treating cells or tissues with a peptide compound described herein may elevate the expression of gene(s) encoding SOD and/or CAT to sufficiently high levels to provide significantly increased detoxification of ROS and free radicals compared to untreated cells or tissues. Patients having a variety of diseases or conditions have been found to possess undesirable levels of ROS and/or free radicals. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein may be used therapeutically to counteract the effects of ROS and free radicals present in the body and/or prophylactically to decrease or prevent an undesirable elevation in the levels of ROS and free radicals associated with particular diseases, conditions, drug treatments, or disorders. Specifically, this invention provides methods in which a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein is administered to an individual to treat or prevent a disease or condition that is characterized by the generation of toxic levels of ROS or free radicals, including but not limited to tissue and/or cognitive degeneration during aging (senescence), senility, Tardive dyskinesia, cerebral ischemia (stroke), myocardial infarct (heart attack), head trauma, brain and/or spinal cord trauma, reperfusion damage, oxygen toxicity in premature infants, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, ulcerative colitis, human leukemia and other cancers characterized by elevation of ROS or free radicals, age-related elevation of ROS or free radicals, Down syndrome, macular degeneration, cataracts, schizophrenia, epilepsy, septic shock, polytraumatous shock, burn injuries and radiation-induced elevation of ROS and free radicals (including UV-induced skin damage). In a particularly preferred embodiment, this invention provides methods in which a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein is administered to an individual to lessen or eliminate side effects caused by drug regimens that generate ROS and free radicals. A number of drugs have been found to cause undesirable elevation of levels of ROS or free radicals as a toxic side effect. Such drugs include doxorubicin, daunorubicn, BCNU (carmustine) and related compounds such as methyl-BCNU and CCNU, and neuroleptics, such as clozapine. As an adjuvant to such therapies, the peptide compounds of this invention can be used to decrease the severity of or eliminate these damaging side effects. Accordingly, the peptides of this invention may be administered to treat or prevent drug-induced elevation of ROS or free radicals, such as occurs during treatment with neuroleptic drugs as in Tardive dyskinesia. In yet another embodiment, the peptide compounds described herein are used as an alternative or adjuvant to nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to treat pain from wounds, arthritis, and other inflammatory conditions in which ROS and free radicals play a role. The invention also provides a method of therapeutically or prophylactically treating a disease or disorder, other than stroke, in a mammal in which there is an abnormally high level of ROS or free radicals comprising contacting cells of the mammal with a peptide compound having the formula: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? R 1 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu R 2 (SEQ ID NO:16), in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where R 1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R 2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound. Preferably, the method uses the peptide compound where the amino terminal capping group R 1 is selected from the group consisting of a lipoic acid moiety (in an oxidized or reduced form); a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid group; the acyl group, i.e., R 3 —CO—, where CO represents a carbonyl group and R 3 is a saturated or an unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated) hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 (and more preferably 1-22) carbon atoms; 1 to 6 lysine residues; 1 to 6 arginine residues; and combinations thereof. More preferably, the method uses the peptide compound where the amino terminal capping group R 1 is an acetyl group, a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid group, or a fatty acid. Even more preferably, R 1 is acetyl (Ac), palmitic acid (Palm), lipoic acid (Lip), or docosahexacnoic acid (DHA). In another preferred embodiment, the method uses the peptide compound having the carboxy terminal capping group R 2 , and, more preferably, wherein R 2 is a primary or secondary amine. The invention also provides therapeutic compositions comprising a peptide compound of the invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable buffer for administration to an individual to eliminate, reduce, or prevent the generation of toxic levels of ROS or free radicals in cells or tissues. Another aspect of the invention provides dietary supplement compositions (also referred to as “nutraceuticals”) comprising a natural source, purified composition obtained from an organism (animal, plant, or microorganism), which contains or is enriched for an endogenous peptide compound described herein, which upregulates expression of one or more genes encoding an antioxidative enzyme, such as SOD and/or CAT in cells or tissues. Preferably, dietary supplements of the invention additionally comprise an exogenously provided peptide compound described herein. In a more preferred embodiment, a natural source of a purified composition from an organism used in making dietary supplement compositions of the invention is green velvet antler from a ruminant, such as deer or elk, or various plant material, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, foliage, herbal mixtures, and tea plants. Certain peptide compounds of the invention may also stimulate or upregulate expression of the gene encoding transcription factor, activator protein 1 (AP-1). AP-1 in turn serves to activate transcription of various AP-1-dependent genes. Accordingly, the invention provides a method of activating transcription factor AP-1 and its transmigration to the cell nucleus and/or stimulating or upregulating the expression of the gene encoding AP-1 transcription factor using a peptide compound described herein, other than a peptide compound having the formula: R 1 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu R 2 (SEQ ID NO: 16), wherein R 1 is absent or is any amino terminal capping group as described herein and R 2 is absent or is any carboxy terminal capping group as the peptide compound.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No. 60/166,381, filed Nov. 18, 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is in the field of antioxidative compounds, in particular, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compounds for use in therapeutic and prophylactic treatments of diseases and conditions characterized by undesirable levels of reactive oxygen species and free radicals. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Biological organisms generate harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) and various free radicals in the course of normal metabolic activities of tissues such as brain, heart, lung, and muscle tissue (Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J. M. C., eds. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989)). The most reactive and, therefore, toxic ROS and free radicals include the superoxide anion (O2.−, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), lipid peroxides, peroxinitrite, and hydroxyl radicals. Even a relatively small elevation in ROS or free radical levels in a cell can be damaging. Likewise, a release or increase of ROS or free radicals in extracellular fluid can jeopardize the surrounding tissue and result in tissue destruction and necrosis. Indeed, hydrogen peroxide, which is somewhat less reactive than the superoxide anion, is a well known, broad spectrum, antiseptic compound. In eukaryotes, a major source of superoxide anion is the electron transport system during respiration in the mitochondria. The majority of the superoxide anion is generated at the two main sites of accumulation of reducing equivalents, i.e., the ubiquinone-mediated and the NADH dehydrogenase-mediated steps in the electron transport mechanism. Hydrogen peroxide is generated metabolically in the endoplasmic reticulum, in metal-catalyzed oxidations in peroxisomes, in oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, and in the cytosolic oxidation of xanthine (see, for example, Somani et al., “Response of Antioxidant System to Physical and Chemical Stress,” In Oxidants, Antioxidants, and Free Radicals, chapter 6, pp. 125-141, Baskin, S. I. and H. Salem, eds. (Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C., 1997)). In normal and healthy individuals, several naturally occurring antioxidant defense systems detoxify the various ROS or free radicals and, thereby, preserve normal cell and tissue integrity and function. These systems of detoxification involve the stepwise conversion of ROS or free radicals to less toxic species by the concerted activities of certain antioxidative enzymes. These antioxidative enzymes are members of a larger class of molecules known as “oxygen radical scavengers” or “lazaroids” that have an ability to scavenge and detoxify ROS and free radicals. Vitamins A, C, E, and related antioxidant compounds, such as β-carotene and retinoids, are also members of this larger class. In healthy individuals, sufficient levels of antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids are present both intracellularly and extracellularly to efficiently scavenge sufficient amounts of ROS and free radicals to avoid significant oxidative damage to cells and tissues. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) are among the most important and studied of the antioxidative enzymes. These enzymes function in concert to detoxify ROS and free radicals. SOD is present in virtually all oxygen-respiring organisms where its major function is the dismutation (breakdown) of superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide, itself, is a highly reactive and oxidative molecule, which must be further reduced to avoid damage to cells and tissues. In the presence of the appropriate electron acceptors (hydrogen donors), CAT catalyzes the further reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water. In the presence of reduced glutathione (GSH), GSH-Px also mediates reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water by a separate pathway. Each of the antioxidative enzymes described above can be further subdivided into classes. There are three distinct classes of SOD based on metal ion content: copper-zinc (Cu—Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). In mammals, only the Cu—Zn and Mn SOD classes are present. Mammalian tissues contain a cytosolic Cu—Zn SOD, a mitochondrial Mn SOD, and a Cu—Zn SOD referred to as EC-SOD, which is secreted into the extracellular fluid. SOD is able to catalyze the dismutation of the highly toxic superoxide anion at a rate of 10 million times faster than the spontaneous rate (see, Somani et al., p. 126). Although present in virtually all mammalian cells, the highest levels of SOD activity are found in several major organs of high metabolic activity, i.e., liver, kidney, heart, and lung. Expression of the gene encoding SOD has been correlated with tissue oxygenation; high oxygen tension elevates SOD biosynthesis in rats (Toyokuni, S., Pathol. Int., 49: 91-102 (1999)). CAT is a soluble enzyme present in nearly all mammalian cells, although CAT levels can vary widely between tissues and intracellular locations. CAT is present predominately in the peroxisomes (microbodies) in liver and kidney cells and also in the microperoxisomes of other tissues. There are two distinct classes of GSH-Px: selenium-dependent and selenium independent. Furthermore, GSH-Px species can be found in the cytosol, as a membrane-associated protein, and as a circulating plasma protein. A recognition of the role of ROS and free radicals in a variety of important diseases and drug side effects has grown appreciably over recent years. Many studies have demonstrated that a large number of disease states and harmful side effects of therapeutic drugs are linked with a failure of the antioxidant defense system of an individual to keep up with the rate of generation of ROS and various free radicals (see, for example, Chan et al., Adv. Neurol., 71:271-279 (1996); DiGuiseppi, J. and Fridovich, I., Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 12:315-342 (1984)). For example, abnormally high ROS levels have been found under conditions of anoxia elicited by ischemia during a stroke or anoxia generated in heart muscle during myocardial infarction (see, for example, Walton, M. et al., Brain Res. Rev., 29:137-168 (1999); Pulsinelli, W. A. et al., Ann. Neurol., 11: 499-502 (1982); Lucchesi, B. R., Am. J. Cardiol., 65:14I-23I (1990)). In addition, an elevation of ROS and free radicals has also been linked with reperfusion damage after renal transplants. Accordingly, an elevation of ROS and free radicals has been linked with the progression and complications developed in many diseases, drug treatments, traumas, and degenerative conditions including oxidative stress induced damage with age, Tardive dyskinesia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, degenerative eye diseases, septic shock, head and spinal cord injuries, Alzheimer's disease, ulcerative colitis, human leukemia and other cancers, and diabetes (see, for example, Ratanis, Pharmaceutical Executive, pp. 74-80 (April 1991)). One approach to reducing elevated levels of damaging ROS and free radicals has involved an attempt to increase the levels of antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids by administering those agents therapeutically. As a result, the commercial market for antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids is estimated to exceed $1 billion worldwide. Not surprisingly, research and development of various lazaroids as therapeutic agents has become a highly competitive field. Interest in developing SOD itself as a therapeutic agent has been especially strong. This is due, in part, to SOD's status as a recognized anti-inflammatory agent and the belief that SOD might provide a means for penetrating the nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) market as well (Id., at p. 74). Despite many years of focused research effort, the use of SOD and other lazaroids has not provided a successful prophylactic or therapeutic tool for addressing the diseases, disorders and other conditions caused by or characterized by the generation of ROS and free radicals. Clearly, there remains a need for additional therapeutics and methods of treating diseases and conditions characterized by the destructive effect of elevated levels of ROS and free radicals. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention described herein solves the problem of how to counteract the destructive oxidative effect of elevated levels of ROS and free radicals by providing peptide compounds that stimulate (i.e., upregulate) expression of genes encoding antioxidative enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and/or catalase (CAT), to reduce, eliminate, or prevent an undesirable elevation in the levels of ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues, and to restore age-related reduction of constitutive antioxidative enzymes. Furthermore, the peptide compounds of this invention may have antioxidative activity independent of their ability to stimulate expression of genes encoding antioxidative enzymes. The formulas of the peptide compounds described herein use the standard three-letter abbreviation for amino acids known in the art. In one embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln R2 (SEQ ID NO:1), wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg R2 (SEQ ID NO:2), wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Xaa Gly Xaa2 Xaa3 Xaa4 Xaa5 Xaa6 R2 (SEQ ID NO:3), wherein Xaa1 and Xaa2 are, independently, aspartic acid or asparagine; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group of the peptide compound; Xaa3 is absent or Gly; Xaa4 is absent, Asp, or Phe; Xaa5 is absent, Ala, or Phe; Xaa6 is absent or Ala; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula, upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly Asp Asp Gly Asn Asn Gly Asn Asn Gly Asp Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:8) and Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala. (SEQ ID NO:9) The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Asn Ser Thr R2, wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Phe Asp Gln R2, wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: (SEQ ID NO:10) R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro R2, wherein Xaa1 is absent or Ser; Xaa2 is absent or Lys; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula, upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro (SEQ ID NO:11) and Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro (SEQ ID NO:12) The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Xaa3 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Thr, or Tyr; Xaa2 is absent or any amino acid (i.e., is variable); Xaa3 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Thr, Ser, Gly, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. Preferably, a peptide compound of the invention comprises the above formula wherein Xaa2 is selected from the group consisting of Val, Gly, Glu, and Gln. More preferably, the peptide compound is selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Thr Val Ser, Asp Gly Asp, and Asn Gly Asn. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Leu Xaa1 Xaa2 R2, wherein Xaa1 is any amino acid; Xaa2 is Gln or Tyr; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Met Thr Xaa1 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asn, Asp, Glu, Thr, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In a preferred embodiment, a peptide compound of any of the formulas described herein has the R1 amino terminal capping group. More preferably, the R1 amino terminal capping group is selected from the group consisting of a lipoic acid moiety (Lip, in reduced or oxidized form); a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety (Gga); 1 to 6 lysine residues; 1 to 6 arginine residues; an acyl group of the formula R3—CO—, where CO is a carbonyl group, and R3 is a hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbon atoms, and preferably 1 to 22 carbon atoms, and where the hydrocarbon chain may be saturated or unsaturated and branched or unbranched; and combinations thereof. More preferably, when the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group it is acetyl or a fatty acid. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, palmitic acid (Palm), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In another embodiment, the amino terminal capping group is a peptide consisting of any combination of arginine and lysine wherein the peptide is not less than two amino acids in length and not more than six amino acids in length. Preferred peptide compounds that upregulate expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and that are useful in compositions and methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, those peptides comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: (SEQ ID NO:1) Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln, (SEQ ID NO:2) Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:13) Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:14) Gln Tyr Ser Ile Gly Gly Pro Gln, (SEQ ID NO: 15) Ser Asp Arg Ser Ala Arg Ser Tyr, (SEQ ID NO:12) Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:13) Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:16) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:8) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:17) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:18) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:9) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:19) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:20) Asn Gly Asp Gly, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:21) Asn Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:22) Asp Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:23) Asn Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, Asp Gly Asp, Asn Gly Asn, Asp Gly Asn, Asn Gly Asp, Asn Ser Thr, Phe Asp Gln, Met Thr Leu, Met Thr Asp, Met Thr Asn, Met Thr Thr, Met Thr Glu, Met Thr Gln, Thr Val Ser, Leu Thr Gln, Leu Thr Gly, Leu Thr Tyr, Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Glu Ala, Gln Ala, Gln Gly, Asp Ala, and Asn Ala. Even more preferred peptide compounds that are useful in compositions and methods of the invention comprise an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of Asp Gly Asp, Asp Gly, Thr Val Ser, and Glu Ala. In a more preferred embodiment, the invention provides the above-listed preferred peptide compounds that also have an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. Even more preferred, the amino terminal capping group is selected from a group consisting of a reduced or oxidized lipoic acid moiety (Lip), a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid (Gga) moiety, 1 to 6 lysine residues, 1 to 6 arginine residues, an acyl group having the formula R3—CO—, where CO represents a carbonyl group and R3 is a saturated or an unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated) hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbons, and combinations thereof. Still more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is the R3—CO— acyl group wherein R3 is a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon chain having 1 to 22 carbons. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is the acyl group that is an acetyl group (Ac), palmitic acid (Palm), or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In another preferred embodiment, the above-listed preferred peptide compounds have a carboxy terminal capping group selected from the group consisting of a primary or secondary amine. The peptide compounds useful in the compositions and/or methods of the invention may also be prepared and used as one or more various salt forms, including acetate salts and trifluoroacetic acid salts, depending on the needs for a particular composition or method. The invention also provides methods of counteracting the effects of ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues comprising contacting the cells or tissues with a peptide compound described herein. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the peptide compounds of the invention stimulate (upregulate) expression of a gene(s) encoding superoxide dismutase (SOD) and/or catalase (CAT) enzymes, which enzymes are capable of detoxifying ROS and free radicals in cells and tissues of animals, including humans and other mammals. Preferably, gene expression for both SOD and CAT proteins are upregulated by contacting cells or tissues with a peptide compound of this invention. Treating cells or tissues with a peptide compound described herein may elevate the expression of gene(s) encoding SOD and/or CAT to sufficiently high levels to provide significantly increased detoxification of ROS and free radicals compared to untreated cells or tissues. Patients having a variety of diseases or conditions have been found to possess undesirable levels of ROS and/or free radicals. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein may be used therapeutically to counteract the effects of ROS and free radicals present in the body and/or prophylactically to decrease or prevent an undesirable elevation in the levels of ROS and free radicals associated with particular diseases, conditions, drug treatments, or disorders. Specifically, this invention provides methods in which a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein is administered to an individual to treat or prevent a disease or condition that is characterized by the generation of toxic levels of ROS or free radicals, including but not limited to tissue and/or cognitive degeneration during aging (senescence), senility, Tardive dyskinesia, cerebral ischemia (stroke), myocardial infarct (heart attack), head trauma, brain and/or spinal cord trauma, reperfusion damage, oxygen toxicity in premature infants, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, ulcerative colitis, human leukemia and other cancers characterized by elevation of ROS or free radicals, age-related elevation of ROS or free radicals, Down syndrome, macular degeneration, cataracts, schizophrenia, epilepsy, septic shock, polytraumatous shock, burn injuries and radiation-induced elevation of ROS and free radicals (including UV-induced skin damage). In a particularly preferred embodiment, this invention provides methods in which a composition comprising a peptide compound described herein is administered to an individual to lessen or eliminate side effects caused by drug regimens that generate ROS and free radicals. A number of drugs have been found to cause undesirable elevation of levels of ROS or free radicals as a toxic side effect. Such drugs include doxorubicin, daunorubicn, BCNU (carmustine) and related compounds such as methyl-BCNU and CCNU, and neuroleptics, such as clozapine. As an adjuvant to such therapies, the peptide compounds of this invention can be used to decrease the severity of or eliminate these damaging side effects. Accordingly, the peptides of this invention may be administered to treat or prevent drug-induced elevation of ROS or free radicals, such as occurs during treatment with neuroleptic drugs as in Tardive dyskinesia. In yet another embodiment, the peptide compounds described herein are used as an alternative or adjuvant to nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to treat pain from wounds, arthritis, and other inflammatory conditions in which ROS and free radicals play a role. The invention also provides a method of therapeutically or prophylactically treating a disease or disorder, other than stroke, in a mammal in which there is an abnormally high level of ROS or free radicals comprising contacting cells of the mammal with a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu R2 (SEQ ID NO:16), where R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound. Preferably, the method uses the peptide compound where the amino terminal capping group R1 is selected from the group consisting of a lipoic acid moiety (in an oxidized or reduced form); a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid group; the acyl group, i.e., R3—CO—, where CO represents a carbonyl group and R3 is a saturated or an unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated) hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 (and more preferably 1-22) carbon atoms; 1 to 6 lysine residues; 1 to 6 arginine residues; and combinations thereof. More preferably, the method uses the peptide compound where the amino terminal capping group R1 is an acetyl group, a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid group, or a fatty acid. Even more preferably, R1 is acetyl (Ac), palmitic acid (Palm), lipoic acid (Lip), or docosahexacnoic acid (DHA). In another preferred embodiment, the method uses the peptide compound having the carboxy terminal capping group R2, and, more preferably, wherein R2 is a primary or secondary amine. The invention also provides therapeutic compositions comprising a peptide compound of the invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable buffer for administration to an individual to eliminate, reduce, or prevent the generation of toxic levels of ROS or free radicals in cells or tissues. Another aspect of the invention provides dietary supplement compositions (also referred to as “nutraceuticals”) comprising a natural source, purified composition obtained from an organism (animal, plant, or microorganism), which contains or is enriched for an endogenous peptide compound described herein, which upregulates expression of one or more genes encoding an antioxidative enzyme, such as SOD and/or CAT in cells or tissues. Preferably, dietary supplements of the invention additionally comprise an exogenously provided peptide compound described herein. In a more preferred embodiment, a natural source of a purified composition from an organism used in making dietary supplement compositions of the invention is green velvet antler from a ruminant, such as deer or elk, or various plant material, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, foliage, herbal mixtures, and tea plants. Certain peptide compounds of the invention may also stimulate or upregulate expression of the gene encoding transcription factor, activator protein 1 (AP-1). AP-1 in turn serves to activate transcription of various AP-1-dependent genes. Accordingly, the invention provides a method of activating transcription factor AP-1 and its transmigration to the cell nucleus and/or stimulating or upregulating the expression of the gene encoding AP-1 transcription factor using a peptide compound described herein, other than a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu R2 (SEQ ID NO: 16), wherein R1 is absent or is any amino terminal capping group as described herein and R2 is absent or is any carboxy terminal capping group as the peptide compound. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIGS. 1A and 1B show upregulation of superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1) mRNA transcripts of the SOD-1 gene in rat primary cortical cells in cultures incubated for varying amounts of time (0-48 hours) with the peptide compound CMX-9236 (100 ng/ml) as measured by the RT-PCR method (see text). FIG. 1A shows the gel electrophoresis of RT-PCR product (transcripts) as a function of incubation time (Hours). Each lane was loaded with identical amounts of each cDNA produced by the RT-PCR method for each time point. This was verified by the use of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene transcript (GAPDH, 451 base pairs), which is a transcript of a housekeeping internal reference gene. The right-hand lane labeled “Pos” is a positive control of upregulation in which cortical cell cultures were stimulated with 10 μg/ml of the peptide compound for 3 hours, showing a maximum development of SOD-1 transcript levels (208 bp). The lane labeled M shows the DNA duplex ladder marker for molecular size. FIG. 1B shows a bar graph depicting quantitative analysis of the data of the upregulation of SOD mRNA. Diagonal line bars indicate SOD-1 data; open bars indicate GAPDH internal reference data. FIGS. 2A and 2B show that peptide compound CMX-9236 upregulated SOD-1 gene expression in rat primary myocyte cultures. FIG. 2A shows the dose-response data for the effect of CMX-9236 on the pattern of mRNA synthesis in primary myocyte cultures after a 3-hour incubation with 0, 1, 10, or 100 ng/ml of peptide compound. The analysis used the RT-PCR method as in FIGS. 1A and 1B. The presence of a band at the region of the gel corresponding to 208 base pairs (bp) indicates that SOD-1 was upregulated. FIG. 2B shows a bar graph depicting quantitative analysis of the data, which indicates that the 10 ng/ml and 100 ng/ml doses produced an upregulation of about 6-fold for SOD-1 mRNA transcripts. GAPDH is an internal housekeeping reference transcript (as in FIGS. 1A and 1B). Diagonal line bars indicate SOD-1 data; open bars indicate GAPDH internal reference data. FIGS. 3A and 3B show that peptide compound CMX-9967 upregulated the synthesis of SOD-1 protein in rat brain primary cortical cultures incubated with 0, 10, and 100 ng/ml of the peptide compound for 5 hours. FIG. 3A shows a Western blot containing a band migrating at 34 kDa (the molecular weight of SOD-1), and two lower molecular weight bands corresponding to smaller components recognized by the anti-SOD-1 antibody. FIG. 3B shows a bar graph of the fold-increase in SOD-1 protein as a function of dose of CMX-9967 peptide. FIGS. 4A and 4B show that peptide compound CMX-9236 upregulated catalase mRNA transcripts of the catalase gene in primary rat cortical cell cultures incubated with the peptide compound CMX-9236 (100 ng/ml) for varying amounts of time (0-48 hours) as measured by the RT-PCR method. FIG. 4A shows the results of using the RT-PCR method as described in FIG. 1 and specific probes for catalase transcripts. GAPDH is an internal housekeeping standard (451 bp). FIG. 4B shows a bar graph of the fold-increase in catalase and GAPDH (internal standard) transcripts (RT-PCR product) as a function of hours of treatment of the cells with CMX-9236. Diagonal line bars indicate catalase data; open bars indicate GAPDH internal reference data. FIGS. 5A and 5B show that CMX-9963 and CMX-9967 upregulated mRNA transcripts for both SOD and catalase genes. FIG. 5A shows the results of the RT-PCR method to detect SOD and catalase mRNA transcripts in rat primary cortical cell cultures incubated for 3 hours with 0, 1, 10, and 100 ng/ml of CMX-9963 or CMX-9967. Enhanced staining at the positions of the 208 and 95 bp regions of the gel corresponding to the correct lengths for the SOD-1 and catalase markers, respectively, were obtained. FIG. 5B shows a bar graph of the quantitative analysis of the data indicating fold-increase as a function of dose of CMX-9963 or CMX-9967. Horizontal line bars indicate SOD-1 data; diagonal line bars indicate catalase data; and open bars indicate GAPDH internal reference data. FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C show that CMX-9236 activated transcription factor AP-1 in primary rat cortical cultures stimulated for 3 hours with various concentrations (0, 1, 10, 100 ng/ml) of peptide compound CMX-9236. FIG. 6A shows the dose-response results for AP-1 activation using the electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) procedure (see text). The positions of migration corresponding to c-Jun/c-Fos AP-1 heterodimer and to c-Jun/c-Jun AP-1 homodimer are indicated. FIG. 6B shows a quantitative analysis of the data plotted as fold-increase as a function of dose of CMX-9236 peptide. FIG. 6C shows results of EMSAs in which the specificity of the interaction of the probe for AP-1 is illustrated in probe competition experiments in which non-radiolabeled (cold) AP-1 probe and cold mutant AP-1 probe were added to nuclear extracts prior to P32 probe addition and prior to electrophoresis. Cold probes were used at 0×, 5×, 25×, 50× molar excess relative to the 0.5 pmol of radiolabeled probe. The positions of migration corresponding to c-Jun/c-Fos AP-1 heterodimer and to c-Jun/c-Jun AP-1 homodimer are indicated. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This invention is based on the discovery of peptide compounds that increase the expression of one or both genes encoding a complementary pair of enzymes, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), which are major components of the antioxidative defense mechanism or system in cells and tissues to detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals. ROS and free radicals are generated during electron transport and normal respiration and other metabolic processes, including during the metabolism of various drugs, and must be rapidly detoxified to prevent permanent and continuing damage to cells and tissues. In addition, a number of diseases or conditions, including the aging process (senescence), have also been characterized by an elevation of ROS and/or free radicals to toxic levels that in fact damage cells and tissues. Accordingly, the peptide compounds described herein are valuable therapeutic and prophylactic compounds for counteracting the generation of harmful levels of ROS and free radicals in an individual. In order that the invention may be better understood, the following terms are defined. Abbreviations: Amino acid residues described herein may be abbreviated by the conventional three letter or one letter abbreviation know in the art (see, e.g., Lehninger, A. L., Biochemistry, second edition (Worth Publishers, Inc., New York, 1975), p. 72). Other abbreviations used herein include: “DHA” for a docosahexaenoic acid moiety; “Lip” for a lipoic acid moiety; “Palm” for a palmitic acid moiety (i.e., a palmitoyl group); “Ac” for an acetyl moiety; “Gga” for a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety; “SOD” for super oxide dismutase; “CAT” for catalase; “GAPDH” for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; and “ROS” for reactive oxygen species. Still other abbreviations are indicated as needed elsewhere in the text. “Hydrocarbon” refers to either branched or unbranched and saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon chains. Preferred hydrocarbon chains found in some of the peptide compounds described herein contain between 1 and 25. More preferred are hydrocarbon chains between 1 and 22 carbon atoms. “Reactive oxygen species” or “ROS”, as understood and used herein, refers to highly reactive and toxic oxygen compounds that are generated in the course of normal electron transport system during respiration or that are generated in a disease or during treatment with certain therapeutic agents for a particular disorder. ROS include, but are not limited to, the superoxide anion (O2.−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen, lipid peroxides, and peroxynitrite. “Free radical”, as understood and used herein, refers to any atom or any molecule or compound that possesses an odd (unpaired) electron. By this definition, the superoxide anion is also considered a negatively charged free radical. The free radicals of particular interest to this invention are highly reactive, highly oxidative molecules that are formed or generated during normal metabolism, in a diseased state, or during treatment with chemotherapeutic drugs. Such free radicals are highly reactive and capable of causing oxidative damage to molecules, cells and tissues. One of the most common and potentially destructive types of the free radicals other than the superoxide anion is a hydroxyl radical. Typically, the generation of ROS, such as superoxide anion or singlet oxygen, also leads to one or more other harmful free radicals as well. Accordingly, phrases such as “ROS and free radicals” or “ROS and other free radicals”, as understood and used herein, are meant to encompass any or all of the entire population of highly reactive, oxidative molecular species or compounds that may be generated in a particular metabolic state or condition of cells and tissues of interest (see, for example, Somani et al, “Response of Antioxidant System To Physical and Chemical Stress,” In Oxidants, Antioxidants, and Free Radicals, chapter 6: 125-141 (Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C., 1997)). “Oxygen radical scavengers” or “lazaroids” are a class of compounds that have an ability to scavenge and detoxify ROS and free radicals. Vitamins A, C, E, and related antioxidant compounds, such as β-carotene and retinoids, are also members of this large class of compounds, as are antioxidative enzymes, such as SOD and CAT. In healthy individuals, sufficient levels of antioxidative enzymes and other lazaroids are present both intracellularly and extracellularly to efficiently scavenge sufficient amounts of ROS and free radicals to avoid significant oxidative damage to cells and tissues. “Peptide compound”, as understood and used herein, refers to any compound that contains at least one peptide bond. “Peptide compound” includes unmodified or underivatized peptides, typically containing fewer than about 20 amino acids, as well as derivatives of peptides. Derivative or derivatized peptides contain one or more chemical moieties other than amino acids that are covalently attached at the amino terminal amino acid residue, the carboxy terminal amino acid residue, or at an internal amino acid residue. “Natural source purified”, as understood and used herein, describes a composition of matter purified or extracted from an organism or collection of organisms occurring in nature or in a cultivated state that have not been altered genetically by in vitro recombinant nucleic acid technology, including but not limited to animals, any species of crops used for beverage and food, species of uncultivated plants growing in nature, species of plants developed from plant breeding, and microorganisms that have not been altered genetically by in vitro recombinant technology. Particularly preferred natural sources for preparing natural source purified compositions of matter of the invention are green velvet antler of ruminants, such as deer and cattle, and plant tissue, such as roots, stems, leaves, and flowers from plants used as herbs and teas. An “amino terminal capping group” of a peptide compound described herein is any chemical compound or moiety that is covalently linked or conjugated to the amino terminal amino acid residue of a peptide compound. The primary purpose of such an amino terminal capping group is to inhibit or prevent intramolecular cyclization or intermolecular polymerization, to promote transport of the peptide compound across the blood-brain barrier, or to provide a combination of these properties. A peptide compound of this invention that possesses an amino terminal capping group may possess other beneficial activities as compared with the uncapped peptide, such as enhanced efficacy or reduced side effects. For example, several of the amino terminal capping groups used in the peptide compounds described herein also possess antioxidative activity in their free state (e.g., lipoic acid) and thus, may improve or enhance the antioxidative activity of the peptide in its uncapped form. Examples of amino terminal capping groups that are useful in preparing peptide compounds and compositions according to this invention include, but are not limited to, 1 to 6 lysine residues, 1 to 6 arginine residues, a mixture of arginine and lysine residues ranging from 2 to 6 residues, urethanes, urea compounds, a lipoic acid (“Lip”) or a palmitic acid moiety (i.e., palmitoyl group, “Palm”), glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety (“Gga”), or an acyl group that is covalently linked to the amino terminal amino acid residue of the peptide. Such acyl groups useful in the compositions of the invention may have a carbonyl group and a hydrocarbon chain that ranges from one carbon atom (e.g., as in an acetyl moiety) to up to 25 carbons (such as docosahexaenoic acid, “DHA”, which has a hydrocarbon chain that contains 22 carbons). Furthermore, the carbon chain of the acyl group may be saturated, as in a palmitic acid, or unsaturated. It should be understood that when an acid (such as DHA, Palm, or Lip) is present as an amino terminal capping group, the resultant peptide compound is the condensed product of the uncapped peptide and the acid. A “carboxy terminal capping group” of a peptide compound described herein is any chemical compound or moiety that is covalently linked or conjugated to the carboxy terminal amino acid residue of the peptide compound. The primary purpose of such a carboxy terminal capping group is to inhibit or prevent intramolecular cyclization or intermolecular polymerization, to promote transport of the peptide compound across the blood-brain barrier, or to provide a combination of these properties. A peptide compound of this invention possessing a carboxy terminal capping group may possess other beneficial activities as compared with the uncapped peptide, such as enhanced efficacy, reduced side effects, enhanced hydrophilicity, enhanced hydrophobicity, or enhanced antioxidative activity, e.g., if the carboxy terminal capping moiety possesses a source of reducing potential, such as one or more sulfhydryl groups. Carboxy terminal capping groups that are particularly useful in the peptide compounds described herein include primary or secondary amines that are linked by an amide bond to the t-carboxyl group of the carboxy terminal amino acid of the peptide compound. Other carboxy terminal capping groups useful in the invention include aliphatic primary and secondary alcohols and aromatic phenolic derivatives, including flavenoids, with C1 to C26 carbon atoms, which form esters when linked to the carboxylic acid group of the carboxy terminal amino acid residue of a peptide compound described herein. Peptide compounds of the invention also include any peptide containing modifications of the side chain of one or more amino acid residues within the peptide chain. Such modifications include (without limitation) conservative amino acid substitutions, addition of protective or capping groups on reactive moieties, and other changes that do not adversely destroy the activity of the peptide (i.e., its antioxidative activity and/or its ability to stimulate expression of a gene encoding SOD and/or CAT). “Radiation”, as understood and used herein, means any type of propagating or emitted energy wave or energized particle, including electromagnetic radiation, ultraviolet radiation (UV), and other sunlight-induced radiation and radioactive radiation. The effects of such radiation may affect the surface or underlayers of the skin or may produce systemic damage at a remote site in the body. “Upregulate” and “upregulation”, as understood and used herein, refer to an elevation in the level of expression of a gene product in a cell or tissue. The peptide compounds described herein are capable of upregulating expression of genes encoding superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and/or AP-1 transcription factor (AP-1) beyond the levels normally found in cells and tissues that have not been treated (contacted) with the peptide compounds. Thus, an elevation in the level of SOD, CAT, or AP-1 mRNA transcript; in SOD, CAT, or AP-1 gene product (protein) synthesis; in the level of SOD or CAT enzyme activity, or in the level of an AP-1 factor dependent transcription activity indicate upregulation of gene expression. Expression of SOD, CAT, and AP-1 genes can be detected by a variety of ways, including Northern blotting to detect mRNA transcripts encoding the enzyme, by Western immunoblotting to detect the gene product, in the case of SOD and CAT, by using standard assays for SOD or CAT enzymatic activities, or in the case of AP-1, by using an AP-1 dependent transcription expression assay. “Nutraceutical” and “dietary supplement”, as understood and used herein, are synonymous terms, which describe compositions that are prepared and marketed for sale as non-regulated, orally administered, sources of a nutrient and/or other compound that is purported to contain a property or activity that may provide a benefit to the health of an individual. A desirable component compound identified in a dietary supplement is referred to as a “nutrichemical”. Nutrichemicals may be present in only trace amounts and still be a desirable and marketable component of a dietary supplement. Commonly known nutrichemicals include trace metals, vitamins, enzymes that have an activity that is considered beneficial to the health of an individual, and compounds that upregulate such enzymes. Such enzymes include antioxidative enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), which counteract the harmful oxidative effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals. Accordingly, one or more peptide compounds described herein that is endogenously present and/or added exogenously to a composition manufactured for sale as a dietary supplement is a nutrichemical of that dietary supplement. Other terms will be evident as used in the following description. Peptide Compounds and Compositions The invention provides peptide compounds described herein for use in compositions and/or methods that are not previously described in the art and that are capable of upregulating SOD and/or CAT in eukaryotic cells, which have at least one functional gene encoding the SOD and/or CAT enzymes. Upregulating levels of SOD and/or CAT in cells or tissues provides an enhanced detoxification system to prevent, reduce, or eliminate the harmful oxidative activity of ROS and free radicals. Preferred peptides and peptide compounds of this invention upregulate both SOD and CAT. The peptide compounds described herein may also upregulate the AP-1 transcription factor, which inter alia may enhance expression of antioxidative gene products and/or growth factors. The peptide compounds provided by the invention are preferably less than about 20, and, in order of increasing preference, less than about 18, 15, 13, 9, 6, 5, 4 and 3, amino acids in length and are able to upregulate expression of a gene(s) for SOD and/or CAT in cells and tissues. Such activity may be tested in vitro, e.g., in tissue culture. The peptide compounds of the invention show upregulation activity at low concentrations, i.e., in the range of nanograms of peptide compound per milliliter (ml). Such high potency is similar to that exhibited by various hormones, such as luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) or human growth hormone. Accordingly, the peptide compounds described herein may be prepared, stored, and used employing much of the available technology already applied to the preparation, storage, and administration of known therapeutic hormone peptides. The peptide compounds described herein may contain a peptide to which additional modifications have been made, such as addition of chemical moieties at the amino terminal and/or carboxy terminal amino acid residues of the peptide, conservative amino acid substitutions or modifications of side chains of internal amino acid residues of the peptide that do not destroy the desired activity of the peptide. It has been observed that intramolecular cyclization and some intermolecular polymerizations of the peptide compounds described herein tend to inactivate or decrease the activity of the peptide compound so that the peptide compound cannot effectively upregulate SOD, CAT, or AP-1. Accordingly, the most useful peptide compounds are the least susceptible to cyclization reactions and polymerization or conjugation with other peptide compound molecules. In addition to maintaining or enhancing the ability of these peptides to upregulate SOD, CAT and/or AP-1, such modifications may advantageously confer additional benefits. For example, amino terminal capping groups may promote transport of the peptide compound across the blood-brain barrier (see, for example, PCT publication WO 99/26620). This property is particularly important when a peptide compound is used to upregulate SOD and CAT in brain tissue and parts of the central nervous system. Amino terminal capping groups that promote transport across the blood-brain barrier may also prevent cyclization of the peptide compound to which they are attached or may prevent polymerization with other peptide compounds. Preferred amino terminal capping groups include a lipoic acid moiety, which can be attached by an amide linkage to the α-amino group of the amino terminal amino acid of a peptide. Lipoic acid (“Lip”) in its free form possesses independent antioxidative activity and may enhance the antioxidative activity of the peptides of this invention when used as an amino terminal capping group. An amino terminally linked lipoic acid moiety may be in its reduced form where it contains two sulfhydryl groups or in its oxidized form in which the sulfhlydryl groups are oxidized and form an intramolecular disulfide bond and, thereby, a heterocyclic ring structure. Another amino terminal capping group useful in preparing peptide compounds of the invention is a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety (“Gga”), which can be attached in an amide linkage to the α-amino group of the amino terminal amino acid of a peptide compound. The glucose moiety may also contain further modifications, such as an alkoxy group replacing one or more of the hydroxyl groups on the glucose moiety. Another example of an amino terminal capping group useful in the peptide compounds described herein is an acyl group, which can be attached in an amide linkage to the α-amino group of the amino terminal amino acid residue of a peptide compound. The acyl group has a carbonyl group linked to a saturated or unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated), branched or unbranched, hydrocarbon chain of 1 to 25 carbon atoms in length, and more preferably, the hydrocarbon chain of the acyl group is 1 to 22 carbon atoms in length, as in DHA. The acyl group preferably is acetyl or a fatty acid. The fatty acid used as the acyl amino terminal capping group may contain a hydrocarbon chain that is saturated or unsaturated and that is either branched or unbranched. Preferably the hydrocarbon chain is 1 to 25 carbon atoms in length, and more preferably the length of the hydrocarbon chain is 1-22 carbon atoms in length. For example, fatty acids that are useful as amino terminal capping groups for the peptide compounds of this invention include, but are not limited to: caprylic acid (C8:0), capric acid (C10:0), lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (“Palm”) (C16:0), palmitoleic acid (C16:1), C16:2, stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), vaccenic acid (C18:1-7), linoleic acid (C18:2-6), α-linolenic acid (C18:3-3), eleostearic acid (C18:3-5), β-linolenic acid (C18:3-6), C18:4-3, gondoic acid (C20:1), C20:2-6, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (C20:3-6), C20:4-3, arachidonic acid (C20:4-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5-3), docosenoic acid (C22:1), docosatetraenoic acid (C22:4-6), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5-6), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5-3), docosahexaenoic acid (“DHA”) (C22:6-3), and nervonic acid (C24: 1-9). Particularly preferred fatty acids used as acyl amino terminal capping groups for the peptide compounds described herein are palmitic acid (Palm) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DHA and various other fatty acid moieties appear to promote transport of molecules to which they are linked across the blood-barrier (see, for example, PCT publication WO 99/40112 and PCT publication WO 99/26620). Accordingly, such fatty acyl moieties are particularly preferred when a peptide compound described herein will be administered to counteract the oxidative effects of ROS and free radicals in brain tissue and/or other parts of the central nervous system. In addition, in certain cases the amino terminal capping group may be a lysine residue or a polylysine peptide, preferably where the polylysine peptide consists of two, three, four, five or six lysine residues, which can prevent cyclization, crosslinking, or polymerization of the peptide compound. Longer polylysine peptides may also be used. Another amino terminal capping group that may be used in the peptide compounds described herein is an arginine residue or a polyarginine peptide, preferably where the polyarginine peptide consists of two, three, four, five, or six arginine residues, although longer polyarginine peptides may also be used. An amino terminal capping group of the peptide compounds described herein may also be a peptide containing both lysine and arginine, preferably where the lysine and arginine containing peptide is two, three, four, five or six residue combinations of the two amino acids in any order, although longer peptides that contain lysine and arginine may also be used. Lysine and arginine containing peptides used as amino terminal capping groups in the peptide compounds described herein may be conveniently incorporated into whatever process is used to synthesize the peptide compounds to yield the derivatized peptide compound containing the amino terminal capping group. The peptide compounds useful in the compositions and methods of the invention may contain a carboxy terminal capping group. The primary purpose of this group is to prevent intramolecular cyclization or inactivating intermolecular crosslinking or polymerization. However, as noted above, a carboxy terminal capping group may provide additional benefits to the peptide compound, such as enhanced efficacy, reduced side effects, enhanced antioxidative activity, and/or other desirable biochemical properties. An example of such a useful carboxy terminal capping group is a primary or secondary amine in an amide linkage to the carboxy terminal amino acid residue. Such amines may be added to the α-carboxyl group of the carboxy terminal amino acid of the peptide using standard amidation chemistry. The peptide compounds used in the compositions and methods of the invention may contain amino acids with charged side chains, i.e., acidic and basic amino acids. Most preferably, if a peptide compound contains charged amino acids, then the charged amino acids are either all acidic amino acids, i.e., negatively charged, or are all basic amino acids, i.e., positively charged. Such uniformity in charged amino acids contributes to stability of the peptide compounds and prevents the formation of cyclic, crosslinked or polymerized forms of a peptide compound during storage or during use in vivo. Cyclization, crosslinking, or polymerization of a peptide compound described herein may abolish all or so much of the activity of the peptide compound so that it cannot be used in the therapeutic or prophylactic compositions and methods of the invention. Furthermore, some cyclic peptide compounds are potentially toxic. Accordingly, if a peptide compound contains basic (positively charged) amino acid residues, then it is recommended that the carboxy terminal carboxylic acid group be converted to an amide (i.e., by use of a carboxy terminal capping group) to prevent the carboxylic acid group from reacting with a free amino group in the same peptide compound to form a cyclic compound or in a different peptide compound to form a polymerized or crosslinked peptide compound. In addition, peptide compounds described herein may contain one or more D-amino acid residues in place of one or more L-amino acid residues provided that the incorporation of the one or more D-amino acids does not abolish all or so much of the activity of the peptide compound that it cannot be used in the compositions and methods of the invention. Incorporating D-amino acids in place of L-amino acids may advantageously provide additional stability to a peptide compound, especially in vivo. The peptide compounds can be made using standard methods or obtained from a commercial source. Direct synthesis of the peptides of the peptide compounds of the invention may be accomplished using conventional techniques, including solid-phase peptide synthesis, solution-phase synthesis, etc. Peptides may also be synthesized using various recombinant nucleic acid technologies, however, given their relatively small size and the state of direct peptide synthesis technology, a direct synthesis is preferred and solid-phase synthesis is most preferred. In solid-phase synthesis, for example, a suitably protected amino acid residue is attached through its carboxyl group to a derivatized, insoluble polymeric support, such as cross-linked polystyrene or polyamide resin. “Suitably protected” refers to the presence of protecting groups on both the α-amino group of the amino acid, and on any side chain functional groups. Side chain protecting groups are generally stable to the solvents, reagents, and reaction conditions used throughout the synthesis and are removable under conditions, which do not affect the final peptide product. Stepwise synthesis of the polypeptide is carried out by the removal of the N-protecting group from the initial (i.e., carboxy terminal) amino acid, and coupling thereto of the carboxyl end of the next amino acid in the sequence of the polypeptide. This amino acid is also suitably protected. The carboxyl group of the incoming amino acid can be activated to react with the N-terminus of the bound amino acid by formation into a reactive group such as formation into a carbodimide, a symmetric acid anhydride, or an “active ester” group such as hydroxybenzotriazole or pentafluorophenyl esters. The preferred solid-phase peptide synthesis methods include the BOC method, which utilizes tert-butyloxycarbonyl as the α-amino protecting group, and the FMOC method, which utilizes 9-fluorenylmethloxycarbonyl to protect the α-amino of the amino acid residues, both methods of which are well-known by those of skill in the art (see, Stewart et al., Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (W. H. Freeman Co., San Francisco 1989); Merrifield, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85:2149-2154 (1963); Bodanszky and Bodanszky, The Practice of Peptide Synthesis (Springer-Verlag, New York 1984), incorporated herein by reference). Peptide compounds according to the invention may also be prepared commercially by companies providing peptide synthesis as a service (e.g., BACHEM Bioscience, Inc., King of Prussia, Pa.; AnaSpec, Inc., San Jose, Calif.). Automated peptide synthesis machines, such as manufactured by Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems, also are available. Peptide compounds useful in the compositions and methods of the invention may also be prepared and used in a salt form. Typically, a salt form of a peptide compound will exist by adjusting the pH of a composition comprising the peptide compound with an acid or base in the presence of one or more ions that serve as counter ion to the net ionic charge of the peptide compound at the particular pH. Various salt forms of the peptide compounds described herein may also be formed or interchanged by any of the various methods known in the art, e.g., by using various ion exchange chromatography methods. Cationic counter ions that may be used in the compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, amines, such as ammonium ion; metal ions, especially monovalent, divalent, or trivalent ions of alkali metals (e.g., sodium, potassium, lithium, cesium), alkaline earth metals (e.g., calcium, magnesium, barium), transition metals (e.g., iron, manganese, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum), other metals (e.g., aluminum); and combinations thereof. Anionic counter ions that may be used in the compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, chloride, fluoride, acetate, trifluoroacetate, phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, citrate, ascorbate, sorbate, glutarate, ketoglutarate, and combinations thereof. Trifluoroacetate salts of peptide compounds described herein are typically formed during purification in trifluoroacetic acid buffers using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). While generally not suited for in vivo use, trifluoroacetate salt forms of the peptide compounds described herein may be conveniently used in various in vitro cell culture studies or assays performed to test the activity or efficacy of a peptide compound of interest. The peptide compound may then be converted from the trifluoroacetate salt (e.g., by ion exchange methods) to or synthesized as a salt form that is acceptable for pharmaceutical or dietary supplement (nutraceutical) compositions. A peptide compound useful in the methods of the invention is preferably purified once it has been isolated or synthesized by either chemical or recombinant techniques. For purification purposes, there are many standard methods that may be employed including reversed-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an alkylated silica column such as C4-, C8- or C18-silica. A gradient mobile phase of increasing organic content is generally used to achieve purification, for example, acetonitrile in an aqueous buffer, usually containing a small amount of trifluoroacetic acid. Ion-exchange chromatography can also be used to separate peptide compounds based on their charge. The degree of purity of the peptide compound may be determined by various methods, including identification of a major large peak on HPLC. A peptide compound that produces a single peak that is at least 95% of the input material on an HPLC column is preferred. Even more preferable is a polypeptide that produces a single peak that is at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99% or even 99.5% of the input material on an HPLC column. In order to ensure that a peptide compound obtained using any of the techniques described above is the desired peptide compound for use in compositions and methods of the present invention, analysis of the compound's composition determined by any of a variety of analytical methods known in the art. Such composition analysis may be conducted using high resolution mass spectrometry to determine the molecular weight of the peptide. Alternatively, the amino acid content of a peptide can be confirmed by hydrolyzing the peptide in aqueous acid, and separating, identifying and quantifying the components of the mixture using HPLC, or an amino acid analyzer. Protein sequenators, which sequentially degrade the peptide and identify the amino acids in order, may also be used to determine definitely the sequence of the peptide. Since some of the peptide compounds contain amino and/or carboxy terminal capping groups, it may be necessary to remove the capping group or the capped amino acid residue prior to a sequence analysis. Thin-layer chromatographic methods may also be used to authenticate one or more constituent groups or residues of a desired peptide compound. The various peptide compounds described herein are useful in the compositions and methods of the invention to upregulate the expression of a gene encoding SOD and/or CAT and thereby generate antioxidative activity to counteract the undesirable and destructive oxidative activity of ROS and free radicals, e.g., as generated in the aging process (senescence), disease, and various drug treatments. Preferred peptide compounds, excluding any amino and/or carboxy terminal capping group (i.e., the “core sequence”), are less than 20 amino acids in length. In particular, such preferred peptide compounds, in the absence of amino and carboxy terminal capping groups, are less than 18, 15, 13, 9, 6, 5, 4, and even 3 amino acids in length. A peptide useful in the compositions and methods of the invention may be 3 or even 2 amino acids in length (core sequence), such as the preferred dipeptide compound that has an amino acid sequence consisting of Asp Gly. Any amino terminal and/or carboxy terminal capping group described herein may be added to such preferred peptide compounds, provided the capping group does not also react with other groups in the peptide to result in a significant or toxic amount of undesirable cyclization or polymerization. The invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: (SEQ ID NO:1) R1 Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln R2, wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg R2, (SEQ ID NO:2) wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Xaa1 Gly Xaa2 Xaa3 Xaa4 Xaa5 Xaa6 R2 (SEQ ID NO:3), wherein Xaa1 and Xaa2 are, independently, aspartic acid or asparagine; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group of the peptide compound; Xaa3 is absent or Gly; Xaa4 is absent, Asp, or Phe; Xaa5 is absent, Ala, or Phe; Xaa is absent or Ala; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula, upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly Asp Asp Gly Asn Asn Gly Asn Asn Gly Asp Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:8) and Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala. (SEQ ID NO:9) The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Asn Ser Thr R2, wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Phe Asp Gln R2, wherein R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: (SEQ ID NO:10) R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro R2, wherein Xaa1 is absent or Ser; Xaa2 is absent or Lys; R1 is absent or an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. A preferred peptide compound according to the formula upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro (SEQ ID NO:11) and Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro. (SEQ ID NO:12) Another aspect of the invention is a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Xaa3 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Thr, or Tyr, Xaa2 is absent or any amino acid (i.e., is variable); Xaa3 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Thr, Ser, Gly, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group and R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. Preferably, a peptide compound of the formula upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprises the above formula wherein Xaa2 is selected from the group consisting of Val, Gly, Glu, and Gln. More preferably, the peptide compound of the formula upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and is selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Thr Val Ser, Asp Gly Asp, and Asn Gly Asn. In still another embodiment, the invention provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Leu Xaa1 Xaa2 R2, wherein Xaa1 is any amino acid; Xaa2 is Gln, Gly, or Tyr; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme compound. The invention also provides a peptide compound having the formula: R1 Met Thr Xaa1 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asn, Asp, Glu, Thr, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. Preferably, the peptide compound of the formula upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Met Thr Leu; Met Thr Asp; Met Thr Asn; Met Thr Thr; Met Thr Glu; and Met Thr Gln. In a preferred embodiment, a peptide compound of any of the formulas described herein has the R1 amino terminal capping group. More preferably, the R1 amino terminal capping group is selected from the group consisting of a lipoic acid moiety (Lip, in reduced or oxidized form); a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid moiety (Gga); 1 to 6 lysine residues; 1 to 6 arginine residues; an acyl group of the formula R3—CO—, where CO is a carbonyl group, and R3 is a hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbon atoms, and preferably 1 to 22 carbon atoms, and where the hydrocarbon chain may be saturated or unsaturated and branched or unbranched; and combinations thereof. More preferably, when the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group it is acetyl or a fatty acid. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is an acyl group selected from the group consisting of acetyl (Ac), palmitic acid (i.e., a palmitoyl group, Palm), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In another embodiment, the amino terminal capping group is a peptide consisting of any combination of arginine and lysine wherein the peptide is not less than two amino acids in length and not more than six amino acids in length. Particularly preferred peptide compounds that upregulate a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and that are useful in compositions and methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, peptide compounds comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: (SEQ ID NO:1) Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln, (SEQ ID NO:2) Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:13) Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:14) Gln Tyr Ser Ile Gly Gly Pro Gln, (SEQ ID NO:15) Ser Asp Arg Ser Ala Arg Ser Tyr, (SEQ ID NO:12) Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:13) Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:16) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:8) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:17) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp (SEQ ID NO:7) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:18) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:9) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:19) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:20) Asn Gly Asp Gly, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:21) Asn Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:22) Asp Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:23) Asn Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, Asp Gly Asp, Asn Gly Asn, Asp Gly Asn, Asn Gly Asp, Asn Ser Thr, Phe Asp Gln, Met Thr Leu, Met Thr Asp, Met Thr Asn, Met Thr Thr, Met Thr Glu, Met Thr Gln, Thr Val Ser, Leu Thr Gln, Leu Thr Gly, Leu Thr Tyr, Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Glu Ala, Gln Ala, Gln Gly, Asp Ala, and Asn Ala. A particularly preferred peptide compound of the invention that upregulates a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme and that is useful in compositions and methods of the invention comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: Asp Gly Asp, Thr Val Ser, Asp Gly, and Glu Ala. Such preferred peptide compounds as listed above may also contain one or more terminal capping groups, such as an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group described herein. Preferred peptide compounds containing one or more terminal capping groups that upregulate an antioxidative enzyme and that are useful in the compositions and methods include, but are not limited to, peptide compounds having the formulas: (SEQ ID NO:25) Lys Lys Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg; (SEQ ID NO:26) Lys Lys Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg; (SEQ ID NO:27) Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu; (SEQ ID NO:27) DHA Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu; (SEQ ID NO:11) Palm Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu; (SEQ ID NO:12) Gga Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala; (SEQ ID NO:12) Ac Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala; (SEQ ID NO:12) Palm Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala; (SEQ ID NO:13) Gga Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp; (SEQ ID NO:13) Palm Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp; (SEQ ID NO:13) Lip Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp; (SEQ ID NO:13) DHA Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp; (SEQ ID NO:13) (Lys)n Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp; Ac-Thr Val Ser; Lip Thr Val Ser; Gga Asp Gly Asp; Palm Asp Gly Asp; Lip Asp Gly Asp; DHA Asp Gly Asp; (Lys)n Asp Gly Asp; Gga Phe Asp Gln; Palm Phe Asp Gln; Lip Phe Asp Gln; DHA Phe Asp Gln (Lys)n Phe Asp Gln; Gga Asn Ser Thr; Palm Asn Ser Thr; Lip Asn Ser Thr; DHA Asn Ser Thr; (Lys)n Asn Ser Thr; Gga Asp Gly; Palm Asp Gly Lip Asp Gly; DHA Asp Gly; (Lys)n Asp Gly; Gga Asn Gly; Palm Asn Gly; Lip Asn Gly; DHA Asn Gly; (Lys)n Asn Gly; Gga Glu Ala; Palm Glu Ala; DHA Glu Ala; (Lys)n Glu Ala; Gga Gln Ala; Palm Gln Ala; DHA Gln Ala; (Lys)n Gln Ala; Gga Glu Gly; Palm Glu Gly; DHA Glu Gly; (Lys)n Glu Gly; Gga Glu Gly; Palm Glu Gly; DHA Glu Gly; (Lys)n Glu Gly; Gga Gln Gly; Palm Gln Gly; DHA Gln Gly; and (Lys)n Gln Gly, wherein Palm is a palmitic acid (palmitoyl) group, Lip is lipoic acid group, in either oxidized or reduced form; Ac is an acetyl group; DHA is an docosahexaenoic acid group; Gga is a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid group; and n in (Lys)n is 1-6. These preferred peptide compounds may also contain a carboxy terminal capping group, such as a primary amino group in amide linkage to the carboxy terminal amino acid. One aspect of the invention contemplates a metabolically convertible form of an peptide compound of the invention wherein asparagine and glutamine residues in the amino acid sequence of the peptide compounds are converted in a cell to their corresponding acid form, or salt thereof in physiological conditions, i.e., aspartic acid (or aspartate) and glutamic acid (or glutamate). For example, peptides consisting of the amino acid sequences Asn Gly and Gln Gly are contemplated to be metabolically converted to the corresponding peptides consisting of Asp Gly and Glu Gly, respectively, upon administration and uptake by cells. Accordingly, a peptide compound useful in a composition or method of the invention that comprises an amino acid sequence comprising one or more asparagine and/or glutamine residues also provides a disclosure of a corresponding peptide compound in which aspartate and/or glutamate are substituted for asparagine and/or glutamine residues, respectively, and vice versa. Biological and Biochemical Activities The peptide compounds useful in the compositions and methods of the invention have the ability to upregulate SOD and/or CAT, as well as activate and upregulate AP-1 in cells and tissues, especially mammalian cells, provided the cells contain at least one functional gene encoding a SOD or CAT protein. A functional gene is one, which not only encodes the particular enzyme, but also provides the necessary genetic information within and without the coding sequence so that transcription of the gene can occur and so that the mRNA transcript can be translated into a functioning gene product. Certain preferred peptide compounds described herein are able to upregulate both SOD and CAT, assuming that functional genes for both enzymes are present in the cells of interest. Advantageously, upregulation of SOD and CAT together provide enhanced efficacy in detoxifying undesired ROS and free radicals. Without wishing to be bound by theory, when the level of SOD protein increases as a result of SOD upregulation, it is believed that superior antioxidative efficacy is achieved when there is also an increase in CAT levels. Upregulation of a gene for CAT increases the capacity to neutralize and detoxify the additional hydrogen peroxide and other ROS or free radicals that can be generated by enhanced SOD activity. The peptide compounds described herein having both SOD and CAT upregulation activity provide cells and tissues with a full complement of enhanced antioxidative enzyme activity to detoxify ROS and free radicals. For example, contacting mammalian cells in tissue culture with a peptide compound described herein having both SOD and CAT upregulation activity typically results in at least about a 2-fold (and in increasing order of preference, at least about a 3-fold, 4-fold, and a 6 to 8-fold) increase in the levels of SOD and CAT mRNA transcripts and about a 2-fold (and in increasing order of preference, at least about a 3-fold, 4-fold, 6-fold, 8-fold, 10-fold and a 12- to 14-fold) increase in the levels of SOD and CAT protein, as detected by immunoblotting and compared to untreated cells. Such increase in SOD and CAT gene expression levels provides a cell with a significantly enhanced capability for detoxifying ROS and free radicals without adverse effects. Expression of genes encoding SOD, CAT, and AP-1 can be measured by a variety of methods. Standard enzymatic assays are available to detect levels of SOD and CAT in cell and tissue extracts or biological fluids (Fridovich, Adv. Enzymol., 41:35-97 (1974); Beyer & Fridovich, Anal. Biochem., 161:559-566 (1987)). In addition, antibodies to SOD, CAT, and AP-1 are available or readily made. Using such antibodies specific for each protein, standard immunoblots (e.g., Western blots) and other immunological techniques can be used to measure levels of SOD and CAT in various mixtures, cell extracts, or other sample of biological material. Provided there is no evidence of a defect in the translation machinery of the cells of interest, the levels of expression of genes encoding SOD, CAT, and AP-1 can also be measured by detecting levels of mRNA transcripts using standard Northern blot or standard polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods for measuring specific mRNA species (e.g., RT-PCR). In addition, activation and translocation of AP-1 to nuclei can be determined using a standard electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) in which the amount of AP-1 protein present in cell nuclei is detected by its ability to form a complex with a DNA probe molecule containing a specific DNA sequence for a promoter/enhancer region of a eukaryotic gene, which is known to be bound by AP-1. Typically, the AP-1 protein-DNA complex migrates with a slower mobility than unbound DNA. The AP-1 transcription factor complex is formed by the association of other factors, such as c-Jun and c-Fos, with a DNA molecule containing an AP-1 recognition sequence or site. The presence of AP-1 in a mixture or sample is then detected by the formation of such protein-DNA molecular complexes, which result in an observable shift in the electrophoretic mobility from the position of the uncomplexed DNA in a gel. Other preferred peptide compounds useful in the compositions and methods of the invention are able to upregulate levels of the AP-1 transcription factor. For example, contacting mammalian cells in tissue culture with peptide compounds described herein typically results in at least about a 2-fold and, in order of increasing preference, at least about a 6-fold, 8-fold, 10-fold, 12-fold, 14-fold, 16-fold, 18-fold, and 20- to 60-fold increase in the level of AP-1 protein, as determined by EMSA. Such upregulation of AP-1 gene expression can result in an enhanced AP-1 dependent gene expression. Therapeutic and Prophylactic Applications The peptide compounds of the invention upregulate SOD and/or CAT in cells and tissues of animals, such as humans and other mammals. Preferably, the peptides of this invention upregulate both SOD and CAT. As noted above, SOD and CAT comprise components of the body's major enzymatic antioxidative activities that are able to detoxify ROS and free radicals by reducing such molecules to less reactive and less harmful compounds. The contribution of ROS and other free radicals to the progression of various disease states and side effects of drugs is now well known. For example, elevated levels of ROS and free radicals are known to be generated in cells and tissues during reperfusion after an ischemic event. Such increased levels of ROS and free radicals can cause considerable damage to an already stressed or debilitated organ or tissue. The peptide compounds of this invention, which upregulate SOD and/or CAT, may be used to treat reperfusion injuries that occur in diseases and conditions such as stroke, heart attack, or renal disease and kidney transplants. If the ischemic event has already occurred as in stroke and heart attack, a peptide compound described herein may be administered to the individual to detoxify the elevated ROS and free radicals already present in the blood and affected tissue or organ. Alternatively, if the ischemic event is anticipated as in organ transplantation, then peptide compounds described herein may be administered prophylactically, prior to the operation or ischemic event. Although a major application is in the treatment of ischemia-reperfusion injury, the peptide compounds described herein may be used to treat any disease or condition associated with undesirable levels of ROS and free radicals or to prevent any disease, disorder or condition caused by undesirable levels of ROS and free radicals. According to the invention, the peptide compounds described herein may also be administered to provide a therapeutic or prophylactic treatment of elevated ROS and other free radicals associated with a variety of other diseases and conditions, including, but not limited to, oxygen toxicity in premature infants, burns and physical trauma to tissues and organs, septic shock, polytraumatous shock, head trauma, brain trauma, spinal cord injuries, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, age-related elevation of ROS and free radicals, senility, ulcerative colitis, human leukemia and other cancers, Down syndrome, arthritis, macular degeneration, schizophrenia, epilepsy, radiation damage (including UV-induced skin damage), and drug-induced increase in ROS and free radicals. A progressive rise of oxidative stress due to the formation of ROS and free radicals occurs during aging (see, e.g., Mecocci, P. et al., Free Radic. Biol. Med., 28: 1243-1248 (2000)). This has been detected by finding an increase in the formation of lipid peroxidates in rat tissues (Erdincler, D. S., et al., Clin. Chim. Acta, 265: 77-84 (1997)) and blood cells in elderly human patients (Congi, F., et al., Presse. Med., 24: 1115-1118 (1995)). A recent review (Niki, E., Intern. Med., 39: 324-326 (2000)) reported that increased tissue damage by ROS and free radicals could be attributed to decreased levels of the antioxidative enzymes SOD and CAT that occurs during aging. For example, transgenic animals, generated by inserting extra SOD genes into the genome of mice were found to have decreased levels of ROS and free radical damage. Such animals also had an extended life span. More recent evidence indicated that administration of a small manganese porphyrin compound, which mimics SOD activity, led to a 44% extension of life span of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans (S. Melow, et al., Science, 289: 1567-1569 (2000)). Accordingly, the peptide compounds described herein, which are able to upregulate expression of SOD and/or CAT genes to produce increased levels of antioxidative enzymes, are also well suited for use in methods of preventing and/or counteracting increased tissue damage and decreased life expectancy due to elevated levels of ROS and free radicals that accompany the aging process. A variety of drugs in current therapeutic use produce tissue-specific toxic side effects that are correlated with an elevation in the levels of ROS and other free radicals. Such drugs include neuroleptics, antibiotics, analgesics, and other classes of drugs. The tissues affected by such drug-induced toxicities can include one or more of the major organs and tissues, such as brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidney, and blood. One of the most dangerous side effects of a drug has been reported for the neuroleptic, clozapine, which was the first drug with major potential as an anti-schizophrenic therapeutic activity (see, Somani et al., In Oxidants, Antioxidants And Free Radicals (S. I. Baskin And H. Salem, eds.) (Taylor And Francis, Washington D.C., 1997), pages 125-136). Approximately 1-2% of clozapine-treated patients develop agranulocytosis, which is correlated with the production of ROS Fischer et al., Molecular Pharm., 40:846-853, 1991). According to the invention, a peptide compound as described herein is administered to clozapine-treated patients to upregulate the SOD and/or CAT, which counteracts the undesirable and harmful increase in ROS and other free radicals and, thereby, reduces the risk of developing agranulocytosis. Another side effect of schizophrenic patients receiving neuroleptics is Tardive dyskinesia, which is a debilitating disease manifested by various uncontrollable oral, facial, and/or trunk movements. Many patients, especially veterans in hospital, suffer permanent disability from this unfortunate, drug-induced disease. Previous studies on Tardive dyskinesia were focused on the loss of dopamine neurons (see, for example, Morganstern and Glazer, Arch. Gen. Psychiatr., 50: 723-733 (1993)). However, more recent studies have demonstrated that the primary defect in brains of such patients is the overproduction of the excitotoxic amino acid glutamate in the presynaptic input to the striatal dopaminergic neurons. Notably, this overproduction of glutamate produces excitotoxic effects on dopamine cells by causing a high increase in ROS and free radicals (see, Tsai et al., Am. J. Psychiatr., 155: 1207-1253 (1998)). Accordingly, the peptide compounds of this invention may be administered to patients receiving neuroleptics to upregulate SOD and/or CAT and thereby provide the enhanced antioxidative activities to counteract the oxidative effects of the elevated levels of ROS and free radicals. According to the methods of the invention, peptide compounds described herein may be administered to an individual before, contemporaneously with, or after administration of a therapeutic drug whose use has been correlated with the undesirable side effect of elevation in the levels of ROS and other free radicals. Such drugs include, but are not limited to those listed in Table 1 (see, Somani et al., 1997), which also lists any known manifested toxicity or side effect. TABLE 1 ROS or Reactive Free Radical DRUG or Toxic Result Toxicity clozapine ROS and free radicals agranulocytosis doxorubin superoxide anion, cardiac (anthrcyclines) hydroxyl radical bleomycin superoxide anion pulmonary mytomycin free radical cisplatin probably free radical nephrotoxicity, otototoxicity BCNU (carmustine) methyl radical neurotoxicity procarbazine free radical neurotoxicity acetaminophen reactive intermediate metabolites hepatic of drug isoniazid free radical hepatic ethanol α-hydroxy ethyl radical hepatic, neurotoxicity physostigmine eseroline to catechol to quinones neurotoxicity quinones reactive metabolites of drug neurotoxicity morphine covalent binding reactions neurotoxicity nitrofurantoin oxidant pulmonary paraquat oxidant pulmonary parathion reactive metabolites of drug neruotoxicity carbon tetrachloride trichloromethyl radical hepatic (CCl4) polycyclic aromatic reactive epoxides hepatic hydrocarbons nitrofurazone ROS and free radicals pulmonary metronidazole ROS and free radicals pulmonary 6-hydroxydopamine ROS and free radicals neurotoxin 4-hydroxyanisole free radicals etoposide (VP-16) hydroxyl radicals benzidine free radicals bladder carcinogen aminopyrine free radicals agranulocytosis clozaril free radicals agranulocytosis phenylhydrazine ROS and free radicals hemolytic anemia 3-methylindole free radicals pulmonary probucol free radicals ferrous sulfate hydroxyl radicals iron overload methimazole free radicals chloroprazine free radicals phototoxicity, photoallergy salicylanilides free radicals photoallergy mitoxantrone free radicals daunomycin ROS and free radicals cardiotoxicity Pharmaceutical Applications Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention comprise any of the peptide compounds of the present invention, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, with any pharmaceutically acceptable ingredient, excipient, carrier, adjuvant or vehicle. Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention can be administered to mammals, including humans, in a manner similar to other therapeutic, prophylactic, or diagnostic agents, and especially therapeutic hormone peptides. The dosage to be administered, and the mode of administration will depend on a variety of factors including age, weight, sex, condition of the patient, and genetic factors, and will ultimately be decided by the attending physician or veterinarian. In general, dosage required for diagnostic sensitivity or therapeutic efficacy will range from about 0.001 to 25.0 μg/kg of host body mass. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the peptide compounds of this invention include, for example, those derived from pharmaceutically acceptable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of suitable acids include hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, nitric, perchloric, fumaric, maleic, malic, pamoic, phosphoric, glycolic, lactic, salicylic, succinic, toluene-p-sulfonic, tartaric, acetic, citric, methanesulfonic, formic, benzoic, malonic, naphthalene-2-sulfonic, tannic, carboxymethyl cellulose, polylactic, polyglycolic, and benzenesulfonic acids. Other acids, such as oxalic, while not in themselves pharmaceutically acceptable, may be employed in the preparation of salts useful as intermediates in obtaining the compounds of the invention and their pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal (e.g., sodium), alkaline earth metal (e.g., magnesium), ammonium and N—(C1-4 alkyl)4+ salts. This invention also envisions the “quaternization” of any basic nitrogen-containing groups of a peptide compound disclosed herein, provided such quaternization does not destroy the ability of the peptide compound to upregulate expression of genes encoding SOD and CAT, and, where desired, AP-1. Such quaternization may be especially desirable where the goal is to use a peptide compound containing only positively charged residues. As noted above, in a most preferred embodiment of the invention, when charged amino acid residues are present in a peptide compound described herein, they are either all basic (positively charged) or all acidic (negatively) which prevents formation of cyclic peptide compounds during storage or use. Typically, cyclic forms of the peptide compounds are inactive and potentially toxic. Thus, a quaternized peptide compound is a preferred form of a peptide compound containing basic amino acids. Even more preferred is the quaternized peptide compound in which the carboxy terminal carboxyl grouped is converted to an amide to prevent the carboxyl group from reacting with any free amino groups to form a cyclic compound. Any basic nitrogen can be quaternized with any agent known to those of ordinary skill in the art including, for example, lower alkyl halides, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl and butyl chloride, bromides and iodides; dialkyl sulfates including dimethyl, diethyl, dibutyl and diamyl sulfates; long chain halides such as decyl, lauryl, myristyl and stearyl chlorides, bromides and iodides; and aralkyl halides including benzyl and phenethyl bromides. Water or oil-soluble or dispersible products may be obtained by such quaternization or acids such as acetic acid and hydrochloric acid. It should be understood that the peptide compounds of this invention may be modified by appropriate functionalities to enhance selective biological properties, and in particular the ability to upregulate SOD and/or CAT and/or AP-1. Such modifications are known in the art and include those, which increase the ability of the peptide compound to penetrate or being transported into a given biological system (e.g., brain, central nervous system, blood, lymphatic system), increase oral availability, increase solubility to allow administration by injection, alter metabolism of the peptide compound, and alter the rate of excretion of the peptide compound. In addition, the peptide compounds may be altered to a pro-drug form such that the desired peptide compound is created in the body of the patient as the result of the action of metabolic or other biochemical processes on the pro-drug. Such pro-drug forms typically demonstrate little or no activity in in vitro assays. Some examples of pro-drug forms may include ketal, acetal, oxime, and hydrazone forms of compounds which contain ketone or aldehyde groups. Other examples of pro-drug forms include the hemi-ketal, hemi-acetal, acyloxy ketal, acyloxy acetal, ketal, and acetal forms. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants and vehicles that may be used in the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention include, but are not limited to, ion exchangers, alumina, aluminum stearate, lecithin, serum proteins, such as human serum albumin, buffer substances such as phosphates, glycine, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, partial glyceride mixtures of saturated vegetable fatty acids, water, salts or electrolytes, such as protamine sulfate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride, zinc salts, colloidal silica, magnesium trisilicate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, cellulose-based substances, polyethylene glycol, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyacrylates, waxes, polyethylene-polyoxypropylene-block polymers, polyethylene glycol and wool fat. The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be administered by a variety of routes or modes. These include, but are not limited to, parenteral, oral, intratracheal, sublingual, pulmonary, topical, rectal, nasal, buccal, sublingual, vaginal, or via an implanted reservoir. Implanted reservoirs may function by mechanical, osmotic, or other means. The term “parenteral”, as understood and used herein, includes intravenous, intracranial, intraperitoneal, paravertebral, periarticular, periostal, subcutaneous, intracutaneous, intra-arterial, intramuscular, intra-articular, intrasynovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, and intralesional injection or infusion techniques. Such compositions are preferably formulated for parenteral administration, and most preferably for intravenous, intracranial, or intra-arterial administration. Generally, and particularly when administration is intravenous or intra-arterial, pharmaceutical compositions may be given as a bolus, as two or more doses separated in time, or as a constant or non-linear flow infusion. The pharmaceutical compositions may be in the form of a sterile injectable preparation, for example, as a sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to techniques known in the art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents (such as, for example, Tween 80) and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are mannitol, water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose, any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. Fatty acids, such as oleic acid and its glyceride derivatives are useful in the preparation of injectables, as are natural pharmaceutically-acceptable oils, such as olive oil or castor oil, especially in their polyoxyethylated versions. These oil solutions or suspensions may also contain a long-chain alcohol diluent or dispersant such as those described in Pharmacoplia Halselica. The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be orally administered in any orally acceptable dosage form including, but not limited to, capsules, tablets, caplets, pills, aqueous or oleaginous suspensions and solutions, syrups, or elixirs. In the case of tablets for oral use, carriers, which are commonly used include lactose and corn starch. Lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, are also typically added. For oral administration in a capsule form, useful diluents include lactose and dried cornstarch. Capsules, tablets, pills, and caplets may be formulated for delayed or sustained release. When aqueous suspensions are to be administered orally, the peptide compound is advantageously combined with emulsifying and/or suspending agents. If desired, certain sweetening and/or flavoring and/or coloring agents may be added. Formulations for oral administration may contain 10%-95% active ingredient, preferably 25%-70%. Preferably, a pharmaceutical composition for oral administration provides a peptide compound of the invention in a mixture that prevents or inhibits hydrolysis of the peptide compound by the digestive system, but allows absorption into the blood stream. The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may also be administered in the form of suppositories for vaginal or rectal administration. These compositions can be prepared by mixing a compound of this invention with a suitable non-irritating excipient, which is solid at room temperature but liquid at body temperature and therefore will melt in relevant body space to release the active components. Such materials include, but are not limited to, cocoa butter, beeswax and polyethylene glycols. Formulations for administration by suppository may contain 0.5%-10% active ingredient, preferably 1%-2%. Topical administration of the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be useful when the desired treatment involves areas or organs accessible by topical application, such as in wounds or during surgery. For application topically, the pharmaceutical composition may be formulated with a suitable ointment containing the active components suspended or dissolved in a carrier. Carriers for topical administration of the peptide compounds of this invention include, but are not limited to, mineral oil, liquid petroleum, white petroleum, propylene glycol, polyoxyethylene polyoxypropylene compound, emulsifying wax and water. Alternatively, the pharmaceutical composition can be formulated with a suitable lotion or cream containing the peptide compounds suspended or dissolved in a pharmaceutically suitable carrier. Suitable carriers include, but are not limited to, mineral oil, sorbitan monostearate, polysorbate 60, cetyl esters wax, cetearyl alcohol, 2-octyldodecanol, benzyl alcohol and water. The pharmaceutical composition may be formulated for topical or other application as a jelly, gel, or emollient, where appropriate. The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may also be topically applied to the lower intestinal tract by rectal suppository formulation or in a suitable enema formulation. Topical administration may also be accomplished via transdermal patches. This may be useful for maintaining a healthy skin tissue and restoring oxidative skin damage (e.g., UV- or radiation-induced skin damage). The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be administered nasally, in which case absorption may occur via the mucus membranes of the nose, or inhalation into the lungs. Such modes of administration typically require that the composition be provided in the form of a powder, solution, or liquid suspension, which is then mixed with a gas (e.g., air, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., or combinations thereof) so as to generate an aerosol or suspension of droplets or particles. Such compositions are prepared according to techniques well-known in the art of pharmaceutical formulation and may be prepared as solutions in saline, employing benzyl alcohol or other suitable preservatives, absorption promoters to enhance bioavailability, fluorocarbons, and/or other solubilizing or dispersing agents known in the art. Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be packaged in a variety of ways appropriate to the dosage form and mode of administration. These include but are not limited to vials, bottles, cans, packets, ampoules, cartons, flexible containers, inhalers, and nebulizers. Such compositions may be packaged for single or multiple administrations from the same container. Kits, of one or more doses, may be provided containing both the composition in dry powder or lyophilized form, as well an appropriate diluent, which are to be combined shortly before administration. The pharmaceutical composition may also be packaged in single use pre-filled syringes, or in cartridges for auto-injectors and needleless jet injectors. Multi-use packaging may require the addition of antimicrobial agents such as phenol, benzyl alcohol, meta-cresol, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, benzalconium chloride, and benzethonium chloride, at concentrations that will prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, and the like, but be non-toxic when administered to a patient. Consistent with good manufacturing practices, which are in current use in the pharmaceutical industry and which are well known to the skilled practitioner, all components contacting or comprising the pharmaceutical agent must be sterile and periodically tested for sterility in accordance with industry norms. Methods for sterilization include ultrafiltration, autoclaving, dry and wet heating, exposure to gases such as ethylene oxide, exposure to liquids, such as oxidizing agents, including sodium hypochlorite (bleach), exposure to high energy electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet light, x-rays or gamma rays, and exposure to ionizing radiation. Choice of method of sterilization will be made by the skilled practitioner with the goal of effecting the most efficient sterilization that does not significantly alter a desired biological function, i.e., the ability to upregulate SOD, CAT, or AP-1, of the pharmaceutical agent in question. Ultrafiltration is a preferred method of sterilization for pharmaceutical compositions that are aqueous solutions or suspensions. Details concerning dosages, dosage forms, modes of administration, composition and the like are further discussed in a standard pharmaceutical text, such as Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed., Alfonso R Gennaro, ed. (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1990), which is hereby incorporated by reference. As is well known in the art, structure and biological function of peptides are sensitive to chemical and physical environmental conditions such as temperature, pH, oxidizing and reducing agents, freezing, shaking and shear stress. Due to this inherent susceptibility to degradation, it is necessary to ensure that the biological activity of a peptide compound used as a pharmaceutical agent be preserved during the time that the agent is manufactured, packaged, distributed, stored, prepared and administered by a competent practitioner. Many technical approaches have been developed to stabilize pharmaceutical proteins so as to preserve their biological potency and efficacy, and such stabilizing techniques may be applied to peptide compounds of the compositions and methods of the invention, including: a) Freeze-drying and lyophilization (refer to Carpenter et al., Pharm. Res., 14(8): 969 (1997), incorporated by reference); b) Addition of “stabilizers” to the aqueous solution or suspension of the peptide or protein. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,096,885 discloses addition of glycine, mannitol, pH buffers, and the non-ionic surfactant polysorbate 80 to human growth hormone as means to stabilize the protein during the process of filtration, vial filling, and cold storage or lyophilization; U.S. Pat. No. 4,297,344 discloses stabilization of coagulation factors II and VIII, antithrombin III and plasminogen against heat by adding selected amino acids and a carbohydrate; U.S. 4,783,441 discloses a method for prevention of denaturation of proteins such as insulin in aqueous solution at interfaces by the addition of surface acting substances, within a particular pH range; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,812,557 discloses a method of stabilizing interleukin-2 using human serum albumin; c) Freeze/thaw methods wherein the peptide compound is mixed with a cryoprotectant and stored frozen at very low temperatures (e.g., −70° C.); d) Cold, non-frozen storage (e.g., less than 4° C.), optionally with a cryoprotectant additive such as glycerol; e) Storage in a vitrified, amorphous state, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,098,893; f) Storage in a crystalline state; and g) Incorporation into liposomes or other micelles. Natural Source, Purified Compositions and Dietary Supplements The invention also provides compositions and methods of making such compositions for use as dietary supplements (also referred to as “nutraceuticals”) comprising a natural source purified composition obtained from an organism (i.e., animal, plant, or microorganism), which purified composition contains an endogenous peptide compound described herein, which upregulates expression of one or more genes encoding an antioxidative enzyme, such as SOD and/or CAT in cells or tissues. Although peptide compounds of the invention may be obtained in highly purified form from some natural sources, the level of such peptide compounds in natural materials may be quite low or even present in only a trace detectable amount, even in compositions purified from such natural sources. Accordingly, to obtain useful quantities of pure peptide compounds, it is usually more economical to synthesize the peptide compounds described herein using in vitro automated peptide synthesis protocols. However, purified preparations from natural sources that contain even trace amounts of a compound capable of upregulating an antioxidative enzyme (such as SOD and/or CAT) may be useful in manufacturing products for sale in the oral dietary supplements market. Accordingly, dietary supplement compositions of the invention may further comprise an exogenously provided peptide compound described herein that upregulates expression of one or more genes encoding an antioxidative enzyme, such as SOD and/or CAT. Preferred natural sources of purified compositions used in making dietary supplements of the invention include green velvet antler from a ruminant, such as deer or elk, and various plant tissue, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, herbal mixtures, and teas. A preferred natural plant source useful in preparing dietary supplements of the invention is wuzi yanzong herbal mixture. Wuzi yanzong herbal mixture has been reported to confer on individuals a number of beneficial effects, including elevation of levels of certain antioxidative enzymes such as SOD and blood glutathione peroxidase, that make it a desirable natural source for use in manufacturing marketable dietary supplements of the invention (see, e.g., abstracts from Huang et al., Chung Kuo Chung Yao Tsa Chih, 16: 414-416, 447 (1991); Wang et al., Chung Kuo Chung Hsi I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih, 12: 23-25, 5 (1992); Wang et al., Chung Kuo Chung Hsi I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih, 13: 349-351, 325-326 (1993); Li et al., Chung Kuo Chung Yao Tsa Chih, 19: 300-302 (1994)). Dietary supplement formulations of the invention may comprise a natural source purified composition comprising an endogenous peptide compound described herein. Other dietary supplement formulations of the invention are compositions which comprise a natural source purified composition containing an endogenous peptide compound, which is combined with one or more exogenously provided peptide compounds described herein. An advantage of this latter type of formulation is that a sufficient amount of an exogenously provided peptide compound described herein may be combined with the natural source purified composition to form a dietary supplement composition that produces a desirable level or range of levels of upregulated antioxidative enzymes in an individual that takes or is administered the dietary supplement. Accordingly, dietary supplement compositions of the invention may contain one or more different peptide compounds described herein as an endogenous peptide compound from a natural source purified composition as well as, if so formulated, an exogenously provided peptide compound described herein. According to the invention, dietary supplements may comprise an endogenous peptide compound and an exogenously provided peptide compound that are the same or different peptide compounds. Preferred dietary supplements of the invention comprise a peptide compound comprising the formulas: R1 Xaa1 Gly Xaa2 Xaa3 Xaa4 Xaa5 Xaa6 R2 (SEQ ID NO:3), wherein Xaa1 and Xaa2 are, independently, aspartic acid or asparagine; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group of the peptide compound; Xaa3 is absent or Gly; Xaa4 is absent, Asp, or Phe; Xaa5 is absent, Ala, or Phe; Xaa6 is absent or Ala; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group of the peptide compound; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzymes; and R1 Xaa1 Xaa2 Xaa3 R2, wherein Xaa1 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Thr, or Tyr; Xaa2 is absent or any amino acid; Xaa3 is Asp, Asn, Glu, Thr, Ser, Gly, or Leu; R1 is absent or is an amino terminal capping group; R2 is absent or is a carboxy terminal capping group; and wherein the peptide compound upregulates expression of a gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme. Preferred dietary supplement compositions of the invention may comprise one or more peptide compounds that upregulate expression of at least one gene encoding an antioxidative enzyme selected from the group consisting of: (SEQ ID NO:1) Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln, (SEQ ID NO:2) Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:13) Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, (SEQ ID NO:14) Gln Tyr Ser Ile Gly Gly Pro Gln, (SEQ ID NO:15) Ser Asp Arg Ser Ala Arg Ser Tyr, (SEQ ID NO:12) Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:13) Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro, (SEQ ID NO:16) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu, (SEQ ID NO:6) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:4) Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:8) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:17) Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:7) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:18) Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:9) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:19) Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp, (SEQ ID NO:20) Asn Gly Asp Gly, (SEQ ID NO:5) Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:21) Asn Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:22) Asp Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala, (SEQ ID NO:23) Asn Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala, Asp Gly Asp, Asn Gly Asn, Asp Gly Asn, Asn Gly Asp, Asn Ser Thr, Phe Asp Gln, Met Thr Leu, Met Thr Asp, Met Thr Asn, Met Thr Thr, Met Thr Glu, Met Thr Gln, Thr Val Ser, Leu Thr Gln, Leu Thr Gly, Leu Thr Tyr, Asp Gly, Asn Gly, Glu Gly, Gln Gly, Glu Ala, Gln Ala, Gln Gly, Asp Ala, and Asn Ala. A particularly preferred peptide compound useful in manufacturing dietary supplement formulations of the invention comprises the amino acid sequence Asp Gly. Dietary supplement compositions of the invention may also comprise one or more peptide compounds described herein that have an amino terminal capping group and/or a carboxy terminal capping group. Preferably, the amino terminal capping group is selected from a group consisting of a reduced or oxidized lipoic acid moiety (Lip), a glucose-3-O-glycolic acid (Gga) moiety, 1 to 6 lysine residues, 1 to 6 arginine residues, an acyl group having the formula R3—CO—, where CO represents a carbonyl group and R3 is a saturated or an unsaturated (mono- or polyunsaturated) hydrocarbon chain having from 1 to 25 carbons, and combinations thereof. Even more preferably, the amino terminal capping group is the acyl group that is an acetyl group, a palmitoyl group, or a docosahexaenoic acid group (DHA). In another preferred embodiment, a peptide compound present in a dietary supplement of the invention comprises a carboxy terminal capping group selected from the group consisting of a primary or secondary amine. Compositions containing one or more endogenous peptide compounds described herein may be purified from a natural source using various methods and protocols available in the art, such as fractionation by centrifugation, concentration, gel filtration chromatography, organic solvent extraction, etc. Such methods are employed by those skilled in the art to obtain a composition purified from an original natural source, such as green velvet antler of deer, which is commercially available as a powder, or wuzi yanzong herbal mixture, which is commercially available as a dry or liquid herbal mixture. The desired purified composition will typically be enriched (more concentrated) for an endogenous peptide compound described herein. Such a purified composition may be marketed as an oral dietary supplement. Alternatively, a natural source purified compositions may also be combined with an exogenously provided, synthetically produced peptide compound described herein to produce a dietary supplement. Dietary supplement compositions of the invention may further contain other marketable ingredients of interest, such as lazaroids, vitamins, enzymes, and peptides purported to provide a benefit to health or well-being of the individual who ingests them. In addition, dietary supplement compositions of the invention may also comprise one or more binders, fillers, powders, silica, or other inert ingredients commonly used in the dietary supplements or pharmaceutical industries to make marketable forms of the supplement compositions, such as pills, capsules, lozenges, liquids, and syrups (see above section on pharmaceutical compositions). Unlike pharmaceuticals, however, the peptide compounds and other ingredients used to make a dietary supplement composition are typically not regulated or otherwise controlled by a federal regulatory agency. Natural source purified compositions can be assayed for the presence of one or more peptide compounds, and the activity to upregulate expression of a gene encoding SOD and/or CAT assayed in vitro or in vivo in mammalian cells by any of the various methods described herein or their equivalents. Such analysis provides the information that enables the consistent manufacture of standardized lots of an oral dietary supplement product, which contains an appropriate amount of a peptide compound to provide the same or substantially the same lot to lot antioxidative activity to an individual who takes the supplement. The ability to consistently manufacture and deliver for sale lots of the same oral supplement product having a standardized amount of an ingredient of interest is highly desired in the dietary supplements market where product consistency can play a critical role in establishing consumer confidence and patronage for a particular product. Additional aspects of the invention will be further understood and illustrated in the following examples. The specific parameters included in the following examples are intended to illustrate the practice of the invention and its various features, and they are not presented to in any way limit the scope of the invention. EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of Representative Peptide Compounds The following representative peptide compounds were synthesized by solid phase Merrifield synthesis (Merrifield, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85:2149-2154 (1963)): CMX-9236D (SEQ ID NO:26) ([DHA]-Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu), CMX-9236 (SEQ ID NO:26) (Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu), CMX-11540 (SEQ ID NO:16) ([Lip]-Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu), CMX-99661 (SEQ ID NO:5) ([Gga]Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala), CMX-99655 (SEQ ID NO:5) ([Ac]Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala), CMX-9960 (SEQ ID NO:5) ([Palm]Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala), CMLX-9963 (SEQ ID NO:6) ([Ac]-Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala), CMX-9967 ([Ac]-Asp Gly Asp), CMX-9901 (SEQ ID NO:27) (Lys Lys Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln), CMX-8933 (SEQ ID NO:24) (Lys Lys Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg), CMX-9902 (SEQ ID NO:28) (Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala), CMX-99658 (SEQ ID NO:2) ([Ac]-Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg), (SEQ ID NO:2) Lys Lys Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg, CMX-8933 (SEQ ID NO:24) (Lys Lys Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg), (described in U. S. Patent No. 5,545,719) CMX-1156 ([Lip]-Thr Val Ser), CMX-99647 ([Ac]Thr Val Ser), CMX-1152 (Asp Gly), CMX-1159 ([Lip]-Asp Gly), and CMX-99672 (trifluoroacetic acid salt of dipeptide Asp Gly). Amino terminal capping groups are indicated by the bracketed groups “[DHA]-”, “[Lip]-”, and “[Ac]-”, which represent an all cis-docasahexaenoic acid moiety, a lipoic acid moiety, and an acetyl moiety, respectively, attached by acylation to the α-amino group of the amino terminal amino acid residue of the indicated peptide compounds (Shashoua and Hesse, Life Sci. 58:1347-1357 (1996)). The peptides were synthesized using standard procedures. Briefly, the peptides were synthesized using the solid phase Merrifield process (Merrifield, R. B., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85:2149-2154 (1963)). This method allows the synthesis of a peptide of a specific amino acid sequence bound on a polymeric resin. Each newly synthesized peptide was then released from the resin by treating with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The resultant trifluoroacetic acid peptide salt was purified by ether precipitation according to standard procedures (see, E. Groos and Meienhofer, In The peptides, analysis, synthesis, biology, vol. 2 (Academic Press, New York 1983)). For N-terminal substituted peptides (i.e., peptides containing an acyl amino terminal capping group), each peptide was synthesized with blocked side chains using solid phase Merrifield synthesis (see above). The bound peptide was then treated with an equimolar amount of an anhydride of one of the following acids: acetic acid, DHA, or lipoic acid, in the presence of 4-dimethylamino pyridine under argon atmosphere. The reaction was carried out for about three hours to obtain N-terminal coupling. Evidence of complete N-terminal coupling was obtained prior to peptide isolation. This was established by monitoring the ninhydrin staining properties of the resin bound peptides using standard procedures (E. Kaiser, et al., Anal. Biochem., 34: 595-598 (1970)). The N-terminal coupled (capped) peptide molecule was then released from the resin by treatment with TFA and purified by precipitation with cold ether followed by HPLC using methanolic HCl (50:50) as the eluant. The final peptide products were white solids after lyophilization. Structures were confirmed by amino acid analyses, by migration as a single peak on HPLC, and molecular weight determinations by mass spectrometry. For most uses, it was essential to completely remove TFA from the peptide compound. This was achieved by repeated dissolution of the peptide in glacial acetic acid followed by concentration in vacuo in rotary evaporator. Complete absence of TFA was established by mass spectrometry. Example 2 Upregulation of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) in Mammalian Cells by Peptide Compounds CMX-9236, CMX-9963, and CMX-9967 Upregulation of SOD The RT-PCR method (see, for example, Innis et al., PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, (Academic Press, San Diego, 1990)) was used to investigate the upregulation of the specific mRNA that codes for the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Primary cortical cultures were obtained by growing newborn rat brain cortical cells in Delbecco's modified Eagle medium supplemented with 25 μg/ml of gentamycin and 10% fetal calf serum. The cells were isolated from the E-21 cortex of rat brain, plated at a density of 1×105 per ml and grown to confluence within four to five days in an atmosphere containing air and 5% CO2 at 37° C. as described in Cornell-Bell et al., Science, 247: 470-473 (1990) and Cell Calcium, 12: 185-204 (1991). Cultures were grown in 20 ml flasks as a monolayer and then exposed to various concentrations of peptides for studies of the effects of peptides on upregulation of genes for SOD and CAT and on the transmigration of transcription factor AP-1 to cell nuclei. Primary cultures of rat brain cortical cells were incubated with 100 ng/ml of peptide compound CMX-9236 for durations of 0 to 48 hours. mRNA was isolated from the cytoplasmic fraction of lysed cells according to standard methods (Angel et al., Cell 49:729-739, 1987). The RNA was incubated according to the RT-PCR protocol with two strands, 20 nucleotides long, one for the sense and one from the antisense strand. The sequences were selected to be unique for superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1), and to span one intron segment. These were demonstrated to be unique by the BLAST program system (Nucl. Acids Res. 25:3389-3402, 1997). The sequence of the two probe segments of the oligo dT segments for SOD are as follows: anti-sense strand, ATCCCAATCACTCCACAGGCCAAGC (SEQ ID NO:29), and sense strand, GAGACCTGGGCAATGTGACTGCTGG (SEQ ID NO:30). These span a sequence of 208 base pairs (bp) on the primary SOD sequence. The mixture was then treated with reverse transcriptase to obtain the cDNA according to standard PCR methods. The cDNA was then analyzed by electrophoresis and separated according to sequence lengths on a non-denaturing 5% polyacrylamide gel. The electrophoretically separated molecules were treated with ethidium bromide to stain double-stranded DNA fragments. These were visualized by ultraviolet illumination and photographed. The gels were then analyzed by a laser scanning fluorescence detector to quantitate the amount of messenger RNA for the extent of upregulation of SOD message and its time course of synthesis as a function of stimulation by CMX-9236. Similar methods of analysis were used for other peptides. FIG. 1A shows the results of the electrophoresis. Each lane contained an internal marker for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH, 451 bp), a housekeeper marker to ensure that the same amount of RT-PCR cDNA product was actually loaded in each lane. The results show that after 3 hours of incubation with 100 ng/ml of CMX-9236, there was a 9-fold upregulation of SOD-1 mRNA transcripts. The gel also contained a positive control (Pos) in which cortical cell cultures were stimulated with 10 μg/ml of the peptide compound for 3 hours, showing a maximum development of SOD stimulation. FIG. 1B shows a bar graph depicting quantitative analysis data of the upregulation of SOD mRNA. Note that within 3 hours, there is a 9-fold increase in upregulation of the mRNA with 100 ng/ml of peptide CMX-9236. This stimulation returns to control levels within 24 hours. The results demonstrate that CMX-9236 can upregulate the mRNA that codes for superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1). Filled bars indicate levels of SOD-1; open bars indicate levels of GAPDH. Similar RT-PCR experiments showed that cultures of rat primary myocytes upon stimulation with 1-100 ng/ml of CMX-9236 resulted in an enhanced production of mRNA coding for SOD-1. The amount of upregulation of SOD was 3-fold for the 1 ng/ml, and rose up to 6-fold at the 10-100 ng/ml (FIGS. 2A and 2B). FIG. 2A shows the dose-response data for the effect of CMX-9236 on the pattern of mRNA synthesis in primary myocyte cultures after a 3-hour incubation. The presence of a band at the region of the gel corresponding to 208 base pairs indicates that SOD is upregulated. FIG. 2B shows a bar graph depicting quantitative analysis data indicating that the 10 ng/ml and 100 ng/ml doses of CMX-9236 produced an upregulation of about 6-fold in the level of SOD-1 transcripts. Filled bars indicate fold-increase in levels of SOD-1 transcripts; open bars indicate fold-increase in levels of GAPDH transcripts. The results shown in FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B demonstrated that the peptide compound is capable of upregulating SOD-1 mRNA in at least two different tissues, i.e., brain and muscle. Translation of SOD mRNA to SOD-1 Protein Additional evidence for increased synthesis of SOD within stimulated cells was obtained by studies of the effect of representative peptide compounds on the pattern of protein synthesis. Time course and dose response studies on rat brain cortical cell cultures showed that the level of immunoreactive (i.e., anti-SOD antibody reactive) proteins that were synthesized in the cytoplasm increased as a function of treatment with the peptide compound CMX-9967. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies (Rockland, Inc., Gilbertville, Pa.) in a Western blot assay showed a dose-dependent antibody binding to the electrophoretically separated cytoplasmic SOD proteins on polyacrylamide gels (FIG. 3A). Specifically, FIG. 3A shows a Western blot containing a band migrating at 34 kDa (the molecular weight of SOD-1), and two lower molecular weight bands corresponding to smaller components recognized by the anti-SOD-1 antibody in cells from cultures incubated for 5 hours in the presence of 10 and 100 ng/ml of the CMX-9967 peptide. FIG. 3B shows a bar graph of the quantitative analysis of the data plotted as fold-increase in SOD-1 protein as a function of dose of the CMX-9967 peptide. At least a 20-fold increase in the intensity of antibody binding occurred at the position of the cytoplasmic SOD-1 (mol. wt. 34,000 daltons) and its lower molecular weight analogue in cells treated for 5 hours with 10 and 100 ng/ml of CMX-9967. This represents a large increase as compared to the published data for transgenic mice with an extra SOD gene insert where at most a 50% increase in SOD was detected (Murakami et al., Stroke, 28: 1797-1804 (1997); Ceballos-Picot, CR Seances Soc. Biol. Fil., 187: 308-323 (1993)). The DNA sequence of such mice contains a second SOD gene insert. Thus, these data indicate that a peptide compound of the invention can upregulate mRNA for SOD-1, which is translated into a protein that has the same immunoreactive properties as SOD. Upregulation of mRNA for Catalase (CAT) Peptide compounds of the invention may also upregulate mRNA for catalase (CAT). Experiments using the RT-PCR methods to detect upregulation of CAT mRNA in primary rat cortical brain cultures treated with various representative peptide compounds, i.e., CMX-9236, CMX-9963, and CMX-9967. The catalase probe duplex consisted of a sense primer having the sequence GCCCGAGTCCAGGCTCTTCTGGACC (SEQ ID NO:31) and antisense primer having the sequence TTGGCAGCTATGTGAGAGCCGGCCT (SEQ ID NO:32) flanking a 95 bp region of the CAT DNA. Primary rat brain cortical cell cultures were incubated with 100 ng/ml of the peptide compound CMX-9236 for 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours. The results of the RT-PCR method are shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B. FIG. 4A shows a gel of RT-PCR products. The upregulation of CAT mRNA was maximal at 3 hours after the addition of the peptide compound, and it decreased back to control levels at 48 hours. GAPDH was the internal standard in these experiments. FIG. 4B shows a bar graph of the quantitative analysis of the data plotted as fold-increase as a function of hours of treatment. A 13-fold increase in CAT mRNA levels was observed (over control) of CAT mRNA occurred when primary rat brain cortical cultures were incubated with 100 ng/ml of CMX-9236 for 3 hours. FIGS. 5A and 5B show results that demonstrate that other peptide compounds (i.e., CMX-9963 and CMX-9967) can also upregulate both CAT and SOD in primary rat cortical cultures. FIG. 5A shows a gel of RT-PCR products for cultures incubated for 3 hours with 0, 1, 10, and 100 ng/ml of CMX-9963 or CMX-9967. FIG. 5B shows bar graphs of the quantitative analysis data plotted as fold-increase as a function of dose for each peptide. The bar graphs in FIG. 5B show that rat primary cortical cells incubated with 10 ng/ml of CMX-9963 showed a maximum increase of around 10-fold and 7-fold for SOD-1 (black bars) and CAT mRNA (open bars), respectively, whereas cells incubated with CMX-9967 showed a maximum increase of 6-fold for both SOD and CAT at concentrations of 10 ng/ml. GAPDH was the internal standard. These findings establish that the CMX peptide compounds can promote the synthesis for two of the primary endogenous antioxidative enzymes that can defend cells from the powerful effects of ROS and free radicals. Upregulation of SOD in Rat Fibroblasts by Peptide Compounds CMX-9963 and CMX-9967 Rat fibroblasts were isolated from lungs of rat embryos (E-21) and grown in culture as for culturing rat brain cortical cells as described above. After five days in culture, confluent monolayers of fibroblasts were obtained and used in dose-response studies with CMX-9963 or CMX-9967 in vehicle buffer (Hanks balanced salt solution (“HBSS”, Life Technologies, Baltimore, Md.) containing 5% xylitol) at 0, 1, 5, 10, and 100 ng/ml. After incubation in the presence of peptide compound for 6 hours, cytoplasmic fractions were isolated from each culture. Cytoplasmic proteins were isolated according to published methods (Adams et al., J. Leukoc. Biol., 62: 865-873 (1997)). The cell cultures were washed once in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) containing 20 mM EDTA and then suspended in 250 μl of freshly prepared lysis buffer (20 mM Hepes, pH 7.9, 10 mM KCl, 300 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 0.1% Triton X-100 nonionic detergent, 20% glycerol, 0.5 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), freshly supplemented with inhibitors as described in Adams et al., J. Biol. Chem., 77: 221-233 (2000)). The suspensions were then incubated for at least 10 minutes on ice to lyse cells and then centrifuged (14,000×g for 5 minutes at 4° C.) to pellet cell debris. The supernatant cytoplasmic fractions were removed and stored as aliquots at −80° C. for analysis. The protein concentrations of the cytoplasmic fraction varied within 2-6 μg/μl. The cytoplasmic proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE using 5 μg/lane on the gels. The gels were processed for Western immunoblots basically as described by Adams et al. (General Cellular Biochemistry, 77: 221-233 (2000)) to measure upregulation of SOD. The Western blots were also analyzed by laser densitometry to quantify SOD protein upregulation. The control for this experiment was an identical culture flask which was treated with vehicle (buffer, no peptide compound). Western blots showed that both CMX-9963 and CMX-9967 upregulated SOD gene expression in rat fibroblasts. In particular, incubation with 10 ng/ml of either CMX-9963 or CMX-9967 resulted in at least a 20-fold increase in (upregulation of) SOD gene expression in rat fibroblasts relative to untreated cells. Example 3 Upregulation of AP-1 Transcription Factor in Mammalian Cells by Peptide Compounds Immediately prior to use, a 1.0 mg aliquot of a peptide compound was dissolved in 1.0 ml of 5% xylitol in HBSS (Hanks' Balanced Salt Solution, Hanks and Wallace, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 71:196 (1949)), the pH neutralized with 0.1 N NaOH, and the solution filter sterilized. Each peptide compound migrated as a single peak on HPLC column (C-18). The structure of each peptide compound was confirmed by amino acid analysis, and its molecular weight was verified by mass spectroscopy. Nuclear extracts for electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) were prepared as described previously (Adams et al., J. Leukocyte Biol., 62: 865-873 (1997)) using 1.0−2.0×107 cells per sample. All buffers were freshly supplemented with dithiothreitol (DTT, 0.5 mM), protease inhibitors: PMSF (0.5 mM), chymostatin, peptstatin-A, aprotinin, antipain, leupeptin (each at 1 μg/ml), and phosphatase inhibitors: NaF (10 mM), ZnCl2 (1 mM), sodium orthovanadate (1 mM), and sodium pyrophosphate (5 mM). Aliquots of the final dialyzates were stored at −80° C. and discarded after use. NB2a cells (1.0−2.0×107 per sample) were washed in 1×PBS, 20 mM EDTA, then resuspended in 250 μl of lysis buffer (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 10 mM KCl, 300 mM NaCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 0.1% Triton X-100, 20% glycerol) freshly supplemented with DTT and inhibitors as described above. Suspensions were incubated for at least 10 minutes on ice to lyse cells, then centrifuged (14,000×g, 5 minutes, 4° C.) to pellet cell debris. Supernatant aliquots were stored at −80° C. and discarded after a single use. Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assays (EMSAs) AP-1 transcription factor activation was assayed using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), as described by Adams et al., J. Leukoc. Biol., 62:865-873 (1997)). Cultures of primary rat neurons (Cornell-Bell et al., Cell Calcium, 12: 185-204 (1991)) were stimulated for 3 hours with various concentrations (0, 1, 10, 100 ng/ml) of peptide CMX-9236. Nuclear extracts prepared as described above were separated by gel electophoresis on non-denaturing gels and subjected to the EMSA procedure. This EMSA used an AP-1 synthetic duplex probe (Angel, P., 1987, Cell 49:729-739) having the sequence 5′-CGCTTGATGACTCAGCCGGAA (SEQ ID NO:33) and its antisense copy (complement strand), which were end-labeled with P32 using polynucleotide kinase and (γ-P32)-ATP. For the EMSA reaction, the labeled probe (0.5 pmol) was mixed with 3 μg of nuclear extract protein in a solution containing 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 50 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 5% glycerol, 0.02% β-mercaptoethanol, and 1 μg of poly-dI/dC (Pharmacia). Reaction mixtures were incubated at 25° C. for 20 minutes to allow complete complex formation by the duplex with its appropriate AP-1 protein. The mixture was then electrophoresed under non-denaturing conditions through 4% polyacrylamide gels in 0.5×TBE buffer (45 mM Trisma base, 45 mM boric acid, 1 mM EDTA). The gels were dried on 3 mm paper. Bands were visualized by autoradiography at −80° C. with one intensifying screen and quantified by laser densitometry. The upregulation of AP-1 and the activation and upregulation process of AP-1 was compared to control cultures. FIG. 6A shows the autoradiogram of a gel of the EMSA procedure for the primary rat neurons. Maximum upregulation was obtained when such cultures were incubated with 100 ng/ml of peptide compound CMX-9236. FIG. 6B shows a bar graph of the quantitative analysis of the data plotted as fold-increase as a function of dose of CMX-9236. The data indicate that there was a 60-fold increase in the binding of the DNA duplex probe at the position of the electrophoretic migration of the complexes formed with the DNA probe and the c-Jun/c-Fos heterodimer and the c-Jun/c-Jun homodimer forms of AP-1 in the gel; indicative of upregulation of AP-1 (see, FIGS. 6A and 6B). Probe Competition EMSA Probe competition EMSAs were carried out as in the EMSAs described above, except that a non-radiolabeled (“cold”) duplex AP-1 oligomer (see above) or “cold” mutant AP-1 duplex oligomer comprising the nucleotide sequence CGCTTGAGACTTGGCCGGAA (mutant bases underlined, SEQ ID NO:34) and its complementary strand were added to the EMSA reactions and incubated for 20 minutes at 25° C. prior to addition of the 32P-labeled probe. Following radiolabeled probe addition, the incubation was continued at 25° C. for an additional 20 minutes prior to electrophoresis. The molar excess (0×, 5×, 25×, 50×) of cold probe relative to the 0.5 pmol of radiolabeled probe eliminated binding of the labeled duplex added to each electrophoretic lane. The cold mutant probe with mutations at the two underlined positions (TG) could not eliminate binding. This signifies that the probe had the correct sequence and a high degree of specificity for AP-1 (see, FIG. 6C). Improved EMSAs may now be carried out basically as described above, except that an AP-1 synthetic duplex probe comprising the nucleotide sequence CGCTTGATGA GTCAGCCGGA A (SEQ ID NO:35) and its antisense copy (complement strand) are used for the standard assay and a mutant AP-1 duplex oligomer comprising the nucleotide sequence CGCTTGATGA GTTGGCCGGAA (mutant bases underlined, SEQ ID NO:36) and its complementary strand are used for the probe competition assay. A number of investigations have demonstrated that both nerve growth factor (NGF) (Hsu et al., Stroke, 24 (suppl. I): I-78-I-79 (1993)) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (Schabitz et al., J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metabol., 17: 500-506 (1997)), which are high molecular weight proteins than the peptide compounds described here, can stimulate neuronal growth by a mechanism that involves the activation (upregulation of expression) of the gene encoding transcription factor AP-1. The data indicate that the peptide compounds described herein also upregulate expression of the gene encoding AP-1 (see, FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C). Primary cortical cell cultures were grown to confluence and used in in vitro cultures for determining the effects of various representative peptide compounds on upregulation of AP-1. Stimulation of AP-1 factor was found to increase in a dose-dependent manner, increasing by about 15-fold up to a maximum of 60-fold after a 3-hour incubation at 35.5° C. with 1, 10, or 100 ng/ml concentrations of the peptide (FIG. 6A). Extracts were prepared from the nuclei isolated from the primary culture homogenates, purified, and analyzed for the presence of specific transcription factors using the electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) method. The binding of 32P-labeled duplex DNA probes specific for activator protein-1 (AP-1) or nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) was analyzed and quantified by autoradiography. After a 3-hour incubation of the cultures with 1 ng/ml of the peptide CMX-9236 there was a 15-fold increase of AP-1 relative to unstimulated control cultures. Incubations with 100 ng/ml of the peptide typically increased the level of AP-1 by 60-fold. This suggests that the peptide compounds described herein are able to affect the cascade of biochemical events that cause the phosphorylation of AP-1 and its translocation to the cell nuclei to increase c-Fos and the upregulation of AP-1-dependent gene expression. Thus, a small peptide compound that is less than 20 amino acids long can simulate the properties of large growth factors such as NGF and BDNF, which exist as dimers of protein chains with molecular weights of 13,259 and 13,500, respectively. The data suggest that the peptide compounds described herein are capable of activating genes that may be involved in brain cell growth. Such a mechanism has been previously demonstrated to block apoptosis, reversing programmed cell death in the nematode (Horvitz et al., Cold Spring Harbor Symposium Quant. Biol., 111:377 (1994)) And Mammalian Nervous System (Yuan et al., Cell 75:641 (1993). In control experiments (a negative control), the amino terminal capping group and blood-brain barrier transmigration facilitator DHA, alone, did not activate AP-1. However, peptide compounds without this DHA amino terminal capping group could activate AP-1 at an equivalent molar concentration to the DHA-coupled peptide compound. This indicates that the stimulation of AP-1 activity by the peptide compounds described herein depends on the peptide sequence. The specificity of the interaction of the DNA probe with AP-1 was demonstrated in two additional types of control experiments. A 5-fold molar excess of non-radioactive AP-1 probe was found to completely block the formation of AP-1- 32P-DNA complex (see, FIG. 6C), while AP-1 with two errors in its sequence completely lost its capacity to form complexes even when used at a 50-fold molar excess relative to the radiolabeled probe (see, FIG. 6C). These results demonstrated a high degree of specificity of the AP-1 probe interaction and validated the EMSA assay. The data indicate that the peptide compounds can activate AP-1 gene expression in neuronal cells. They demonstrate that a small peptide compound can have properties similar to those of a large neurotrophic protein factor, such as BDNF or NGF, which stimulate neuronal growth via activation of AP-1. Further evidence in support of such a concept is the finding that an inhibition of activation of AP-1 correlates with events that lead to neuronal cell death (Tabuchi et al., J. Biol. Chem., 271: 31061-31067 (1996)). Upregulation of AP-1 seems to correlate with the process of cell growth, and its down-regulation seems to correlate with the process of cell death. In one other control experiment, peptide compounds did not promote the upregulation of the transcription factor NF-κB. This is a transcription factor that is associated with immune responses, i.e., not related to neuronal growth (Adams et al., J. Leukoc. Biol., 62: 865-873 (1997)). Such a result has also been reported in literature for NGF, which is found to activate AP-1, but not NF-κB in PC12 cells (Tong and Perez-Polo, J. Neurosci. Res., 45: 1-12 (1996)). Example 4 In Vivo Pharmacological Activity of Peptide Compounds CMX-9236, CMX-9236D, CMX-9967, and CMX-9902 The in vivo neuroprotective effects of CMX-9236 were investigated in both temporary and permanent occlusion stroke models in Sprague-Dawley rats using an intraluminal suture of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion method (Zea Longa et al., Stroke, 20: 84 (1989)). Briefly, a 4-0 silicone-coated suture was inserted through the right common carotid artery to block the MCA orifice. In the temporary model, CMX-9236 (6.2 mg/kg/hr) or vehicle was administered via the femoral vein at 30 minutes after the start of a 2-hour occlusion for a 4-hour continuous infusion; the rats were then reperfused by withdrawing the suture at 90 minutes after the MCA occlusion. All experiments were performed in a blinded and randomized manner, and rectal temperature was maintained at 37° C. The animals were sacrificed, and their brains were removed, sectioned into six 2-mm-thick coronal slices and stained with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride solution (Bederson et al., Stroke, 17:1304 (1986)) to visualize the extent of brain damage for the calculation of the corrected hemispheric infarct volumes (Nagasawa and Kogure, Stroke, 20:1037 (1989); Li et al., J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 17:1132 (1997)). In rats (n=10) treated with CMX-9236, the mean±S.E. for the corrected infarct volume was found to be 117.3±17 mm3, as compared to 178.8±11 mm3 for the vehicle-treated controls (n=10). This represents a significant reduction of infarct size (35±5%, p=0.01, student t-test) for the CMX-9236-treated group in the temporary occlusion model. There was also a 58+11% improvement in the neurological scoring (Minematsu et al., Neurology, 42:235 (1992)) for the peptide-treated group versus controls at the end of 24 hours. In the permanent occlusion stroke model, the blood flow to the MCA territory was blocked for the total 24-hour period. A continuous i.v. infusion (0.5 ml/hr) of the CMX-9236 peptide (2.04 mg/kg/hr) or vehicle was initiated at 30 minutes after occlusion for 6 hours, followed by a bolus i.v. infusion of CMX-9236 (4.0 mg/kg in 0.5 ml delivered over 10 minutes) or vehicle at 12 hours after occlusion. The corrected infarct volumes were 127.5±18 mm3 versus 216±18 mm3 for drug-treated animals and controls, respectively. This represents a significant decrease (41±5%, p=0.003, student t-test) in infarct size for the drug-treated group as compared to the vehicle-treated control group (n=10 per group) in the permanent model, indicating a substantial rescue of brain tissue. These findings indicate that CMX-9236 has neuroprotective properties post-trauma in vivo, reducing the brain damage generated by cerebral ischemia. Table 2 shows the results for different CMX peptides using the MCA permanent occlusion test. TABLE 2 Effects of CMX Peptides on Infarct Size and Neurological Behavior of Rats Using the Permanent MCA 24-Hour Occlusion Method Percent Dose Percent Neurological Compound (mg/hr) n Rescue a Rescue CMX-9236D 0.03 7 48 ± 12 50 ± 18 (DHA-capped peptide) CMX-9236 0.05 4 23 ± 7 35 ± 8 (uncapped peptide) CMX-9967 0.05 4 20 ± 6 40 ± 10 CMX-9902 0.05 8 29 ± 7 35 ± 12 a Percent rescue denotes the percent decrease in infarct size in comparison to identical treatment of controls (n = 8) with vehicle alone. Example 5 Activities of Other Representative Peptide Compounds Certain activities have been demonstrated for other representative peptide compounds using one or more the assays described in the proceeding Examples. CMX-9901 and CMX-8933 peptide compounds upregulated AP-1 and provided a positive neuroprotective effect in the in vivo permanent MCA assay. CMX-9902 upregulated SOD proteins and increased nuclear migration of AP-1 in culture in vitro studies. Example 6 In Vivo and In Vitro Pharmacological Activity of Related Dipeptide Compounds CMX-1152 (Asp Gly) and CMX-99672 (TFA Salt of Asp Gly) In vivo experiments were carried out in Sprague-Dawley rats (300-325 g) with solutions of CMX-1152 or CMX-99672. The animals were injected intravenously (iv) via the tail vein with a peptide compound. Each animal received three injections, one hour apart (i.e., 0.3 ml of the peptide compound at a concentration of 10 μg/ml in normal saline for a total dose equivalent to 9 mg peptide compound/kg body weight. The animals were sacrificed by decapitation at 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours post injection and dissected to isolate brain, liver, heart, kidney, lung organs, which were frozen at −70° C. for subsequent analysis. In addition, 2 ml samples of whole blood were taken from each animal. Half (1 ml) of each sample was centrifuged to remove nuclei and cell membranes to yield plasma. The remaining half was stored frozen as whole blood at −70° C. Western Immunoblots Using Antiserum to Human SOD and CAT Enzymes Each tissue was thawed and homogenized in a Down's homogenizer using ten volumes of homogenizer buffer (see, Adams et al., General Cellular Biochemistry, 77: 221-233 (2000); buffer as described in Adams et al., J. Leukoc. Biol., 62: 865-875 (1967)) to obtain a crude cytoplasmic fraction. The tissue homogenates were centrifuged (14,000×g for 5 minutes at 4° C.) to yield the supernatant purified cytoplasmic protein fractions as described in Adams et al. (J. Cell. Biochem., 77: 221-233 (2000)). A 10 μg sample of each protein fraction was then separated by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and analyzed for SOD and CAT content by Western blot assay. Control for measurement of unstimulated levels of SOD and CAT were obtained from two vehicle only (i.e., no peptide compound) injected rats that were sacrificed at 24 and 72 hours post injection. Both had essentially the same unstimulated levels of SOD and CAT. Standard quantities of each cytoplasmic fractions (10 μg) were loaded on a lane of a gel for electrophoretic separation and Western immunoblot analysis (Adams et al., J. Cell. Biochem., 77: 221-233 (2000)). The stained gels were photographed and scanned by laser densitometry to quantify intensities in comparison to enzyme levels for control vehicle treated rats. Table 3 shows the upregulation data for SOD in various rat organs compared to control animals that received only the injection vehicle without peptide compound. The data show that administration of the peptide compound CMX-1152 resulted in approximately a four to five-fold upregulation in SOD production in brain, heart, lung, and blood relative to the control, and an approximately two-fold upregulation in SOD production in liver and kidney. These results indicate that the peptide compound CMX-1152 is active in vivo and that it is active in every major tissue and organ. Thus, the peptide compound CMX-1152 can upregulate SOD in whole animals. Similar results were obtained for CAT (data not shown). These findings demonstrate the potential of CMX-1152 for use as a treatment that promotes the defense of the whole organism against ROS and free radicals. Accordingly, the body-wide, substantial antioxidative activity generated by the peptide compound CMX-1152 qualifies this peptide compound as a particularly, well suited anti-aging candidate compound that may be developed for use as a “healthy life expectancy” drug. TABLE 3 In Vivo Upregulation of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) in Sprague-Dawley Rats After a 6-Hour Treatment with CMX-1152 at a Dose of 10 mg/kg Organ SOD Activity (% of Control*) Brain 520 Heart 550 Liver 200 Lung 520 Kidney 200 Plasma 420 Whole Blood 490 *Control levels = 100%; injection of normal saline (vehicle) Additionally, studies of the time course of the in vivo upregulation of SOD and CAT by administration of the peptide compound CMX-1152 persisted for a substantially longer period in tissues than in tissue not exposed to CMX-1152. The in vivo data given in Table 3 compare SOD levels for CMX-1152 versus vehicle (saline) treated controls. The control values for each tissue remained constant as a function of time. Additional Studies of CMX-1152 and CMX-99672 CMX-99672 and CMX-1152 peptide compounds comprise the same Asp-Gly dipeptide. CMX-99672 is the trifluoracetic acid salt form and CMX-1152 is the acetate salt form of the dipeptide. In this study, CMX-99672 was only used in the describe in vitro tissue culture experiments, whereas CMX-1152, as a purified acetate salt form that is free of trifluoroacetic acid, was used in all in vivo experiments. Tissue culture experiments were carried out using primary cultures of rat brain cortical cells as previously described above in Example 2. Primary cultures from embryonic rat brain isolated at E-21 (21 day embryos) and incubated for five hours with various doses: 1, 10, 100 ng/ml of CMX-99672. Cytoplasmic proteins were isolated and analyzed for upregulation of SOD and CAT by Western immunoblots as described above. Western blots showed upregulation of SOD and SOD-related protein by CMX-99672. The Western blot was scanned to quantify the fold-increase in SOD production in cell cultures treated with the CMX-99672 peptide compound. Exposure to CMX-99672 resulted in an approximately 30-fold increase in SOD and 20-fold increase in SOD-related protein. Comparable data was obtained for CAT. These data indicate that the dipeptide Asp-Gly is highly effective at substantially increasing the anti-oxidative activity in cells and tissues of a mammal, and especially in the cells and tissues of the central nervous system. Again, such data indicate that this simple Asp-Gly dipeptide compound is a candidate compound for use in compositions and methods to counteract the effects of ROS and other free radicals, whether generated by the aging process, disease, or drug treatments. Example 7 In Vitro Study of Peptide Compounds CMX-99658 and CMX-8933 Two other peptide compounds CMX-99658 ([Ac]-Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg) (SEQ ID NO:2), and CMX-8933 (Lys Lys Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg) (SEQ ID NO:24) (described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,719). The essential difference between these two compounds is not presence of the particular protective amino terminal capping group (i.e., acetyl or Lys Lys), but the presence of the first amino terminal glutamine or glutamic acid in the core peptide sequence. The two peptide compounds were tested for the ability to upregulate SOD and CAT in rat primary cortical cells. Rat primary cortical cells were isolated from E-21 rat embryos as described above in Example 4, except the cells were incubated with CMX-99658 or CMX-8933 at 0.7, 7, and 70 ng/ml. Cells were incubated for 6 hours with a peptide or with a control medium containing no peptide. SOD and CAT levels were analyzed by Western immunoblot using commercially available antibodies to detect SOD and CAT (Rockland, Inc., Gilbertsville, Pa.). The data indicated that CMX-8933 and peptide compounds comprising the Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg (SEQ ID NO:13) amino acid sequence are preferred in various methods of the invention that rely upon the upregulation of SOD and/or CAT gene expression to provide the levels of antioxidative enzyme activities to counteract the generation of ROS and other free radicals (e.g., due to aging, drug treatment, and disease). Example 8 Upregulation of SOD and CAT in Rat Primary Cortical Cultures by Other Representative Peptide Compounds Representative peptide compounds were tested at various doses and compared for their ability to upregulate expression of genes for SOD and/or CAT in rat primary cortical cultures basically as described above. Cultures were incubated with a peptide compound for 5 hours at 37° C. Cytoplasmic protein fractions were prepared as described above. Cytoplasmic proteins were separated by gel electrophoresis and analyzed by Western immunoblots using antisera to SOD and CAT, respectively (Rockland, Inc., Gilbertsville, Pa.). The results are shown in Table 4 (below). TABLE 4 Upregulation of SOD and CAT by Peptide Compounds in Rat Primary Cortical Cultures Peptide Dose SOD CAT (CMX designation) (pmol/ml) (% Control) (% Control) None (Control) 0 100 100 Asp Gly 6.7 2143 N.D. (CMX-1152) [Ac]Asp Gly Asp 28 1220 200 (CMX-9967) [Ac]Thr Val Ser 6.7 2066 N.D. (CMX-99647) [Gga]Asp Gly Asp 6.7 463 N.D. Gly Phe Ala (CMX-99661) (SEQ ID NO:5) [Ac]Asp Gly Asp 8 750 520 Gly Phe Ala (CMX-99655) (SEQ ID NO:5) [Palm]Asp Gly Asp 6.7 527 N.D. Gly Phe Ala (CMX-9960) (SEQ ID NO:5) [Ac]Asp Gly Asp 6.7 1873 N.D. Gly Asp Phe Ala 28 N.D. 700 (CMX-9963) (SEQ ID NO:6) Lys Lys Gln Thr 95 350 400 Leu Gln Phe Arg (SEQ ID NO:25) Lys Lys Asp Gly 6.7 466 N.D. Asp Gly Asp Phe 67 N.D. 652 Ala Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu (CMX-9236) (SEQ ID NO:26) Control = normal saline; SOD = superoxide dismutase; CAT = catalase; [Ac]= acetyl; [Gga]3-O-glucose-glycolic acid; [Palm]= palniltoyl; N.D. = not determined The above data demonstrate that the peptides are capable of upregulating antioxidative enzymes, i.e., SOD and/or CAT. Peptide compounds comprising the amino acid sequence Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala (SEQ ID NO:5) were able to upregulate both SOD and CAT to essentially equal levels. Such equipotent activity for upregulating both SOD and CAT indicates that this peptide is particularly preferred for providing adequate relative levels of the complementary antioxidative enzyme activities of SOD and CAT to counteract oxidative stress produced from a variety of sources and conditions, as well as to effectively detoxify hydrogen peroxide generated by SOD activity on super oxide anions. Example 9 Preparation of an Active Fraction from Green Velvet Antler (GVA) and Formulation of Nutraceutical Compositions from an Animal Source Natural Source Purification. Analysis, and Formulation of Nutraceutical Compositions Five grams of the raw GVA dry powder from Qeva, Inc. (Calgary, Ontario, Canada), were extracted with 100 ml of water at room temperature for 30 minutes. The water soluble components (“GVAW”) were then separated from the insoluble residue by centrifugation for 30 minutes at 5,000×g. The residue was further extracted by re-suspension in 50 ml of water and stirring for additional 30 minutes. The mixture was then re-centrifuged (30 minutes at 5,000×g) and the supernatants from the two extracts were combined to give a crude yellow extract. This was re-centrifuged at 10,000×g for 30 minutes at room temperature. The supernatant fraction was removed and sterilized by filtration through a Millipore filter (0.2 μm pore size) to give a clear yellow solution. This clear yellow solution was then concentrated to 10-20 ml in a rotary evaporator at 30° C. under mild vacuum, and lyophilized to give the fraction GVAW as a brown, fluffy powder (yield 15-20%). This fraction contains an active peptide that can up-regulate SOD (see Table 5) in primary rat brain cortical cultures as described above. Additional purification of the GVAW fraction was carried out by column chromatography using Biogel (PD-10) from Bio-Rad Laboratories (Hercules, Calif. 94547). This separated the peptides with a molecular weight (MW) higher than 6,000 daltons from those with a MW of less than 6,000 daltons to give two fractions: GVA +6 and GVA −6, respectively, and to give yields (based on raw material) of lyophilized products of 8-10% and 3-6%, respectively. GVA −6 contained a concentrate of an active GVA peptide. Analysis by thin layer chromatography on silica gel flexible sheets (J. T. Baker Inc., Phillipsturg, N.J.) using ethanol/ammonium hydroxide (70/30) as the eluant showed the presence of many peptide components that included one that had identical migration properties to CMX-152 (Asp Gly). Additional confirmation was obtained by mass spectroscopy that showed the presence of two components that have MWs of 236 and 190 corresponding to the disodium salt and the free acid form of Asp Gly, respectively. Amino acid analysis of the GVA −6 fraction showed the presence of the amino acids Asp and Gly in equimolar amounts in the mixture. GVA −6 also had the property of up-regulating SOD in rat brain primary cortical cultures. It was at least 3,000 times more active than the GVA +6 fraction (see Table 5, below). TABLE 5 SOD Dose Upregulation Fraction (ng/ml) (% Control) Control — 100 GVAW 100 250 GVA −6 10 220 GVA −6 100 330 GVA +6 100 105 GVA +6 1000 132 DG (CMX-1152) 1 170 DG 10 330 DG 100 420 Both GVAW and GVA 6 fraction were augmented with pure synthetic Asp Gly peptide to obtain a therapeutic level of SOD up-regulation properties in a standard assay using rat brain primary cultures. Typical formulations will have the necessary amount of CMX-1152 to obtain an approximately 1.3 to 10.0-fold up-regulation of SOD in plasma and blood samples. Alternative Method of Preparing GVA −6 Fraction The column chromatography step in the above method was replaced by direct extraction of GVAW fraction with 100% methanol. Here the high molecular weight components formed a precipitate, which was then separated to yield clear filtrate which, after treatment with active charcoal, produced a colorless solution. The colorless solution yielded a white solid after lyophilization. This had a similar composition to that of GVA −6 described above. Example 10 Preparation of an Active Fraction from a Plant Source and Formulation of Nutraceutical Compositions Similar methods as described in Example 9 were used to obtain an active fraction from Wu, Zi, Yan, Zong, Wan herbal mixtures (see, e.g., Wang et al., Chung Kuo Chung H is I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih 12: 23-25 (1992), study of wuzi yanzong liquid; Huang et al., Chung Kuo Chung Yao Tsa Chih 16: 414-416, 447 (1991), study of fufang wuzi yanzong pills) to obtain formulations that have a standard level of SOD up-regulation properties. Typical formulations for nutraceutical compositions will be converted to a standard potency level by adding pure synthetic CMX-1152 to obtain SOD up-regulation of approximately 1.3 to 10-fold up-regulation of SOD in plasma and blood samples. Various amino acid and nucleotide sequences referred to herein and their corresponding sequence identification numbers (SEQ ID NO:) are listed in Table 6, below. Variable amino acids (Xaa) present in some these sequences are described in more detail above. TABLE 6 Sequences and Corresponding Sequence Identification Numbers Sequence Identification Sequence Number Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys Thr Gly SEQ ID NO:1 Pro Gly Gln Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg SEQ ID NO:2 Xaa1 Gly Xaa2 Xaa3 Xaa4 Xaa5 Xaa6 SEQ ID NO:3 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp SEQ ID NO:4 Asp Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:5 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:6 Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:7 Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:8 Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:9 Xaa1 Xaa2 Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro SEQ ID NO:10 Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro SEQ ID NO:11 Ser Lys Met Thr Leu Thr Gln Pro SEQ ID NO:12 Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg SEQ ID NO:13 Gln Tyr Ser Ile Gly Gly Pro Gln SEQ ID NO:14 Ser Asp Arg Ser Ala Arg Ser Tyr SEQ ID NO:15 Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala Ile Asp SEQ ID NO:16 Ala Pro Glu Asn Gly Asn Gly Asp SEQ ID NO:17 Asp Gly Asn Gly Asp SEQ ID NO:18 Asn Gly Asp Gly Asp SEQ ID NO:19 Asn Gly Asp Gly SEQ ID NO:20 Asn Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:21 Asp Gly Asn Gly Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:22 Asn Gly Asp Gly Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:23 Lys Lys Glu Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg SEQ ID NO:24 Lys Lys Gln Thr Leu Gln Phe Arg SEQ ID NO:25 Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:26 Ile Asp Ala Pro Glu Lys Lys Gln Tyr Lys Leu Gly Ser Lys SEQ ID NO:27 Thr Gly Pro Gly Gln Lys Lys Asp Gly Asp Gly Asp Phe Ala SEQ ID NO:28 ATCCCAATCACTCCACAGGCCAAGC SEQ ID NO:29 GAGACCTGGGCAATGTGACTGCTGG SEQ ID NO:30 GCCCGAGTCCAGGCTCTTCTGGACC SEQ ID NO:31 TTGGCAGCTATGTGAGAGCCGGCCT SEQ ID NO:32 CGCTTGATGACTCAGCCGGAA SEQ ID NO:33 CGCTTGATGACTTGGCCGGAA SEQ ID NO:34 CGCTTGATGAGTCAGCCGGAA SEQ ID NO:35 CGCTTGATGAGTTGGCCGGAA SEQ ID NO:36 Other variations and embodiments of the invention described herein will now be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope of the invention or the spirit of the claims below. All patents, applications, and publications cited in the above text are incorporated herein by reference.
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A
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38
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06
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11678488
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US20070203162A1-20070830
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COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR INHIBITION OF THE JAK PATHWAY
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ACCEPTED
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20070815
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20070830
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[]
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A61K31506
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["A61K31506", "C07D40302"]
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8962643
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20070223
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20150224
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514
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275000
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57618.0
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RAO
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DEEPAK
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Li", "inventor_name_first": "Hui", "inventor_city": "Santa Clara", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Argade", "inventor_name_first": "Ankush", "inventor_city": "Foster City", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Tso", "inventor_name_first": "Kin", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Thota", "inventor_name_first": "Sambaiah", "inventor_city": "Fremont", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Carroll", "inventor_name_first": "David", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sran", "inventor_name_first": "Arvinder", "inventor_city": "Fremont", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Cooper", "inventor_name_first": "Robin", "inventor_city": "St. George Island", "inventor_state": "FL", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Singh", "inventor_name_first": "Rajinder", "inventor_city": "Belmont", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Bhamidipati", "inventor_name_first": "Somasekhar", "inventor_city": "Foster City", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Taylor", "inventor_name_first": "Vanessa", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Masuda", "inventor_name_first": "Esteban", "inventor_city": "Menlo Park", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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The invention encompasses compounds having formula I and the compositions and methods using these compounds in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful.
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1. A compound of the formula I: a solvate, prodrug or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2 or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl; Y is alk-SO2N(R4)R5 or alk-N(R4)SO2R5; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene and substituted cycloalkylene; R1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl and substituted cycloalkyl; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and oxo; wherein if R2 is oxo, then the oxo substituent is attached to a nonaromatic portion of ring A; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; Z1, Z2, and Z3 each independently is carbon or nitrogen, wherein no more than one of Z1, Z2, and Z3 is N; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R7 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amine, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amine, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl; provided: when X is hydrogen, ring A is not benzimidazolyl or indazolyl. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is represented by formula II: 3. The compound of claim 2 wherein the compound is represented by formula III: 4. The compound of claim 3, wherein alk is C1-2 alkyl. 5. The compound of claim 4, wherein X is halo, alkyl or haloalkyl. 6. The compound of claim 5, wherein p is 0, 1, or 2 and R2 is halo. 7. The compound of claim 6, wherein q is 0, 1, or 2 and R3 is alkyl. 8. The compound of claim 7, wherein each of R6 and R7 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, acyl, and carboxyl ester; or R6 and R7 together with the nitrogen atom bound thereto optionally form —N═C(OR9)2 wherein each R9 is independently an alkyl group. 9. The compound of claim 8, wherein each of R6 and R7 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and acyl. 10 The compound of claim 3, wherein R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic. 11. The compound of claim 10, wherein the compound is represented by formula IVa: 12. The compound of claim 10, wherein the compound is represented by formula IVb: 13. A compound of claim 3, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of: I-7 5-Fluoro-N4-[4-(cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl]-N2-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-8 (N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-9 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-10 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-11 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-12 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-13 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-14 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-15 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-16 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-17 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-18 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-19 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-20 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-21 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-22 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-23 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-24 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-25 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-26 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-27 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-28 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-29 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-30 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-31 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-32 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-33 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-34 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-35 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-36 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-37 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-38 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-39 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-40 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-41 N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-42 N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-43 N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-44 N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-45 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-46 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-47 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-48 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-49 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-50 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-51 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-52 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-53 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-54 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-55 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-56 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-57 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-58 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-59 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-60 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-61 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-62 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-63 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-64 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-65 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-66 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-67 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-68 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-69 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-70 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-71 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-72 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-73 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-74 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-75 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-76 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-77 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-78 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-79 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-80 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-81 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-82 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-83 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-84 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-85 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-86 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-87 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-88 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-89 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-90 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-91 N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-92 N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-93 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-94 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-95 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-96 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-97 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-98 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-99 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-100 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine, I-101 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-140 N2-{3-N-[2-(t-butoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-141 N2-{3-N-[2-(t-butoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-142 N2-{3-N-[2-(benzoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-143 N2-{3-N-[2-(benzoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-136 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-116 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-137 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-123 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-118 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-117 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-131 N2-[3-N-(2-amino-1-oxoethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-133 N2-[3-N-(2-amino-1-oxoethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-129 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-119 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-125 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-127 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-121 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-126 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-124 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-120 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-122 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-139 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-144 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-135 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-134 N2-[3-N-(L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-132 N2-[3-N-(L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-138 N2-[3-N-(L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-148 N2-[3-N-(Boc-cycloleucine)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-146 N2-[3-N-(L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-145 N2-[3-N-(cycloleucine)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-147 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-130 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(N-ethoxycarbonyl-N-ethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-128 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(diethoxy)carbonimidylsulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-1 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-2 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-3 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-115 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-114 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-113 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-4 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-5 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-6 N2-(4-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-7 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-8 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-9 N2-(4-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-149 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-150 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-151 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-152 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-153 N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-154 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-155 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-156 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-157 N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-158 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-159 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-160 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-161 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-162 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-163 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-164 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-165 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-166 N2-(4-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-167 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-168 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-169 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-170 N2-(3-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-171 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-172 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-173 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-174 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-175 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-176 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-177 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-178 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-179 N2-(4-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-180 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-181 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-182 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-183 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-184 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-185 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-186 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-187 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-188 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-189 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-190 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-191 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-192 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-193 N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-194 N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-195 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-196 N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-197 N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-198 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-199 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-200 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-201 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-202 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-203 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-204 N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-205 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-206 N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-207 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-208 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-209 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-210 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-211 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-212 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-213 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-214 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-215 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-216 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-217 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-218 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-219 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-220 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; and I-221 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt. I-222: N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt I-223: N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-224: N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-225: N2-[3-(N-acetoxymethyl-N-butyryl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-226: N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt 14. The compound of claim 2 wherein the compound is represented by formula V: 15. The compound of claim 14, wherein X is halo. 16. The compound of claim 15, wherein X is fluoro. 17. The compound of claim 16, wherein p is 0 and q is 0 or 1. 18. The compound of claim 17, wherein q is 1 or 2 and R3 is alkyl. 19. The compound of claim 16, wherein alk is —CH2— and each of R4 and R5 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl and heterocyclic. 20. A compound of claim 14, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of: I-1 N4-(4-Aminosulfonylmethylenephenyl)-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-2 N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine, I-3 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-4 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-5 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-6 N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine, I-102 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-103 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-104 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-105 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-106 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-107 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-108 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-109 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-110 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-111 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; and I-112 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine. 21. A method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting the JAK kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 22. A method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in vitro a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 23. A method of treating a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, comprising administering to a patient suffering from such an autoimmune disease an amount of a compound effective to treat the autoimmune disease wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 24. The method of claim 23 in which the compound is administered in combination with, or adjunctively to, a compound that inhibits Syk kinase with an IC50 in the range of at least 10 μM. 25. A method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the compound is administered to a tissue or an organ prior to transplanting the tissue or organ in the transplant recipient 27. The method of claim 25 in which the rejection is acute rejection. 28. The method of claim 25 in which the rejection is chronic rejection. 29. The method of claim 25 in which the rejection is mediated by HVGR or GVHR. 30. The method of claim 25 in which the allograft transplant is selected from a kidney, a heart, a liver and a lung. 31. The method of claim 25 in which the compound is administered in combination with, or adjunctively to, another immunosuppressant. 32. The method of claim 31 in which the immunosuppressant is selected from cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, an inhibitor of IMPDH, mycophenolate, mycophanolate mofetil, an anti-T-Cell antibody and OKT3. 33. A method of treating or preventing a Type IV hypersensitivity reaction, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound of effective to treat or prevent the hypersensitivity reaction wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 34. The method of claim 33 which is practical prophylactically, and the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 35. A method of inhibiting a signal transduction cascade in which JAK3 kinase plays a role, comprising contacting a cell expressing a receptor involved in such a signaling cascade with a compound wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 36. A method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, comprising administering to a subject an amount of compound effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease wherein the compound is as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 37. The method of claim 36 in which the JAK kinase-mediated disease is HVGR or GVHR. 38. The method of claim 36 in which the JAK kinase-mediated disease is acute allograft rejection. 39. The method of claim 36 in which the JAK kinase-mediated diseases is chronic allograft rejection. 40. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising a compound as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20. 41. A kit comprising a compound as in any one of claims 1, 13, and 20 or a prodrug thereof, packaging and instructions for use. 42. A kit comprising the pharmaceutical formulation of claim 40, packaging, and instructions for use.
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<SOH> II. INTRODUCTION <EOH>A. Field The present invention relates to compounds, prodrugs, and methods of using these compounds and prodrugs thereof in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. B. Background Protein kinases constitute a large family of structurally related enzymes that are responsible for the control of a variety of signal transduction processes within cells (see, e.g., Hardie and Hanks, The Protein Kinase Facts Book , I and II, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif., 1995). Protein kinases are thought to have evolved from a common ancestral gene due to the conservation of their structure and catalytic function. Almost all kinases contain a similar 250-300 amino acid catalytic domain. The kinases can be categorized into families by the substrates they phosphorylate (e.g., protein-tyrosine, protein-serine/threonine, lipids, etc.). Sequence motifs have been identified that generally correspond to each of these families (see, e.g., Hanks & Hunter, (1995), FASEB J. 9:576-596; Knighton et al., (1991), Science 253:407-414; Hiles et al., (1992), Cell 70:419-429; Kunz et al., (1993), Cell 73:585-596; Garcia-Bustos et al., (1994), EMBO J. 13:2352-2361). JAK kinases (JAnus Kinases) are a family of cytoplasmic protein tyrosine kinases including JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2. Each of the JAK kinases is selective for the receptors of certain cytokines, though multiple JAK kinases can be affected by particular cytokine or signaling pathways. Studies suggest that JAK3 associates with the common gamma (γc) chain of the various cytokine receptors. JAK3 in particular selectively binds to receptors and is part of the cytokine signaling pathway for IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21. JAK1 interacts with, among others, the receptors for cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9 and IL-21, while JAK2 interacts with, among others, the receptors for IL-9 and TNF-α. Upon the binding of certain cytokines to their receptors (e.g., IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21), receptor oligomerization occurs, resulting in the cytoplasmic tails of associated JAK kinases being brought into proximity and facilitating the trans-phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on the JAK kinase. This trans-phosphorylation results in the activation of the JAK kinase. Phosphorylated JAK kinases bind various STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) proteins. STAT proteins, which are DNA binding proteins activated by phosphorylation of tyrosine residues, function both as signaling molecules and transcription factors and ultimately bind to specific DNA sequences present in the promoters of cytokine-responsive genes (Leonard et al., (2000), J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 105:877-888). JAK/STAT signaling has been implicated in the mediation of many abnormal immune responses such as allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases such as transplant (allograft) rejection, rheumatoid arthritis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis, as well as in solid and hematologic malignancies such as leukemia and lymphomas. For a review of the pharmaceutical intervention of the JAK/STAT pathway see Frank, (1999), Mol. Med. 5:432:456 and Seidel et al., (2000), Oncogene 19:2645-2656. JAK3 in particular has been implicated in a variety of biological processes. For example, the proliferation and survival of murine mast cells induced by IL-4 and IL-9 have been shown to be dependent on JAK3- and gamma chain-signaling (Suzuki et al., (2000), Blood 96:2172-2180). JAK3 also plays a crucial role in IgE receptor-mediated mast cell degranulation responses (Malaviya et al., (1999), Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257:807-813), and inhibition of JAK3 kinase has been shown to prevent type I hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylaxis (Malaviya et al., (1999), J. Biol. Chem. 274:27028-27038). JAK3 inhibition has also been shown to result in immune suppression for allograft rejection (Kirken, (2001), Transpl. Proc. 33:3268-3270). JAK3 kinases have also been implicated in the mechanism involved in early and late stages of rheumatoid arthritis (Muller-Ladner et al., (2000), J. Immunal. 164:3894-3901); familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Trieu et al., (2000), Biochem Biophys. Res. Commun. 267:22-25); leukemia (Sudbeck et al., (1999), Clin. Cancer Res. 5:1569-1582); mycosis fungoides, a form of T-cell lymphoma (Nielsen et al., (1997), Prac. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:6764-6769); and abnormal cell growth (Yu et al., (1997), J. Immunol. 159:5206-5210; Catlett-Falcone et al., (1999), Immunity 10:105-115). The JAK kinases, including JAK3, are abundantly expressed in primary leukemic cells from children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most common form of childhood cancer, and studies have correlated STAT activation in certain cells with signals regulating apoptosis (Demoulin et al., (1996), Mol. Cell. Biol. 16:4710-6; Jurlander et al., (1997), Blood. 89:4146-52; Kaneko et al., (1997), Clin. Exp. Immun. 109:185-193; andNakamura et al.,(1996), J. Biol. Chem. 271: 19483-8). They are also known to be important to lymphocyte differentiation, function and survival. JAK-3 in particular plays an essential role in the function of lymphocytes, macrophages, and mast cells. Given the importance of this JAK kinase, compounds which modulate the JAK pathway, including those selective for JAK3, can be useful for treating diseases or conditions where the function of lymphocytes, macrophages, or mast cells is involved (Kudlacz et al., (2004) Am. J. Transplant 4:51-57; Changelian (2003) Science 302:875-878). Conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or modulation of the JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are contemplated to be therapeutically useful include, leukemia, lymphoma, transplant rejection (e.g., pancreas islet transplant rejection, bone marrow transplant applications (e.g., graft-versus-host disease), autoimmune diseases (e.g., diabetes), and inflammation (e.g., asthma, allergic reactions). Conditions which can benefit for inhibition of JAK3 are discussed in greater detail below. In view of the numerous conditions that are contemplated to benefit by treatment involving modulation of the JAK pathway it is immediately apparent that new compounds that modulate JAK pathways and methods of using these compounds should provide substantial therapeutic benefits to a wide variety of patients. Provided herein are novel 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds for use in the treatment of conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. Patents and patent applications related to modulation of the JAK pathway include: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,728,536; 6,080,747; 6,080,748; 6,133,305; 6,177,433; 6,210,654; 6,313,130; 6,316,635; 6,433,018; 6,486,185; 6,506,763; 6,528,509; 6,593,357; 6,608,048; 6,610,688; 6,635,651; 6,677,368; 6,683,082; 6,696,448; 6,699,865; 6,777,417; 6,784,195; 6,825,190; 6,506,763; 6,784,195; 6,528,509; 6,608,048; 7,105,529; 6,699,865; 6,825,190; 6,815,439; 6,949,580; 7,056,944; 6,998,391; 7,074,793; 6,969,760; U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2001/0007033 A1; 2002/0115173 A1; 2002/0137141 A1; 2003/0236244 A1; 2004/0102455 A1; 2004/0142404 A1; 2004/0147507 A1; and 2004/0214817 A1; and International patent applications WO 95/03701A1; WO 99/15500A1; WO 00/00202A1; WO 00/10981A1; WO 00/47583A1; WO 00/51587A2; WO 00/55159A2; WO 01/42246A2; WO 01/45641A2; WO 01/52892A2; WO 01/56993A2; WO 01/57022A2; WO 01/72758A1; WO 02/00661A1; WO 02/43735A1; WO 02/48336A2; WO 02/060492A1; WO 02/060927A1; WO 02/096909A1; WO 02/102800A1; WO 03/020698A2; WO 03/048162A1; WO 03/101989A1; WO 2004/016597A2; WO 2004/041789A1; WO 2004/041810A1; WO 2004/041814A1; WO 2004/046112A2; WO 2004/046120A2; WO 2004/047843A1; WO 2004/058749A1; WO 2004/058753A1; WO 2004/085388A2; WO 2004/092154A1; WO 2005/009957A1; WO 2005/016344A1; WO 2005/028475A2; and WO 2005/033107A1. Patents and patent applications describing substituted pyrimidinediamine compounds include: U.S. application Ser. No. 10/355,543 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (US2004/0029902A1), international application Serial No. PCT/US03/03022 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (WO 03/063794), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/631,029 filed Jul. 29, 2003, international application Serial No. PCT/US03/24087 (WO 04/014382), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/903,263 filed Jul. 30, 2004, and international application Serial No. PCT/US2004/24716 (WO 05/016893), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. Substituted pyrimidinediamine compounds are also described in international patent application publication numbers: WO 02/059110, WO 03/074515, WO 03/106416, WO 03/066601, WO 03/063794, WO 04/046118, WO 05/016894, WO 05/122294, WO 05/066156, WO 03/002542, WO 03/030909, WO 00/39101, WO 05/037800 and U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2003/0149064. All of the above publications are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety.
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<SOH> III. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention is directed to compounds, prodrugs, and methods of using these compounds and prodrugs thereof in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, will be therapeutically useful. 13 In one embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula I, a solvate, prodrug or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: wherein: ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; p is 0, 1, 2, or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; Y is alk-SO 2 N(R 4 )R 5 or alk-N(R 4 )SO 2 R 5 ; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C 1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl, and substituted cycloalkyl; each R 2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo and oxo; wherein if R 2 is oxo then the oxo substituent is attached to a nonaromatic portion of ring A; or R 4 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R 5 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; Z 1 , Z 2 , and Z 3 each independently is carbon or nitrogen, wherein no more than one of Z 1 , Z 2 , and Z 3 is N; each R 3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R 6 and one of R 3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z 1 , Z 2 and Z 3 ; or R 7 and one of R 3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z 1 , Z 2 and Z 3 ; or R 4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M + , wherein M + is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K + , Na + , Li + , and + N(R 8 ) 4 , wherein R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO 2 N(R 4 )R 5 or —N(R 4 )SO 2 R 5 is N − ; R 5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R 4 and R 5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R 6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M + , wherein M + is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K + , Na + , Li + , or + N(R 8 ) 4 , wherein R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO 2 N(R 6 )R 7 or —N(R 6 )SO 2 R 7 is N − ; or R 6 and R 7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R 7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl; provided: when X is hydrogen, ring A is not benzimidazolyl or indazolyl. Although M + is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula III, prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C 1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; each R 2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R 4 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R 5 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R 3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R 6 and one of R 3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z 1 , Z 2 , and Z 3 ; or R 7 and one of R 3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z 1 , Z 2 , and Z 3 ; or R 4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M + , wherein M + is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K + , Na + , L + , and + N(R 8 ) 4 , wherein R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO 2 N(R 4 )R 5 or —N(R 4 )SO 2 R 5 is N − ; R 5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R 4 and R 5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R 6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M + , wherein M + is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K + , Na + , Li + , or + N(R 8 ) 4 , wherein R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO 2 N(R 6 )R 7 or —N(R 6 )SO 2 R 7 is N − ; or R 6 and R 7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; and R 7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl. Although M + is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, this invention provides a compound represented by formula V: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2, or 3; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C 1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; each R 2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R 4 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R 5 and one of R 2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R 3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; R 4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M + , wherein M + is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K + , Na + , Li + , and + N(R 8 ) 4 , wherein R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO 2 N(R 4 )R 5 or —N(R 4 )SO 2 R 5 is N − ; R 5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R 4 and R 5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group. Although M + is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting the JAK kinase with an amount of a compound of this invention effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in vitro a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound of this invention to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in a cell a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, comprising administering to a patient suffering from such an autoimmune disease an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat the autoimmune disease. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the rejection. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a Type IV hypersensitivity reaction, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the hypersensitivity reaction. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting a signal transduction cascade in which JAK3 kinase plays a role, comprising contacting a cell expressing a receptor involved in such a signaling cascade with a compound of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease. In another embodiment, this invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a compound selected from the compounds of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a kit comprising a compound selected from the compounds of this invention or a prodrug thereof, packaging, and instructions for use. It will be appreciated by one of skill in the art that the implementations summarized above may be used together in any suitable combination to generate implementations not expressly recited above and that such implementations are considered to be part of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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I. CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/862,166, filed Oct. 19, 2006 and U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 60/776,636, filed Feb. 24, 2006, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. II. INTRODUCTION A. Field The present invention relates to compounds, prodrugs, and methods of using these compounds and prodrugs thereof in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. B. Background Protein kinases constitute a large family of structurally related enzymes that are responsible for the control of a variety of signal transduction processes within cells (see, e.g., Hardie and Hanks, The Protein Kinase Facts Book, I and II, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif., 1995). Protein kinases are thought to have evolved from a common ancestral gene due to the conservation of their structure and catalytic function. Almost all kinases contain a similar 250-300 amino acid catalytic domain. The kinases can be categorized into families by the substrates they phosphorylate (e.g., protein-tyrosine, protein-serine/threonine, lipids, etc.). Sequence motifs have been identified that generally correspond to each of these families (see, e.g., Hanks & Hunter, (1995), FASEB J. 9:576-596; Knighton et al., (1991), Science 253:407-414; Hiles et al., (1992), Cell 70:419-429; Kunz et al., (1993), Cell 73:585-596; Garcia-Bustos et al., (1994), EMBO J. 13:2352-2361). JAK kinases (JAnus Kinases) are a family of cytoplasmic protein tyrosine kinases including JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2. Each of the JAK kinases is selective for the receptors of certain cytokines, though multiple JAK kinases can be affected by particular cytokine or signaling pathways. Studies suggest that JAK3 associates with the common gamma (γc) chain of the various cytokine receptors. JAK3 in particular selectively binds to receptors and is part of the cytokine signaling pathway for IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21. JAK1 interacts with, among others, the receptors for cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9 and IL-21, while JAK2 interacts with, among others, the receptors for IL-9 and TNF-α. Upon the binding of certain cytokines to their receptors (e.g., IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21), receptor oligomerization occurs, resulting in the cytoplasmic tails of associated JAK kinases being brought into proximity and facilitating the trans-phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on the JAK kinase. This trans-phosphorylation results in the activation of the JAK kinase. Phosphorylated JAK kinases bind various STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) proteins. STAT proteins, which are DNA binding proteins activated by phosphorylation of tyrosine residues, function both as signaling molecules and transcription factors and ultimately bind to specific DNA sequences present in the promoters of cytokine-responsive genes (Leonard et al., (2000), J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 105:877-888). JAK/STAT signaling has been implicated in the mediation of many abnormal immune responses such as allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases such as transplant (allograft) rejection, rheumatoid arthritis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis, as well as in solid and hematologic malignancies such as leukemia and lymphomas. For a review of the pharmaceutical intervention of the JAK/STAT pathway see Frank, (1999), Mol. Med. 5:432:456 and Seidel et al., (2000), Oncogene 19:2645-2656. JAK3 in particular has been implicated in a variety of biological processes. For example, the proliferation and survival of murine mast cells induced by IL-4 and IL-9 have been shown to be dependent on JAK3- and gamma chain-signaling (Suzuki et al., (2000), Blood 96:2172-2180). JAK3 also plays a crucial role in IgE receptor-mediated mast cell degranulation responses (Malaviya et al., (1999), Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257:807-813), and inhibition of JAK3 kinase has been shown to prevent type I hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylaxis (Malaviya et al., (1999), J. Biol. Chem. 274:27028-27038). JAK3 inhibition has also been shown to result in immune suppression for allograft rejection (Kirken, (2001), Transpl. Proc. 33:3268-3270). JAK3 kinases have also been implicated in the mechanism involved in early and late stages of rheumatoid arthritis (Muller-Ladner et al., (2000), J. Immunal. 164:3894-3901); familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Trieu et al., (2000), Biochem Biophys. Res. Commun. 267:22-25); leukemia (Sudbeck et al., (1999), Clin. Cancer Res. 5:1569-1582); mycosis fungoides, a form of T-cell lymphoma (Nielsen et al., (1997), Prac. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:6764-6769); and abnormal cell growth (Yu et al., (1997), J. Immunol. 159:5206-5210; Catlett-Falcone et al., (1999), Immunity 10:105-115). The JAK kinases, including JAK3, are abundantly expressed in primary leukemic cells from children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most common form of childhood cancer, and studies have correlated STAT activation in certain cells with signals regulating apoptosis (Demoulin et al., (1996), Mol. Cell. Biol. 16:4710-6; Jurlander et al., (1997), Blood. 89:4146-52; Kaneko et al., (1997), Clin. Exp. Immun. 109:185-193; andNakamura et al.,(1996), J. Biol. Chem. 271: 19483-8). They are also known to be important to lymphocyte differentiation, function and survival. JAK-3 in particular plays an essential role in the function of lymphocytes, macrophages, and mast cells. Given the importance of this JAK kinase, compounds which modulate the JAK pathway, including those selective for JAK3, can be useful for treating diseases or conditions where the function of lymphocytes, macrophages, or mast cells is involved (Kudlacz et al., (2004) Am. J. Transplant 4:51-57; Changelian (2003) Science 302:875-878). Conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or modulation of the JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are contemplated to be therapeutically useful include, leukemia, lymphoma, transplant rejection (e.g., pancreas islet transplant rejection, bone marrow transplant applications (e.g., graft-versus-host disease), autoimmune diseases (e.g., diabetes), and inflammation (e.g., asthma, allergic reactions). Conditions which can benefit for inhibition of JAK3 are discussed in greater detail below. In view of the numerous conditions that are contemplated to benefit by treatment involving modulation of the JAK pathway it is immediately apparent that new compounds that modulate JAK pathways and methods of using these compounds should provide substantial therapeutic benefits to a wide variety of patients. Provided herein are novel 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds for use in the treatment of conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. Patents and patent applications related to modulation of the JAK pathway include: U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,728,536; 6,080,747; 6,080,748; 6,133,305; 6,177,433; 6,210,654; 6,313,130; 6,316,635; 6,433,018; 6,486,185; 6,506,763; 6,528,509; 6,593,357; 6,608,048; 6,610,688; 6,635,651; 6,677,368; 6,683,082; 6,696,448; 6,699,865; 6,777,417; 6,784,195; 6,825,190; 6,506,763; 6,784,195; 6,528,509; 6,608,048; 7,105,529; 6,699,865; 6,825,190; 6,815,439; 6,949,580; 7,056,944; 6,998,391; 7,074,793; 6,969,760; U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2001/0007033 A1; 2002/0115173 A1; 2002/0137141 A1; 2003/0236244 A1; 2004/0102455 A1; 2004/0142404 A1; 2004/0147507 A1; and 2004/0214817 A1; and International patent applications WO 95/03701A1; WO 99/15500A1; WO 00/00202A1; WO 00/10981A1; WO 00/47583A1; WO 00/51587A2; WO 00/55159A2; WO 01/42246A2; WO 01/45641A2; WO 01/52892A2; WO 01/56993A2; WO 01/57022A2; WO 01/72758A1; WO 02/00661A1; WO 02/43735A1; WO 02/48336A2; WO 02/060492A1; WO 02/060927A1; WO 02/096909A1; WO 02/102800A1; WO 03/020698A2; WO 03/048162A1; WO 03/101989A1; WO 2004/016597A2; WO 2004/041789A1; WO 2004/041810A1; WO 2004/041814A1; WO 2004/046112A2; WO 2004/046120A2; WO 2004/047843A1; WO 2004/058749A1; WO 2004/058753A1; WO 2004/085388A2; WO 2004/092154A1; WO 2005/009957A1; WO 2005/016344A1; WO 2005/028475A2; and WO 2005/033107A1. Patents and patent applications describing substituted pyrimidinediamine compounds include: U.S. application Ser. No. 10/355,543 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (US2004/0029902A1), international application Serial No. PCT/US03/03022 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (WO 03/063794), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/631,029 filed Jul. 29, 2003, international application Serial No. PCT/US03/24087 (WO 04/014382), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/903,263 filed Jul. 30, 2004, and international application Serial No. PCT/US2004/24716 (WO 05/016893), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. Substituted pyrimidinediamine compounds are also described in international patent application publication numbers: WO 02/059110, WO 03/074515, WO 03/106416, WO 03/066601, WO 03/063794, WO 04/046118, WO 05/016894, WO 05/122294, WO 05/066156, WO 03/002542, WO 03/030909, WO 00/39101, WO 05/037800 and U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2003/0149064. All of the above publications are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety. III. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed to compounds, prodrugs, and methods of using these compounds and prodrugs thereof in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, will be therapeutically useful. 13In one embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula I, a solvate, prodrug or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: wherein: ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; p is 0, 1, 2, or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; Y is alk-SO2N(R4)R5 or alk-N(R4)SO2R5; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; R1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl, and substituted cycloalkyl; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo and oxo; wherein if R2 is oxo then the oxo substituent is attached to a nonaromatic portion of ring A; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; Z1, Z2, and Z3 each independently is carbon or nitrogen, wherein no more than one of Z1, Z2, and Z3 is N; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R7 and one of R3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+, and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+, or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl; provided: when X is hydrogen, ring A is not benzimidazolyl or indazolyl. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula III, prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2, and Z3; or R7 and one of R3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2, and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, L+, and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+, or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; and R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, this invention provides a compound represented by formula V: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2, or 3; q is 0, 1, 2, or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, and substituted cycloalkynyl; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene, and substituted cycloalkylene; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl, and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+, and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation, it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting the JAK kinase with an amount of a compound of this invention effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in vitro a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound of this invention to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in a cell a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, comprising administering to a patient suffering from such an autoimmune disease an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat the autoimmune disease. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the rejection. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a Type IV hypersensitivity reaction, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the hypersensitivity reaction. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting a signal transduction cascade in which JAK3 kinase plays a role, comprising contacting a cell expressing a receptor involved in such a signaling cascade with a compound of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound of this invention effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease. In another embodiment, this invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a compound selected from the compounds of this invention, as described above. In another embodiment, this invention provides a kit comprising a compound selected from the compounds of this invention or a prodrug thereof, packaging, and instructions for use. It will be appreciated by one of skill in the art that the implementations summarized above may be used together in any suitable combination to generate implementations not expressly recited above and that such implementations are considered to be part of the present invention. IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A. Overview The invention encompasses compounds having formula I and the compositions and methods using these compounds in the treatment of conditions in which modulation of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. B. Definitions As used herein, the following definitions shall apply unless otherwise indicated. “Alkyl” refers to monovalent saturated aliphatic hydrocarbyl groups having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and preferably 1 to 6 carbon atoms. This term includes, by way of example, linear and branched hydrocarbyl groups such as methyl (CH3—), ethyl (CH3CH2—), n-propyl (CH3CH2CH2—), isopropyl ((CH3)2CH—), n-butyl (CH3CH2CH2CH2—), isobutyl ((CH3)2CHCH2—), sec-butyl ((CH3)(CH3CH2)CH—), t-butyl ((CH3)3C—), n-pentyl (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2—), and neopentyl ((CH3)3CCH2—). “Substituted alkyl” refers to an alkyl group having from 1 to 5 hydrogens replaced with substituents selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl, aminothiocarbonyl, aminocarbonylamino, aminothiocarbonylamino, aminocarbonyloxy, aminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyloxy, aminosulfonylamino, amidino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, arylthio, substituted arylthio, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, (carboxyl ester)amino, (carboxyl ester)oxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkyloxy, substituted cycloalkyloxy, cycloalkylthio, substituted cycloalkylthio, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyloxy, substituted cycloalkenyloxy, cycloalkenylthio, substituted cycloalkenylthio, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl guanidino, substituted guanidino, halo, hydroxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heteroarylthio, substituted heteroarylthio, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, heterocyclylthio, substituted heterocyclylthio, nitro, SO3H, sulfonyl, sulfonyloxy, thioacyl, thiol, alkylthio, and substituted alkylthio, wherein said substituents are defined herein. In some embodiments, the alkyl has 1 to 3 of the aforementioned groups. In other embodiments, the alkyl has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Alkylene” refers to divalent saturated aliphatic hydrocarbyl groups preferably having from 1 to 6 and more preferably 1 to 3 carbon atoms that are either straight-chained or branched. This term is exemplified by groups such as methylene (—CH2—), ethylene (—CH2CH2—), n-propylene (—CH2CH2CH2—), iso-propylene (—CH2CH(CH3)—) or (—CH(CH3)CH2—), and the like. “Substituted alkylene” refers to an alkylene group having from 1 to 3 hydrogens replaced with substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminoacyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, halogen, hydroxyl, nitro, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, and oxo wherein said substituents are defined herein. In some embodiments, the alkylene has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. It is to be noted that when the alkylene is substituted by an oxo group, 2 hydrogens attached to the same carbon of the alkylene group are replaced by “═O”. “Alkoxy” refers to the group —O-alkyl, wherein alkyl is as defined herein. Alkoxy includes, by way of example, methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, isopropoxy, n-butoxy, t-butoxy, sec-butoxy, n-pentoxy, and the like. “Substituted alkoxy” refers to the group —O-(substituted alkyl), wherein substituted alkyl is as defined herein. “Acyl” refers to the groups H—C(O)—, alkyl-C(O)—, substituted alkyl-C(O)—, alkenyl-C(O)—, substituted alkenyl-C(O)—, alkynyl-C(O)—, substituted alkynyl-C(O)-cycloalkyl-C(O)—, substituted cycloalkyl-C(O)—, cycloalkenyl-C(O)—, substituted cycloalkenyl-C(O)—, aryl-C(O)—, substituted aryl-C(O)—, heteroaryl-C(O)—, substituted heteroaryl-C(O)—, heterocyclic-C(O)—, and substituted heterocyclic-C(O)—, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. Acyl includes the “acetyl” group CH3C(O)—. “Acylamino” refers to the groups —NR20C(O)alkyl, —NR20C(O)substituted alkyl, —NR20C(O)cycloalkyl, —NR20C(O)substituted cycloalkyl, —NR20C(O)cycloalkenyl, —NR20C(O)substituted cycloalkenyl, —NR20C(O)alkenyl, —NR20C(O)substituted alkenyl, —NR20C(O)alkynyl, —NR20C(O)substituted alkynyl, —NR20C(O)aryl, —NR20C(O)substituted aryl, —NR20C(O)heteroaryl, —NR20C(O)substituted heteroaryl, —NR20C(O)heterocyclic, and —NR20C(O)substituted heterocyclic, wherein R20 is hydrogen or alkyl and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Acyloxy” refers to the groups alkyl-C(O)O—, substituted alkyl-C(O)O—, alkenyl-C(O)O—, substituted alkenyl-C(O)O—, alkynyl-C(O)O—, substituted alkynyl-C(O)O—, aryl-C(O)O—, substituted aryl-C(O)O—, cycloalkyl-C(O)O—, substituted cycloalkyl-C(O)O—, cycloalkenyl-C(O)O—, substituted cycloalkenyl-C(O)O—, heteroaryl-C(O)O—, substituted heteroaryl-C(O)O—, heterocyclic-C(O)O—, and substituted heterocyclic-C(O)O—, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Amino” refers to the group —NH2. “Substituted amino” refers to the group —NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, where one of R21 and R22 is sulfonyl, and wherein R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, provided that R21 and R22 are not both hydrogen, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, sulfonyl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. When R21 is hydrogen and R22 is alkyl, the substituted amino group is sometimes referred to herein as “alkylamino.” When R21 and R22 are alkyl, the substituted amino group is sometimes referred to herein as “dialkylamino.” When referring to a monosubstituted amino, it is meant that either R21 or R22 is hydrogen, but not both. When referring to a disubstituted amino, it is meant that neither R21 nor R22 is hydrogen. “Aminoacyl” or “Aminocarbonyl” refers to the group —C(O)NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminothiocarbonyl” refers to the group —C(S)NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminocarbonylamino” refers to the group —NR20C(O)NR21R22, wherein R20 is hydrogen or alkyl and R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminothiocarbonylamino” refers to the group —NR20C(S)NR21R22, wherein R20 is hydrogen or alkyl and R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminoacyloxv” or “Aminocarbonyloxy” refers to the group —O—C(O)NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminosulfonyl” refers to the group —SO2NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group and alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminosulfonyloxy” refers to the group —O—SO2NR21R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic; R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; and alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Aminosulfonylamino” refers to the group —NR20—SO2NR21R22, wherein R20 is hydrogen or alkyl and R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Sulfonylamino” refers to the group —NR21SO2R22, wherein R21 and R22 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R21 and R22 are optionally joined together with the atoms bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, and wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Amidino” refers to the group —C(═NR30)NR31R32, wherein R31 and R32 independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic and where R31 and R32 are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group. R30 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, nitro, nitroso, hydroxy, alkoxy, cyano, —N═N—N-alkyl, —N═N—N-substituted alkyl, —N(alkyl)SO2-alkyl, —N(alkyl)SO2-substituted alkyl, —N═N═N-alkyl, —N═N═N-substituted alkyl, acyl, —SO2-alkyl and —SO2-substituted alkyl, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, nitro, nitroso, hydroxy, alkoxy, and cyano are as defined herein. “Aryl” or “Ar” refers to a monovalent aromatic carbocyclic group of from 6 to 14 carbon atoms having a single ring (e.g., phenyl) or multiple condensed rings (e.g., naphthyl or anthryl) which condensed rings may or may not be aromatic (e.g., 2-benzoxazolinone, 2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one-7-yl, and the like), provided that the point of attachment is through an atom of the aromatic aryl group. Preferred aryl groups include phenyl and naphthyl. “Substituted aryl” refers to aryl groups having 1 to 5 hydrogens replaced with substituents independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl, aminothiocarbonyl, aminocarbonylamino, aminothiocarbonylamino, aminocarbonyloxy, aminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyloxy, aminosulfonylamino, amidino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, arylthio, substituted arylthio, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, (carboxyl ester)amino, (carboxyl ester)oxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkyloxy, substituted cycloalkyloxy, cycloalkylthio, substituted cycloalkylthio, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyloxy, substituted cycloalkenyloxy, cycloalkenylthio, substituted cycloalkenylthio, guanidino, substituted guanidino, halo, hydroxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heteroarylthio, substituted heteroarylthio, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, heterocyclylthio, substituted heterocyclylthio, nitro, SO3H, sulfonyl, sulfonyloxy, thioacyl, thiol, alkylthio, and substituted alkylthio, wherein said substituents are as defined herein. In some embodiments, the aryl has 1 to 3 of the aforementioned groups. In other embodiments, the aryl has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Aryloxy” refers to the group —O-aryl, wherein aryl is as defined herein, including, by way of example, phenoxy, naphthoxy, and the like. “Substituted aryloxy” refers to the group —O-(substituted aryl), wherein substituted aryl is as defined herein. “Arylthio” refers to the group —S-aryl, wherein aryl is as defined herein. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted arylthio” refers to the group —S-(substituted aryl), wherein substituted aryl is as defined herein. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Alkenyl” refers to monovalent unsaturated hydrocarbyl groups having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms and preferably 2 to 4 carbon atoms and having at least 1 and preferably from 1 to 2 sites of unsaturation. Such groups are exemplified by vinyl, allyl, but-3-en-1-yl, and the like. “Substituted alkenyl” refers to alkenyl groups having from 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl, aminothiocarbonyl, aminocarbonylamino, aminothiocarbonylamino, aminocarbonyloxy, aminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyloxy, aminosulfonylamino, amidino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, arylthio, substituted arylthio, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, (carboxyl ester)amino, (carboxyl ester)oxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkyloxy, substituted cycloalkyloxy, cycloalkylthio, substituted cycloalkylthio, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyloxy, substituted cycloalkenyloxy, cycloalkenylthio, substituted cycloalkenylthio, guanidino, substituted guanidino, halo, hydroxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heteroarylthio, substituted heteroarylthio, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, heterocyclylthio, substituted heterocyclylthio, nitro, SO3H, sulfonyl, sulfonyloxy, thioacyl, thiol, alkylthio, and substituted alkylthio, wherein said substituents are as defined herein and with the proviso that any hydroxy substitution is not attached to a vinyl (unsaturated) carbon atom. In some embodiments, the alkenyl has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Alkenylene” refers to divalent unsaturated straight chain or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and preferably 2 to 6 carbon atoms and having at least 1 and preferably from 1-2 sites of double bond unsaturation. The term “alkenylene” encompasses any and all combinations of cis and trans isomers arising from the presence of unsaturation. “Substituted alkenylene” refers to divalent alkenylene groups having from 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, amino, substituted amino, aminoacyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, halogen, hydroxyl, nitro, carboxyl, carboxyl esters, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic, provided that any hydroxy or thiol substitution is not on a double bond carbon. In some embodiments, the alkenylene has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Alkynyl” refers to monovalent unsaturated hydrocarbyl groups having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms and preferably 2 to 3 carbon atoms and having at least 1 and preferably from 1 to 2 sites of triple bond unsaturation. “Substituted alkynyl” refers to alkynyl groups having from 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl, aminothiocarbonyl, aminocarbonylamino, aminothiocarbonylamino, aminocarbonyloxy, aminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyloxy, aminosulfonylamino, amidino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, arylthio, substituted arylthio, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, (carboxyl ester)amino, (carboxyl ester)oxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkyloxy, substituted cycloalkyloxy, cycloalkylthio, substituted cycloalkylthio, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyloxy, substituted cycloalkenyloxy, cycloalkenylthio, substituted cycloalkenylthio, guanidino, substituted guanidino, halo, hydroxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heteroarylthio, substituted heteroarylthio, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, heterocyclylthio, substituted heterocyclylthio, nitro, SO3H, sulfonyl, sulfonyloxy, thioacyl, thiol, alkylthio, and substituted alkylthio, wherein said substituents are as defined herein and with the proviso that any hydroxy or thiol substitution is not attached to an acetylenic carbon atom. In some embodiments, the alkynyl has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Alkynyloxy” refers to the group —O-alkynyl, wherein alkynyl is as defined herein. Alkynyloxy includes, by way of example, ethynyloxy, propynyloxy, and the like. “Carboxyl” or “carboxy” refers to —COOH or salts thereof. “Carboxyl ester” or “carboxy ester” refers to the groups —C(O)O-alkyl, —C(O)O-substituted alkyl, —C(O)O-alkenyl, —C(O)O-substituted alkenyl, —C(O)O-alkynyl, —C(O)O-substituted alkynyl, —C(O)O-aryl, —C(O)O-substituted aryl, —C(O)O-cycloalkyl, —C(O)O-substituted cycloalkyl, —C(O)O-cycloalkenyl, —C(O)O-substituted cycloalkenyl, —C(O)O-heteroaryl, —C(O)O-substituted heteroaryl, —C(O)O-heterocyclic, and —C(O)O-substituted heterocyclic, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “(Carboxyl ester)amino” refers to the groups —NR—C(O)O-alkyl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted alkyl, —NR—C(O)O-alkenyl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted alkenyl, —NR—C(O)O-alkynyl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted alkynyl, —NR—C(O)O-aryl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted aryl, —NR—C(O)O-cycloalkyl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted cycloalkyl, —NR—C(O)O-cycloalkenyl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted cycloalkenyl, —NR—C(O)O-heteroaryl, —NR—C(O)O-substituted heteroaryl, —NR—C(O)O-heterocyclic, and —NR—C(O)O-substituted heterocyclic, wherein R is alkyl or hydrogen and alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “(Carboxyl ester)oxy” or “Carbonate ester” refers to the groups —O—C(O)O-alkyl, —O—C(O)O-substituted alkyl, —O—C(O)O-alkenyl, —O—C(O)O-substituted alkenyl, —O—C(O)O-alkynyl, —O—C(O)O-substituted alkynyl, —O—C(O)O-aryl, —O—C(O)O-substituted aryl, —O—C(O)O-cycloalkyl, —O—C(O)O-substituted cycloalkyl, —O—C(O)O-cycloalkenyl, —O—C(O)O-substituted cycloalkenyl, —O—C(O)O-heteroaryl, —O—C(O)O-substituted heteroaryl, —O—C(O)O-heterocyclic, and —O—C(O)O-substituted heterocyclic, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Cyano” or “nitrile” refers to the group —CN. “Cycloalkyl” refers to cyclic alkyl groups of from 3 to 10 carbon atoms having single or multiple cyclic rings including fused, bridged, and spiro ring systems. Examples of suitable cycloalkyl groups include, for instance, adamantyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclooctyl and the like. “Cycloalkenyl” refers to non-aromatic cyclic alkyl groups of from 3 to 10 carbon atoms having single or multiple rings and having at least one double bond and preferably from 1 to 2 double bonds. “Cycloalkynyl” refers to non-aromatic cycloalkyl groups of from 5 to 10 carbon atoms having single or multiple rings and having at least one triple bond. “Cycloalkylene” refers to divalent cycloalkyl groups, wherein cycloalkyl is as defined herein. “Substituted cycloalkylene” refers to cycloalkylene group having from 1 to 3 hydrogens replaced with substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminoacyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, halogen, hydroxyl, nitro, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, and oxo wherein said substituents are as defined herein. In some embodiments, the alkylene has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. It is to be noted that when the cycloalkylene is substituted by an oxo group, 2 hydrogens attached to the same carbon of the cycloalkylene group are replaced by “═O”. “Substituted cycloalkyl,” “substituted cycloalkenyl” and “substituted cycloalkynyl” refer to a cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, or cycloalkynyl group having from 1 to 5 substituents selected from the group consisting of oxo, thioxo, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl, aminothiocarbonyl, aminocarbonylamino, aminothiocarbonylamino, aminocarbonyloxy, aminosulfonyl, aminosulfonyloxy, aminosulfonylamino, amidino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, arylthio, substituted arylthio, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, (carboxyl ester)amino, (carboxyl ester)oxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkyloxy, substituted cycloalkyloxy, cycloalkylthio, substituted cycloalkylthio, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyloxy, substituted cycloalkenyloxy, cycloalkenylthio, substituted cycloalkenylthio, guanidino, substituted guanidino, halo, hydroxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heteroarylthio, substituted heteroarylthio, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, heterocyclylthio, substituted heterocyclylthio, nitro, SO3H, sulfonyl, sulfonyloxy, thioacyl, thiol, alkylthio, and substituted alkylthio, wherein said substituents are as defined herein, provides that any hydroxy or thiol substitution is not attached to an unsaturated carbon atom. In some embodiments, the cycloalkyl or cycloalkenyl has 1 to 3 of the aforementioned groups. In some embodiments, the cycloalkyl group may have multiple condensed rings (e.g. tetrahydronaphthyl or tetrahydroanthacenyl), provided that the point of attachment is through an atom of the nonaromatic ring. “Cycloalkoxy” refers to —O-cycloalkyl. “Substituted cycloalkoxy” refers to —O-(substituted cycloalkyl). “Cycloalkylthio” refers to —S-cycloalkyl. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted cycloalkylthio” refers to —S-(substituted cycloalkyl). In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)—, or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Cycloalkenylox” refers to —O-cycloalkenyl. “Substituted cycloalkenyloxm” refers to —O-(substituted cycloalkenyl). “Cycloalkenylthio” refers to —S-cycloalkenyl. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to sulfinyl or sulfonyl moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted cycloalkenylthio” refers to —S-(substituted cycloalkenyl). In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Guanidino” refers to the group —NHC(═NH)NH2. “Substituted guanidino” refers to the group —NR33C(═NR33)N(R33)2, wherein each R33 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic; two R groups attached to a common guanidino nitrogen atom are optionally joined together with the nitrogen bound thereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, provided that at least one R is not hydrogen; and said substituents are as defined herein. “Halo” or “halogen” refers to fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo and is preferably fluoro or chloro. “Hydroxy” or “hydroxyl” refers to the group —OH. “Heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic group of from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur within the ring. Such heteroaryl groups can have a single ring (e.g., pyridinyl or furyl) or multiple condensed rings (e.g., indolizinyl or benzothienyl), wherein the condensed rings may or may not be aromatic and/or contain a heteroatom, provided that the point of attachment is through an atom of the aromatic heteroaryl group. In one embodiment, the nitrogen and/or sulfur ring atom(s) of the heteroaryl group are optionally oxidized to provide for the N-oxide (N→O), sulfinyl, or sulfonyl moieties. Preferred heteroaryls include pyridinyl, pyrrolyl, indolyl, thiophenyl, and furanyl. “Substituted heteroaryl” refers to heteroaryl groups that are substituted with from 1 to 5 substituents selected from the group consisting of the same group of substituents defined for substituted aryl. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl has 1 to 3 of the aforementioned groups. In other embodiments, the heteroaryl has 1 to 2 of the aforementioned groups. “Heteroaryloxn” refers to —O-heteroaryl. “Substituted heteroaryloxy” refers to the group —O-(substituted heteroaryl). “Heteroarylthio” refers to the group —S-heteroaryl. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted heteroarylthio” refers to the group —S-(substituted heteroaryl). In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Heterocycle,” “heterocyclic,” “heterocycloalkyl” and “heterocyclyl” refer to a saturated or unsaturated group having a single ring or multiple condensed rings, including fused bridged and spiro ring systems, and having from 3 to 15 ring atoms, including 1 to 4 hetero atoms. These ring atoms are selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen, wherein, in fused ring systems, one or more of the rings can be cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, provided that the point of attachment is through the non-aromatic ring. In one embodiment, the nitrogen and/or sulfur atom(s) of the heterocyclic group are optionally oxidized to provide for the N-oxide, —S(O)—, or —SO2— moieties. “Substituted heterocyclic,” “substituted heterocycloalkyl,” and “substituted heterocyclyl” refer to heterocyclyl groups that are substituted with from 1 to 5 of the same substituents as defined for substituted cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, the heterocyclyl has 1 to 3 of the aforementioned groups. “Heterocyclylox” refers to the group —O-heterocycyl. “Substituted heterocyclyloxm” refers to the group —O-(substituted heterocycyl). “Heterocyclylthio” refers to the group —S-heterocycyl. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted heterocyclylthio” refers to the group —S-(substituted heterocycyl). In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)— or —SO2— moieties. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. Examples of heterocycle and heteroaryls include, but are not limited to, azetidine, pyrrole, imidazole, pyrazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, indolizine, isoindole, indole, dihydroindole, indazole, purine, quinolizine, isoquinoline, quinoline, phthalazine, naphthylpyridine, quinoxaline, quinazoline, cinnoline, pteridine, carbazole, carboline, phenanthridine, acridine, phenanthroline, isothiazole, phenazine, isoxazole, phenoxazine, phenothiazine, imidazolidine, imidazoline, piperidine, piperazine, indoline, phthalimide, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[b]thiophene, thiazole, thiazolidine, thiophene, benzo[b]thiophene, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl (also referred to as thiamorpholinyl), 1,1-dioxothiomorpholinyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolidine, tetrahydrofuranyl, and the like. “Nitro” refers to the group —NO2. “Nitroso” refers to the group —NO. “Oxo” refers to the atom (═O). “Sulfonyl” refers to the group —SO2-alkyl, —SO2-substituted alkyl, —SO2-alkenyl, —SO2-substituted alkenyl, —SO2-cycloalkyl, —SO2-substituted cylcoalkyl, —SO2-cycloalkenyl, —SO2-substituted cylcoalkenyl, —SO2-aryl, —SO2-substituted aryl, —SO2-heteroaryl, —SO2-substituted heteroaryl, —SO2-heterocyclic, and —SO2-substituted heterocyclic, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. Sulfonyl includes groups such as methyl-SO2—, phenyl-SO2—, and 4-methylphenyl-SO2—. “Sulfonyloxy” refers to the group —OSO2-alkyl, —OSO2-substituted alkyl, —OSO2-alkenyl, —OSO2-substituted alkenyl, —OSO2-cycloalkyl, —OSO2-substituted cylcoalkyl, —OSO2-cycloalkenyl, —OSO2-substituted cylcoalkenyl, —OSO2-aryl, —OSO2-substituted aryl, —OSO2-heteroaryl, —OSO2-substituted heteroaryl, —OSO2-heterocyclic, and —OSO2-substituted heterocyclic, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Thioacyl” refers to the groups H—C(S)—, alkyl-C(S)—, substituted alkyl-C(S)—, alkenyl-C(S)—, substituted alkenyl-C(S)—, alkynyl-C(S)—, substituted alkynyl-C(S)—, cycloalkyl-C(S)—, substituted cycloalkyl-C(S)—, cycloalkenyl-C(S)—, substituted cycloalkenyl-C(S)—, aryl-C(S)—, substituted aryl-C(S)—, heteroaryl-C(S)—, substituted heteroaryl-C(S)—, heterocyclic-C(S)—, and substituted heterocyclic-C(S)—, wherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic are as defined herein. “Thiol” refers to the group —SH. “Thioxo” refers to the atom (═S). “Alkylthio” refers to the group —S-alkyl, wherein alkyl is as defined herein. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)—. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Substituted alkylthio” refers to the group —S-(substituted alkyl), wherein substituted alkyl is as defined herein. In other embodiments, sulfur may be oxidized to —S(O)—. The sulfoxide may exist as one or more stereoisomers. “Stereoisomer” and “stereoisomers” refer to compounds that differ in the chirality of one or more stereocenters. Stereoisomers include enantiomers and diastereomers. “Tautomer” refers to alternate forms of a molecule that differ in the position of a proton, such as enol-keto and imine-enamine tautomers, or the tautomeric forms of heteroaryl groups containing a —N═C(H)—NH— ring atom arrangement, such as pyrazoles, imidazoles, benzimidazoles, triazoles, and tetrazoles. A person of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that other tautomeric ring atom arrangements are possible. “Patient” refers to human and non-human animals, especially mammals. “Pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to pharmaceutically acceptable salts of a compound, which salts are derived from a variety of organic and inorganic counter ions well known in the art and include, by way of example only, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, tetraalkylammonium, choline, arginine and the like; and when the molecule contains a basic functionality, salts of organic or inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide, tartrate, mesylate, acetate, maleate, oxalate, and the like. “Prodrug” refers to a derivative of an active 4-pyrimidineamine compound (drug) that may require a transformation under the conditions of use, such as within the body, to release the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine drug. Prodrugs are frequently, but not necessarily, pharmacologically inactive until converted into the active drug. Prodrugs are typically obtained by masking one or more functional groups in an active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine drug believed to be in part required for activity with a progroup (defined below) to form a promoiety which undergoes a transformation, such as cleavage, under the specified conditions of use to release the functional group, and hence the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine drug. The cleavage of the promoiety may proceed spontaneously, such as by way of a hydrolysis reaction, or it can be catalyzed or induced by another agent, such as an enzyme, light, an acid or base, or a change of or exposure to a physical or environmental parameter, such as temperature. The agent can be endogenous to the conditions of use, such as an enzyme present in the cells to which the prodrug is administered or the acidic conditions of the stomach, or it can be supplied exogenously. “Progroup” refers to a type of protecting group that, when used to mask a functional group within an active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine drug to form a promoiety, converts the drug into a prodrug. Progroups are typically attached to the functional group of the drug via bonds that are cleavable under specified conditions of use. Thus, a progroup is that portion of a promoiety that cleaves to release the functional group under the specified conditions of use. As a specific example, an amide promoiety of the formula —NH—C(O)CH3 comprises the progroup —C(O)CH3. “Pharmaceutically effective amount” and “therapeutically effective amount” refer to an amount of a compound sufficient to treat a specified disorder or disease or one or more of its symptoms and/or to prevent the occurrence of the disease or disorder. In reference to tumorigenic proliferative disorders, a pharmaceutically or therapeutically effective amount comprises an amount sufficient to, among other things, cause the tumor to shrink or decrease the growth rate of the tumor. “Solvate” refers to a complex formed by combination of solvent molecules with molecules or ions of the solute. The solvent can be an organic compound, an inorganic compound, or a mixture of both. Some examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, methanol, N,N-dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylsulfoxide, and water. Unless indicated otherwise, the nomenclature of substituents that are not explicitly defined herein are arrived at by naming the terminal portion of the functionality followed by the adjacent functionality toward the point of attachment. For example, the substituent “arylalkyloxycarbonyl” refers to the group (aryl)-(alkyl)-O—C(O)—. It is understood that in all substituted groups defined above, polymers arrived at by defining substituents with further substituents to themselves (e.g., substituted aryl having a substituted aryl group as a substituent which is itself substituted with a substituted aryl group, which is further substituted by a substituted aryl group, etc.) are not intended for inclusion herein. In such cases, the maximum number of such substitutions is three. For example, serial substitutions of substituted aryl groups are limited to -substituted aryl-(substituted aryl)-substituted aryl. Similarly, it is understood that the above definitions are not intended to include impermissible substitution patterns (e.g., methyl substituted with 5 fluoro groups). Such impermissible substitution patterns are easily recognized by a person having ordinary skill in the art. C. Compounds of the Invention This invention provides novel 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds, prodrugs of the compounds, methods of making the compounds, and methods of using these compounds in the treatment of conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. These conditions include, but are not limited to, debilitating and fatal diseases and disorders that affect both children and adults. Examples of these conditions include oncological diseases such as leukemia, including childhood leukemia and lymphoma; autoimmune conditions, such as transplant rejection; and the other conditions described herein. Given the severity of and suffering caused by these conditions, it is vital that new treatments are developed to treat these conditions. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula I, prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: wherein: ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2 or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl and substituted cycloalkynyl; Y is alk-SO2N(R4)R5 or alk-N(R4)SO2R5; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene and substituted cycloalkylene; R1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl and substituted cycloalkyl; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and oxo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; Z1, Z2, and Z3 each independently is carbon or nitrogen, wherein no more than one of Z1, Z2, and Z3 is N; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R7 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; or R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester and acyl; provided: when X is hydrogen, ring A is not benzimidazolyl or indazolyl. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula II, prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: wherein: ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2 or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl; Y is alk-SO2N(R4)R5 or alk-N(R4)SO2R5; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene and substituted cycloalkylene; R1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, cycloalkyl and substituted cycloalkyl; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and oxo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; Z1, Z2, and Z3 each independently is carbon or nitrogen, wherein no more than one of Z1, Z2, and Z3 is N; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R7 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group; or R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, and acyl; provided: when X is hydrogen, ring A is not benzimidazolyl or indazolyl. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a compound of formula III, prodrugs, solvates, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2 or 3 when ring A is monocyclic or p is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 when ring A is bi- or tricyclic; q is 0, 1, 2 or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl,; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene and substituted cycloalkylene; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; or R6 and one of R3, together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2 and Z3; or R7 and one of R3 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to the ring containing Z1, Z2, and Z3; or R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; R6 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ or +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R6)R7 or —N(R6)SO2R7 is N−; or R6 and R7 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto, form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group; and R7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, carboxyl, carboxyl ester and acyl. Although M+ is preferably a monovalent cation it can also be a divalent cation with appropriate counterions, for example, two of the parent drug anion, one of parent/one of other counter anion, etc. In one embodiment, alk is C1-2 alkyl. In a preferred embodiment, X is halo, alkyl or haloalkyl. In another preferred embodiment, p is 0, 1 or 2 and R2 is halo. In another preferred embodiment, q is 0, 1 or 2 and R3 is alkyl. In another preferred embodiment, each of R6 and R7 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, acyl, and carboxyl ester; or R6 and R7 together with the nitrogen atom bound thereto optionally form —N═C(OR9)2 wherein each R9 independently is an alkyl group. In another preferred embodiment, each of R6 and R7 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and acyl. In one embodiment, the compound is represented by formula III, wherein R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic. In a preferred embodiment, the compound is represented by formula IVa: In another preferred embodiment, the compound is represented by formula IVb: In another embodiment, the compound is selected from the group consisting of: I-7 5-Fluoro-N4-[4-(cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl]-N2-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-8 (N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-9 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-10 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-11 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-12 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-13 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-14 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-15 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-16 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-17 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-18 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-19 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-20 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-21 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-22 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-23 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-24 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-25 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-26 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-27 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-28 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-29 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-30 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-31 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-32 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-33 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-34 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-35 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-36 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-37 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-38 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-39 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-40 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-41 N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-42 N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-43 N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-44 N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-45 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-46 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-47 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-48 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-49 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-50 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-51 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-52 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-53 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-54 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-55 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-56 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-57 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-58 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-59 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-60 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-61 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-62 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-63 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-64 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-65 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-66 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-67 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-68 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-69 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-70 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-71 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-72 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-73 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-74 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-75 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-76 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-77 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-78 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-79 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-80 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-81 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-82 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-83 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-84 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-85 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-86 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-87 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-88 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-89 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-90 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-91 N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-92 N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-93 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-94 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-95 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-96 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-97 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-98 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-99 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-100 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-101 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-140 N2-{3-N-[2-(t-butoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-141 N2-{3-N-[2-(t-butoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-142 N2-{3-N-[2-(benzoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-143 N2-{3-N-[2-(benzoxycarbonylamino)-1-oxoethyl]aminosulfonyl}phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-136 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-116 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-137 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-123 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-118 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-117 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-131 N2-[3-N-(2-amino-1-oxoethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-133 N2-[3-N-(2-amino-1-oxoethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-129 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-119 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-125 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-127 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-121 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-126 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-124 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-120 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-122 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-methyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-139 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-144 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-135 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-134 N2-[3-N-(L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-132 N2-[3-N-(L-Phe)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-138 N2-[3-N-(L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-148 N2-[3-N-(Boc-cycloleucine)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-146 N2-[3-N-(L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-145 N2-[3-N-(cycloleucine)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine hydrogen chloride salt; I-147 N2-[3-N-(Cbz-L-Val)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-130 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(N-ethoxycarbonyl-N-ethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-128 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(diethoxy)carbonimidylsulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-1 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-2 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-3 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-115 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-114 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-113 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-chloro-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-4 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-5 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-6 N2-(4-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-7 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-8 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; II-9 N2-(4-Aminosulfonyl-phenyl)-N4-[(2-cyclopropylsulfonyl)-isoindolin-5-yl]-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-149 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-150 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-151 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-152 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-153 N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-154 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-155 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-156 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-157 N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-158 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-159 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-160 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-161 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-162 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-163 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-164 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-165 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-166 N2-(4-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-167 N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-168 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-169 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-170 N2-(3-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-171 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-172 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-173 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-174 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-175 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-176 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-177 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-178 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-179 N2-(4-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-180 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-181 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-182 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-183 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-184 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-185 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-186 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-187 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-188 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-189 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-190 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-191 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-192 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-193 N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-194 N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-195 N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-196 N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-197 N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-198 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-199 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-200 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-201 N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-202 N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-203 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-204 N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-205 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-206 N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-207 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-208 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-209 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-210 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-211 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-212 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-213 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; (I-214) N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-215 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-216 N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-217 N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-218 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-219 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt; I-220 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; and I-221 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt. I-222 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt I-223 N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-224 N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-225 N2-[3-(N-acetoxymethyl-N-butyryl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine I-226 N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt In one embodiment, this invention provides a compound represented by formula V: wherein: p is 0, 1, 2 or 3; q is 0, 1, 2 or 3; X is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amino, substituted amino, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, cyano, halo, nitro, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl; alk is selected from the group consisting of straight or branched chain C1-6 alkylene group, cycloalkylene and substituted cycloalkylene; each R2 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, and halo; or R4 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; or R5 and one of R2 together with the intervening atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic fused to ring A; each R3 independently is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, substituted cycloalkynyl, alkynyloxy, amino, substituted amino, aryl, substituted aryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, cyano, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, substituted cycloalkoxy, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, substituted heteroaryloxy, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, heterocyclyloxy, substituted heterocyclyloxy, aminoacyl, aminoacyloxy, carboxyl, carboxyl ester, carbonate ester, nitro, halo, and aminosulfonyl; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, acyl and M+, wherein M+ is a counterion selected from the group consisting of K+, Na+, Li+ and +N(R8)4, wherein R8 is hydrogen or alkyl, and the nitrogen of —SO2N(R4)R5 or —N(R4)SO2R5 is N−; R5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, amino, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, and acyl; or R4 and R5 together with the intervening atom or atoms bound thereto form a heterocyclic or a substituted heterocyclic group. In a preferred embodiment, X is halo. In another preferred embodiment, X is fluoro. In another preferred embodiment, p is 0 and q is 0 or 1. In another preferred embodiment, q is 1 or 2 and R3 is alkyl. In another embodiment, X is fluoro, alk is —CH2— and each of R4 and R5 independently is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl and heterocyclic. In another embodiment, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of: I-1 N4-(4-Aminosulfonylmethylenephenyl)-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-2 N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-3 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-4 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine, I-5 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-6 N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-102 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-103 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-104 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-105 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-106 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-107 N2-(3-Amino sulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-108 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-109 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-110 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; I-111 N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine; and I-112 N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein may include functional groups that can be masked with progroups to create prodrugs. Such prodrugs are usually, but need not be, pharmacologically inactive until converted into their active drug form. Indeed, many of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described in this invention include promoieties that are hydrolyzable or otherwise cleavable under conditions of use. For example, ester groups commonly undergo acid-catalyzed hydrolysis to yield the parent carboxylic acid when exposed to the acidic conditions of the stomach or base-catalyzed hydrolysis when exposed to the basic conditions of the intestine or blood. Thus, when administered to a subject orally, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds that include ester moieties can be considered prodrugs of their corresponding carboxylic acid, regardless of whether the ester form is pharmacologically active. The mechanism by which the progroup(s) metabolizes is not critical and can be caused, for example, by hydrolysis under the acidic conditions of the stomach, as described above, and/or by enzymes present in the digestive tract and/or tissues or organs of the body. Indeed, the progroup(s) can be selected to metabolize at a particular site within the body. For example, many esters are cleaved under the acidic conditions found in the stomach. Prodrugs designed to cleave chemically in the stomach to the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine can employ progroups including such esters. Alternatively, the progroups can be designed to metabolize in the presence of enzymes such as esterases, amidases, lipolases, and phosphatases, including ATPases and kinase, etc. Progroups including linkages capable of metabolizing in vivo are well known and include, by way of example and not limitation, ethers, thioethers, silylethers, silylthioethers, esters, thioesters, carbonates, thiocarbonates, carbamates, thiocarbamates, ureas, thioureas, and carboxamides. In some instances, a “precursor” group that is oxidized by oxidative enzymes such as, for example, cytochrome P450 of the liver, to a metabolizable group, can be selected. In the prodrugs, any available functional moiety can be masked with a progroup to yield a prodrug. Functional groups within the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds that can be masked with progroups for inclusion in a promoiety include, but are not limited to, amines (primary and secondary), hydroxyls, sulfanyls (thiols), and carboxyls. A wide variety of progroups, as well as the resultant promoieties, suitable for masking functional groups in active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds to yield prodrugs are well-known in the art. For example, a hydroxyl functional group can be masked as a sulfonate, ester, or carbonate promoiety, which can be hydrolyzed in vivo to provide the hydroxyl group. An amino functional group can be masked as an amide, carbamate, imine, urea, phosphenyl, phosphoryl, or sulfenyl promoiety, which can be hydrolyzed in vivo to provide the amino group. A carboxyl group can be masked as an ester (including silyl esters and thioesters), amide, or hydrazide promoiety, which can be hydrolyzed in vivo to provide the carboxyl group. Other specific examples of suitable progroups and their respective promoieties will be apparent to those of skill in the art. All of these progroups, alone or in combinations, can be included in the prodrugs. In some embodiments of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and methods of using the compounds, the progroup(s) can be attached to any available primary or secondary amine, including, for example, the N2 nitrogen atom of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine moiety, the N4 nitrogen atom of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine moiety, and/or a primary or secondary nitrogen atom included in a substituent on the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound. In particular embodiments of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and methods of using the compounds, the prodrugs described herein are 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds that are substituted at the N4 nitrogen of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine moiety with a substituted or unsubstituted nitrogen-containing bicyclic ring that includes at least one progroup at one or more of the following: the nitrogen atom(s) of the bicyclic ring, the N2 nitrogen of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine moiety, and the N4 nitrogen of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine moiety. As noted above, the identity of the progroup is not critical, provided that it can be metabolized under the desired conditions of use, for example, under the acidic conditions found in the stomach and/or by enzymes found in vivo, to yield a biologically active group, e.g., the 2,4-pyrimidinediamines as described herein. Thus, skilled artisans will appreciate that the progroup can comprise virtually any known or later-discovered hydroxyl, amine or thiol protecting group. Non-limiting examples of suitable protecting groups can be found, for example, in Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, Greene & Wuts, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991 (especially pages 10-142 (alcohols, 277-308 (thiols) and 309-405 (amines) the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference). Additionally, the identity of the progroup(s) can also be selected so as to impart the prodrug with desirable characteristics. For example, lipophilic groups can be used to decrease water solubility and hydrophilic groups can be used to increase water solubility. In this way, prodrugs specifically tailored for selected modes of administration can be obtained. The progroup can also be designed to impart the prodrug with other properties, such as, for example, improved passive intestinal absorption, improved transport-mediated intestinal absorption, protection against fast metabolism (slow-release prodrugs), tissue-selective delivery, passive enrichment in target tissues, and targeting-specific transporters. Groups capable of imparting prodrugs with these characteristics are well-known and are described, for example, in Ettmayer et al., 2004, J. Med. Chem. 47(10):2393-2404, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. All of the various groups described in these references can be utilized in the prodrugs described herein. As noted above, progroup(s) may also be selected to increase the water solubility of the prodrug as compared to the active drug. Thus, the progroup(s) may include or can be a group(s) suitable for imparting drug molecules with improved water solubility. Such groups are well-known and include, by way of example and not limitation, hydrophilic groups such as alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl, or cycloheteroalkyl groups substituted with one or more of an amine, alcohol, a carboxylic acid, a phosphorous acid, a sulfoxide, a sugar, an amino acid, a thiol, a polyol, an ether, a thioether, and a quaternary amine salt. The suitability of any particular progroup for a desired mode of administration can be confirmed in biochemical assays. For example, if a prodrug is to be administered by injection into a particular tissue or organ and the identities of the various enzyme(s) expressed in the tissue or organ are known, the particular prodrug can be tested for metabolism in biochemical assays with the isolated enzyme(s). Alternatively, the particular prodrug can be tested for metabolism to the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound with tissue and/or organ extracts. Using tissue and/or organ extracts can be of particular convenience when the identity(ies) of the enzymes expressed in the target tissues or organs are unknown or in instances when the isolated enzymes are not conveniently available. Skilled artisans will be able to readily select progroups having metabolic properties (such as kinetics) suitable for particular applications using such in vitro tests. Of course, specific prodrugs could also be tested for suitable metabolism in in vitro animal models. Numerous references teach the use and synthesis of prodrugs, including, for example, Ettmayer et al., supra and Bungaard et al., (1989) J. Med. Chem. 32(12): 2503-2507. Additionally, the preparation and use of prodrugs of 2,4-pyrimidinediamines is specifically taught in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/654,620, filed Feb. 18, 2005, entitled “Pyrimidinediamine Prodrugs and their Uses,” the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that many of the compounds and prodrugs thereof, as well as the various compound species specifically described and/or illustrated herein, may exhibit the phenomena of tautomerism, conformational isomerism, geometric isomerism, and/or optical isomerism. For example, the compounds and prodrugs of the invention may include one or more chiral centers and/or double bonds and as a consequence may exist as stereoisomers, such as double-bond isomers (i.e., geometric isomers), enantiomers, diasteromers, and mixtures thereof, such as racemic mixtures. As another example, the compounds and prodrugs of the invention may exist in several tautomeric forms, including the enol form, the keto form, and mixtures thereof. As the various compound names, formulae and compound drawings within the specification and claims can represent only one of the possible tautomeric, conformational isomeric, optical isomeric, or geometric isomeric forms, it should be understood that the invention encompasses any tautomeric, conformational isomeric, optical isomeric, and/or geometric isomeric forms of the compounds or prodrugs having one or more of the utilities described herein, as well as mixtures of these various different isomeric forms. In cases of limited rotation around the 2,4-pryimidinediamine core structure, atropisomers are also possible and are also specifically included in the compounds of the invention. It is intended that the compounds encompassed herein are, with the exception of forms of isomerism, chemically stable and able to be isolated. Depending upon the nature of the various substituents, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs of the invention can be in the form of salts. Such salts include salts suitable for pharmaceutical uses (“pharmaceutically-acceptable salts”), salts suitable for veterinary uses, etc. Such salts can be derived from acids or bases, as is well-known in the art. In one embodiment, the salt is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. Generally, pharmaceutically acceptable salts are those salts that retain substantially one or more of the desired pharmacological activities of the parent compound and which are suitable for administration to humans. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts include acid addition salts formed with inorganic acids or organic acids. Inorganic acids suitable for forming pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts include, by way of example and not limitation, hydrohalide acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, etc.), sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Organic acids suitable for forming pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts include, by way of example and not limitation, acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, propionic acid, hexanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid, glycolic acid, oxalic acid, pyruvic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, palmitic acid, benzoic acid, 3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl) benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, alkylsulfonic acids (e.g., methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 1,2-ethanedisulfonic acid, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, etc.), arylsulfonic acids (e.g., benzenesulfonic acid, 4-chlorobenzenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, 4-toluenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, etc.), 4-methylbicyclo[2.2.2]-oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, glucoheptonic acid, 3-phenylpropionic acid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuric acid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylic acid, stearic acid, muconic acid, and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts also include salts formed when an acidic proton present in the parent compound is either replaced by a metal ion (e.g., an alkali metal ion, an alkaline earth metal ion, or an aluminum ion) or coordinates with an organic base (e.g., ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, N-methylglucamine, morpholine, piperidine, dimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, and ammonia). The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs thereof, as well as the salts thereof, may also be in the form of hydrates, solvates, and N-oxides, as is well-known in the art. In another embodiment, this invention provides a compound, or stereoisomer, tautomer, prodrug, solvate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, selected from Tables I and II. TABLE I # Y— —(R2)p —X —(R3)q —SO2N(R4)R5 I-1 4-(sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-2 3-((N-prop-2-ynyl)sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-3 3-((N-prop-2-ynyl)sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-4 4-((N-prop-2-ynyl)sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-5 4-((N-prop-2-ynyl)sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-6 4-((N-prop-2-ynyl)sulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-7 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2N(H)CH2C≡CH I-8 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-9 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-10 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-11 3-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-12 3-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-13 3-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-14 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-15 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-16 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-17 4-(((N-n-propyl)ethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-18 4-(((N-n-propyl)ethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-19 4-(((N-n-propyl)ethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-20 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-21 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-22 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-23 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-24 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-25 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-26 (S)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-27 (S)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-28 (S)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-29 (R)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-30 (R)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-31 (R)-4-((1-ethylsulfonamido)ethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-32 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-33 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-34 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-35 4-((thiophene-2-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-36 4-((thiophene-2-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-37 4-((thiophene-2-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-38 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-39 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-40 4-(ethylsulfonamidoethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-41 4-((2-amino-4-methylthiazole-5-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-42 4-((2-acetamido-4-methylthiazole-5-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-43 4-((2-amino-4-methylthiazole-5-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-44 4-((2-acetamido-4-methylthiazole-5-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-45 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-46 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-47 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-48 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-49 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-50 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-51 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-52 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-53 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-54 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-55 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-56 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-57 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-58 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-59 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-60 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-61 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2N−(+Na)C(O)Et Na salt I-62 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-63 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-64 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-65 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-66 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-67 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-68 4-(cyclopentylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-69 4-(cyclopentylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-70 4-(cyclopentylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-71 4-(cyclohexylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-72 4-(cyclohexylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-73 4-(cyclohexylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-74 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-75 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-76 4-(ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-77 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et I-78 4-((N-propaonyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-79 4-((N-propylcyclopropylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-80 4-((N-propylcyclopropylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-81 4-((N-propylcyclopropylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-82 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 F 5-SO2NH2 3-SO2NH2 I-83 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et I-84 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 5-SO2NH2 3-SO2NH2 I-85 4-((methylsulfonylmethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-86 4-((methylsulfonylmethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-87 4-((methylsulfonylmethylsulfonamido)methyl p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-88 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-89 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-90 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-91 4-((N-propanoyl)-ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et I-92 4-((N-propanoyl)-ethylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-93 3-((N-propanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-94 3-((N-propanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-95 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-96 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-97 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-98 4-((2,2,2-trifuoroethylsulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-99 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-100 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-101 4-((pyridine-3-sulfonamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-102 3-(N-methylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-103 3-(N-methylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-104 3-(N,N-dimethylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-105 3-(N,N-dimethylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-106 4-(N-methylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-107 4-((N-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl)methyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-108 4-((N-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl)methyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-109 4-(N-methylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-110 4-(N,N-dimethylsulfamoylmethyl) p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-111 4-(N-cyclopropylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-112 4-(N-cyclopropylsulfamoylmethyl)- p = 0 F 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-113 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Cl 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-114 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Cl q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-115 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Cl q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-116 3-((N-propanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-117 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-118 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-119 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-120 3-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-121 4-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-122 3-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-123 4-(isopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-124 3-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-125 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-126 4-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH2 I-127 4-((N-methyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-128 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2N═C(OMe)2 I-129 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- 3-Cl Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-130 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2N(Et)C(O)OEt I-131 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NH2 I-132 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(CH2Ph)NH2 HCl salt I-133 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NH2 I-134 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(CH2Ph)NH2 I-135 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(CH2Ph)NHC(O)OCH2Ph Na salt I-136 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et I-137 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et Na salt I-138 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(i-pr)NH2 I-139 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(CH2Ph)NHC(O)OCH2Ph I-140 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NHC(O)O-tBu I-141 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NHC(O)O-tBu Na salt 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NHC(O)OCH2Ph I-142 I-143 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH2NHC(O)OCH2Ph Na salt I-144 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(i-pr)NHC(O)OCH2Ph I-145 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(1-aminocyclopent-1-yl) I-146 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(i-pr)NH2 HCl salt I-147 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH(i-pr)NHC(O)OCH2Ph Na salt I-148 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(1-NH(Boc)-cyclopent-1-yl) I-149 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHPh I-150 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHPh I-151 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl) I-152 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-((N-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl) I-153 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHCH2Ph I-154 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHCH2Ph I-155 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHPh I-156 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHPh I-157 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHCH2Ph I-158 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHCH2Ph I-159 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl) I-160 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-((N-methylpiperidin-4-yl)sulfamoyl) I-161 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHMe I-162 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHMe I-163 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHMe I-164 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHCH2C≡CH I-165 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHCH2C≡CH I-166 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-cyclopentyl)sulfamoyl) I-167 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)propionamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH2 I-168 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((pyridin-4-ylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-169 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-((pyridin-4-ylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-170 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-cyclopentyl)sulfamoyl) I-171 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((pyridin-3-yl)sulfamoyl) I-172 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NH(i-Pr) I-173 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH(i-Pr) I-174 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-((pyridin-3-yl)sulfamoyl) I-175 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHEt I-176 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHEt I-177 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHPr I-178 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHPr I-179 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-cyclopropylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-180 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-((N-cyclopropylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-181 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-(3-methoxypropyl)sulfamoyl) I-182 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-(3-methoxypropyl)sulfamoyl) I-183 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-(2-methoxyethyl)sulfamoyl) I-184 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-(2-methoxyethyl)sulfamoyl) I-185 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHMe I-186 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHEt I-187 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHPr I-188 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHCH2C≡CH I-189 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH(i-Pr) I-190 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-(N-(2-methoxyethyl)sulfamoyl) I-191 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-(N-(3-methoxypropyl)sulfamoyl) I-192 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-((N-cyclopropylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-193 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)acetamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH3 I-194 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)acetamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)CH3 I-195 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHCH2Ph I-196 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)acetamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)CH3 I-197 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)acetamido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHC(O)CH3 I-198 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)isobutyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-isobutyrylsulfamoyl) I-199 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)isobutyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-isobutyrylsulfamoyl) I-200 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)isobutyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-isobutyrylsulfamoyl) Na salt I-201 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)isobutyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-isobutyrylsulfamoyl) Na salt I-202 4-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHPh I-203 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)butyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-butyrylsulfamoyl) I-204 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)butyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-butyrylsulfamoyl) I-205 3-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)butyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-(N-butyrylsulfamoyl) Na salt I-206 4-((N-(cyclopropylsulfonyl)butyramido)methyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-(N-butyrylsulfamoyl) Na salt I-207 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHMe I-208 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHEt I-209 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NH(i-Pr) I-210 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-(N-(2-methoxyethyl)sulfamoyl) I-211 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHMe I-212 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 4-SO2NHEt I-213 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHEt I-214 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHCH2C≡CH I-215 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-SO2NHPr I-216 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-(N-cyclopropylmethyl)sulfamoyl) I-217 3-(cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me 4-Me 3-(N-(3-methoxypropyl)sulfamoyl) I-218 3-((N-hexanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)4Me I-219 3-((N-hexanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)4Me Na salt I-220 3-((N-pentanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)3Me I-221 3-((N-pentanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)3Me Na salt I-222 3-((N-butanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)2Me choline salt I-223 3-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)(CH2)2Me I-224 3-((N-butanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NH2 I-225 3-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2N(CH2OC(O)Me)C(O)(CH2)2Me I-226 3-((N-propanoyl)-cyclopropylsulfonamidomethyl)- p = 0 Me q = 0 3-SO2NHC(O)Et choline salt TABLE II # X (R3)q Position of SO2NH2 II-1 Me q = 0 4 II-2 Me q = 0 3 II-3 Me 4-Me 3 II-4 F 4-Me 3 II-5 F q = 0 3 II-6 F q = 0 4 II-7 Me 4-Me 3 II-8 Me q = 0 3 II-9 Me q = 0 4 D. Methods of the Invention The present invention provides 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs thereof, as described herein, for use in therapy for the conditions described herein. The present invention further provides use of the compounds of the present invention in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or inhibition of JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful. These include conditions where the function of lymphocytes, macrophages, or mast cells is involved. Conditions in which targeting of the JAK pathway or inhibition of the JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, are therapeutically useful include leukemia, lymphoma, transplant rejection (e.g., pancreas islet transplant rejection), bone marrow transplant applications (e.g., graft-versus-host disease)), autoimmune diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, etc.), inflammation (e.g., asthma, etc.) and other conditions as described in greater detail herein. As noted previously, numerous conditions can be treated using the 2,4-subsituted pyrimidinediamine compounds, prodrugs thereof, and methods of treatment as described herein. As used herein, “Treating” or “treatment” of a disease in a patient refers to (1) preventing the disease from occurring in a patient that is predisposed or does not yet display symptoms of the disease; (2) inhibiting the disease or arresting its development; or (3) ameliorating or causing regression of the disease. As well understood in the art, “treatment” is an approach for obtaining beneficial or desired results, including clinical results. For the purposes of this invention, beneficial or desired results can include one or more, but are not limited to, alleviation or amelioration of one or more symptoms, diminishment of extent of a condition, including a disease, stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of a condition, including diseases, preventing spread of disease, delay or slowing of condition, including disease, progression, amelioration or palliation of the condition, including disease, state, and remission (whether partial or total), whether detectable or undetectable. Preferred are compounds that are potent and can be administered locally at very low doses, thus minimizing systemic adverse effects. The compounds described herein are potent and selective inhibitors of JAK kinases and are particularly selective for cytokine signaling pathways containing JAK3. As a consequence of this activity, the compounds can be used in a variety of in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo contexts to regulate or inhibit JAK kinase activity, signaling cascades in which JAK kinases play a role, and the biological responses effected by such signaling cascades. For example, in one embodiment, the compounds can be used to inhibit JAK kinase, either in vitro or in vivo, in virtually any cell type expressing the JAK kinase, such as in hematopoietic cells in which, for example, JAK3 is predominantly expressed. They may also be used to regulate signal transduction cascades in which JAK kinases, particularly JAK3, play a role. Such JAK-dependent signal transduction cascades include, but are not limited to, the signaling cascades of cytokine receptors that involve the common gamma chain, such as, for example, the IL-4, IL-7, IL-5, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21, or IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, and IL-21 receptor signaling cascades. The compounds may also be used in vitro or in vivo to regulate, and in particular to inhibit, cellular or biological responses affected by such JAK-dependent signal transduction cascades. Such cellular or biological responses include, but are not limited to, IL-4/ramos CD23 upregulation and IL-2 mediated T-cell proliferation. Importantly, the compounds can be used to inhibit JAK kinases in vivo as a therapeutic approach towards the treatment or prevention of diseases mediated, either wholly or in part, by a JAK kinase activity (referred to herein as “JAK kinase mediated diseases”). Non-limiting examples of JAK kinase mediated diseases that can be treated or prevented with the compounds include, but are not limited to, the following: allergies; asthma; autoimmune diseases such as transplant rejection (e.g., kidney, heart, lung, liver, pancreas, skin, small intestine, large intestine, host versus graft reaction (HVGR), and graft versus host reaction (GVHR)), rheumatoid arthritis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; T-cell mediated autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, psoraiasis, and Sjogren's syndrome; Type II inflammatory diseases such as vascular inflammation (including vasculitis, arteritis, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease); diseases of the central nervous system such as stroke; pulmonary diseases such as bronchitis obliteraus and primary pulmonary hypertension; solid, delayed Type IV hypersensitivity reactions; and hematologic malignancies such as leukemia and lymphomas. Examples of diseases that are mediated, at least in part, by JAK kinases that can be treated or prevented according to the methods include, but are not limited to, allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases such as transplant rejection (e.g., kidney, heart, lung, liver, pancreas, skin, host versus graft reaction (HVGR), etc.), rheumatoid arthritis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, psoraiasis and Sjogren's syndrome, Type II inflammatory disease such as vascular inflammation (including vasculitis, ateritis, atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease) or other inflammatory diseases such as osteoarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spastic colon, low grade scarring (e.g., scleroderma, increased fibrosis, keloids, post-surgical scars, pulmonary fibrosis, vascular spasms, migraine, reperfusion injury and post myocardial infarction), and sicca complex or syndrome, diseases of the central nervous system such as stroke, pulmonary diseases such as bronchitis obliterous and primary and primary pulmonary hypertension, delayed or cell-mediated, Type IV hypersensitivity and solid and hematologic malignancies such as leukemias and lyphomas. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting the JAK kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention. In certain embodiments of the methods described herein, the method is carried out in vivo. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting an activity of a JAK kinase, comprising contacting in vitro a JAK3 kinase with an amount of a compound effective to inhibit an activity of the JAK kinase, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention. In a specific embodiment, the compounds can be used to treat and/or prevent rejection in organ and/or tissue transplant recipients (i.e., treat and/or prevent allorgraft rejection). Allografts can be rejected through either a cell-mediated or humoral immune reaction of the recipient against transplant (histocompability) antigens present on the membranes of the donor's cells. The strongest antigens are governed by a complex of genetic loci termed human leukocyte group A (HLA) antigens. Together with the ABO blood groups antigens, they are the chief transplantation antigens detectable in humans. Rejection following transplantation can generally be broken into three categories: hyperacute, occurring hours to days following transplantation; acute, occurring days to months following transplantation; and chronic, occurring months to years following transplantation. Hyperacute rejection is caused mainly by the production of host antibodies that attack the graft tissue. In a hyperacute rejection reaction, antibodies are observed in the transplant vascular very soon after transplantation. Shortly thereafter, vascular clotting occurs, leading to ischemia, eventual necrosis and death. The graft infarction is unresponsive to known immunosuppressive therapies. Because HLA antigens can be identified in vitro, pre-transplant screening is used to significantly reduce hyperacute rejection. As a consequence of this screening, hyperacute rejection is relatively uncommon today. Acute rejection is thought to be mediated by the accumulation of antigen specific cells in the graft tissue. The T-cell-mediated immune reaction against these antigens (i.e., HVGR or GVHR) is the principle mechanism of acute rejection. Accumulation of these cells leads to damage of the graft tissue. It is believed that both CD4+ helper T-cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells are involved in the process and that the antigen is presented by donor and host dendritic cells. The CD4+ helper T-cells help recruit other effector cells, such as macrophapges and eosinophils, to the graft. Accessing T-cell activation signal transduction cascades (for example, CD28, CD40L, and CD2 cascades) are also involved. The cell-mediated acute rejection can be reversed in many cases by intensifying immunotherapy. After successful reversal, severely damaged elements of the graft heal by fibrosis and the remainder of the graft appears normal. After resolution of acute rejection, dosages of immunosuppressive drugs can be reduced to very low levels. Chronic rejection, which is a particular problem in renal transplants, often progresses insidiously despite increased immunosuppressive therapy. It is thought to be due, in large part, to cell-mediated Type IV hypersensitivity. The pathologic profile differs from that of acute rejection. The arterial endothelium is primarily involved with extensive proliferation that may gradually occlude the vessel lumen, leading to ischemia, fibrosis, a thickened intima, and atherosclerotic changes. Chronic rejection is mainly due to a progressive obliteration of graft vasculature and resembles a slow, vasculitic process. In Type IV hypersensitivity, CD8 cytotoxic T-cells and CD4 helper T cells recognize either intracellular or extracellular synthesized antigen when it is complexed, respectively, with either Class I or Class II MHC molecules. Macrophages function as antigen-presenting cells and release IL-1, which promotes proliferation of helper T-cells. Helper T-cells release interferon gamma and IL-2, which together regulate delayed hyperactivity reactions mediated by macrophage activation and immunity mediated by T cells. In the case of organ transplant, the cytotoxic T-cells destroy the graft cells on contact. Since JAK kinases play a critical role in the activation of T-cells, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein can be used to treat and/or prevent many aspects of transplant rejection, and are particularly useful in the treatment and/or prevention of rejection reactions that are mediated, at least in part, by T-cells, such as HVGR or GVHR. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can also be used to treat and/or prevent chronic rejection in transplant recipients and, in particular, in renal transplant recipients. The compound can also be administered to a tissue or an organ prior to transplanting the tissue or organ in the transplant recipient. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, comprising administering to a patient suffering from such an autoimmune disease an amount of a compound effective to treat the autoimmune disease wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention. In certain embodiments of the methods the autoimmune disease is multiple sclerosis (MS), psoraisis, or Sjogran's syndrome. Such autoimmune disease include, but are not limited to, those autoimmune diseases that are frequently designated as single organ or single cell-type autoimmune disorders and those autoimmune disease that are frequently designated as involving systemic autoimmune disorder. Non-limiting examples of diseases frequently designated as single organ or single cell-type autoimmune disorders include: Hashimoto's thyroiditis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune atrophic gastritis of pernicious anemia, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, autoimmune orchitis, Goodpasture's disease, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, sympathetic ophthalmia, myasthenia gravis, Graves' disease, primary biliary cirrhosis, chronic aggressive hepatitis, ulcerative colitis and membranous glomerulopathy. Non-limiting examples of diseases often designated as involving systemic autoimmune disorder include: systemic lupus erythematosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, Reiter's syndrome, polymyositis-dermatomyositis, systemic sclerosis, polyarteritis nodosa, multiple sclerosis and bullous pemphigoid. Additional autoimmune diseases, which can be β-cell (humoral) based or T-cell based, include Cogan's syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, Wegener's granulomatosis, autoimmune alopecia, Type I or juvenile onset diabetes, and thyroiditis. The types of autoimmune diseases that may be treated or prevented with such prodrugs generally include those disorders involving tissue injury that occurs as a result of a humoral and/or cell-mediated response to immunogens or antigens of endogenous and/or exogenous origin. Such diseases are frequently referred to as diseases involving the nonanaphylactic (i.e., Type II, Type III and/or Type IV) hypersensitivity reactions. Type I hypersensitivity reactions generally result from the release of pharmacologically active substances, such as histamine, from mast and/or basophil cells following contact with a specific exogenous antigen. As mentioned above, such Type I reactions play a role in numerous diseases, including allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis, etc. Type II hypersensitivity reactions (also referred to as cytotoxic, cytolytic complement-dependent or cell-stimulating hypersensitivity reactions) result when immunoglobulins react with antigenic components of cells or tissue, or with an antigen or hapten that has become intimately coupled to cells or tissue. Diseases that are commonly associated with Type II hypersensitivity reactions include, but are not limited, to autoimmune hemolytic anemia, erythroblastosis fetalis and Goodpasture's disease. Type III hypersensitivity reactions, (also referred to as toxic complex, soluble complex, or immune complex hypersensitivity reactions) result from the deposition of soluble circulating antigen-immunoglobulin complexes in vessels or in tissues, with accompanying acute inflammatory reactions at the site of immune complex deposition. Non-limiting examples of prototypical Type III reaction diseases include the Arthus reaction, rheumatoid arthritis, serum sickness, systemic lupus erythematosis, certain types of glomerulonephritis, multiple sclerosis and bullous pemphingoid. Type IV hypersensitivity reactions (frequently called cellular, cell-mediated, delayed, or tuberculin-type hypersensitivity reactions) are caused by sensitized T-lymphocytes which result from contact with a specific antigen. Non-limiting examples of diseases cited as involving Type IV reactions are contact dermatitis and allograft rejection. Autoimmune diseases associated with any of the above nonanaphylactic hypersensitivity reactions may be treated or prevented with the prodrugs according to structural formulae (I) and (Ia). In particular, the methods may be used to treat or prevent those autoimmune diseases frequently characterized as single organ or single cell-type autoimmune disorders including, but not limited to: Hashimoto's thyroiditis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune atrophic gastritis of pernicious anemia, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, autoimmune orchitis, Goodpasture's disease, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, sympathetic ophthalmia, myasthenia gravis, Graves' disease, primary biliary cirrhosis, chronic aggressive hepatitis, ulcerative colitis and membranous glomerulopathy, as well as those autoimmune diseases frequently characterized as involving systemic autoimmune disorder, which include but are not limited to: systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, Reiter's syndrome, polymyositis-dermatomyositis, systemic sclerosis, polyarteritis nodosa, multiple sclerosis and bullous pemphigoid. It will be appreciated by skilled artisans that many of the above-listed autoimmune diseases are associated with severe symptoms, the amelioration of which provides significant therapeutic benefit even in instances where the underlying autoimmune disease may not be ameliorated. Therapy using the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein can be applied alone, or it can be applied in combination with or adjunctive to other common immunosuppressive therapies, such as, for example, the following: mercaptopurine; corticosteroids such as prednisone; methylprednisolone and prednisolone; alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide; calcineurin inhibitors such as cyclosporine, sirolimus, and tacrolimus; inhibitors of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) such as mycophenolate, mycophenolate mofetil, and azathioprine; and agents designed to suppress cellular immunity while leaving the recipient's humoral immunologic response intact, including various antibodies (for example, antilymphocyte globulin (ALG), antithymocyte globulin (ATG), monoclonal anti-T-cell antibodies (OKT3)) and irradiation. These various agents can be used in accordance with their standard or common dosages, as specified in the prescribing information accompanying commercially available forms of the drugs (see also: the prescribing information in the 2006 Edition of The Physician's Desk Reference), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. Azathioprine is currently available from Salix Pharmaceuticals, Inc., under the brand name AZASAN; mercaptopurine is currently available from Gate Pharmaceuticals, Inc., under the brand name PURINETHOL; prednisone and prednisolone are currently available from Roxane Laboratories, Inc.; Methyl prednisolone is currently available from Pfizer; sirolimus (rapamycin) is currently available from Wyeth-Ayerst under the brand name RAPAMUNE; tacrolimus is currently available from Fujisawa under the brand name PROGRAF; cyclosporine is current available from Novartis under the brand dame SANDIMMUNE and from Abbott under the brand name GENGRAF; IMPDH inhibitors such as mycophenolate mofetil and mycophenolic acid are currently available from Roche under the brand name CELLCEPT and from Novartis under the brand name MYFORTIC; azathioprine is currently available from Glaxo Smith Kline under the brand name IMURAN; and antibodies are currently available from Ortho Biotech under the brand name ORTHOCLONE, from Novartis under the brand name SIMULECT (basiliximab), and from Roche under the brand name ZENAPAX (daclizumab). In another embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds could be administered either in combination or adjunctively with an inhibitor of a Syk kinase. Syk kinase is a tyrosine kinase known to play a critical role in Fcy receptor signaling, as well as in other signaling cascades, such as those involving B-Cell receptor signaling (Turner et al., (2000), Immunology Today 21:148-154) and integrins beta(1), beta (2), and beta (3) in neutrophils (Mocsavi et al., (2002), Immunity 16:547-558). For example, Syk kinase plays a pivotal role in high affinity IgE receptor signaling in mast cells that leads to activation and subsequent release of multiple chemical mediators that trigger allergic attacks. However, unlike the JAK kinases, which help regulate the pathways involved in delayed or cell-mediated Type IV hypersensitivity reactions, Syk kinase helps regulate the pathways involved in immediate IgE-mediated, Type I hypersensitivity reactions. Certain compounds that affect the Syk pathway may or may not also affect the JAK pathways. Suitable Syk inhibitory compounds are described, for example, in Ser. No. 10/355,543 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (publication no. 2004/0029902); WO 03/063794; Ser. No. 10/631,029 filed Jul. 29, 2003; WO 2004/014382; Ser. No. 10/903,263 filed Jul. 30, 2004; PCT/US2004/24716 filed Jul. 30, 2004 (WO005/016893); Ser. No. 10/903,870 filed Jul. 30, 2004; PCT/US2004/24920 filed Jul. 30, 2004; Ser. No. 60/630,808 filed Nov. 24, 2004; Ser. No. 60/645,424 filed Jan. 19, 2005; and Ser. No. 60/654,620, filed Feb. 18, 2005, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine described herein and Syk inhibitory compounds could be used alone or in combination with one or more conventional transplant rejection treatments, as described above. In a specific embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be used to treat or prevent these diseases in patients that are either initially non-responsive (resistant) to or that become non-responsive to treatment with a Syk inhibitory compound or one of the other current treatments for the particular disease. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds could also be used in combination with Syk inhibitory compounds in patients that are Syk-compound resistant or non-responsive. Suitable Syk-inhibitory compounds with which the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be administered are provided supra. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating a T-cell mediated autoimmune disease, comprising administering to a patient suffering from such an autoimmune disease an amount of a compound effective to treat the autoimmune disease wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein, and the compound is administered in combination with or adjunctively to a compound that inhibits Syk kinase with an IC50 in the range of at least 10 μM. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein. In a further embodiment, the compound is administered to a tissue or an organ prior to transplanting the tissue or organ in the transplant recipient. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the rejection is acute rejection, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the rejection is chronic rejection, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the rejection is mediated by HVGR or GVHR, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the allograft transplant is selected from a kidney, a heart, a liver, and a lung, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the allograft transplant is selected from a kidney, a heart, a liver, and a lung, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein, in which the compound is administered in combination with or adjunctively to another immunosuppressant. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing allograft transplant rejection in a transplant recipient, in which the allograft transplant is selected from a kidney, a heart, a liver, and a lung, comprising administering to the transplant recipient an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the rejection, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein, in which the compound is administered in combination with or adjunctively to another immunosuppressant, in which the immunosuppressant is selected from cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, an inhibitor of IMPDH, mycophenolate, mycophanolate mofetil, an anti-T-Cell antibody, and OKT3. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein are cytokine moderators of IL-4 signaling. As a consequence, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds could slow the response of Type I hypersensitivity reactions. Thus, in a specific embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds could be used to treat such reactions and, therefore, the diseases associated with, mediated by, or caused by such hypersensitivity reactions (for example, allergies), prophylactically. For example, an allergy sufferer could take one or more of the JAK selective compounds described herein prior to expected exposure to allergens to delay the onset or progress of, or eliminate altogether, an allergic response. When used to treat or prevent such diseases, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be administered singly, as mixtures of one or more 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds, or in mixture or combination with other agents useful for treating such diseases and/or the symptoms associated with such diseases. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds may also be administered in mixture or in combination with agents useful to treat other disorders or maladies, such as steroids, membrane stabilizers, 5-lipoxygenase (5LO) inhibitors, leukotriene synthesis and receptor inhibitors, inhibitors of IgE isotype switching or IgE synthesis, IgG isotype switching or IgG synthesis, β-agonists, tryptase inhibitors, aspirin, cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors, methotrexate, anti-TNF drugs, retuxin, PD4 inhibitors, p38 inhibitors, PDE4 inhibitors, and antihistamines, to name a few. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be administered per se in the form of prodrugs or as pharmaceutical compositions, comprising an active compound or prodrug. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a Type IV hypersensitivity reaction, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the hypersensitivity reaction, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a Type IV hypersensitivity reaction, which is practical prophylactically, comprising administering to a subject an amount of a compound effective to treat or prevent the hypersensitivity reaction, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein, and is administered prior to exposure to an allergen. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of inhibiting a signal transduction cascade in which JAK3 kinase plays a role, comprising contacting a cell expressing a receptor involved in such a signaling cascade with a compound, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, comprising administering to a subject an amount of compound effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of this invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, in which the JAK-mediated disease is HVGR or GVHR, comprising administering to a subject an amount of compound effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, in which the JAK-mediated disease is acute allograft rejection, comprising administering to a subject an amount of compound effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of treating or preventing a JAK kinase-mediated disease, in which the JAK-mediated disease is chronic allograft rejection, comprising administering to a subject an amount of compound effective to treat or prevent the JAK kinase-mediated disease, wherein the compound is selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein. Active compounds of the invention typically inhibit the JAK/Stat pathway. The activity of a specified compound as an inhibitor of a JAK kinase can be assessed in vitro or in vivo. In some embodiments, the activity of a specified compound can be tested in a cellular assay. Suitable assays include assays that determine inhibition of either the phosphorylation activity or ATPase activity of a JAK kinase. Thus, a compound is said to inhibit an activity of a JAK kinase if it inhibits the phosphorylation or ATPase activity of a JAK kinase with an IC50 of about 20 μM or less. “Cell proliferative disorder” refers to a disorder characterized by abnormal proliferation of cells. A proliferative disorder does not imply any limitation with respect to the rate of cell growth, but merely indicates loss of normal controls that affect growth and cell division. Thus, in some embodiments, cells of a proliferative disorder can have the same cell division rates as normal cells but do not respond to signals that limit such growth. Within the ambit of “cell proliferative disorder” is neoplasm or tumor, which is an abnormal growth of tissue. Cancer refers to any of various malignant neoplasms characterized by the proliferation of cells that have the capability to invade surrounding tissue and/or metastasize to new colonization sites. “Hematopoietic neoplasm” refers to a cell proliferative disorder arising from cells of the hematopoietic lineage. Generally, hematopoiesis is the physiological process whereby undifferentiated cells or stem cells develop into various cells found in the peripheral blood. In the initial phase of development, hematopoietic stem cells, typically found in the bone marrow, undergo a series of cell divisions to form multipotent progenitor cells that commit to two main developmental pathways: the lymphoid lineage and the myeloid lineage. The committed progenitor cells of the myeloid lineage differentiate into three major sub-branches comprised of the erythroid, megakaryocyte, and granulocyte/monocyte developmental pathways. An additional pathway leads to formation of dendritic cells, which are involved in antigen presentation. The erythroid lineage gives rise to red blood cells while the megakaryocytic lineage gives rise to blood platelets. Committed cells of the granulocyte/monocyte lineage split into granulocyte or monocyte developmental pathways, the former pathway leading to formation of neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils and the latter pathway giving rise to blood monocytes and macrophages. Committed progenitor cells of the lymphoid lineage develop into the B cell pathway, T cell pathway, or the non-T/B cell pathway. Similar to the myeloid lineage, an additional lymphoid pathway appears to give rise to dendritic cells involved in antigen presentation. The B cell progenitor cell develops into a precursor B cell (pre-B), which differentiates into B cells responsible for producing immunoglobulins. Progenitor cells of the T cell lineage differentiate into precursor T cells (pre-T) that, based on the influence of certain cytokines, develop into cytotoxic or helper/suppressor T cells involved in cell mediated immunity. Non-T/B cell pathway leads to generation of natural killer (NK) cells. Neoplasms of hematopoietic cells can involve cells of any phase of hematopoiesis, including hematopoietic stem cells, multipotent progenitor cells, oligopotent committed progenitor cells, precursor cells, and mature differentiated cells. The categories of hematopoietic neoplasms can generally follow the descriptions and diagnostic criteria employed by those of skill in the art (see, e.g., International Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems (ICD 10), World Health Organization (2003)). Hematopoietic neoplasms can also be characterized based on the molecular features, such as cell surface markers and gene expression profiles, cell phenotype exhibited by the aberrant cells, and/or chromosomal aberrations (e.g., deletions, translocations, insertions, etc.) characteristic of certain hematopoietic neoplasms, such as the Philadelphia chromosome found in chronic myelogenous leukemia. Other classifications include National Cancer Institute Working Formulation (Cancer, 1982, 49:2112-2135) and Revised European-American Lymphoma Classification (REAL). “Lymphoid neoplasm” refers a proliferative disorder involving cells of the lymphoid lineage of hematopoiesis. Lymphoid neoplasms can arise from hematopoietic stem cells as well as lymphoid committed progenitor cells, precursor cells, and terminally differentiated cells. These neoplasms can be subdivided based on the phenotypic attributes of the aberrant cells or the differentiated state from which the abnormal cells arise. Subdivisions include, among others, B cell neoplasms, T cell neoplasms, NK cell neoplasms, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. “Myeloid neoplasm” refers to proliferative disorder of cells of the myeloid lineage of hematopoiesis. Neoplasms can arise from hematopoietic stem cells, myeloid committed progenitor cells, precursor cells, and terminally differentiated cells. Myeloid neoplasms can be subdivided based on the phenotypic attributes of the aberrant cells or the differentiated state from which the abnormal cells arise. Subdivisions include, among others, myeloproliferative diseases, myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative diseases, myelodysplastic syndromes, acute myeloid leukemia, and acute biphenotypic leukemia. Generally, cell proliferative disorders treatable with the compounds disclosed herein relate to any disorder characterized by aberrant cell proliferation. These include various tumors and cancers, benign or malignant, metastatic or non-metastatic. Specific properties of cancers, such as tissue invasiveness or metastasis, can be targeted using the methods described herein. Cell proliferative disorders include a variety of cancers, including, among others, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, renal cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, pancreatic cancer, lung squamous carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. In some embodiments, the cell proliferative disorder treated is a hematopoietic neoplasm, which is aberrant growth of cells of the hematopoietic system. Hematopoietic malignancies can have its origins in pluripotent stem cells, multipotent progenitor cells, oligopotent committed progenitor cells, precursor cells, and terminally differentiated cells involved in hematopoiesis. Some hematological malignancies are believed to arise from hematopoietic stem cells, which have the ability for self renewal. For instance, cells capable of developing specific subtypes of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) upon transplantation display the cell surface markers of hematopoietic stem cells, implicating hematopoietic stem cells as the source of leukemic cells. Blast cells that do not have a cell marker characteristic of hematopoietic stem cells appear to be incapable of establishing tumors upon transplantation (Blaire et al., 1997, Blood 89:3104-3112). The stem cell origin of certain hematological malignancies also finds support in the observation that specific chromosomal abnormalities associated with particular types of leukemia can be found in normal cells of hematopoietic lineage as well as leukemic blast cells. For instance, the reciprocal translocation t(9q34;22q11) associated with approximately 95% of chronic myelogenous leukemia appears to be present in cells of the myeloid, erythroid, and lymphoid lineage, suggesting that the chromosomal aberration originates in hematopoietic stem cells. A subgroup of cells in certain types of CML displays the cell marker phenotype of hematopoietic stem cells. Although hematopoietic neoplasms often originate from stem cells, committed progenitor cells or more terminally differentiated cells of a developmental lineage can also be the source of some leukemias. For example, forced expression of the fusion protein Bcr/Abl (associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia) in common myeloid progenitor or granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells produces a leukemic-like condition. Moreover, some chromosomal aberrations associated with subtypes of leukemia are not found in the cell population with a marker phenotype of hematopoietic stem cells, but are found in a cell population displaying markers of a more differentiated state of the hematopoietic pathway (Turhan et al., 1995, Blood 85:2154-2161). Thus, while committed progenitor cells and other differentiated cells may have only a limited potential for cell division, leukemic cells may have acquired the ability to grow unregulated, in some instances mimicking the self-renewal characteristics of hematopoietic stem cells (Passegue et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, 100:11842-9). In some embodiments, the hematopoietic neoplasm treated is a lymphoid neoplasm, where the abnormal cells are derived from and/or display the characteristic phenotype of cells of the lymphoid lineage. Lymphoid neoplasms can be subdivided into B-cell neoplasms, T and NK-cell neoplasms, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. B-cell neoplasms can be further subdivided into precursor B-cell neoplasm and mature/peripheral B-cell neoplasm. Exemplary B-cell neoplasms are precursor B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia) while exemplary mature/peripheral B-cell neoplasms are B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma, B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, hairy cell leukemia, plasma cell myeloma/plasmacytoma, extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma of MALT type, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle-cell lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and Burkitt's lymphoma/Burkitt cell leukemia. T-cell and Nk-cell neoplasms are further subdivided into precursor T-cell neoplasm and mature (peripheral) T-cell neoplasms. Exemplary precursor T-cell neoplasm is precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia (precursor T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia) while exemplary mature (peripheral) T-cell neoplasms are T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia T-cell granular lymphocytic leukemia, aggressive NK-cell leukemia, adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (HTLV-1), extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type, enteropathy-type T-cell lymphoma, hepatosplenic gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, Mycosis fungoides/Sezary syndrome, Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, T/null cell, primary cutaneous type, Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise characterized, Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, T/null cell, primary systemic type. The third member of lymphoid neoplasms is Hodgkin's lymphoma, also referred to as Hodgkin's disease. Exemplary diagnosis of this class that can be treated with the compounds include, among others, nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin's lymphoma, and various classical forms of Hodgkin's disease, exemplary members of which are Nodular sclerosis Hodgkin's lymphoma (grades 1 and 2), Lymphocyte-rich classical Hodgkin's lymphoma, Mixed cellularity Hodgkin's lymphoma, and Lymphocyte depletion Hodgkin's lymphoma. In various embodiments, any of the lymphoid neoplasms that are associated with aberrant JAK activity can be treated with the JAK inhibitory compounds. In some embodiments, the hematopoietic neoplasm treated is a myeloid neoplasm. This group comprises a large class of cell proliferative disorders involving or displaying the characteristic phenotype of the cells of the myeloid lineage. Myeloid neoplasms can be subdivided into myeloproliferative diseases, myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative diseases, myelodysplastic syndromes, and acute myeloid leukemias. Exemplary myeloproliferative diseases are chronic myelogenous leukemia (e.g., Philadelphia chromosome positive (t(9;22)(qq34;q11)), chronic neutrophilic leukemia, chronic eosinophilic leukemia/hypereosinophilic syndrome, chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera, and essential thrombocythemia. Exemplary myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative diseases are chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia, and juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia. Exemplary myelodysplastic syndromes are refractory anemia, with ringed sideroblasts and without ringed sideroblasts, refractory cytopenia (myelodysplastic syndrome) with multilineage dysplasia, refractory anemia (myelodysplastic syndrome) with excess blasts, 5q-syndrome, and myelodysplastic syndrome. In various embodiments, any of the myeloid neoplasms that are associated with aberrant JAK activity can be treated with the JAK inhibitory compounds. In some embodiments, the JAK inhibitory compounds can be used to treat Acute myeloid leukemias (AML), which represent a large class of myeloid neoplasms having its own subdivision of disorders. These subdivisions include, among others, AMLs with recurrent cytogenetic translocations, AML with multilineage dysplasia, and other AML not otherwise categorized. Exemplary AMLs with recurrent cytogenetic translocations include, among others, AML with t(8;21)(q22;q22), AML1(CBF-alpha)/ETO, Acute promyelocytic leukemia (AML with t(15;17)(q22;q11-12) and variants, PML/RAR-alpha), AML with abnormal bone marrow eosinophils (inv(16)(p13q22) or t(16;16)(p13;q11), CBFb/MYH11X), and AML with 11q23 (MLL) abnormalities. Exemplary AML with multilineage dysplasia are those that are associated with or without prior myelodysplastic syndrome. Other acute myeloid leukemias not classified within any definable group include, AML minimally differentiated, AML without maturation, AML with maturation, Acute myelomonocytic leukemia, Acute monocytic leukemia, Acute erythroid leukemia, Acute megakaryocytic leukemia, Acute basophilic leukemia, and Acute panmyelosis with myelofibrosis. One means of assaying for such inhibition is detection of the effect of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds on the upregulation of downstream gene products. In the Ramos/IL4 assay, B-cells are stimulated with the cytokine Interleukin-4 (IL-4) leading to the activation of the JAK/Stat pathway through phosphorylation of the JAK family kinases, JAK1 and JAK3, which in turn phosphorylate and activate the transcription factor Stat-6. One of the genes upregulated by activated Stat-6 is the low affinity IgE receptor, CD23. To study the effect of inhibitors (e.g., the 2,4-substituted pyrimindinediamine compounds described herein) on the JAK1 and JAK3 kinases, human Ramos B cells are stimulated with human IL-4. 20 to 24 hours post stimulation, cells are stained for upregulation of CD23 and analyzed using flow cytometry (FACS). A reduction of the amount of CD23 present compared to control conditions indicates the test compound actively inhibits the JAK kinase pathway. An exemplary assay of this type is described in greater detail in Example 3. The activity of the active compounds of the invention may further be characterized by assaying the effect of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein on the proliferative response of primary human T-cells. In this assay, primary human T-cells derived from peripheral blood and pre-activated through stimulation of the T-cell receptor and CD28, proliferate in culture in response to the cytokine Interleukin-2 (IL-2). This proliferative response is dependent on the activation of JAK1 and JAK3 tyrosine kinases, which phosphorylate and activate the transcription factor Stat-5. The primary human T-cells are incubated with the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in the presence of IL-2 for 72 hours, and at the assay endpoint intracellular ATP concentrations are measured to assess cell viability. A reduction in cell proliferation compared to control conditions is indicative of inhibition of the JAK kinase pathway. An exemplary assay of this type is described in greater detail in Example 4. The activity of the compounds of the invention may additionally be characterized by assaying the effect of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein on A549 lung epithelial cells and U937 cells. A549 lung epithelial cells and U937 cells up-regulate ICAM-1 (CD54) surface expression in response to a variety of different stimuli. Therefore, using ICAM-1 expression as readout, test compound effects on different signaling pathways can be assessed in the same cell type. Stimulation with IL-1β through the IL-1β receptor activates the TRAF6/NFκB pathway resulting in up-regulation of ICAM-1. IFNγ induces ICAM-1 up-regulation through activation of the JAK1/JAK2 pathway. The up-regulation of ICAM-1 can be quantified by flow cytometry across a compound dose curve and EC50 values are calculated. Exemplary assays of this type are described in greater detail in Examples 5 and 6. Active compounds as described herein generally inhibit the JAK kinase pathway with an IC50 in the range of about 1 mM or less, as measured in the assays described herein. Of course, skilled artisans will appreciate that compounds which exhibit lower IC50s, (on the order, for example, of 100 μM, 75 μM, 50 μM, 40 μM, 30 μM, 20 μM, 15 μM, 10 μM, 5 μM, 1 μM, 500 nM, 100 nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, or even lower) can be particularly useful in therapeutic applications. In instances where activity specific to a particular cell type is desired, the compound can be assayed for activity with the desired cell type and counter-screened for a lack of activity against other cell types. The desired degree of “inactivity” in such counter screens, or the desired ratio of activity vs. inactivity, may vary for different situations and can be selected by the user. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine active compounds also typically inhibit IL-4 stimulated expression of CD23 in B-cells with an IC50 in the range of about 20 μM or less, typically in the range of about 10 μM, 1 μM, 500 nM, 100 nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, or even lower. A suitable assay that can be used is the assay described in Example 3, “Assay for Ramos B-Cell Line Stimulated with IL-4.” In certain embodiments, the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds have an IC50 of less than or equal to 5 μM, greater than 5 μM but less than 20 μM, greater than 20 μM, or greater than 20 μM but less than 50 μM in the assay described in Example 3. Additionally, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine active compounds typically inhibit an activity of human primary T-cells with an IC50 in the range of about 20 μM or less, typically in the range of about 10 μM, 1 μM, 500 nM, 100 nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, or even lower. The IC50 against human primary T-cells can be determined in a standard in vitro assay with isolated human primary T-cells. A suitable assay that can be used is the assay described in Example 4, “Primary Human T-cell Proliferation Assay Stimulated with IL-2.” In certain embodiments, the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds have an IC50 of less than or equal to 5 μM, greater than 5 μM but less than 20 μM, greater than 20 μM, or greater than 20 μM but less than 50 μM in the assay described in Example 4. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine active compounds also typically inhibit expression of ICAM1 (CD54) induced by IFNγ exposure in U937 or A549 cells with an IC50 in the range of about 20 μM or less, typically in the range of about 10 μM, 1 μM, 500 nM, 100 nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, or even lower. The IC50 against expression of ICAM (CD54) in IFNγ stimulated cells can be determined in a functional cellular assay with an isolated A549 or U937 cell line. Suitable assays that can be used are the assays described in Examples 5 and 6, “A549 Epithelial Line Stimulated with IFNγ” and “U937 IFNγ ICAM1 FACS Assay,” respectively. In certain embodiments, the active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds have an IC50 of less than or equal to 20 μM, greater than 20 μM, or greater than 20 μM but less than 50 μM in the assays described in Example 5 and 6. E. Pharmaceutical Compositions of the Invention Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein (or prodrugs thereof) can be manufactured by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping, or lyophilization processes. The compositions can be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers, diluents, excipients, or auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound or prodrug can be formulated in the pharmaceutical compositions per se, or in the form of a hydrate, solvate, N-oxide, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, as described herein. Typically, such salts are more soluble in aqueous solutions than the corresponding free acids and bases, but salts having lower solubility than the corresponding free acids and bases may also be formed. In one embodiment, this invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a compound selected from the compounds of the invention, as described herein, or a prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, preservative, stabilizer, or mixture thereof. In another embodiment, the methods can be practiced as a therapeutic approach towards the treatment of the conditions described herein. Thus, in a specific embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds (and the various forms described herein, including pharmaceutical formulations comprising the compounds (in the various forms)) can be used to treat the conditions described herein in animal subjects, including humans. The methods generally comprise administering to the subject an amount of a compound of the invention, or a salt, prodrug, hydrate, or N-oxide thereof, effective to treat the condition. In one embodiment, the subject is a non-human mammal, including, but not limited to, bovine, horse, feline, canine, rodent, or primate. In another embodiment, the subject is a human. The compounds can be provided in a variety of formulations and dosages. The compounds can be provided in a pharmaceutically acceptable form, including where the compound or prodrug can be formulated in the pharmaceutical compositions per se, or in the form of a hydrate, solvate, N-oxide, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, as described herein. Typically, such salts are more soluble in aqueous solutions than the corresponding free acids and bases, but salts having lower solubility than the corresponding free acids and bases may also be formed. It is to be understood that reference to the compound, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound, or “active” in discussions of formulations is also intended to include, where appropriate as known to those of skill in the art, formulation of the prodrugs of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds. In one embodiment, the compounds are provided as non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable salts, as noted previously. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of this invention include acid addition salts such as those formed with hydrochloric acid, fumaric acid, p-toluenesulphonic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, carbonic acid, or phosphoric acid. Salts of amine groups may also comprise quaternary ammonium salts in which the amino nitrogen atom carries a suitable organic group such as an alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or substituted alkyl moiety. Furthermore, where the compounds of the invention carry an acidic moiety, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may include metal salts such as alkali metal salts, e.g., sodium or potassium salts; and alkaline earth metal salts, e.g., calcium or magnesium salts. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the present invention can be formed by conventional means, such as by reacting the free base form of the product with one or more equivalents of the appropriate acid in a solvent or medium in which the salt is insoluble or in a solvent such as water which is removed in vacuo, by freeze drying, or by exchanging the anions of an existing salt for another anion on a suitable ion exchange resin. The present invention includes within its scope solvates of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and salts thereof, for example, hydrates. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds may have one or more asymmetric centers and may accordingly exist both as enantiomers and as diastereoisomers. It is to be understood that all such isomers and mixtures thereof are encompassed within the scope of the present invention. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be administered by oral, parenteral (e.g., intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, ICV, intracisternal injection or infusion, subcutaneous injection, or implant), by inhalation spray nasal, vaginal, rectal, sublingual, urethral (e.g., urethral suppository) or topical routes of administration (e.g., gel, ointment, cream, aerosol, etc.) and can be formulated, alone or together, in suitable dosage unit formulations containing conventional non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants, excipients, and vehicles appropriate for each route of administration. In addition to the treatment of warm-blooded animals such as mice, rats, horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, cats, and monkeys, the compounds of the invention can be effective in humans. The pharmaceutical compositions for the administration of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be conveniently presented in dosage unit form and can be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. The pharmaceutical compositions can be, for example, prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing the active ingredient into association with a liquid carrier, a finely divided solid carrier or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired formulation. In the pharmaceutical composition the active object compound is included in an amount sufficient to produce the desired therapeutic effect. For example, pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may take a form suitable for virtually any mode of administration, including, for example, topical, ocular, oral, buccal, systemic, nasal, injection, transdermal, rectal, and vaginal, or a form suitable for administration by inhalation or insufflation. For topical administration, the JAK-selective compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be formulated as solutions, gels, ointments, creams, suspensions, etc., as is well-known in the art. Systemic formulations include those designed for administration by injection (e.g., subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal, or intraperitoneal injection) as well as those designed for transdermal, transmucosal, oral, or pulmonary administration. Useful injectable preparations include sterile suspensions, solutions, or emulsions of the active compound(s) in aqueous or oily vehicles. The compositions may also contain formulating agents, such as suspending, stabilizing, and/or dispersing agents. The formulations for injection can be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampules or in multidose containers, and may contain added preservatives. Alternatively, the injectable formulation can be provided in powder form for reconstitution with a suitable vehicle, including but not limited to sterile pyrogen free water, buffer, and dextrose solution, before use. To this end, the active compound(s) can be dried by any art-known technique, such as lyophilization, and reconstituted prior to use. For transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are known in the art. For oral administration, the pharmaceutical compositions may take the form of, for example, lozenges, tablets, or capsules prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g., pregelatinised maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone, or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose); fillers (e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, or calcium hydrogen phosphate); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc, or silica); disintegrants (e.g., potato starch or sodium starch glycolate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate). The tablets can be coated by methods well known in the art with, for example, sugars, films, or enteric coatings. Additionally, the pharmaceutical compositions containing the 2,4-substituted pyrmidinediamine as active ingredient or prodrug thereof in a form suitable for oral use may also include, for example, troches, lozenges, aqueous, or oily suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups or elixirs. Compositions intended for oral use can be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions, and such compositions may contain one or more agents selected from the group consisting of sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents, and preserving agents in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparations. Tablets contain the active ingredient (including drug and/or prodrug) in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are suitable for the manufacture of tablets. These excipients can be for example, inert diluents, such as calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, calcium phosphate or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents (e.g., corn starch or alginic acid); binding agents (e.g. starch, gelatin, or acacia); and lubricating agents (e.g., magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or talc). The tablets can be left uncoated or they can be coated by known techniques to delay disintegration and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate can be employed. They may also be coated by the techniques described in the U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,166,452; and 4,265,874 to form osmotic therapeutic tablets for control release. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be in the form of oil-in-water emulsions. Liquid preparations for oral administration may take the form of, for example, elixirs, solutions, syrups, or suspensions, or they can be presented as a dry product for constitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations can be prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as suspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, cellulose derivatives, or hydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agents (e.g., lecithin, or acacia); non-aqueous vehicles (e.g., almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol, cremophore™, or fractionated vegetable oils); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl-p-hydroxybenzoates or sorbic acid). The preparations may also contain buffer salts, preservatives, flavoring, coloring, and sweetening agents as appropriate. Preparations for oral administration can be suitably formulated to give controlled release of the active compound or prodrug, as is well known. For buccal administration, the compositions may take the form of tablets or lozenges formulated in the conventional manner. For rectal and vaginal routes of administration, the active compound(s) can be formulated as solutions (for retention enemas), suppositories, or ointments containing conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter or other glycerides. For nasal administration or administration by inhalation or insufflation, the active compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray from pressurized packs or a nebulizer with the use of a suitable propellant(e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, fluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, or other suitable gas). In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit can be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges for use in an inhaler or insufflator (for example, capsules and cartridges comprised of gelatin) can be formulated containing a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch. The pharmaceutical compositions can be in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspension. This suspension can be formulated according to the known art using those suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents which have been mentioned above. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that can be employed are water, Ringer's solution, and isotonic sodium chloride solution. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds may also be administered in the form of suppositories for rectal or urethral administration of the drug. In particular embodiments, the compounds can be formulated as urethral suppositories, for example, for use in the treatment of fertility conditions, particularly in males (e.g., for the treatment of testicular dysfunction). According to the invention, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be used for manufacturing a composition or medicament, including medicaments suitable for rectal or urethral administration. The invention also relates to methods for manufacturing compositions including 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in a form that is suitable for urethral or rectal adminstration, including suppositories. For topical use, creams, ointments, jellies, gels, solutions, suspensions, etc., containing the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be employed. In certain embodiments, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be formulated for topical administration with polyethylene glycol (PEG). These formulations may optionally comprise additional pharmaceutically acceptable ingredients such as diluents, stabilizers, and/or adjuvants. In particular embodiments, the topical formulations are formulated for the treatment of allergic conditions and/or skin conditions including psoriasis, contact dermatitis, and atopic dermatitis, among others described herein. According to the invention, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be used for manufacturing a composition or medicament, including medicaments suitable for topical administration. The invention also relates to methods for manufacturing compositions including 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in a form that is suitable for topical administration. According to the present invention, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can also be delivered by any of a variety of inhalation devices and methods known in the art, including, for example: U.S. Pat. No. 6,241,969; U.S. Pat. No. 6,060,069; U.S. Pat. No. 6,238,647; U.S. Pat. No. 6,335,316; U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,838; U.S. Pat. No. 5,672,581; WO96/32149; WO95/24183; U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,007; U.S. Pat. No. 5,404,871; U.S. Pat. No. 5,672,581; U.S. Pat. No. 5,743,250; U.S. Pat. No. 5,419,315; U.S. Pat. No. 5,558,085; WO98/33480; U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,833; U.S. Pat. No. 5,320,094; U.S. Pat. No. 5,780,014; U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,878; 5,518,998; 5,506,203; U.S. Pat. No. 5,661,130; U.S. Pat. No. 5,655,523; U.S. Pat. No. 5,645,051; U.S. Pat. No. 5,622,166; U.S. Pat. No. 5,577,497; U.S. Pat. No. 5,492,112; U.S. Pat. No. 5,327,883; U.S. Pat. No. 5,277,195; U.S. Pat. App. No. 20010041190; U.S. Pat. App. No. 20020006901; and U.S. Pat. App. No. 20020034477. Included among the devices which can be used to administer particular examples of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds are those well-known in the art, such as metered dose inhalers, liquid nebulizers, dry powder inhalers, sprayers, thermal vaporizers, and the like. Other suitable technology for administration of particular 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds includes electrohydrodynamic aerosolizers. In addition, the inhalation device is preferably practical, in the sense of being easy to use, small enough to carry conveniently, capable of providing multiple doses, and durable. Some specific examples of commercially available inhalation devices are Turbohaler (Astra, Wilmington, Del.), Rotahaler (Glaxo, Research Triangle Park, N.C.), Diskus (Glaxo, Research Triangle Park, N.C.), the Ultravent nebulizer (Mallinckrodt), the Acorn II nebulizer (Marquest Medical Products, Totowa, N.J.) the Ventolin metered dose inhaler (Glaxo, Research Triangle Park, N.C.), and the like. In one embodiment, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be delivered by a dry powder inhaler or a sprayer. As those skilled in the art will recognize, the formulation of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds, the quantity of the formulation delivered, and the duration of administration of a single dose depend on the type of inhalation device employed as well as other factors. For some aerosol delivery systems, such as nebulizers, the frequency of administration and length of time for which the system is activated will depend mainly on the concentration of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in the aerosol. For example, shorter periods of administration can be used at higher concentrations of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in the nebulizer solution. Devices such as metered dose inhalers can produce higher aerosol concentrations and can be operated for shorter periods to deliver the desired amount of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in some embodiments. Devices such as dry powder inhalers deliver active agent until a given charge of agent is expelled from the device. In this type of inhaler, the amount of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in a given quantity of the powder determines the dose delivered in a single administration. The formulation of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine is selected to yield the desired particle size in the chosen inhalation device. Formulations of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds for administration from a dry powder inhaler may typically include a finely divided dry powder containing 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds, but the powder can also include a bulking agent, buffer, carrier, excipient, another additive, or the like. Additives can be included in a dry powder formulation of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds, for example, to dilute the powder as required for delivery from the particular powder inhaler, to facilitate processing of the formulation, to provide advantageous powder properties to the formulation, to facilitate dispersion of the powder from the inhalation device, to stabilize to the formulation (e.g., antioxidants or buffers), to provide taste to the formulation, or the like. Typical additives include mono-, di-, and polysaccharides; sugar alcohols and other polyols, such as, for example, lactose, glucose, raffinose, melezitose, lactitol, maltitol, trehalose, sucrose, mannitol, starch, or combinations thereof, surfactants, such as sorbitols, diphosphatidyl choline, or lecithin; and the like. The present invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition including 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds suitable for administration by inhalation. According to the invention, 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can be used for manufacturing a composition or medicament, including medicaments suitable for administration by inhalation. The invention also relates to methods for manufacturing compositions including 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in a form that is suitable for administration, including administration by inhalation. For example, a dry powder formulation can be manufactured in several ways, using conventional techniques, such as described in any of the publications mentioned above and incorporated expressly herein by reference, and, for example, Baker, et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,904, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated expressly herein by reference. Particles in the size range appropriate for maximal deposition in the lower respiratory tract can be made by micronizing, milling, or the like. And a liquid formulation can be manufactured by dissolving the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds in a suitable solvent, such as water, at an appropriate pH, including buffers or other excipients. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds described herein (or prodrugs thereof) can be manufactured by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping, or lyophilization processes. The compositions can be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers, diluents, excipients, or auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically. For ocular administration, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be formulated as a solution, emulsion, suspension, etc., suitable for administration to the eye. A variety of vehicles suitable for administering compounds to the eye are known in the art. Specific non-limiting examples are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,261,547; U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,934; U.S. Pat. No. 6,056,950; U.S. Pat. No. 5,800,807; U.S. Pat. No. 5,776,445; U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,219; U.S. Pat. No. 5,521,222; U.S. Pat. No. 5,403,841; U.S. Pat. No. 5,077,033; U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,150; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,738,851. For prolonged delivery, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be formulated as a depot preparation for administration by implantation or intramuscular injection. The active ingredient can be formulated with suitable polymeric or hydrophobic materials (e.g., as an emulsion in an acceptable oil) or ion exchange resins, or as sparingly soluble derivatives (e.g., as a sparingly soluble salt). Alternatively, transdermal delivery systems manufactured as an adhesive disc or patch which slowly releases the active compound(s) for percutaneous absorption can be used. To this end, permeation enhancers can be used to facilitate transdermal penetration of the active compound(s). Suitable transdermal patches are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,407,713.; U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,456; U.S. Pat. No. 5,332,213; U.S. Pat. No. 5,336,168; U.S. Pat. No. 5,290,561; U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,346; U.S. Pat. No. 5,164,189; U.S. Pat. No. 5,163,899; U.S. Pat. No. 5,088,977; U.S. Pat. No. 5,087,240; U.S. Pat. No. 5,008,110; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,921,475. Alternatively, other pharmaceutical delivery systems can be employed. Liposomes and emulsions are well-known examples of delivery vehicles that can be used to deliver active compound(s) or prodrug(s). Certain organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) may also be employed, although usually at the cost of greater toxicity. The pharmaceutical compositions may, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which may contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the active compound(s). The pack may, for example, comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack. The pack or dispenser device can be accompanied by instructions for administration. The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compound(s) or prodrug(s) described herein, or compositions thereof, will generally be used in an amount effective to achieve the intended result, for example, in an amount effective to treat or prevent the particular condition being treated. The compound(s) can be administered therapeutically to achieve therapeutic benefit or prophylactically to achieve prophylactic benefit. By therapeutic benefit is meant eradication or amelioration of the underlying disorder being treated and/or eradication or amelioration of one or more of the symptoms associated with the underlying disorder such that the patient reports an improvement in feeling or condition, notwithstanding that the patient may still be afflicted with the underlying disorder. For example, administration of a compound to a patient suffering from an allergy provides therapeutic benefit not only when the underlying allergic response is eradicated or ameliorated, but also when the patient reports a decrease in the severity or duration of the symptoms associated with the allergy following exposure to the allergen. As another example, therapeutic benefit in the context of asthma includes an improvement in respiration following the onset of an asthmatic attack or a reduction in the frequency or severity of asthmatic episodes. As another specific example, therapeutic benefit in the context of transplantation rejection includes the ability to alleviate an acute rejection episode, such as, for example, HVGR or GVHR, or the ability to prolong the time period between onset of acute rejection episodes and/or onset of chronic rejection. Therapeutic benefit also includes halting or slowing the progression of the disease, regardless of whether improvement is realized. The amount of compound administered will depend upon a variety of factors, including, for example, the particular condition being treated, the mode of administration, the severity of the condition being treated, the age and weight of the patient, the bioavailability of the particular active compound. Determination of an effective dosage is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. As known by those of skill in the art, the preferred dosage of 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds will also depend on the age, weight, general health, and severity of the condition of the individual being treated. Dosage may also need to be tailored to the sex of the individual and/or the lung capacity of the individual, where administered by inhalation. Dosage may also be tailored to individuals suffering from more than one condition or those individuals who have additional conditions which affect lung capacity and the ability to breathe normally, for example, emphysema, bronchitis, pneumonia, and respiratory infections. Dosage, and frequency of administration of the compounds or prodrugs thereof, will also depend on whether the compounds are formulated for treatment of acute episodes of a condition or for the prophylactic treatment of a disorder. For example, acute episodes of allergic conditions, including allergy-related asthma, transplant rejection, etc. A skilled practitioner will be able to determine the optimal dose for a particular individual. For prophylactic administration, the compound can be administered to a patient at risk of developing one of the previously described conditions. For example, if it is unknown whether a patient is allergic to a particular drug, the compound can be administered prior to administration of the drug to avoid or ameliorate an allergic response to the drug. Alternatively, prophylactic administration can be applied to avoid the onset of symptoms in a patient diagnosed with the underlying disorder. For example, a compound can be administered to an allergy sufferer prior to expected exposure to the allergen. Compounds may also be administered prophylactically to healthy individuals who are repeatedly exposed to agents known to one of the above-described maladies to prevent the onset of the disorder. For example, a compound can be administered to a healthy individual who is repeatedly exposed to an allergen known to induce allergies, such as latex, in an effort to prevent the individual from developing an allergy. Alternatively, a compound can be administered to a patient suffering from asthma prior to partaking in activities which trigger asthma attacks to lessen the severity of, or avoid altogether, an asthmatic episode. In the context of transplant rejection, the compound can be administered while the patient is not having an acute rejection reaction to avoid the onset of rejection and/or prior to the appearance of clinical indications of chronic rejection. The compound can be administered systemically to the patient as well as administered to the tissue or organ prior to transplanting the tissue or organ in the patient. The amount of compound administered will depend upon a variety of factors, including, for example, the particular indication being treated, the mode of administration, whether the desired benefit is prophylactic or therapeutic, the severity of the indication being treated and the age and weight of the patient, and the bioavailability of the particular active compound. Determination of an effective dosage is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. Effective dosages can be estimated initially from in vitro assays. For example, an initial dosage for use in animals can be formulated to achieve a circulating blood or serum concentration of active compound that is at or above an IC50 of the particular compound as measured in as in vitro assay. Calculating dosages to achieve such circulating blood or serum concentrations taking into account the bioavailability of the particular compound is well within the capabilities of skilled artisans. For guidance, the reader is referred to Fingl & Woodbury, “General Principles,” In: Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Chapter 1, pp. 1-46, latest edition, Pergamagon Press, and the references cited therein. Initial dosages can also be estimated from in vivo data, such as animal models. Animal models useful for testing the efficacy of compounds to treat or prevent the various diseases described above are well-known in the art. Suitable animal models of hypersensitivity or allergic reactions are described in Foster, (1995) Allergy 50(21Suppl):6-9, discussion 34-38 and Tumas et al., (2001), J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 107(6):1025-1033. Suitable animal models of allergic rhinitis are described in Szelenyi et al., (2000), Arzneimittelforschung 50(11): 1037-42; Kawaguchi et al., (1994), Clin. Exp. Allergy 24(3):238-244 and Sugimoto et al, (2000), Immunopharmacology 48(1): 1-7. Suitable animal models of allergic conjunctivitis are described in Carreras et al., (1993), Br. J. Ophthalmol. 77(8):509-514; Saiga et al., (1992), Ophthalmic Res. 24(1):45-50; and Kunert et al., (2001), Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42(11):2483-2489. Suitable animal models of systemic mastocytosis are described in O'Keefe et al., (1987), J. Vet. Intern. Med. 1(2):75-80 and Bean-Knudsen et al., (1989), Vet. Pathol. 26(1):90-92. Suitable animal models of hyper IgE syndrome are described in Claman et al., (1990), Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 56(1):46-53. Suitable animal models of B-cell lymphoma are described in Hough et al., (1998), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:13853-13858 and Hakim et al., (1996), J. Immunol. 157(12):5503-5511. Suitable animal models of atopic disorders such as atopic dermatitis, atopic eczema, and atopic asthma are described in Chan et al., (2001), J. Invest. Dermatol 117(4):977-983 and Suto et al., (1999), Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 120(Suppl 1):70-75. Suitable animal models of transplant rejection, such as models of HVGR, are described in O'Shea et al., (2004), Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3:555-564; Cetkovic-Curlje & Tibbles, (2004), Current Pharmaceutical Design 10: 1767-1784; and Chengelian et al., (2003), Science 302:875-878. Ordinarily skilled artisans can routinely adapt such information to determine dosages suitable for human administration. Dosage amounts will typically be in the range of from about 0.0001 or 0.001 or 0.01 mg/kg/day to about 100 mg/kg/day, but can be higher or lower, depending upon, among other factors, the activity of the compound, its bioavailability, the mode of administration, and various factors discussed above. Dosage amount and interval can be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the compound(s) which are sufficient to maintain therapeutic or prophylactic effect. For example, the compounds can be administered once per week, several times per week (e.g., every other day), once per day, or multiple times per day, depending upon, among other things, the mode of administration, the specific indication being treated, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. In cases of local administration or selective uptake, such as local topical administration, the effective local concentration of active compound(s) may not be related to plasma concentration. Skilled artisans will be able to optimize effective local dosages without undue experimentation. Preferably, the compound(s) will provide therapeutic or prophylactic benefit without causing substantial toxicity. Toxicity of the compound(s) can be determined using standard pharmaceutical procedures. The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic (or prophylactic) effect is the therapeutic index. Compounds(s) that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. The foregoing disclosure pertaining to the dosage requirements for the 2,4-sbustituted pyrimidinediamine compounds is pertinent to dosages required for prodrugs, with the realization, apparent to the skilled artisan, that the amount of prodrug(s) administered will also depend upon a variety of factors, including, for example, the bioavailability of the particular prodrug(s) and the conversation rate and efficiency into active drug compound under the selected route of administration. Determination of an effective dosage of prodrug(s) for a particular use and mode of administration is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. Effective dosages can be estimated initially from in vitro activity and metabolism assays. For example, an initial dosage of prodrug for use in animals can be formulated to achieve a circulating blood or serum concentration of the metabolite active compound that is at or above an IC50 of the particular compound as measured in as in vitro assay, such as the in vitro CHMC or BMMC and other in vitro assays described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/355,543 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (US2004/0029902A1), international application Serial No. PCT/US03/03022 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (WO 03/063794), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/631,029 filed Jul. 29, 2003, international application Serial No. PCT/US03/24087 (WO2004/014382), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/903,263 filed Jul. 30, 2004, and international application Serial No. PCT/US2004/24716 (WO005/016893). Calculating dosages to achieve such circulating blood or serum concentrations, taking into account the bioavailability of the particular prodrug via the desired route of administration, is well within the capabilities of skilled artisans. For guidance, the reader is referred to Fingl & Woodbury, “General Principles,” In: Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Chapter 1, pp. 1-46, latest edition, Pagamonon Press, and the references cited therein. Also provided are kits for administration of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine, prodrug thereof, or pharmaceutical formulations comprising the compound that may include a dosage amount of at least one 2,4-pyrimidinediamine or a composition comprising at least one 2,4-pyrimidinediamine, as disclosed herein. Kits may further comprise suitable packaging and/or instructions for use of the compound. Kits may also comprise a means for the delivery of the at least one 2,4-pyrimidinediamine or compositions comprising at least one 2,4-pyrimidinediamine, such as an inhaler, spray dispenser (e.g., nasal spray), syringe for injection, or pressure pack for capsules, tables, suppositories, or other device as described herein. Additionally, the compounds of the present invention can be assembled in the form of kits. The kit provides the compound and reagents to prepare a composition for administration. The composition can be in a dry or lyophilized form or in a solution, particularly a sterile solution. When the composition is in a dry form, the reagent may comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent for preparing a liquid formulation. The kit may contain a device for administration or for dispensing the compositions, including, but not limited to, syringe, pipette, transdermal patch, or inhalant. The kits may include other therapeutic compounds for use in conjunction with the compounds described herein. In one embodiment, the therapeutic agents are immunosuppressant or anti-allergan compounds. These compounds can be provided in a separate form or mixed with the compounds of the present invention. The kits will include appropriate instructions for preparation and administration of the composition, side effects of the compositions, and any other relevant information. The instructions can be in any suitable format, including, but not limited to, printed matter, videotape, computer readable disk, or optical disc. In one embodiment, this invention provides a kit comprising a compound selected from the compounds of the invention or a prodrug thereof, packaging, and instructions for use. In another embodiment, this invention provides a kit comprising the pharmaceutical formulation comprising a compound selected from the compounds of the invention or a prodrug thereof and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, diluent, preservative, stabilizer, or mixture thereof, packaging, and instructions for use. In another aspect of the invention, kits for treating an individual who suffers from or is susceptible to the conditions described herein are provided, comprising a container comprising a dosage amount of an 2,4-pyrimidinediamine or composition, as disclosed herein, and instructions for use. The container can be any of those known in the art and appropriate for storage and delivery of oral, intravenous, topical, rectal, urethral, or inhaled formulations. Kits may also be provided that contain sufficient dosages of the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine or composition to provide effective treatment for an individual for an extended period, such as a week, 2 weeks, 3, weeks, 4 weeks, 6 weeks, or 8 weeks or more. It will be appreciated by one of skill in the art that the embodiments summarized above may be used together in any suitable combination to generate additional embodiments not expressly recited above, and that such embodiments are considered to be part of the present invention. F. General Synthesis of the Compounds of the Invention The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs of the invention can be synthesized via a variety of different synthetic routes using commercially available starting materials and/or starting materials prepared by conventional synthetic methods. Suitable exemplary methods that can be routinely adapted to synthesize the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs of the invention are found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,958,935, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Specific examples describing the synthesis of numerous 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs, as well as intermediates thereof, are described in copending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/355,543, filed Jan. 31, 2003 (US2004/0029902A1), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Suitable exemplary methods that can be routinely used and/or adapted to synthesize active 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds can also be found in international application Serial No. PCT/US03/03022 filed Jan. 31, 2003 (WO 03/063794), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/631,029 filed Jul. 29, 2003, international application Serial No. PCT/US03/24087 (WO2004/014382), U.S. application Ser. No. 10/903,263 filed Jul. 30, 2004, and international application Serial No. PCT/US2004/24716 (WO005/016893), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. All of the compounds described herein (including prodrugs) can be prepared by routine adaptation of these methods. Specific exemplary synthetic methods for the 2,4-pyrimidinediamines described herein are also described in Examples 1 and 2 below. Those of skill in the art will also be able to readily adapt these examples for the synthesis of additional 2,4-pyrimidinediamines as described herein. A variety of exemplary synthetic routes that can be used to synthesize the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention are described in Schemes (I)-(VII), below. These methods can be routinely adapted to synthesize the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs described herein. In one exemplary embodiment, the compounds can be synthesized from substituted or unsubstituted uracils as illustrated in Scheme (I), below: In Scheme (I), ring A, R1, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as defined herein. According to Scheme (I), uracil A-1 is dihalogenated at the 2- and 4-positions using a standard halogenating agent such as POCl3 (or other standard halogenating agent) under standard conditions to yield 2,4-dichloropyrimidine A-2. Depending upon the X substituent, in pyrimidinediamine A-2, the chloride at the C4 position is more reactive towards nucleophiles than the chloride at the C2 position. This differential reactivity can be exploited to synthesize 2,4-pyrimidinediamines I by reacting 2,4-dichloropyrimidine A-2 first with one equivalent of amine A-3, yielding 4N-substituted-2-chloro-4-pyrimidineamine A-4, and then with amine A-5, yielding a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6, where N4 nitrogen can be selectively alkylated to give compounds of formula I. Typically, the C4 halide is more reactive towards nucleophiles, as illustrated in Scheme (I). However, as will be recognized by skilled artisans, the identity of the X substituent may alter this reactivity. For example, when X is trifluoromethyl, a 50:50 mixture of 4N-substituted-4-pyrimidineamine A-4 and the corresponding 2N-substituted-2-pyrimidineamine is obtained. The regioselectivity of the reaction can also be controlled by adjusting the solvent and other synthetic conditions (such as temperature), as is well-known in the art. The reactions depicted in Scheme (I) may proceed more quickly when the reaction mixtures are heated via microwave. When heating in this fashion, the following conditions can be used: heat to 175° C. in ethanol for 5-20 min. in a Smith Reactor (Personal Chemistry, Uppsala, Sweden) in a sealed tube (at 20 bar pressure). The uracil A-1 starting materials can be purchased from commercial sources or prepared using standard techniques of organic chemistry. Commercially available uracils that can be used as starting materials in Scheme (I) include, by way of example and not limitation, uracil (Aldrich #13,078-8; CAS Registry 66-22-8); 5-bromouracil (Aldrich #85,247-3; CAS Registry 51-20-7; 5-fluorouracil (Aldrich #85,847-1; CAS Registry 51-21-8); 5-iodouracil (Aldrich #85,785-8; CAS Registry 696-07-1); 5-nitrouracil (Aldrich #85,276-7; CAS Registry 611-08-5); and 5-(trifluoromethyl)-uracil (Aldrich #22,327-1; CAS Registry 54-20-6). Additional 5-substituted uracils are available from General Intermediates of Canada, Inc., Edmonton, CA, and/or Interchim, Cedex, France, or can be prepared using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. Amines A-3 and A-5 can be purchased from commercial sources or, alternatively, can be synthesized using standard techniques. For example, suitable amines can be synthesized from nitro precursors using standard chemistry. Specific exemplary reactions are provided in the Examples section. See also Vogel, 1989, Practical Organic Chemistry, Addison Wesley Longman, Ltd. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Skilled artisans will recognize that in some instances, amines A-3 and A-5 and/or substituent X on uracil A-1 may include functional groups that require protection during synthesis. The exact identity of any protecting group(s) used will depend upon the identity of the functional group being protected, and will be apparent to those of skill in the art. Guidance for selecting appropriate protecting groups, as well as synthetic strategies for their attachment and removal, can be found, for example, in Greene & Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 3d Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1999) and the references cited therein (hereinafter “Greene & Wuts”). Thus, “protecting group” refers to a group of atoms that, when attached to a reactive functional group in a molecule, mask, reduce or prevent the reactivity of the functional group. Typically, a protecting group can be selectively removed as desired during the course of a synthesis. Examples of protecting groups can be found in Greene and Wuts, as mentioned above, and, additionally, in Harrison et al., Compendium of Synthetic Organic Methods, Vols. 1-8, 1971-1996, John Wiley & Sons, NY. Representative amino protecting groups include, but are not limited to, formyl, acetyl, trifluoroacetyl, benzyl, benzyloxycarbonyl (“CBZ”), tert-butoxycarbonyl (“Boc”), trimethylsilyl (“TMS”), 2-trimethylsilyl-ethanesulfonyl (“TES”), trityl and substituted trityl groups, allyloxycarbonyl, 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (“FMOC”), nitro-veratryloxycarbonyl (“NVOC”), and the like. Representative hydroxyl protecting groups include, but are not limited to, those where the hydroxyl group is either acylated to form acetate and benzoate esters or alkylated to form benzyl and trityl ethers, as well as alkyl ethers, tetrahydropyranyl ethers, trialkylsilyl ethers (e.g., TMS or TIPPS groups), aryl silyl ethers (e.g., triphenylsilyl ether), mixed alkyl and aryl substituted silyl ethers, and allyl ethers. A specific embodiment of Scheme (I) utilizing 5-fluorouracil (Aldrich #32,937-1) as a starting material is illustrated in Scheme (Ia), below: In Scheme (Ia), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined for Scheme (I). Asymmetric 2N,4N-disubstituted-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine A-11 can be obtained by reacting 2,4-dichloro-5-fluoropyrimidine A-9 with one equivalent of amine A-3 (to yield 2-chloro-N4-substituted-5-fluoro-4-pyrimidineamine A-10) followed by one or more equivalents of amine A-5. In another exemplary embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention can be synthesized from substituted or unsubstituted cytosines as illustrated in Schemes (IIa) and (IIb), below: In Schemes (IIa) and (IIb), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined for Scheme (I) and PG represents a protecting group. Referring to Scheme (IIa), the C4 exocyclic amine of cytosine A-12 is first protected with a suitable protecting group PG to yield N4-protected cytosine A-13. For specific guidance regarding protecting groups useful in this context, see Vorbrüggen and Ruh-Pohlenz, 2001, Handbook of Nucleoside Synthesis, John Wiley & Sons, NY, pp. 1-631 (“Vorbrüggen”). Protected cytosine A-13 is halogenated at the C2 position using a standard halogenation reagent under standard conditions to yield 2-chloro-4N-protected-4-pyrimidineamine A-14. Reaction with amine A-5 gives A-15, which, on deprotection of the C4 exocyclic amine, gives A-16. Reaction of A-16 with electrophile A-28 yields 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Alternatively, referring to Scheme (IIb), cytosine A-12 can be reacted with electrophile A-28 or A-19 to yield N4-substituted cytosine A-17 or A-20, respectively. These substituted cytosines may then be halogenated as previously described, deprotected (in the case of N4-substituted cytosine A-20) and reacted with amine A-5 to yield a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine A-6. Commercially-available cytosines that can be used as starting materials in Schemes (IIa) and (IIb) include, but are not limited to, cytosine (Aldrich #14,201-8; CAS Registry 71-30-7); N4-acetylcytosine (Aldrich #37,791-0; CAS Registry 14631-20-0); 5-fluorocytosine (Aldrich #27,159-4; CAS Registry 2022-85-7); and 5-(trifluoromethyl)-cytosine. Other suitable cytosines useful as starting materials in Schemes (Ia) are available from General Intermediates of Canada, Inc., Edmonton, CA, and/or Interchim, Cedex, France, or can be prepared using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. In still another exemplary embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention can be synthesized from substituted or unsubstituted 2-amino-4-pyrimidinols as illustrated in Scheme (III), below: In Scheme (III), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined for Scheme (I) and LG is a leaving group as discussed in more detail in connection with Scheme IV, infra. Referring to Scheme (III), 2-amino-4-pyrimidinol A-22 is reacted with arylating agent A-23 to yield N2-substituted-4-pyrimidinol A-24, which is then halogenated as previously described to yield N2-substituted-4-halo-2-pyrimidineamine A-25. Further reaction with amine A-3 affords a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Suitable commercially-available 2-amino-4-pyrimidinols A-22 that can be used as starting materials in Scheme (III) are available from General Intermediates of Canada, Inc., Edmonton, CA, and/or Interchim, Cedex, France, or can be prepared using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. Alternatively, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention can be prepared from substituted or unsubstituted 4-amino-2-pyrimidinols as illustrated in Scheme (IV), below: In Scheme (IV), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined for Scheme (I). Referring to Scheme (IV), the C4 exocyclic amine of cytosine A-12 is first protected with a suitable protecting group PG and the resultant 2-hydroxy cytosine is halogenated at the C2 position using a standard halogenation reagent under standard conditions to yield 2-chloro-4N-protected-4-pyrimidineamine A-14. Reaction of A-14 with amine A-5 yields N2-substituted-2,4-pyrimidinediamine A-27. Subsequent reaction with compound A-28, which includes a suitable leaving group, yields a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Compound A-28 may include virtually any leaving group that can be displaced by the C4-amino of N2-substituted-2,4-pyrimidinediamine A-27. Suitable leaving groups include, but are not limited to, halogens, methanesulfonyloxy (mesyloxy; “OMs”), trifluoromethanesulfonyloxy (“OTf”) and p-toluenesulfonyloxy (tosyloxy; “OTs”), benzene sulfonyloxy (“besylate”), and m-nitro benzene sulfonyloxy (“nosylate”). Other suitable leaving groups will be apparent to those of skill in the art. Substituted 4-amino-2-pyrimidinol starting materials can be obtained commercially or synthesized using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. In still another exemplary embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention can be prepared from 2-chloro-4-aminopyrimidines or 2-amino-4-chloropyrimidines as illustrated in Scheme (V), below: In Scheme (V), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as defined for Scheme (I) and leaving group is as defined for Scheme (IV). Referring to Scheme (V), protected-2-amino-4-chloropyrimidine A-29 is reacted with amine A-3 to yield 4N-substituted-2,4-pyrimidinediamine A-30, which, following deprotection and reaction with compound A-23, yields a N2,N4-2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Alternatively, 2-chloro-4-amino-pyrimidine A-31 can be reacted with compound A-28 to give compound A-32, which, on reaction with amine A-5, yields A-6. A variety of pyrimidines A-29 and A-31 suitable for use as starting materials in Scheme (V) are commercially available from General Intermediates of Canada, Inc., Edmonton, CA, and/or Interchim, Cedex, France, or can be prepared using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. Alternatively, 4-chloro-2-pyrimidineamines A-29 can be prepared as illustrated in Scheme (Va): In Scheme (Va), X is as previously defined for Scheme I. In Scheme (Va), dialdehyde A-33 is reacted with guanidine to yield 2-pyrimidineamine A-34. Reaction with a peracid such as m-chloroperbenzoic acid, trifluoroperacetic acid, or urea hydrogen peroxide complex yields N-oxide A-35, which is then halogenated and the amine protected to give 4-chloro-2-pyrimidineamine A-29. Corresponding 4-halo-2-pyrimidineamines can be obtained by using suitable halogenation reagents. In yet another exemplary embodiment, the 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds of the invention can be prepared from substituted or unsubstituted uridines as illustrated in Scheme (VI), below: In Scheme (VI), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined for Scheme (I) and PG represents a protecting group, as discussed in connection with Scheme (IIb). According to Scheme (VI), uridine A-36 has a C4 reactive center such that reaction with amine A-3 or protected amine A-19 yields N4-substituted cytidine A-37 or A-38, respectively. Acid-catalyzed deprotection of N4-substituted A-37 or A-38 (when “PG” represents an acid-labile protecting group) yields N4-substituted cytosine A-39, which can be subsequently halogenated at the C2-position and reacted with amine A-5 to yield a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Cytidines may also be used as starting materials in an analogous manner, as illustrated in Scheme (VII), below: In Scheme (VII), ring A, (R2)p, (R3)q, R6, R7, X, Y, Z1, Z2, and Z3 are as previously defined in Scheme (I) and PG represents a protecting group as discussed above. Referring to Scheme (VII), cytidine A-40 has a C4 reactive amine such that reaction with electrophile A-28 or A-19 yields N4-substituted cytidine A-37 or A-38, respectively. These cytidines A-37 and A-38 are then treated as previously described for Scheme (VI) to yield a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative A-6. Although Schemes (VI) and (VII) are exemplified with ribosylnucleosides, skilled artisans will appreciate that the corresponding 2′-deoxyribo and 2′,3′-dideoxyribo nucleosides, as well as nucleosides including sugars or sugar analogs other than ribose would also work. Numerous uridines and cytidines useful as starting materials in Schemes (VI) and (VII) are known in the art and include, by way of example and not limitation, 5-trifluoromethyl-2′-deoxycytidine (Chem. Sources #ABCR F07669; CAS Registry 66,384-66-5); 5-bromouridine (Chem. Sources Int'l 2000; CAS Registry 957-75-5); 5-iodo-2′-deoxyuridine (Aldrich #1-775-6; CAS Registry 54-42-2); 5-fluorouridine (Aldrich #32,937-1; CAS Registry 316-46-1); 5-iodouridine (Aldrich #85,259-7; CAS Registry 1024-99-3); 5-(trifluoromethyl)uridine (Chem. Sources Int'l 2000; CAS Registry 70-00-8); and 5-trifluoromethyl-2′-deoxyuridine (Chem. Sources Int'l 2000; CAS Registry 70-00-8). Additional uridines and cytidines that can be used as starting materials in Schemes (VI) and (VII) are available from General Intermediates of Canada, Inc., Edmonton, CA, and/or Interchim, Cedex, France, or can be prepared using standard techniques. Myriad textbook references teaching suitable synthetic methods are provided infra. Although many of the synthetic schemes discussed above do not illustrate the use of protecting groups, skilled artisans will recognize that in some instances certain substituents, such as, for example, R2 and/or R4, may include functional groups requiring protection. The exact identity of the protecting group used will depend upon, among other things, the identity of the functional group being protected and the reaction conditions used in the particular synthetic scheme and will be apparent to those of skill in the art. Guidance for selecting protecting groups and their attachment and removal suitable for a particular application can be found, for example, in Greene & Wuts, supra. Prodrugs as described herein can be prepared by routine modification of the above-described methods. Alternatively, such prodrugs can be prepared by reacting a suitably protected 2,4-pyrimidinediamine 6 with a suitable progroup. Conditions for carrying out such reactions and for deprotecting the product to yield a prodrugs as described herein are well-known. Myriad references teaching methods useful for synthesizing pyrimidines generally, as well as starting materials described in Schemes (I)-(VII), are known in the art. For specific guidance, the reader is referred to Brown, D. J., “The Pyrimidines”, in The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, Volume 16 (Weissberger, A., Ed.), 1962, Interscience Publishers, (A Division of John Wiley & Sons), New York (“Brown I”); Brown, D. J., “The Pyrimidines”, in The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, Volume 16, Supplement I (Weissberger, A. and Taylor, E. C., Ed.), 1970, Wiley-Interscience, (A Division of John Wiley & Sons), New York (Brown II”); Brown, D. J., “The Pyrimidines”, in The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, Volume 16, Supplement II (Weissberger, A. and Taylor, E. C., Ed.), 1985, An Interscience Publication (John Wiley & Sons), New York (“Brown III”); Brown, D. J., “The Pyrimidines” in The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds, Volume 52 (Weissberger, A. and Taylor, E. C., Ed.), 1994, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 1-1509 (Brown IV”); Kenner, G. W. and Todd, A., in Heterocyclic Compounds, Volume 6, (Elderfield, R. C., Ed.), 1957, John Wiley, New York, Chapter 7 (pyrimidines); Paquette, L. A., Principles of Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry, 1968, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, pp. 1-401 (uracil synthesis pp. 313, 315; pyrimidinediamine synthesis pp. 313-316; amino pyrimidinediamine synthesis pp. 315); Joule, J. A., Mills, K. and Smith, G. F., Heterocyclic Chemistry, 3rd Edition, 1995, Chapman and Hall, London, UK, pp. 1-516; Vorbrüggen, H. and Ruh-Pohlenz, C., Handbook of Nucleoside Synthesis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001, pp. 1-631 (protection of pyrimidines by acylation pp. 90-91; silylation of pyrimidines pp. 91-93); Joule, J. A., Mills, K. and Smith, G. F., Heterocyclic Chemistry, 4th Edition, 2000, Blackwell Science, Ltd, Oxford, UK, pp. 1-589; and Comprehensive Organic Synthesis, Volumes 1-9 (Trost, B. M. and Fleming, I., Ed.), 1991, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts also include salts formed when an acidic proton present in the parent compound is either replaced by a metal ion (e.g., an alkali metal ion, an alkaline earth metal ion or an aluminum ion) or coordinates with an organic base (e.g., ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, N-methylglucamine, morpholine, piperidine, dimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, ammonia, etc.). The 2,4-pyrimidinediamine compounds and prodrugs thereof, as well as the salts thereof, may also be in the form of hydrates, solvates and N-oxides, as are well-known in the art. In another embodiment, this invention provides a compound, or stereoisomer, tautomer, prodrug, solvate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, selected from Tables I and II. V. EXAMPLES The invention is further understood by reference to the following examples, which are intended to be purely exemplary of the invention. The present invention is not limited in scope by the exemplified embodiments, which are intended as illustrations of single aspects of the invention only. Any methods that are functionally equivalent are within the scope of the invention. Various modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying figures. Such modifications fall within the scope of the appended claims. In the examples below as well as throughout the application, the following abbreviations have the following meanings. If not defined, the terms have their generally accepted meanings. TFA=trifluoroacetic acid mL=milliliter mmol=millimole ng=nanogram nM=nanomolar DMSO=dimethylsulfoxie s=singlet d=doublet t=triplet q=quartet m=multiplet dd=double doublet br=broad MS=mass spectrum LC=liquid chromatography Pd/C=palladium over carbon HCl=hydrochloric acid uL=microliter mg=milligram psi=pound per square inch NH4Cl=ammonium chloride N=normal μM=micromolar rpm=revolutions per minute rt=room temperature iPrOH=isopropanol aq.=aqueous Example 1 (I-4): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine To a cooled (0° C.) suspension of 4-nitrophenylmethanesulfonylchloride (0.510 g, 2.16 mmol) in ethyl acetate (3.0 mL) was added a solution of propargyl amine (1.0 mL, 14.5 mmol) in water (1.0 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 minutes and then diluted with ethyl acetate (30 mL) and washed with 1N HCl (10 mL), water (10 mL), and brine (10 mL). The organic layer was dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated in vacuo to provide 4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)nitrobenzene as a tan solid (0.437 g), which was used without further purification. 1HNMR (CDCl3): δ 8.25 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 4.48 (s, 3H), 3.98 (dd, J=2.7 and 6.3 Hz, 2H), 2.48 (t, J=2.7 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99%; MS (m/e): 253 (M−). 4-(Prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)nitrobenzene (0.437 g, 1.72 mmol), iron (0.48 g, 8.6 mmol), and NH4Cl (0.24 g, 4.5 mmol) were vigorously stirred in ethanol:water (1:1, 40 mL) at 70° C. for 25 minutes. The reaction mixture was filtered hot through Celite and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was suspended in 10% 2N ammoniacal methanol in dichloromethane, sonicated, and filtered through Celite. Concentration gave 4-(Prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)aniline as a brown oil which was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, dichloromethane ramped to methanol:dichloromethane (0.75:100)). 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 7.45 (t, J=5.4 Hz, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 6.50 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 5.15 (s, 2H), 4.12 (s, 2H), 3.68 (dd, J=2.1 and 5.7 Hz, 2H), 3.31 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97%; MS (m/e): 225 (MH+). 4-(Prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)aniline (0.353 g, 1.57 mmol) and 2,4-dichloro-5-fluoropyrimidine (0.471 g, 2.81 mmol) were stirred in methanol:water (4:1, 10 mL) at room temperature for 24 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (75 mL) and washed with 1N HCl (25 mL) and brine (10 mL). The organic layer was dried (MgSO4), filtered, and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica gel, dichloromethane ramped to methanol:dichloromethane (3:100)) to provide 2-chloro-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-4-pyrimidineamine as an off-white solid (0.255 g). 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 10.03 (s, 1H), 8.31 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 7.68-7.63 (m, 3H), 7.36 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 3.78 (dd, J=2.4 and 5.7 Hz, 2H), 3.34 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 90%; MS (m/e): 356 (MH+). 2-Chloro-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-4-pyrimidineamine (34 mg, 0.096 mmol), 3-aminobenzenesulfonamide (33 mg, 0. 19 mmol), and trifluoroacetic acid (11 μL, 0.14 mmol) were combined with iPrOH (0.40 mL) in a sealed vial and heated at 100° C. for 4 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with 1N HCl (80 mL). The crude product was isolated by filtration. Further purified by column chromatography (silica gel, dichloromethane ramped to methanol:dichloromethane (3:100)) provided N2-(3-aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine (I-4) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.57 (s, 1H), 9.47 (s, 1H), 8.15-8.08 (m, 2H), 7.99-7.95 (m, 1H), 7.84 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.43-7.32 (m, 4H), 7.26 (s, 2H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 3.79-3.75 (m, 2H), 3.35 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96%; MS (m/e): 492 (MH+). The following compounds were made in a similar fashion to the example 1 or by methods described herein or known to skilled artisans. (I-2): N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.61-9.54 (m, 2H), 8.16 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 7.86 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.79 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.75-7.59 (m, 5H), 7.63 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.18-7.09 (m, 3H), 4.37 (s, 2H), 3.77 (s, 2H), 3.28 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95%; MS (m/e): 492 (MH+). (I-3): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.50 (s, 1H), 9.46 (s, 1H), 8.13 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 8.12-8.09 (m, 1H), 7.93 (t, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.72-7.65 (m, 2H), 7.42-7.31 (m, 3H), 7.27 (s, 2H), 7.10 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 4.36 (s, 2H), 3.79-3.75 (m, 2H), 3.27 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98%; MS (m/e): 492 (MH+). (I-5): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine (X=Me) 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.48 (s, 1H), 9.46 (s, 1H), 8.13-8.09 (m, 2H), 7.92 (dd, J=8.4 and 2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.83 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.63 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.33 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (s, 2H), 7.20 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 3.80-3.74 (m, 2H), 3.36-3.33 (m, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97%; MS (m/e): 506 (MH+). (I-6): N2-(4-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonylmethyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.72 (s, 1H), 9.61 (s, 1H), 8.18 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 7.84-7.78 (m, 4H), 7.68-7.62 (m, 3H), 7.36 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (s, 2H), 4.37 (s, 2H), 3.80-3.77 (m, 2H), 3.34 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98%; MS (m/e): 492 (MH+). (I-7): 5-Fluoro-N4-[4-(cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl]-N2-[3-(prop-2-ynylaminosulfonyl)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.69 (s, 1H), 9.61 (s, 1H), 8.16 (d, J=4.2 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 8.03-7.98 (m, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.63-7.56 (m, 1H), 7.42 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.35-7.28 (m, 3H), 4.16 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 2H), 3.66 (q, J=2.4 Hz, 2H), 3.06 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H), 2.44-2.41 (m, 1H), 0.92-0.84 (m, 4H); LCMS: purity: 90%; MS (m/e): 532 (MH+). (I-8): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.93 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.12 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.58 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.64 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.80 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.17 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 9.60 (br, 1H), 9.74 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −200.98; LCMS: purity: 96.26%; MS (m/e): 481.05 (MH+). (I-9): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.92 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.11 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.28 (br, 2H), 7.29 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.56 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.04 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.57 (br, 1H), 9.66 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.39; LCMS: purity: 98.14%; MS (m/e): 481.09 (MH+). (I-10): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.15 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.51 (s, 3H), 2.92 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.11 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (dd, J=2.4, 8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.99 (s, 1H), 8.15 (d, J=4.2 Hz, 1H), 9.76 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.27; LCMS: purity: 97.10%; MS (m/e): 495.01 (MH+). (I-11): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.94 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.14 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (m, 3H), 7.33 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.62 (m, 4H), 7.73 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.79 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.15 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H), 9.54 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.39; LCMS: purity: 93.38%; MS (m/e): 481.11 (MH+). (I-12): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.95 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.13 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.07 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (m, 2H), 7.38 (m, 3H), 7.60 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (s, 1H), 7.75 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.92 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 8.04 (s, 1H), 8.16 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.60 (br, 1H), 9.66 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.14; LCMS: purity: 92.32%; MS (m/e): 481.11 (MH+). (I-13): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.17 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.48 (s, 3H), 2.95 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.12 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.07 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (br, 2H), 7.30 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (s, 1H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.86 (dd, J=2.1, 8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.04 (s, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=4.2 Hz, 1H), 9.47 (br, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.73; LCMS: purity: 99.49%; MS (m/e): 495.41 (MH+). (I-14): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.75 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.94 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (m, 2H), 7.12 (br, 3H), 7.21 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.77 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.12 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.51 (br, 1H), 9.63 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.27; LCMS: purity: 95.18%; MS (m/e): 495.09 (MH+). (I-15): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.74 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 2.95 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (t, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (br, 2H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.49 (br, 1H), 9.62 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.65; LCMS: purity: 94.71%; MS (m/e): 495.44 (MH+). (I-16): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.13 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.52 (s, 3H), 2.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.94 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 3.14 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (m, 1H), 7.27 (br, 2H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.81 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.98 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=4.5 Hz, 1H), 9.77 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.30; LCMS: purity: 99.94%; MS (m/e): 509.47 (MH+). (I-17): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.23 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.41 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.08 (m, 4H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 7.11 (br, 2H), 7.33 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.63 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.15 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.47 (br, 1H), 9.62 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.38; LCMS: purity: 89.49%; MS (m/e): 523.18 (MH+). (I-18): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.23 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.41 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.04-3.17 (m, 4H), 4.34 (s, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.35 (m, 4H), 7.83 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 2H), 9.42 (br, 1H), 9.53 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.84; LCMS: purity: 97.59%; MS (m/e): 523.36 (MH+). (I-19): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.23 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.42 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.49 (s, 3H), 3.04-3.17 (m, 4H), 4.34 (s, 2H), 7.16 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.24 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (dd, J=2.1, 8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 2H), 9.38 (br, 1H), 9.42 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.44; LCMS: purity: 98.54%; MS (m/e): 537.49 (MH+). (I-20): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.95 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (br, 2H), 7.38 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.53 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (m, 1H), 7.62 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 9.67 (br, 1H), 10.50 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 90.57%; MS (m/e): 477.44 (MH+). (I-21): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.94 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.15 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (m, 5H), 7.50 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 7.66 (m, 2H), 7.80 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 9.71 (br, 1H), 10.46 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.29%; MS (m/e): 477.44 (MH+). (I-22): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.16 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.52 (s, 3H), 2.94 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.15 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (m, 4H), 7.50 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (m, 2H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 9.67 (br, 1H), 10.32 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.67%; MS (m/e): 491.45 (MH+). (I-23): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 4.18 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (br, 2H), 7.33 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 3H), 7.72 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.78 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.18 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 9.69 (br, 1H), 9.83 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −200.76; LCMS: purity: 99.66%; MS (m/e): 493.37 (MH+). (I-26): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.41 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.61-2.84 (m, 2H), 4.44 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.12 (br, 2H), 7.34 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.63 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (m, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.16 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.56 (br, 1H), 9.70 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.20; LCMS: purity: 97.32%; MS (m/e): 495.27 (MH+). (I-29): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.41 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 2.61-2.86 (m, 2H), 4.44 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.13 (br, 2H), 7.35 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.63 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (m, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.16 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.58 (br, 1H), 9.73 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.13; LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 495.37 (MH+). (I-24): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.44 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.29 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.40 (m, 2H), 7.60 (t, 1H), 7.73 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (dt, J=2.7, 6.6 Hz, 1H), 8.00 (s, 1H), 8.17 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.72 (br, 1H), 9.79 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.02; LCMS: purity: 98.59%; MS (m/e): 493.39 (MH+). (I-25): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.51 (s, 3H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.27 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (dd, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.01 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=4.2 Hz, 1H), 9.70 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.51; LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 507.39 (MH+). (I-27): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.40 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 2.60-2.82 (m, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 3H), 7.38 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.76 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 2H), 9.38 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.99; LCMS: purity: 86.90%; MS (m/e): 495.39 (MH+). (I-28): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1S-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.40 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 2.62-2.82 (m, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.16 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (br, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=2.4, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (s, 1H), 9.33 (br, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.57; LCMS: purity: 93.70%; MS (m/e): 509.25 (MH+). (I-30): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.40 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 2.60-2.82 (m, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 3H), 7.38 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.76 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 2H), 9.38 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.97; LCMS: purity: 93.94%; MS (m/e): 495.39 (MH+). (I-31): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(1R-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.40 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 3H), 2.59-2.80 (m, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.16 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (s, 1H), 9.34 (br, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.57; LCMS: purity: 89.86%; MS (m/e): 509.41 (MH+). (I-32): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 4.20 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.12 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.13 (br, 2H), 7.34 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.62 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (m, 2H), 7.72 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.17 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.63 (br, 1H), 9.66 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.11; LCMS: purity: 98.00%; MS (m/e): 493.42 (MH+). (I-33): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 4.18 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.08 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (br, 2H), 7.31 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.37 (m, 2H), 7.63 (t, 1H), 7.72 (s, 1H), 7.76 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.93 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.55 (br, 1H), 9.58 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.34; LCMS: purity: 98.59%; MS (m/e): 493.42 (MH+). (I-34): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 4.18 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.27 (br, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.62 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (s, 1H), 7.74 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.85 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.02 (s, 1H), 8.13 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.56 (br, 1H), 9.68 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.50; LCMS: purity: 96.85%; MS (m/e): 507.43 (MH+). (I-35): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.04 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (br, 2H), 7.16 (t, J=4.2 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (dd, J=1.2, 3.3 Hz, 1H), 7.64 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.80 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=1.2, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.16 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.34 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.55 (br, 1H), 9.70 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.05; LCMS: purity: 83.50%; MS (m/e): 535.35 (MH+). (I-36): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.03 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (t, J=4.5 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.28 (br, 2H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.59 (dd, J=1.5, 3.6 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (m, 2H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 8.33 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H), 9.68 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.37; LCMS: purity: 96.97%; MS (m/e): 535.34 (MH+). (I-37): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(thiophen-2-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.48 (s, 3H), 4.03 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (t, J=4.5 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (m, 1H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.58 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.85 (dd, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.90 (dd, J=1.2, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.33 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.62 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.76; LCMS: purity: 92.93%; MS (m/e): 549.03 (MH+). (I-38): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.15 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.80 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.96 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.18 (m, 2H), 7.15 (t, J=5.1 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.58 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 9.66 (br, 1H), 10.45 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.70%; MS (m/e): 491.23 (MH+). (I-39): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.15 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.95 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (q, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (br, 2H), 7.29 (m, 2H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.24 (s, 1H), 9.28 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.77%; MS (m/e): 491.43 (MH+). (I-40): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-ethylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.09 (s, 3H), 2.48 (s, 3H), 2.74 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.95 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.11 (t, 1H), 7.17 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (br, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.85 (s, 1H), 7.93 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (s, 1H), 8.21 (s, 1H), 9.16 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.54%; MS (m/e): 505.31 (MH+). (I-41): N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.26 (s, 3H), 3.99 (d, 2H), 7.26 (m, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.43 (br, 2H), 7.65 (m, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.82 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 8.19 (s, 1H), 9.37 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H), 11.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.89; LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 565.24 (MH+). (I-42): N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.14 (s, 3H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 4.02 (d, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.95 (d, 1H), 8.10 (m, 2H), 8.36 (t, 1H), 9.36 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H), 12.44 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.84; LCMS: purity: 99.32%; MS (m/e): 607.32 (MH+). (I-43): N4-[4-(2-amino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.26 (s, 3H), 4.00 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (m, 3H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.58 (br, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 8.03 (t, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 8.13 (s, 1H), 9.33 (br, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.45; LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 577.47 (MH+). (I-44): N4-[4-(2-acetylamino-4-methylthiazol-5-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): 62.14 (s, 3H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 4.02 (d, 2H), 7.17 (m, 3H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (d, 1H), 8.08 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 8.37 (t, 1H), 9.32 (br, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H), 12.44 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.41; LCMS: purity: 99.77%; MS (m/e): 621.34 (MH+). (I-45): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.07 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.58 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 3H), 7.67 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.35 (br, 1H), 9.39 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.56%; MS (m/e): 489.19 (MH+). (I-46): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.44 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.30 (m, 4H), 7.58 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.29 (br, 1H), 9.29 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.15%; MS (m/e): 489.40 (MH+). (I-47): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 2.42 (m, 1H), 2.48 (s, 3H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.12 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 7.94 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.25 (br, 1H), 9.18 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.49%; MS (m/e): 503.42 (MH+). (I-48): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.20 (s, 2H), 4.40 (q, J=9.9 Hz, 2H), 7.12 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.77 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.15 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.29 (br, 1H), 9.46 (br, 1H), 9.61 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.35, −100.92; LCMS: purity: 78.79%; MS (m/e): 535.36 (MH+). (I-49): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.18 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.40 (q, J=9.9 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (m, 2H), 8.27 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.90, −100.93; LCMS: purity: 96.17%; MS (m/e): 535.27 (MH+). (I-50): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.18 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.40 (q, J=9.9 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=2.7, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (d, J=2.7 Hz, 1H), 8.27 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.36 (br, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.47, −100.92; LCMS: purity: 86.53%; MS (m/e): 549.33 (MH+). (I-1): N4-(4-Aminosulfonylmethylenephenyl)-N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.43 (s, 1H), 9.41 (s, 1H), 8.09 (m, 2H), 7.92 (dd, 1H, J=2.4 and 8.4 Hz), 7.82 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.29 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.22 (s, 2H), 7.19 (d, 1H, J=7.2 Hz), 6.80 (s, 2H), 4.23 (s, 2H), 2.21 (s, 3H); LCMS: purity: 99%; MS (m/e): 468 (MH+). Example 2 (I-51): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 3-Nitrobenzylamine HCl (1.48 g), cyclopropanesulfonyl chloride (1 g) and triethylamine (2.98 mL) were dissolved in dichloromethane (20 mL). The reaction solution was stirred at rt overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with 1N HCl aq. solution (50 mL) and water (100 mL). The solution was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The organic solution was evaporated to give N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-3-nitrobenzylamine. N-Cyclopropylsulfonyl-3-nitrobenzylamine was dissolved in methanol (50 mL) and to the solution was added 10% Pd—C. The reaction mixture was reacted under hydrogen atmosphere (˜40 psi) for 2 h. The catalyst was filtered off over celite and washed with methanol. The filtrate was evaporated to give N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-3-aminobenzylamine. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 4H), 2.44 (m, 1H), 4.00 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 5.08 (br, 2H), 6.44 (t, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 6.53 (s, 1H), 6.94 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.46 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H). N-Cyclopropylsulfonyl-3-aminobenzylamine and 2,6-dichloro-5-methylpyrimidine (1.5 g) were dissolved in methanol (10 mL) and water (2 mL). The reaction solution was stirred at rt for 3 d. The reaction solution was diluted with water (150 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×150 mL). The organic layers were evaporated and purified by flash column chromatography (dichloromethane, EtOAc) to give 2-chloro-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-4-pyrimidineamine. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.83-0.89 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.53 (m, 2H), 7.64 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 8.02 (s, 1H), 8.87 (br, 1H). 2-Chloro-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-4-pyrimidineamine (800 mg) and 3-aminobenzylsulfonamide (800 mg) were suspended in isopropanol (10 mL) and TFA (10 drops). The solution was heated at 100° C. overnight. The solution was diluted with methanol (100 mL), sonicated, and the precipitate was filtered off to give N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine (I-51). 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.81-0.95 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.29 (m, 3H), 7.61 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 8.00 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.36 (s, 1H), 9.22 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.01%; MS (m/e): 489.01 (MH+). The following compounds were made in a similar fashion to the example 2 or by methods described herein or known to skilled artisans. (I-52): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.12 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (br, 2H), 7.29 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (s, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 7.93 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.32 (s, 1H), 9.12 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.74%; MS (m/e): 503.40 (MH+). (I-53): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.54 (m, 1H), 2.83 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 3.22 (q, 2H), 7.18 (t, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (m, 4H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 9.63 (br, 1H), 10.42 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 92.94%; MS (m/e): 503.40 (MH+). (I-54): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.52 (m, 1H), 2.80 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.21 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (t, J=5.4 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (br, 2H), 7.40 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.46 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (s, 1H), 7.81 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H), 10.30 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.75%; MS (m/e): 503.39 (MH+). (I-55): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(2-cyclopropylsulfonylamino)ethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.15 (s, 3H), 2.53 (s, 3H), 2.80 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.21 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (m, 2H), 7.25 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (br, 2H), 7.44 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (s, 1H), 7.85 (s, 1H), 9.60 (br, 1H), 10.27 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.96%; MS (m/e): 517.41 (MH+). (I-56): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.44 (m, 1H), 4.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (br, 3H), 7.33 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (m, 3H), 7.64 (m, 2H), 7.80 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.47 (s, 1H), 9.37 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.36%; MS (m/e): 489.39 (MH+). (I-57): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 7H), 2.22 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.46 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.41 (m, 2H), 7.58 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.77 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.07 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H), 11.95 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.64; LCMS: purity: 93.76%; MS (m/e): 549.39 (MH+). (I-58): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 2.21 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.66 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.89 (s, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.80 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.05 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.21 (s, 1H), 9.44 (br, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H), 11.95 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.64; LCMS: purity: 98.43%; MS (m/e): 605.39 (MH+). (I-59): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 7H), 2.24 (q, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 8.02 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.16 (s, 1H), 9.37 (br, 1H), 9.50 (br, 1H), 12.03 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.22; LCMS: purity: 98.80%; MS (m/e): 563.31 (MH+). (I-60): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 2.24 (q, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 2.67 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.89 (s, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.02 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.14 (s, 1H), 9.42 (br, 1H), 9.50 (br, 1H), 12.02 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.28; LCMS: purity: 96.49%; MS (m/e): 619.42 (MH+). (I-61): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.85 (m, 7H), 2.01 (q, 2H), 4.14 (d, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 4H), 7.59 (t, 1H), 7.80 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (m, 2H), 8.09 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.34 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.64; LCMS: purity: 88.05%; MS (m/e): 549.39 (MH+). (I-62): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.84 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.01 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 1.09 (m, 4H), 1.93 (q, 2H), 2.67 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.89 (s, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 4H), 7.82 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (m, 2H), 8.08 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.36 (br, 2H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.64; LCMS: purity: 92.66%; MS (m/e): 605.40 (MH+). (I-63): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.86 (m, 7H), 1.99 (m, 2H), 4.15 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.02 (d, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, 1H), 7.81 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 3H), 8.06 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 9.30 (br, 2H); LCMS: purity: 97.08%; MS (m/e): 563.40 (MH+). (I-64): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-fluoro-N2-(4-methyl-3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.86 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.08 (m, 4H), 2.66 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.89 (s, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.81 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.08 (d, 1H), 9.36 (br, 2H); LCMS: purity: 92.09%; MS (m/e): 619.41 (MH+). (I-65): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.21 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 3.08 (m, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 4.14 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (t, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.14 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 9.44 (br, 1H), 9.61 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.33; LCMS: purity: 87.52%; MS (m/e): 495.30 (MH+). (I-66): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.20 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 6H), 3.06 (m, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.54 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.97 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (m, 2H), 9.39 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.84; LCMS: purity: 95.00%; MS (m/e): 495.30 (MH+). (I-67): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-(4-isopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.20 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 3.06 (m, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.52 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 9.34 (br, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −163.40; LCMS: purity: 94.12%; MS (m/e): 509.38 (MH+). (I-68): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.51-1.63 (m, 4H), 1.84 (q, J=6.5 Hz, 4H), 3.42 (m, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 4.15 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.14 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 9.44 (br, 1H), 9.61 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.00; LCMS: purity: 94.73%; MS (m/e): 521.36 (MH+). (I-69): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.52 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 1.62 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 1.84 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 4H), 3.41 (m, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.37 (m, 2H), 7.55 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (m, 2H), 9.39 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −201.91; LCMS: purity: 98.85%; MS (m/e): 521.38 (MH+). (I-70): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopentylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.52 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 1.62 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.84 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 4H), 3.41 (m, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (dd, J=2.4, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 9.35 (br, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −202.46; LCMS: purity: 97.24%; MS (m/e): 535.05 (MH+). (I-71): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (m, 3H), 1.30 (m, 2H), 1.57 (m, 1H), 1.73 (m, 2H), 2.00 (m, 2H), 2.72 (m 1H), 4.13 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.54 (t, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.14 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 9.44 (br, 1H), 9.61 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.32; LCMS: purity: 86.73%; MS (m/e): 535.24 (MH+). (I-72): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (m, 3H), 1.30 (m, 2H), 1.60 (m, 1H), 1.73 (m, 2H), 2.00 (m, 2H), 2.76 (m 1H), 4.11 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.52 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.97 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (m, 2H), 9.39 (br, 1H), 9.52 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.84; LCMS: purity: 97.80%; MS (m/e): 535.38 (MH+). (I-73): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclohexylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.14 (m, 3H), 1.30 (m, 2H), 1.60 (m, 1H), 1.72 (m, 2H), 2.00 (m, 2H), 2.76 (m 1H), 4.11 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.52 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.77 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (m, 2H), 9.35 (br, 1H), 9.41 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −163.40; LCMS: purity: 94.72%; MS (m/e): 549.41 (MH+). (I-74): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.20 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 3.05 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.22 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.14 (br, 2H), 7.38 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.64 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (t, 1H), 7.80 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.96 (s, 1H), 8.18 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 9.47 (br, 1H), 9.71 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −161.97; LCMS: purity: 89.12%; MS (m/e): 515.29 (MH+). (I-75): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.20 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 3.05 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (br, 2H), 7.37 (m, 3H), 7.63 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 8.00 (s, 1H), 8.15 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 2H), 9.33 (br, 1H), 9.65 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.34; LCMS: purity: 97.03%; MS (m/e): 515.30 (MH+). (I-76): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-chloro-4-ethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.20 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 3.04 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.20 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (br, 2H), 7.35 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.83 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.90 (dd, J=2.1, 8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.01 (s, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 8.15 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 9.23 (br, 1H), 9.62 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.88; LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 529.35 (MH+). (I-77): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.02 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.18 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.69 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 7.25 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.71 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.11 (s, 1H), 8.41 (s, 1H), 9.54 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 89.06%; MS (m/e): 601.64 (MH+). (I-78): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.84 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.02 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.07 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 4H), 1.91 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.69 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.52 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.73 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 9.16 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 89.53%; MS (m/e): 601.55 (MH+). (I-79): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.73 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (m, 4H), 1.44 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.69 (m, 1H), 3.76 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.41 (s, 2H), 7.22 (br, 2H), 7.41 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (m, 4H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 9.67 (br, 1H), 10.48 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.85%; MS (m/e): 531.47 (MH+). (I-80): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.75 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.00 (m, 4H), 1.45 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.66 (p, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 3.08 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 7.24 (br, 2H), 7.32 (m, 4H), 7.74 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 8.36 (br, 1H), 9.34 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 92.07%; MS (m/e): 531.33 (MH+). (I-81): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propylamino)methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.75 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.99 (m, 4H), 1.46 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 2.66 (p, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 7.10 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 7.95 (d, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.28 (br, 1H), 9.20 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.54%; MS (m/e): 545.22 (MH+). (I-82): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.44 (m, 1H), 4.15 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.50 (br, 4H), 7.58 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.80 (s, 1H), 7.86 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 8.15 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.41 (s, 2H), 9.47 (br, 1H), 9.87 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −161.39; LCMS: purity: 95.79%; MS (m/e): 572.29 (MH+). (I-83): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.18 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (m, 4H), 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.11 (s, 1H), 8.39 (s, 1H), 9.53 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.27%; MS (m/e): 545.12 (MH+). (I-84): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3,5-diaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 2.14 (s, 3H), 4.14 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.28 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.48 (br, 4H), 7.57 (t, 1H), 7.76 (s, 1H), 7.82 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.31 (br, 1H), 8.44 (s, 2H), 9.64 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −161.39; LCMS: purity: 88.07%; MS (m/e): 568.08 (MH+). (I-85): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 3.19 (s, 3H), 4.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 5.13 (s, 2H), 7.13 (br, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.81 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.17 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 1H), 8.25 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.60 (br, 1H), 9.72 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −161.95; LCMS: purity: 87.84%; MS (m/e): 545.01 (MH+). (I-86): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 3.18 (s, 3H), 4.20 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 5.12 (s, 2H), 7.28 (br, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.76 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 8.22 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.58 (br, 1H), 9.64 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.38; LCMS: purity: 88.57%; MS (m/e): 545.00 (MH+). (I-87): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(methylsulfonylmethylsulfonylamino)methyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 3.18 (s, 3H), 4.20 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 5.13 (s, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (br, 2H), 7.29 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.76 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.88 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.11 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 8.23 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 9.55 (br, 2H); LCMS: purity: 89.56%; MS (m/e): 559.04 (MH+). (I-88): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt LCMS: purity: 82.56%; MS (m/e): 545.22 (MH+). (I-89): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.05 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (br, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (dd, J=4.8, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.68 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.81 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 8.13 (m, 2H), 8.39 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 8.76 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 8.91 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H), 9.59 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.26; LCMS: purity: 99.68%; MS (m/e): 530.00 (MH+). (I-90): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.03 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.57 (dd, J=5.4, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=1.8, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=3.9 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (m, 2H), 8.38 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 8.76 (dd, J=1.5, 5.1 Hz, 1H), 8.91 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 9.32 (br, 1H), 9.40 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −163.35; LCMS: purity: 98.98%; MS (m/e): 544.03 (MH+). (I-91): N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.98 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 1.24 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.18 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.61 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 3.59 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 7.27 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.42 (br, 1H), 9.55 (br, 1H), 11.75 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 589.13 (MH+). (I-92): N4-[4-(N-ethylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.84 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.98 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.24 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.94 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.62 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 3.58 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 7.26 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.54 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.30 (br, 1H), 9.18 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 81.98%; MS (m/e): 589.20 (MH+). (I-93): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.97 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.21 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.64 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.95 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (m, 3H), 7.62 (s, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.07 (m, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H), 8.41 (s, 1H), 9.20 (br, 1H), 11.95 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.88%; MS (m/e): 601.13 (MH+). (I-94): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.84 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.98 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.90 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.63 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.12 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.68 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (s, 1H), 7.84 (m, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.86 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 90.93%; MS (m/e): 601.06 (MH+). (I-95): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 4.04 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (br, 2H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.57 (dd, J=5.4, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (m, 3H), 8.37 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.76 (dd, J=1.5, 5.1 Hz, 1H), 8.91 (d, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 9.35 (br, 1H), 9.50 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −162.78; LCMS: purity: 99.56%; MS (m/e): 530.09 (MH+). (I-96): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.20 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.39 (q, J=10.2 Hz, 2H), 7.08 (br, 2H), 7.29 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.28 (t, 1H), 8.37 (br, 1H), 9.39 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −61.83; LCMS: purity: 98.02%; MS (m/e): 530.83 (MH+). (I-97): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 4.39 (q, J=10.2 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (br, 2H), 7.29 (m, 4H), 7.72 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (s, 1H), 8.27 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 8.31 (br, 1H), 9.30 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −61.84; LCMS: purity: 99.53%; MS (m/e): 531.39 (MH+). (I-98): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-(4-trifluoroethylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.10 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.40 (q, J=9.9 Hz, 2H), 7.12 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (br, 2H), 7.27 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.72 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 7.94 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.27 (m, 2H), 9.19 (br, 1H); 19F NMR (282 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ −61.84; LCMS: purity: 99.71%; MS (m/e): 545.02 (MH+). (I-99): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.11 (s, 3H), 4.05 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (br, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (m, 1H), 7.58 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.81 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.14 (dt, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.33 (s, 1H), 8.40 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 8.76 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 8.92 (d, J=3.0 Hz, 1H), 9.39 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 86.90%; MS (m/e): 526.04 (MH+). (I-100): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.11 (s, 3H), 4.01 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (br, 2H), 7.30 (m, 2H), 7.58 (dd, J=4.8, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.14 (dt, J=1.8, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.38 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 8.77 (dd, J=1.5, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.92 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 1H), 9.30 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.15%; MS (m/e): 526.12 (MH+). (I-101): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N4-[4-(pyrid-3-yl)sulfonylaminomethyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 2.10 (s, 3H), 4.03 (s, 2H), 7.13 (m, 1H), 7.16 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (br, 2H), 7.58 (dd, J=5.1, 7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 7.94 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 8.23 (s, 1H), 8.76 (dd, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 8.92 (d, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 9.18 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.15%; MS (m/e): 540.14 (MH+). (I-106): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.56 (s, 1H), 9.46 (s, 1H), 8.13 (m, 2H,), 7.99 (d, 1H, J=8.7 Hz), 7.85 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.35 (m, 6H), 6.89 (s, 1H), 4.29 (s, 2H), 2.56(s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 90%; MS (m/e): 467 (MH+). (I-102): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 8.13 (d, 2H, J=10.5 Hz), 7.73 (s, 1H), 7.35 (m, 4H,), 7.08 (d, 1H, J=6.9 Hz), 6.93(s, 1H), 4.30 (s, 2H), 2.55 (s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 92%; MS (m/e): 467 (MH+). (I-103): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 8.11 (d, 2H, J=3.6 Hz), 7.90 (d, 2H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.73 (s, 1H), 7.20 (m, 2H,), 7.05 (d, 1H, J=7.2 Hz), 6.93(d, 1H, J=4.8 Hz), 4.29 (s, 2H), 2.56 (s, 3H), 2.50(s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 91%; MS (m/e): 481 (MH+). (I-104): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 8.15 (d, 1H, J=3.6 Hz), 8.08 (s, 1H), 7.94 (d, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.34 (m, 3H), 7.27 (s, 1H), 7.13 (d, 1H, J=8.7 Hz), 4.38 (s, 2H), 2.70 (s, 6H): LCMS: purity: 94%; MS (m/e): 481 (MH+). (I-105): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 8.11 (d, 2H, J=3.9 Hz), 7.95 (d, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.89 (d, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.76 (s, 1H), 7.33 (t, 1H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.24 (s, 1H), 7.19 (d, 1H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.11 (d, 1H, J=7.5 Hz), 4.37 (s, 2H), 2.69 (s, 6H), 2.45 (s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 93%; MS (m/e): 495 (MH+). (I-107): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.55 (d, 1H, J=8.1 Hz), 9.46 (s, 1H), 8.38 (s, 2H), 8.17 (s, 2H), 7.92 (m, 3H), 7.38 (m, 4H), 7.16 (d, 1H, J=6.9 Hz), 4.36 (s, 2H), 2.6 (m, 1H), 2.5 (s, 3H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 2.03 (bm, 4H), 1.86 (m, 4H): LCMS: purity: 95%; MS (m/e): 564 (MH+). (I-108): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(1-methylpiperdin-4-ylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.59 (s, 1H), 9.53 (s, 1H), 8.40 (s, 1H), 8.21 (m, 1H), 8.02 (m, 1H), 7.90 (m, 2H), 7.43 (m, 5H), 7.14 (m, 2H), 4.37 (s, 2H), 2.6 (m, 1H), 2.09 (s, 3H), 2.03 (bm, 4H), 1.85 (m, 4H): LCMS: purity: 83%; MS (m/e): 550 (MH+). (I-109): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N-methylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.45 (d, 2H, J=9.9 Hz), 8.10 (d, 2H, J=4.2 Hz), 7.93 (m, 1H), 7.85 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.32 (d, 2H, J=8.7 Hz), 7.21 (t, 3H, J=7.8 Hz), 6.89 (d, 1H, J=4.8 Hz), 4.29 (s, 2H), 2.57 (s, 3H), 2.50 (s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 96%; MS (m/e): 481 (MH+) (I-110): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[4-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.45 (d, 2H, J=9.9 Hz), 8.10 (d, 2H, J=4.2 Hz), 7.93 (m, 1H), 7.85 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.32 (d, 2H, J=8.7 Hz), 7.21 (t, 3H, J=7.8 Hz), 6.89 (d, 1H, J=4.8 Hz), 4.29 (s, 2H), 2.57 (s, 6H), 2.50 (s, 3H): LCMS: purity: 92%; MS (m/e): 495 (MH+). (I-111): N2-(3-Aminosulfonylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.50 (s, 1H), 9.46 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, 1H, J=3.6 Hz), 8.10 (s, 1H), 7.95 (d, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.89 (d, 1H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.75 (s, 2H), 7.47 (s, 1H), 7.36 (m, 2H), 7.27 (s, 2H), 7.09 (d, 1H, J=7.5 Hz), 4.34 (s, 2H), 2.49 (s, 1H), 0.56 (m, 4H): LCMS: purity: 99%; MS (m/e): 493 (MH+). (I-112): N2-(3-Aminosulfonyl-4-methylphenyl)-5-fluoro-N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylaminosulfonylmethylene)phenyl]-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1HNMR (DMSO-d6): δ 9.35 (s, 1H), 8.10 (d, 2H, J=3.0 Hz), 7.89 (d, 2H, J=8.4 Hz), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.33 (t, 2H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.20 (d, 1H, J=8.1 Hz), 7.09 (d, 1H, J=7.2 Hz), 4.33 (s, 2H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.49 (s, 1H), 0.53 (m, 4H): LCMS: purity: 97%; MS (m/e): 507 (MH+). (I-149): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 6.96 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.05 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.50 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 3H), 7.76 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H), 10.00 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.71%; MS (m/e): 565.12 (MH+). (I-150): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.43 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 6.97 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.07 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (m, 3H), 7.30 (m, 3H), 7.58 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (s, 1H), 8.38 (br, 1H), 9.35 (br, 1H), 10.21 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 92.55%; MS (m/e): 565.19 (MH+). (I-151): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.34 (m, 2H), 1.50 (m, 2H), 1.81 (m, 2H), 2.06 (s, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.56 (m, 2H), 2.81 (m, 1H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.39 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.56 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.16%; MS (m/e): 586.15 (MH+). (I-152): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.37 (m, 2H), 1.54 (m, 2H), 1.83 (m, 2H), 2.08 (s, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.61 (m, 2H), 2.89 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.23-7.37 (m, 4H), 7.58 (m, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.04 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (s, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.63%; MS (m/e): 586.33 (MH+). (I-153): N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.14 (s, 3H), 3.92 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (m, 5H), 7.32 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (m, 3H), 7.68 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (m, 3H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.38 (s, 1H), 9.45 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.62%; MS (m/e): 579.19 (MH+). (I-154): N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 3.97 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (m, 6H), 7.30 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.06 (m, 3H), 8.38 (br, 1H), 9.35 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.05%; MS (m/e): 579.19 (MH+). (I-155): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.86 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.46 (m, 1H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 6.96 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.06 (t, 3H), 7.18 (t, 2H), 7.26 (t, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.47 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.53 (s, 1H), 7.62 (m, 2H), 7.73 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 8.47 (s, 1H), 9.42 (s, 1H), 10.01 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 85.09%; MS (m/e): 565.18 (MH+). (I-156): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 6.97 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.06 (m, 3H), 7.19 (m, 3H), 7.28 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.64 (s, 1H), 7.68 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.23 (s, 1H), 10.22 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 83.10%; MS (m/e): 565.19 (MH+). (I-157): N2-(4-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.86 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 3.90 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.19 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (m, 5H), 7.32 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (s, 1H), 7.62 (m, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 3H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.47 (s, 1H), 9.41 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 87.95%; MS (m/e): 579.22 (MH+). (I-158): N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 3.97 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.24 (m, 7H), 7.34 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (m, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.07 (m, 3H), 8.36 (s, 1H), 9.22 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.59%; MS (m/e): 579.42 (MH+). (I-159): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.82 (m, 4H), 1.29 (m, 2H), 1.46 (m, 2H), 1.80 (m, 2H), 2.05 (s, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.55 (m, 2H), 2.78 (m, 1H), 4.18 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 7.08 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.39 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.52 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.57 (s, 1H), 7.62 (d, 2H), 7.79 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.47 (s, 1H), 9.40 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.55%; MS (m/e): 586.20 (MH+). (I-160): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 1.38 (m, 2H), 1.53 (m, 2H), 1.81 (m, 2H), 2.06 (s, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.57 (m, 2H), 2.88 (m, 1H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.23-7.35 (m, 3H), 7.58 (m, 2H), 7.68 (m, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.01 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 8.36 (s, 1H), 9.22 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.17%; MS (m/e): 586.44 (MH+). (I-161): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.40 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 3H), 4.15 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (m, 3H), 7.36 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.58 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.02 (s, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 9.31 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.90%; MS (m/e): 503.16 (MH+). (I-162): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.40 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.27-7.38 (m, 3H), 7.61 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 8.01 (s, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.25 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 84.33%; MS (m/e): 503.08 (MH+). (I-163): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.36 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (q, J=5.1 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.53 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.28%; MS (m/e): 503.15 (MH+). (I-164): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 3.05 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 1H), 3.61 (dd, J=2.4, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.80 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.85 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.38 (s, 1H), 9.46 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.96%; MS (m/e): 527.16 (MH+). (I-165): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 3.07 (t, 1H), 3.65 (dd, J=2.4, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.01 (m, 2H), 8.09 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.54%; MS (m/e): 527.17 (MH+). (I-166): N2-(4-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 1.31 (m, 4H), 1.54 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.32 (m, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.61%; MS (m/e): 557.18 (MH+). (I-167): N2-(4-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.01 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.67 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.90 (s, 2H), 7.06 (s, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.58 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.82 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.39 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 82.58%; MS (m/e): 545.16 (MH+). (I-168): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine LCMS: purity: 99.67%; MS (m/e): 580.15 (MH+). (I-169): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(4-pyridylmethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine LCMS: purity: 99.17%; MS (m/e): 580.16 (MH+). (I-170): N2-(3-cyclopentylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.33 (m, 4H), 1.53 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 3.38 (m, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.51 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.06 (m, 2H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.61%; MS (m/e): 557.18 (MH+). (I-171): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[4-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.30 (s, 3H), 4.19 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 5.51 (br, 1H), 6.42 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.37 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.41 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.64 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 6H), 8.35 (s, 1H), 8.71 (br, 1H), 9.03 (br, 1H), 9.24 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 84.84%; MS (m/e): 566.14 (MH+). (I-172): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.92 (m, 4H), 0.93 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.83 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.36 (s, 1H), 9.42 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.62%; MS (m/e): 531.17 (MH+). (I-173): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 0.93 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 3.25 (m, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.45 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.05 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 531.17 (MH+). (I-174): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-[3-(3-pyridyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.30 (s, 3H), 4.19 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 5.24 (br, 1H), 6.53 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 6.85 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 6.96 (m, 2H), 7.40 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (m, 4H), 7.82 (d, J=9.9 Hz, 1H), 8.35 (s, 2H), 8.73 (d, 1H), 9.04 (br, 1H), 9.24 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.43%; MS (m/e): 566.05 (MH+). (I-175): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 0.95 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.72 (p, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.54 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.97%; MS (m/e): 517.13 (MH+). (I-176): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 0.98 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.79 (p, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.42 (t, 1H), 7.59 (t, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.04 (s, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.72%; MS (m/e): 517.14 (MH+). (I-177): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.78 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.91 (m, 4H), 1.35 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.68 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.54 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.73%; MS (m/e): 531.12 (MH+). (I-178): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.78 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.37 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.70 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.44 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.58 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.70%; MS (m/e): 531.15 (MH+). (I-179): N2-(4-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.066 (q, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 0.34 (q, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 0.78 (m, 1H), 0.91 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.59 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.40 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.43 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 86.70%; MS (m/e): 543.19 (MH+). (I-180): N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.084 (q, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 0.35 (q, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 0.81 (m, 1H), 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.65 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.02 (s, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.33 (s, 1H), 9.30 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.70%; MS (m/e): 543.20 (MH+). (I-181): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 1.57 (p, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.72 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.25 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.54 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.85 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.45 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.46%; MS (m/e): 561.16 (MH+). (I-182): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.58 (p, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.79 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 3.26 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (s, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (br, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.04 (s, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.31 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.02%; MS (m/e): 561.19 (MH+). (I-183): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[4-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.91 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.84 (q, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (s, 3H), 3.26 (m, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.38 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.84 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.44 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.78%; MS (m/e): 547.15 (MH+). (I-184): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.89 (m, 2H), 3.15 (s, 3H), 3.29 (m, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.58 (t, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 8.07 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 9.29 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.10%; MS (m/e): 547.12 (MH+). (I-185): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.42 (d, 3H), 2.45 (s, 3H), 4.17 (d, J=4.5 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 3H), 7.60 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.00 (m, 2H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 9.19 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 91.76%; MS (m/e): 517.15 (MH+). (I-186): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 0.97 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.46 (s, 3H), 2.81 (m, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (t, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.03 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 9.19 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.35%; MS (m/e): 531.21 (MH+). (I-187): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.77 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.90 (m, 4H), 1.36 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 2.46 (s, 3H), 2.73 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.00 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 9.18 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 89.69%; MS (m/e): 545.20 (MH+). (I-188): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 2.46 (s, 3H), 3.02 (t, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J=2.7, 6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.14 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 8.00 (s, 2H), 8.01 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 9.18 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.36%; MS (m/e): 541.13 (MH+). (I-189): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.90 (m, 4H), 0.96 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.47 (s, 3H), 3.08 (m, 1H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.43 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (t, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 7.98 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.26 (s, 1H), 9.17 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.96%; MS (m/e): 545.46 (MH+). (I-190): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.89 (q, J=5.4 Hz, 2H), 3.08 (s, 3H), 3.21 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.36 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (m, 2H), 7.78 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 9.65 (br, 1H), 10.27 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.71%; MS (m/e): 561.19 (MH+). (I-191): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 1.55 (p, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.76 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.09 (s, 3H), 3.21 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.36 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.62-7.73 (m, 4H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 9.67 (br, 1H), 10.30 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.11%; MS (m/e): 575.30 (MH+). (I-192): N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.024 (q, J=4.8 Hz, 2H), 0.29 (q, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 0.73 (m, 1H), 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.53 (s, 3H), 2.64 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.20 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.22 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (m, 2H), 7.80 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 9.65 (br, 1H), 10.26 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.33%; MS (m/e): 557.16 (MH+). (I-193): N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.90 (s, 3H), 1.92 (s, 3H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 6.95 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (m, 3H), 7.61 (s, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.08 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 8.19 (s, 1H), 8.41 (s, 1H), 9.22 (s, 1H), 11.92 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.91%; MS (m/e): 573.14 (MH+). (I-194): N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.89 (s, 3H), 1.90 (s, 3H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 4.90 (s, 2H), 7.25 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.68 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.42 (s, 1H), 9.55 (s, 1H), 11.80 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.76%; MS (m/e): 573.08 (MH+). (I-195): N2-(3-benzylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 3.96 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.20 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (m, 6H), 7.36 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.50 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (m, 3H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 8.22 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 9.64 (br, 1H), 10.20 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.32%; MS (m/e): 593.11 (MH+). (I-196): N2-(3-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.62 (s, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 4.90 (s, 2H), 6.92 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.11 (t, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (m, 2H), 7.81 (s, 1H), 7.87 (d, 1H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 8.89 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.55%; MS (m/e): 573.32 (MH+). (I-197): N2-(4-acetamidosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-acetyl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 1.06 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 4H), 1.56 (s, 3H), 1.59 (s, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 4.90 (s, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.48 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.71 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H), 9.12 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 87.22%; MS (m/e): 573.12 (MH+). (I-198): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.94 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 6H), 1.03 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 1.08 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 3.06 (p, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 3.25 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 4.94 (s, 2H), 6.93 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (m, 3H), 7.64 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.70 (s, 1H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.05 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 8.24 (s, 1H), 8.42 (s, 1H), 9.16 (s, 1H), 11.95 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 91.71%; MS (m/e): 629.28 (MH+). (I-199): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.92 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 6H), 1.08 (m, 10H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.43 (m, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 3.16 (m, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.72 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.41 (s, 1H), 9.56 (s, 1H), 11.75 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.23%; MS (m/e): 629.24 (MH+). (I-200): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 6H), 1.03 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 1.08 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 3.05 (p, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 3.24 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.94 (s, 2H), 6.89 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.09 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (s, 1H), 7.82 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.30 (s, 1H), 8.82 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.01%; MS (m/e): 629.25 (MH+). (I-201): N4-[4-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-isobutyryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(4-isobutyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 6H), 1.07 (m, 10H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 3.15 (m, 1H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 7.22 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.48 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 9.11 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.71%; MS (m/e): 629.24 (MH+). (I-202): N4-(4-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-phenylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.89 (m, 4H), 2.10 (s, 3H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 6.92 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.04 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.09-7.19 (m, 3H), 7.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.68 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 7.98 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 9.20 (s, 1H), 10.29 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 91.37%; MS (m/e): 579.19 (MH+). (I-203): N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.75 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.81 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.42 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.52 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.17 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.61 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.95 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (m, 3H), 7.66 (m, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 8.21 (s, 1H), 8.42 (s, 1H), 9.21 (s, 1H), 11.96 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.32%; MS (m/e): 629.67 (MH+). (I-204): N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.74 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.85 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.08 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 4H), 1.41 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 1.56 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.14 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.65 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.67 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.71 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.87 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.42 (s, 1H), 9.55 (s, 1H), 11.76 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.92%; MS (m/e): 629.23 (MH+). (I-205): N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.77 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.82 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 3H), 1.11 (m, 4H), 1.37 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.53 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.86 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.60 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.11 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.83 (br, 2H), 7.89 (s, 1H), 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.87 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 91.88%; MS (m/e): 629.27 (MH+). (I-206): N2-(4-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[4-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.76 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.85 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.08 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 4H), 1.37 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.56 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.84 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.67 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.49 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 9.11 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.45%; MS (m/e): 629.27 (MH+). (I-207): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.35 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 3H), 4.19 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.09-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.32 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.50 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.62 (m, 3H), 7.83 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (s, 1H), 8.48 (s, 1H), 9.43 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.09%; MS (m/e): 503.18 (MH+). (I-208): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 0.96 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 3H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.75 (p, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.18 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.40 (m, 3H), 7.48 (s, 1H), 7.55 (m, 2H), 7.64 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (s, 1H), 7.85 (d, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 9.47 (br, 1H), 10.11 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.59%; MS (m/e): 517.25 (MH+). (I-209): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-isopropylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.86 (m, 4H), 0.92 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.46 (s, 1H), 7.51 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.59-7.65 (m, 2H), 7.71 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.76 (s, 1H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 9.55 (br, 1H), 10.13 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 98.47%; MS (m/e): 545.18 (MH+). (I-210): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(2-methoxyethyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.89 (q, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 3.08 (s, 3H), 3.21 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.19 (m, 2H), 7.34 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.49 (s, 1H), 7.54 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.76 (m, 3H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 9.39 (br, 1H), 9.96 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 100%; MS (m/e): 561.17 (MH+). (I-211): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-methylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.41 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 3H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (m, 2H), 7.60 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (m, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 7.98 (m, 2H), 8.33 (s, 1H), 9.12 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 99.46%; MS (m/e): 517.14 (MH+). (I-212): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(4-ethylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 0.95 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.15 (s, 3H), 2.72 (p, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.19 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.14 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (s, 1H), 7.34 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.51 (s, 1H), 7.54 (s, 2H), 7.60 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 7.76 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.78 (br, 1H), 9.61 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 79.55%; MS (m/e): 517.05 (MH+). (I-213): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-(3-ethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 0.95 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.15 (s, 3H), 2.78 (m, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (m, 2H), 7.32 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.55-7.61 (m, 4H), 7.87 (m, 3H); LCMS: purity: 93.18%; MS (m/e): 531.20 (MH+). (I-214): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propargylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.88 (m, 4H), 2.14 (s, 3H), 2.99 (t, 1H), 3.64 (dd, J=1.8, 5.1 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.17 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (m, 3H), 7.88 (s, 3H), 8.10 (d, J=4.5 Hz, 1H), 8.96 (br, 1H), 9.60 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 90.90%; MS (m/e): 541.14 (MH+). (I-215): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(4-methyl-3-propylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.74 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.87 (m, 4H), 1.34 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.15 (s, 3H), 2.69 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (m, 2H), 7.33 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.52-7.65 (m, 4H), 7.79 (m, 2H), 7.87 (s, 1H), 9.21 (br, 1H), 9.84 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 95.70%; MS (m/e): 545.16 (MH+). (I-216): N2-(3-cyclopropylmethylaminosulfonyl-4-methyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.023 (q, J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 0.29 (q, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 0.73 (m, 1H), 0.87 (m, 4H), 2.15 (s, 3H), 2.64 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 4.16 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.16 (m, 2H), 7.33 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.54 (m, 2H), 7.62 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (m, 3H), 7.86 (s, 1H), 9.79 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 91.73%; MS (m/e): 557.14 (MH+). (I-217): N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-N2-[3-(3-methoxypropyl)aminosulfonyl-4-methyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.87 (m, 4H), 1.56 (p, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 2.14 (s, 3H), 2.78 (q, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 3.10 (s, 3H), 3.22 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.17 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.55-7.64 (m, 4H), 7.84 (m, 3H), 8.99 (br, 1H), 9.64 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.24%; MS (m/e): 575.15 (MH+). (I-218): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.76 (m, 6H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.16 (m, 8H), 1.39 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.49 (t, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.17 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.60 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.94 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.33 (m, 3H), 7.64 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.69 (s, 1H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 8.05 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.40 (s, 1H), 9.16 (s, 1H), 11.94 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.19%; MS (m/e): 685.27 (MH+). (I-219): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-hexanoyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-N2-(3-hexanoylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.78 (m, 6H), 1.11 (m, 4H), 1.17 (m, 8H), 1.36 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.50 (t, 2H), 1.94 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.60 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.89 (m, 2H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.32 (s, 1H), 8.92 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.48%; MS (m/e): 685.26 (MH+). (I-220): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.77 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 6H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.13-1.24 (m, 4H), 1.37 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.48 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.18 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.61 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.94 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.33 (m, 3H), 7.67 (m, 2H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 8.05 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 8.21 (s, 1H), 8.40 (s, 1H), 9.17 (s, 1H), 11.93 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 92.83%; MS (m/e): 657.49 (MH+). (I-221): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-valeryl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-valerylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine sodium salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.78 (m, 6H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.14-1.25 (m, 4H), 1.34 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.49 (p, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.87 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.61 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.90 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.09 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.84 (m, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.85 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 94.42%; MS (m/e): 657.73 (MH+). (I-222): N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.76 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 3H), 0.82 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.37 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 1.53 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 1.85 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.60 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 3.08 (s, 9H), 3.37 (t, J=4.8 Hz, 2H), 3.81 (m, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 5.30 (m, 1H), 6.90 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 7.09 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.29 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.66 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 7.82 (m, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.28 (s, 1H), 8.85 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 93.44%; MS (m/e): 629.10 (MH+). (I-223): N2-(3-butyrylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.75 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.24 (m, 4H), 1.41 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.18 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 7.05 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.33 (m, 3H), 7.60 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.71 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (s, 1H), 8.09 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 8.38 (s, 1H), 9.32 (s, 1H), 11.96 (br, 1H); LCMS: purity: 97.11%; MS (m/e): 559.20 (MH+). (I-224): N2-(3-aminosulfonyl)phenyl-N4-[3-(N-butyryl-N-cyclopropylsulfonyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.83 (t, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.53 (q, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.61 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 6.93 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.24 (s, 2H), 7.30 (m, 3H), 7.68 (m, 2H), 7.92 (s, 1H), 7.98 (d, 1H), 8.10 (d, J=4.8 Hz, 1H), 8.37 (s, 1H), 9.08 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 90.92%; MS (m/e): 559.34 (MH+). (I-225): N2-[3-(N-acetoxymethyl-N-butyryl)aminosulfonyl]phenyl-N4-(3-cyclopropylsulfonylaminomethyl)phenyl-5-methyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.78 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 0.88 (m, 4H), 1.42 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.06 (s, 3H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.58 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 3.16 (s, 2H), 4.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 7.06 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.38 (m, 2H), 7.62 (m, 2H), 7.70 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 7.93 (s, 1H), 8.14 (d, 1H), 8.22 (s, 1H), 8.40 (s, 1H), 9.33 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 86.49%; MS (m/e): 631.09 (MH+). (I-226): N4-[3-(N-cyclopropylsulfonyl-N-propionyl)aminomethyl]phenyl-5-methyl-N2-(3-propionylaminosulfonyl)phenyl-2,4-pyrimidinediamine Choline salt 1H NMR (DMSO-d6): δ 0.83 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 0.98 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 1.10 (m, 4H), 1.88 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 3.08 (s, 9H), 3.38 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 3.81 (m, 2H), 4.92 (s, 2H), 5.31 (m, 1H), 6.91 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.09 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.20 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (s, 1H), 7.82 (m, 2H), 7.88 (s, 1H), 8.29 (s, 1H), 8.86 (s, 1H); LCMS: purity: 96.43%; MS (m/e): 601.09 (MH+). Example 3 Assay for Ramos B-Cell Line Stimulated with IL-4 B-cells stimulated with cytokine Interleukin-4 (IL-4) activate the JAK/Stat pathway through phosphorylation of the JAK family kinases, JAK-1 and JAK-3, which in turn phosphorylate and activate the transcription factor Stat-6. One of the genes upregulated by activated Stat-6 is the low affinity IgE receptor, CD23. To study the effect of inhibitors on the JAK family kinases, human Ramos B cells are stimulated with human IL-4. The Ramos B-cell line was acquired from ATCC (ATCC Catalog No. CRL-1596). The cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 (Cellgro, MediaTech, Inc., Herndon, Va., Cat No. 10-040-CM) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), heat inactivated (JRH Biosciences, Inc, Lenexa, Kans., Cat No. 12106-500M) according to ATCC propagation protocol. Cells were maintained at a density of 3.5×105. The day before the experiment, Ramos B-cells were diluted to 3.5×105 cells/mL to ensure that they were in a logarithmic growth phase. Cells were spun down and suspended in RPMI with 5% serum. 5×104 cells were used per point in a 96-well tissue culture plate. Cells were pre-incubated with compound or DMSO (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., Cat No. D2650) vehicle control for 1 hour in a 37° C. incubator. Cells were then stimulated with IL-4 (Peprotech Inc., Rocky Hill, N.J., Cat No. 200-04) for a final concentration of 50 units/mL for 20-24 hours. Cells were then spun down and stained with anti-CD23-PE(BD Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif., Cat No. 555711) and analyzed by FACS. Detection was performed using a BD LSR I System Flow Cytometer, purchased from Becton Dickinson Biosciences of San Jose, Calif. The IC50 calculated based on the results of this assay are provided in Table III. Example 4 Primary Human T-cell Proliferation Assay Stimulated with IL-2 Primary human T-cells derived from peripheral blood and pre-activated through stimulation of the T-cell receptor and CD28 proliferate in vitro in response to the cytokine Interleukin-2 (IL-2). This proliferative response is dependent on the activation of JAK-1 and JAK-3 tyrosine kinases, which phosphorylate and activate the transcription factor Stat-5. Human primary T cells were prepared as follows. Whole blood was obtained from a healthy volunteer, mixed 1:1 with PBS, layered on to Ficoll Hypaque (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, N.J., Catalog #17-1440-03) in 2:1 blood/PBS:ficoll ratio and centrifuged for 30 min at 4° C. at 1750 rpm. The lymphocytes at the serum: ficoll interface were recovered and washed twice with 5 volumes of PBS. The cells were resuspended in Yssel's medium (Gemini Bio-products, Woodland, Calif., Catalog #400-103) containing 40 U/mL recombinant IL2 (R and D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn., Catalog #202-IL (20 μg)) and seeded into a flask pre-coated with 1 μg/mL anti-CD3 (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif., Catalog #555336) and 5 μg/mL anti-CD28 (Immunotech, Beckman Coulter of Brea Calif., Catalog #IM1376). The primary T-cells were stimulated for 3 to 4 days, then transferred to a fresh flask and maintained in RPMI with 10% FBS and 40 U/mL IL-2. Primary T-cells were washed twice with PBS to remove the IL-2 and resuspended in Yssel's medium at 2×106 cells/mL. 50 μL of cell suspension containing 80 U/mL IL-2 was added to each well of a flat bottom 96 well black plate. For the unstimulated control, IL-2 was omitted from the last column on the plate. Compounds were serially diluted in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 99.7% pure, cell culture tested, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., Catalog No. D2650) from 5 mM in 3-fold dilutions and then diluted 1:250 in Yssel's medium. 50 μL of 2× compound was added per well in duplicate and the cells were allowed to proliferate for 72 hours at 37° C. Proliferation was measured using CellTiter-Glo® Luminescent Cell Viability Assay (Promega), which determines the number of viable cells in culture based on quantitation of the ATP present, as an indicator of metabolically active cells. The substrate was thawed and allowed to come to room temperature. After mixing the Cell Titer-Glo reagent and diluent together, 100 μL was added to each well. The plates were mixed on an orbital shaker for two minutes to induce lysis and incubated at room temperature for an additional ten minutes to allow the signal to equilibrate. Detection was performed using a Wallac Victor2 1420 multilabel counter purchased from Perkin Elmer, Shelton, Conn. The IC50 calculated based on the results of this assay are provided in Table III. Example 5 A549 Epithelial Line Stimulated with IFNγ A549 lung epithelial cells up-regulate ICAM-1 (CD54) surface expression in response to a variety of different stimuli. Therefore, using ICAM-1 expression as readout, compound effects on different signaling pathways can be assessed in the same cell type. IFNγ up-regulates ICAM-1 through activation of the JAK/Stat pathway. In this example, the up-regulation of ICAM-1 by IFNγ was assessed. The A549 lung epithelial carcinoma cell line originated from the American Type Culture Collection. Routine culturing was with F12K media (Mediatech Inc., Lenexa, Kans., Cat. No. 10-025-CV) with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 I.U. penicillin and 100 ng/mL streptomycin (complete F12k media). Cells were incubated in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 at 37° C. Prior to use in the assay, A549 cells were washed with PBS and trypsinized (Mediatech Inc., Cat. No. 25-052-CI) to lift the cells. The trypsin cell suspension was neutralized with complete F12K media and centrifuged to pellet the cells. The cell pellet was resuspended in complete F12K media at a concentration of 2.0×105/mL. Cells were seeded at 20,000 per well, 100 μL total volume, in a flat bottom tissue culture plate and allowed to adhere overnight. On day two, A549 cells were pre-incubated with a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine test compound or DMSO (control) (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., Catalog No. D2650) for 1 hour. The cells were then stimulated with IFNγ (75 ng/mL) (Peprotech Inc., Rocky Hill, N.J., Cat. No. 300-02) and allowed to incubate for 24 hours. The final test compound dose range was 30 μM to 14 nM in 200 μL F12K media containing 5% FBS, 0.3% DMSO. On day three, the cell media was removed and the cells were washed with 200 μL PBS (phosphate buffered saline). Each well was trypsinized to dissociate the cells, then neutralized by addition of 200 μL complete F12K media. Cells were pelleted and stained with an APC conjugated mouse anti-human ICAM-1 (CD54) (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif., Catalog #559771) antibody for 20 minutes at 4° C. Cells were washed with ice cold FACS buffer (PBS+2% FBS) and surface ICAM-1 expression was analyzed by flow cytometry. Detection was performed using a BD LSR I System Flow Cytometer, purchased from BD Biosciences of San Jose, Calif. Events were gated for live scatter and the geometric mean was calculated (Becton-Dickinson CellQuest software version 3.3, Franklin Lakes, N.J.). Geometric means were plotted against the compound concentration to generate a dose response curve. The IC50 calculated based on the results of this assay are provided in Table III. Example 6 U937 IFNγ ICAM1 FACS Assay U937 human monocytic cells up-regulate ICAM-1 (CD54) surface expression in response to a variety of different stimuli. Therefore, using ICAM-1 expression as readout, compound effects on different signaling pathways can be assessed in the same cell type. IFNγ up-regulates ICAM-1 through activation of the JAK/Stat pathway. In this example, the up-regulation of ICAM-1 by IFNγ was assessed. The U937 human monocytic cell line was obtained from ATCC of Rockville, Md., catalog number CRL-1593.2, and cultured in RPMI-1640 medium containing 10% (v/v) FCS. U937 cells were grown in 10% RPMI. The cells were then plated at a concentration of 100,000 cells per 160 μL in 96 well flat bottom plates. The test compounds were then diluted as follows: 10 mM test compound was diluted 1:5 in DMSO (3 μL 10 mM test compound in 12 μL DMSO), followed by a 1:3 serial dilution of test compound in DMSO (6 μL test compound serially diluted into 12 μL DMSO to give 3-fold dilutions). Then 4 μL of test compound was transferred to 76 μL of 10% RPMI resulting in a 10× solution (100 μM test compound, 5% DMSO). For control wells, 4 μL of DMSO was diluted into 76 μL 10% RPMI. The assay was performed in duplicate with 8 points (8 3-fold dilution concentrations from 10 μl) and with 4 wells of DMSO only (control wells) under stimulated conditions and 4 wells of DMSO only under unstimulated conditions. The diluted compound plate was mixed 2× using a multimek (Beckman Coulter of Brea, Calif.) and then 20 μL of the diluted compounds was transferred to the 96 well plate containing 160 μL of cells, which were then mixed again twice at low speeds. The cells and compounds were then pre-incubated for 30 minutes at 37° C. with 5% CO2. The 10× stimulation mix was made by preparing a 100 ng/mL solution of human IFNγ in 10% RPMI. The cells and compound were then stimulated with 20 μL of IFNγ stimulation mix to give a final concentration of 10 ng/mL IFNγ, 10 μM test compound, and 0.5% DMSO. The cells were kept under conditions for stimulation for 18-24 hours at 37° C. with 5% CO2. The cells were transferred to a 96 well round bottom plate for staining and then kept on ice for the duration of the staining procedure. Cells were spun down at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes at 4° C., following which the supernatant was removed. Following removal of the supernatant, 1 μL APC conjugated mouse anti-human ICAM-1 antibody was added per 100 μL FACS buffer. The cells were then incubated on ice in the dark for 30 minutes. Following incubation, 150 μL of FACS buffer was added and the cells were centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes at 4° C., following which the supernatant was removed. After removal of the supernatant, 200 μL of FACS buffer was added and the cells were resuspended. After suspension, the cells were centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 min at 4° C. Supernatant was then removed prior to resuspension of the cells in 150 μL FACS buffer. Detection was performed using a BD LSR I System Flow Cytometer, purchased from BD Biosciences of San Jose, Calif. The live cells were gated for live scatter and the geometric mean of ICAM-APC was measured (Becton-Dickinson CellQuest software version 3.3, Franklin Lakes, N.J.). Both % live cells and ICAM-1 expression was analyzed. The assays for the test compounds were carried out in parallel with a control compound of known activity. The EC50 for the control compound is typically 40-100 nM. The IC50 calculated based on the results of this assay are provided in Table III. TABLE III Compound # Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 I-1 0.3568 0.4179 9999 I-2 0.6472 3.7263 I-3 0.2272 0.4583 4.5317 I-4 0.1414 0.1088 18.221 0.9084 I-5 0.1302 0.1195 56.614 0.7104 I-6 0.5588 0.5363 I-102 0.0901 0.5188 20.484 3.4725 I-103 0.1819 1.0683 I-104 0.0988 0.679 4.5841 I-105 0.1239 0.7979 5.8194 I-106 0.2072 0.1158 3.8242 I-107 2.9344 18.139 I-108 5.1572 25.752 I-109 0.1188 0.1389 16.866 1.1926 I-110 0.089 0.1481 1.0277 I-111 0.1536 0.2927 2.2677 I-112 0.2626 0.614 I-7 0.0735 0.1127 I-8 0.2349 0.2754 9999 3.25 I-9 0.0801 0.0702 9999 0.9926 I-10 0.094 0.0606 29.498 0.477 I-11 0.25 0.5878 2.7856 I-12 0.17 0.1581 4.5746 1.5761 I-13 0.1355 0.1974 3.6295 0.5356 I-14 0.1436 0.8349 9999 5.2671 I-15 0.0658 0.1841 9999 3.1141 I-16 0.1483 0.5363 9.0101 2.2827 I-17 0.1641 1.0689 8.2383 4445.3 I-18 0.107 0.2716 9999 1.2939 I-19 0.1479 0.4941 1.6447 I-20 0.0736 0.0461 9999 0.6208 I-21 0.0812 0.0589 2.4946 0.3623 I-22 0.0259 0.0822 9999 0.2069 I-23 0.1262 0.1977 9999 3.8494 I-24 0.0592 0.032 9999 0.5077 I-25 0.069 0.0639 8888 0.3628 I-26 0.2521 1.1606 9999 I-27 0.1177 0.1443 5.8424 1.2427 I-28 0.1154 0.3764 1.1085 I-29 0.2028 0.8823 9999 I-30 0.0743 0.153 6.0966 1.1578 I-31 0.1041 0.2828 1.0219 I-32 0.3642 1.5602 9999 I-33 0.1018 0.3145 9999 1.4093 I-34 0.1838 0.4838 5.7035 1.1871 I-35 0.1333 0.4358 9999 8888 I-36 0.0408 0.0639 9999 0.3259 I-37 0.0462 0.1524 27.71 0.3751 I-38 0.1219 0.1895 9999 0.8548 I-39 0.0462 0.058 3.7509 0.6036 I-40 0.0681 0.0924 3.4902 0.3411 I-41 1.0179 2.122 I-42 1.1463 3.2246 I-43 0.5367 1.7932 37.805 I-44 1.2177 4.1555 9999 I-45 0.0598 0.0293 7777 0.2835 I-46 0.0268 0.0249 9999 0.1878 I-47 0.028 0.0362 2.8935 0.104 I-48 0.2633 0.7577 29.86 3.757 I-49 0.0468 0.0383 78.902 0.8359 I-50 0.0343 0.0627 9.3473 0.5475 I-51 0.0622 0.0297 2.8041 0.3238 I-52 0.0685 0.0662 2.5463 0.2029 I-53 0.1309 0.1749 9999 0.6045 I-54 0.0943 0.047 4.6916 0.3888 I-55 0.0788 0.0845 3.8786 0.3596 I-56 0.1622 0.3102 0.7255 I-57 12.299 I-58 11.095 I-59 6.5002 I-60 7.08 I-61 18.945 I-62 10.695 I-63 9.4529 I-64 4.2742 I-65 0.2113 0.634 10.39 I-66 0.0694 0.065 8888 0.4718 I-67 0.0824 0.0845 3.2855 0.3209 I-68 0.094 0.1024 4.9488 0.2892 I-69 0.0515 0.05 7.7628 0.1756 I-70 0.043 0.1495 2.5836 0.1586 I-71 0.1197 0.1316 10.52 0.4006 I-72 0.0569 0.0251 2.6645 0.2044 I-73 0.0899 0.071 3.5675 0.3115 I-74 0.362 2.2463 9999 I-75 0.1811 0.2461 1.2019 I-76 0.1691 0.4626 I-77 1.2345 I-78 1.0832 I-79 0.098 0.0923 8888 0.3449 I-80 0.0371 0.0463 4.1337 0.1431 I-81 0.0736 0.0892 0.2148 I-83 0.1809 0.1516 0.266 I-85 3.0981 3.9016 I-86 0.5055 0.224 9999 I-87 0.2508 0.3086 5006.6 I-88 0.0599 I-89 0.4476 1.5026 I-90 0.1521 0.3487 2.4322 I-91 1.2891 I-92 0.9596 I-93 2.8128 I-94 2.4973 I-95 0.1595 0.2862 2.6894 I-96 0.0744 0.1054 9999 3.6709 I-97 0.0347 0.0488 13.281 0.2573 I-98 0.0253 0.0521 9999 0.1518 I-99 0.5654 0.9544 I-100 0.1015 0.1527 0.4886 I-101 0.0624 0.2242 0.4327 I-140 3.936 I-141 4.7053 I-142 5.6204 I-143 7.2875 I-136 1.6287 I-116 0.0367 0.0299 1.8338 0.1778 I-137 1.9061 I-123 0.0836 0.0429 18.954 0.1639 I-118 0.0398 0.0158 2.4784 0.2176 I-117 0.0388 0.0179 2.169 0.0601 I-131 0.5567 I-133 0.7152 1.2075 I-129 0.1609 0.4322 7777 2.5064 I-119 0.0535 0.0954 4.4177 0.5349 I-125 0.0949 0.1381 4.0251 0.3886 I-127 0.126 0.2328 9999 0.6158 I-121 0.0736 0.0465 36.461 0.2308 I-126 0.104 0.0742 5.5599 0.2244 I-124 0.0898 0.1321 5.7164 0.3727 I-120 0.0671 0.0473 2.5396 0.0984 I-122 0.0816 0.0883 0.1548 I-139 3.3234 I-144 7.7204 I-135 1.0002 I-134 0.7506 I-132 0.5938 I-138 2.3815 I-148 16.189 I-146 12.328 I-145 8.5439 I-147 13.799 25.074 I-130 0.5445 I-128 0.1567 0.0622 0.7066 I-115 0.0233 0.0192 2.7217 0.1051 I-114 0.0206 0.0092 5.649 0.0517 I-113 0.0186 0.017 0.8877 0.0471 I-82 1.0986 0.9638 I-84 0.3551 0.237 9.5335 0.9277 II-1 0.04227 0.1081 18.2992 0.22889 II-2 0.00775 0.03044 9999 0.10747 II-3 0.01942 0.0475 12.3592 0.08789 II-4 0.72032 II-5 0.69778 II-6 0.63985 II-7 0.13044 0.15526 0.65181 II-8 0.09794 0.1473 17.826 0.77531 II-9 0.11794 0.27658 1.11 I-149 0.08223 0.19 I-150 0.08859 0.12729 0.56492 I-151 0.3526 1.07925 I-152 0.16558 0.71664 I-153 0.08001 0.11814 9999 8888 I-154 0.08456 0.06193 6.35464 0.18447 I-155 0.25031 1.42812 I-156 0.26615 1.07878 I-157 0.24988 1.1013 I-158 0.29998 0.5314 I-159 0.53933 7.96064 I-160 0.24186 3.96195 I-161 0.01669 0.0112 24.353 0.05105 I-162 0.05789 0.04627 1.9181 0.15506 I-163 0.04674 0.05271 9999 0.14323 I-164 0.06134 0.03283 13.7775 0.16011 I-165 0.03484 0.01989 8.9726 0.15016 I-166 0.08255 0.21212 0.28021 I-167 0.13214 0.11573 0.5872 I-168 0.27815 0.34717 I-169 0.13978 0.20625 0.47831 I-170 0.13602 0.17191 0.23802 I-171 19.4799 42.2553 I-172 0.05211 0.08102 9999 0.12251 I-173 0.03481 0.04242 1.88491 0.10871 I-174 1.12317 I-175 0.04612 0.10203 2.37086 0.07226 I-176 0.00798 0.06454 10.3863 0.04841 I-177 0.01773 0.16024 9999 0.10674 I-178 0.02304 0.12232 5.45019 0.05772 I-179 0.04592 0.28969 9999 0.36528 I-180 0.0257 0.14837 2.22102 0.06217 I-181 0.07306 0.12129 2.34967 0.24262 I-182 0.02568 0.05509 2.24926 0.1029 I-183 0.06672 0.15526 8888 0.20722 I-184 0.01412 0.05172 1.40643 0.09775 I-185 0.0225 0.04105 4.09804 0.08531 I-186 0.01949 0.04001 1.76155 0.07296 I-187 0.07236 0.10105 2.41861 0.17385 I-188 0.04362 0.57253 5.07933 0.19338 I-189 0.03518 0.03437 1.71662 0.15322 I-190 0.07257 0.10123 1.36072 0.18699 I-191 0.0512 0.07994 3.06433 0.24747 I-192 0.05468 0.04335 2.30116 0.25971 I-193 1.88972 I-194 1.64595 I-195 0.06642 0.10434 3.54496 0.22978 I-196 2.04693 I-197 1.549 I-198 2.05231 I-199 1.27294 I-200 2.31342 I-201 1.20917 I-202 0.08648 0.18399 6.05207 0.48216 I-203 3.0177 I-204 1.04089 I-205 3.44129 I-206 0.94595 I-207 0.0865 0.15751 6.10888 0.31234 I-208 0.07431 0.04575 1.30281 0.25743 I-209 0.11289 0.13127 0.52909 I-210 0.12814 0.14312 2.469 0.17492 I-211 0.10317 0.04819 0.17654 I-212 0.23555 0.1605 0.21505 I-213 0.08816 0.09177 0.12471 I-214 0.16177 0.13597 0.19002 I-215 0.13209 0.11638 0.38537 I-216 0.16058 0.15417 0.58956 I-217 0.08025 0.12875 0.49595 I-218 3.80438 I-219 2.60437 I-220 2.01592 I-221 1.87849 I-222 3.0337 I-223 3.69204 I-224 0.02181 I-225 0.11489 I-226 5.49011
|
A
| 7A61
| 22A61K
|
315
|
06
|
|||
11755589
|
US20080300195A1-20081204
|
METABOLIC IMPRINTING
|
ACCEPTED
|
20081119
|
20081204
|
[]
|
A61K3170
|
["A61K3170", "A23J100", "A61P304", "A23L100"]
|
9402412
|
20070530
|
20160802
|
514
|
023000
|
97324.0
|
WHITE
|
EVERETT
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Shahkhalili", "inventor_name_first": "Yasaman", "inventor_city": "La-Tour-de Peilz", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Acheson", "inventor_name_first": "Kevin", "inventor_city": "Pully", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Mace", "inventor_name_first": "Katherine", "inventor_city": "Lausanne", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Moulin", "inventor_name_first": "Julie", "inventor_city": "Attalens", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zbinden", "inventor_name_first": "Irene", "inventor_city": "Le Mont sur Lausanne", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Aprikian", "inventor_name_first": "Olivier", "inventor_city": "Vevey", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Voss", "inventor_name_first": "Theresa", "inventor_city": "La Tour de Peilz", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}]
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The present invention generally relates to the field of nutrition. In particular the present invention relates to infant nutrition in the post natal period and in early life, more particular during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof. One embodiment of the present invention is a kit of diet compositions for children during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof, wherein the macronutrient content of the compositions is gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months, and its use to prevent obesity later in life.
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1. A kit of nutritional compositions for children age 6-36 month, comprising a macronutrient content that gradually changes in a substantially straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. 2. Kit in accordance with claim 1 wherein the diet compositions are daily compositions. 3. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the total energy content of the composition is gradually changing in the form of a substantially straight line from a composition that comprises about 670-715 kcal/day for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 1000-1200 kcal/day for children at the age of 36 months. 4. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted daily, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. 5. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted weekly, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. 6. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted monthly, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. 7. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted stepwise, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. 8. Kit in accordance with claim 7, wherein the composition is adjusted in 3-10 steps during the age of 6-36 months. 9. Kit in accordance with claim 7, wherein the composition is adjusted in 3-4 steps during the age of 6-36 months. 10. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted stepwise, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition, at the age of the child of 6, 8, 12, 18, 24 and 36 months. 11. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of the diet composition is adjusted also with respect to the total calorie content based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal calorie content of the composition. 12. Kit in accordance with claim 1, comprising at least one diet composition that comprises about 44-46% energy from fat and about 47-49% energy from carbohydrates for children age 6-8 months; at least one diet composition that comprises about 39-41% energy from fat and about 49-52% energy from carbohydrate for children age 8-12 months; and at least one diet composition that comprises about 34-35% energy from fat and about 51-53% energy from carbohydrate for children age 12-36 months. 13. Kit in accordance with claim 12, wherein the at least one diet composition comprises about 670-715 kcal/day during the age of 6-8 months, about 715-850 kcal/day for children age 8-12 months, and about 750-1200 kcal/day for children age 12-36 months. 14. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the diet compositions further comprise a protein source. 15. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the content of carbohydrates in the compositions is gradually changing from a composition that comprises about 48% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 53% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. 16. Kit in accordance with claim 1, comprising diet compositions for at least one day. 17. Kit in accordance with claim 1, comprising diet compositions for three days. 18. Kit in accordance with claim 1, comprising diet compositions for a week. 19. Kit in accordance with claim 1, comprising diet compositions for a month. 20. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the diet compositions represent individual meals. 21. Kit in accordance with claim 20, comprising at least 3 individual meals. 22. Kit in accordance with claim 1, wherein the diet compositions represent a total diet. 23. A method for reducing the risk of obesity in children 6-36 months old comprising the steps of administering a series of diet compositions, wherein the macronutrient content of the compositions is gradually changing from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. 24. A method for developing a mealplan for children age 6-36 months comprising a macronutrient content that gradually changes in a substantially straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention generally relates to the field of nutrition. In particular the present invention relates to infant nutrition in the post natal period and in early life, more particular during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Evidence is accumulating that nutrition during early life can program the development of diseases later in life 1 , a discovery that was named “metabolic programming or imprinting”. This evidence, mainly driven from foetal development in-utero 2-7 , reveals the importance of optimal nutrition during early life for the health of the individual later in the life. Considering that many developmental processes still continue during early post natal life, it is evident that postnatal nutrition—especially during suckling and during the complementary feeding period—plays an important role for the health status and for the prevention of diseases later in life. Prior evidence in rats demonstrates that a change in the fat and carbohydrate (CHO) content of milk during the suckling period may have an impact on the development of obesity and diabetes later in life. In these studies 8-9 that relate to breast feeding without additives rats were artificially reared by using either a milk substitute formula low in fat content (LF) and rich in CHO (20% total energy from fat (fat E) and 56% total energy from carbohydrates (CHO E), respectively) or by using a milk composition similar to rat milk, namely high in fat (HF) and low in CHO (8% CHO E and 68% fat E) or were mother-fed from the age of 4 to 24 days postnatal. All groups were weaned onto a low fat laboratory standard chow diet. The LF feeding during the suckling period resulted in hyperinsulinemia which persisted into adulthood and lead to an increase in body weight and onset of adult obesity, an effect termed “metabolic programming” 10-11 . Beyond total milk feeding (suckling period) this effect was previously not investigated to the inventor's best knowledge. Although during the suckling period “milk” as the first diet of infants and other mammals is very rich in fat (50% of energy from fat), the dietary fat intake is reduced considerably during the complementary feeding period as an infant is gradually weaned off milk onto semi solid foods. This is due to the replacement of high-fat milk with weaning foods low in fat content, such as fruits, vegetables, weaning cereals, fruit juices etc. It has been reported that the fat intake of infants, even in developed countries, is low (30% of energy from fat) during the complementary feeding period (6-12 months) 12-13 . Indeed the complementary feeding period has been referred to as “the period of life with the lowest fat intake during the life cycle of man”. Data concerning nutritional recommendations for humans during the weaning period are scarce and recommendations are mainly based on estimates of the nutritional requirements of those of suckling infants adjusted for weight and energy intake. Infant nutrition during this period of rapid growth is surrounded by uncertainties and there is little agreement about what should constitute an optimal composition of the complementary diet and in particular an optimal fat and carbohydrate content of complementary diets. The present uncertainty about the long-term consequences of the fat and CHO content of the weaning diet on health in general and—in particular—on development of obesity later in life led the present inventors to investigate these consequences in rats as model system for humans. It is an advantage of the present invention to provide a nutritional concept for the transition period from nutrition with breast milk or breast milk-like products in terms of fat and CHO content during the suckling period to the subsequent nutrition with baby food that allows it to reduce the risk that the child develops a bad health status, in particular obesity and diabetes later in life. The present invention provides kits, methods of reducing the risk of obesity and mealplans. In one embodiment the present invention relates to a kit of parts comprising diet compositions for children during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof. In an embodiment, the macronutrient content of the compositions is gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. A wide variety of kits and methods of using the kit are possible and envisioned by the present invention. Additional features and advantages are described herein, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description and the figures.
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BACKGROUND The present invention generally relates to the field of nutrition. In particular the present invention relates to infant nutrition in the post natal period and in early life, more particular during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof. SUMMARY Evidence is accumulating that nutrition during early life can program the development of diseases later in life1, a discovery that was named “metabolic programming or imprinting”. This evidence, mainly driven from foetal development in-utero2-7, reveals the importance of optimal nutrition during early life for the health of the individual later in the life. Considering that many developmental processes still continue during early post natal life, it is evident that postnatal nutrition—especially during suckling and during the complementary feeding period—plays an important role for the health status and for the prevention of diseases later in life. Prior evidence in rats demonstrates that a change in the fat and carbohydrate (CHO) content of milk during the suckling period may have an impact on the development of obesity and diabetes later in life. In these studies8-9 that relate to breast feeding without additives rats were artificially reared by using either a milk substitute formula low in fat content (LF) and rich in CHO (20% total energy from fat (fat E) and 56% total energy from carbohydrates (CHO E), respectively) or by using a milk composition similar to rat milk, namely high in fat (HF) and low in CHO (8% CHO E and 68% fat E) or were mother-fed from the age of 4 to 24 days postnatal. All groups were weaned onto a low fat laboratory standard chow diet. The LF feeding during the suckling period resulted in hyperinsulinemia which persisted into adulthood and lead to an increase in body weight and onset of adult obesity, an effect termed “metabolic programming”10-11. Beyond total milk feeding (suckling period) this effect was previously not investigated to the inventor's best knowledge. Although during the suckling period “milk” as the first diet of infants and other mammals is very rich in fat (50% of energy from fat), the dietary fat intake is reduced considerably during the complementary feeding period as an infant is gradually weaned off milk onto semi solid foods. This is due to the replacement of high-fat milk with weaning foods low in fat content, such as fruits, vegetables, weaning cereals, fruit juices etc. It has been reported that the fat intake of infants, even in developed countries, is low (30% of energy from fat) during the complementary feeding period (6-12 months)12-13. Indeed the complementary feeding period has been referred to as “the period of life with the lowest fat intake during the life cycle of man”. Data concerning nutritional recommendations for humans during the weaning period are scarce and recommendations are mainly based on estimates of the nutritional requirements of those of suckling infants adjusted for weight and energy intake. Infant nutrition during this period of rapid growth is surrounded by uncertainties and there is little agreement about what should constitute an optimal composition of the complementary diet and in particular an optimal fat and carbohydrate content of complementary diets. The present uncertainty about the long-term consequences of the fat and CHO content of the weaning diet on health in general and—in particular—on development of obesity later in life led the present inventors to investigate these consequences in rats as model system for humans. It is an advantage of the present invention to provide a nutritional concept for the transition period from nutrition with breast milk or breast milk-like products in terms of fat and CHO content during the suckling period to the subsequent nutrition with baby food that allows it to reduce the risk that the child develops a bad health status, in particular obesity and diabetes later in life. The present invention provides kits, methods of reducing the risk of obesity and mealplans. In one embodiment the present invention relates to a kit of parts comprising diet compositions for children during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof. In an embodiment, the macronutrient content of the compositions is gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. A wide variety of kits and methods of using the kit are possible and envisioned by the present invention. Additional features and advantages are described herein, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description and the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 shows the % energy content of fat (grey lines) and carbohydrates (black lines) of the total energy content of the diet composition depending on the age of the child in month. The x-axis shows the age of the child in month and the y-axis shows the %-energy content of the diet composition. FIG. 2 shows the energy intake during all study phases, phase I, phase II, phase III and the overall energy intake of Experiment I. FIG. 3 shows the development of the body weights of the test animals during each study phase, phase I, phase II and phase III during Experiment I. FIG. 4 shows the weight gain of the different groups of test animals during high fat period (Phase III) in Experiment I. FIG. 5 shows the fat gain of the different groups of test animals during high fat period (Phase III) in Experiment I. DETAILED DESCRIPTION % energy refers for the purpose of the present invention always to the K total amount of energy that is present in a diet composition. A diet composition that has 33% energy from fat will therefore have 67% energy from carbohydrates and/or proteins. A diet composition means at least one meal or a part thereof. For example, a diet composition can be a complete meal such as breakfast, lunch or dinner. It can also be one or more, e.g. five, individual meals that are consumed during the day. It can also be more than one individual meal. It can also represent only a part of an individual meal or a part of more individual meals. It is preferred that the diet compositions of the present invention represent individual meals. Oftentimes dinner represents a substantial part of the diet on a caloric basis. In infants, the caloric intake during dinner can range from 15 to 35% of the daily caloric intake. Hence, in a preferred embodiment the meals are dinners. Dinners are the main meal of the day and can be served in the evening or at midday. Nutritionally well-balanced dinners can, hence, significantly contribute to the health of infants. Macronutrients are those nutrients that together provide most metabolic energy to an organism. For the purpose of the present invention the three macronutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months means any straight line or group of straight lines that is located on and/or between the two black lines in FIG. 1 for carbohydrates and any straight line that is located on and/or between the two grey lines in FIG. 1 for fats. The present invention comprises all possible kits of diet compositions that are represented by FIG. 1 and all such kits of diet compositions are disclosed by FIG. 1. Expressed in mathematical terms this means that the present invention discloses and comprises every kit of diet compositions for children during the age period of 6-36 months or during a part thereof, wherein the fat content of the diet composition is adjusted to any straight line, which is located on or between the straight lines y=−1/2x+53 and y=−1/3x+42 (y is % energy from fat), and wherein the carbohydrate content of the diet composition is adjusted to any straight line, which is located on or between the straight lines y=1/5 x+47.8 and y−1/3x+38 (y is % energy from carbohydrates) between x=6 and x=36, if x is the age of the child in months. A kit of parts in accordance with the present invention provides a tool for the parents to improve infant nutrition in an optimal way without having to keep detailed records of the nutritional components that the infant has already ingested. The present method and kit thus increase convenience and reduce the occurrence of consequences of non-optimal nutrition. “Infants” as used in the present invention are in particular human children aged from 4 months to 3 years. The present method is particularly directed at infants aged from 6 to 36 months. In one embodiment of the present invention the diet compositions are daily diet compositions. Daily diet compositions have the advantage that they can be used very effectively to tightly regulate the gradual change of the fat and carbohydrate content of the food of a child when it is gaining age. It is important to note that if the diet compositions are daily diet compositions the individual meals may well deviate somewhat from a macronutrient content that is gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months, as long as the individual meals to be consumed during a day together—that together are considered a daily diet composition—fulfil this requirement. This way it is possible to adapt a mealplan of a child, e.g., in a way that it can consume food that is easy to digest in the evening to allow an easy sleep, while it consumes food compositions that are more difficult to digest during the day. In one embodiment of the present invention the total energy content of the composition is gradually changing in the form of a straight line from a composition that comprises about 670-715 kcal/day for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 1000-1200 kcal/day for children at the age of 36 months. This allows adapting the energy content of the diet compositions to the particular age of the child, so that it can be assured that a sufficient amount of energy is always present during this decisive period of development of the child, while an overfeeding is avoided. Changing gradually means in one embodiment of the present invention that the fat and carbohydrate content of the diet composition is adjusted daily, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. Optionally, the total energy content is also adjusted daily along with the fat and carbohydrate content. This results in a very gradual change without any noticeable “steps” in diet composition. Consequently, the infant's organism will not have to adapt to any abrupt changes in food content. In another embodiment of the present invention changing gradually means that the content of the diet composition is adjusted weekly, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. Also in this case the changes that are made to the diet composition are so marginal that the metabolism of the infant will not be faced with any abrupt changes. In another embodiment of the present invention changing gradually means that the content of the diet composition is adjusted monthly, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition. Even if the adjustment of the diet composition is made on a monthly level the resulting mealplan of a child will exhibit a smooth transition from a high fat-low carbohydrate composition at the age of 6 months to a low fat-high carbohydrate composition at the age of 36 months without any abrupt changes. The present inventors have found that the object of the present invention can still well be achieved by adjusting the macronutrient content of the diet composition stepwise, based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal fat content and carbohydrate content of the composition as detailed above, preferably in 3-10 steps, most preferred in 3-4 steps during the age of 6-36 months. This stepwise adjustment is preferable made at a child age of 6, 8, 12, 18, 24 and/or 36 months. In one preferred embodiment of the present invention changing gradually includes that the content of the diet composition is adjusted also with respect to the total calorie content based on the age of the child and the corresponding optimal calorie content of the composition. For example, a kit according to the present invention can comprise at least one diet composition that comprises about 44-46% energy from fat and about 47-49% energy from carbohydrates during the age of 6-8 months, at least one diet composition that comprises about 39-41% energy from fat and about 49-52% energy from carbohydrate during the age of 8-12 months, and/or at least one diet composition that comprises about 34-35% energy from fat and about 51-53% energy from carbohydrate during the age of 12-36 months. Preferably, the at least one diet composition for consumption during the age of 6-8 months comprises about 670-715 kcal/day, the at least one diet composition for consumption during the age of 8-12 months comprises about 715-850 kcal/day, and/or the at least one diet composition for consumption during the age of 12-36 months comprises about 750-1200 kcal/day. The diet compositions of the present invention further comprise a protein source. The amount of protein source present is preferably adjusted to the need of the child of the particular age in question and can generally be calculated as follows: % energy from protein=100−(% energy from fat+% energy from carbohydrates) In a particular preferred embodiment of the present invention the content of carbohydrates in the compositions is gradually changing from a composition that comprises about 48% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 53% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months. Generally the kit of the present invention comprises at least one, preferably at least two diet compositions. A diet composition preferably constitutes one or more complete meals, one or more parts of a complete meal or one or more snacks or a part thereof. The number of diet compositions the kit of the present invention can contain is not particularly limited and is only regulated by the storage stability of the food product. Hence, a kit intended for use in a nursery or in a hospital can be significantly larger than a kit for private households. In a preferred embodiment the kit of the present invention comprises diet compositions for at least one day. In this respect the kit might comprise 2 or more, preferably 3-10, even more preferred 5 individual meals. The daily food intake can, e.g., be divided into three meals and 2 up to 3 snacks. More meals with corresponding smaller portions have the advantage that the child's metabolism will not be faced with too large amount of food and at the same time periods with an “empty stomach” are avoided. In further embodiments of the present invention the kit comprises diet compositions for three days, for a week or for a month. It is preferred that the diet compositions represent one or more individual meals. In this case the kit can for example comprise at least 3, preferably 3-21, most preferred 9 individual meals. It is further preferred that the diet compositions represent a total diet, which is to be understood as sum of food to be consumed by a person over a given period of time. Preferably, the diet composition of the present invention also comprises micronutrients and/or minerals to arrive at an ideally balanced food product for the child at the particular age. Also these components can preferably be varied based on the specific needs of the child at a particular age. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention the fat component comprises essential fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that cannot be produced by the body. They are capable of fulfilling important functions in the human body. Two families of essential fatty acids are in particular important, the omega-3 and the omega-6 family. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, a fatty acid with a chain length of 18 carbon atoms and containing three double bonds) is an example of a member of the omega-3 family. ALA is, e.g., found in flaxseed and various vegetable oils and nuts. An example of a member of the omega-6 family of essential fatty acids is linoleic acid (LA, a fatty acid with a chain length of 18 carbon atoms and containing two double bonds). The weight ratio of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids in the diet compositions of the present invention is preferably between 5 and 15. Preferably, the diet compositions of the present invention are of a liquid nature. Preferred embodiments have a consistency of a liquid or of a mash. This can be achieved by the presence of water in the diet compositions of the present invention. Preferably, they contain between 75 and 90 wt-% water based on the total weight of the diet composition, more preferably between 78 and 85 wt-% water. In a preferred embodiment, the diet compositions to be administered to the infants each have a volume between 90 and 500 ml, more preferably between 125 and 300 ml. The diet compositions of the present invention may all have about the same volume (i.e. difference between greatest and smallest volume is less than 50 ml) or they may have increasing volumes with the increasing age of the child to reflect an increased caloric content. Preferably, the diet compositions of the present invention are to be consumed at a temperature of between 15 and 55° C., more preferred between 30 and 50° C., and even more preferably between 35 and 45° C. The diet compositions according to the present invention are preferably individually packaged and provided as a kit of parts. The kit of parts contains in one embodiment several different meals. The diet compositions in the kit are preferably in ready-to-eat and/or dried form. From the dried form, a ready-to-eat form can be easily produced by reconstitution in a suitable liquid, e.g. water. The ready-to-eat form can normally be administered directly to the infant, optionally after heating and/or mixing. The present invention relates also to the use of a series of diet compositions, wherein the macronutrient content of the compositions is gradually changing from a composition that comprises about 40-50% energy from fat and about 40-49% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 6 months to a composition that comprises about 30-35% energy from fat and about 50-55% energy from carbohydrates for children at the age of 36 months for the preparation of a kit to prevent the development of obesity. The kit that is to be prepared by the use of the present invention can be any kit of the present invention and can have any feature or any combination of features as described herein. The series of diet compositions comprises 2 or more individual diet compositions, preferably 3-35 diet compositions. Finally, the present invention also relates to a mealplan for children that comprises a kit of the present invention. The mealplan is intended for the prevention of obesity later in life. Those skilled in the art will understand that it is possible to freely combine features and embodiments of the present invention as described herein without departing from the scope of the present invention as disclosed. By way of example and not limitation, examples of the present invention will now be given. EXAMPLES Experiment 1 The consequence of fat and CHO content of weaning diet on the later development of obesity was investigated using rats. Seventy two male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated from their dam at the age of 16 days. The animals were divided into three study groups (24 animals/group) and were pair-fed, on an iso-energetic and iso-protein basis, with one of the following weaning diets (Table 1) differing only in energy distribution from Fat and CHO as: (% energy) 10/70 (group A); 30/50 (group B) and 60/20 (group C). for 20 days (Phase I: age 16 to 36 days). All groups were then fed ad libitum with a standard low-fat commercial chow diet (Kliba 3434, 13% fat E:) for 20 weeks (phase II: age 5 to 25 weeks), after which all groups were challenged with a high-fat diet (45% fat E: Kliba 2126) that was fed ad-libitum for a period of 18 weeks (phase III: age 35 to 53 weeks). TABLE 1 Composition of weaning diets A B C PRODUITS g/345 Kcal g/345 Kcal g/345 Kcal Casein 20 20 20 L-Cystine 0.3 0.3 0.3 Lactose.H2O 5 5 5 Sucrose 10 10 10 Corn starch 51.1490 31.618 2.42700 Vit. Mix AIN93 1 1 1 Min. Mix AIN93 G* 3.5 3.5 3.5 Bitartr. choline 0.25 0.25 0.25 Tert-butylhydroquinone 0.0014 0.0014 0.0014 Cellulose 5 5 5 Soya oil 1.90 5.741 11.482 Corn oil 1.90 5.741 11.482 Total 100 88.15 70.44 % Energy Protein 20 20 20 CHO 70 50 20 Fat 10 30 60 Food intake was measured daily during the weaning period (period I) and twice per week during the post-weaning periods (period II &III). Body weight was measured 2-3 times per week throughout the study. The body composition, which is body fat and fat free mass, was measured during post weaning phases II and III using NMR imaging (EchoMRI 2004), at 27, 35, 47 and 52 weeks of age. FIGS. 2-3 demonstrate that the energy intakes and body weights of all groups fed the weaning diets with different Fat/CHO ratios were similar at the end of the weaning period (phase I), during 9 months of low-fat diet (phase II) as well as during the 4 months of the obesigenic, high-fat challenge (45% fat E) feeding period, (Phase III). However, the rats fed with a low-fat (10% E), high-carbohydrate (70% E), diet only during 19 days weaning period gained significantly more body weight (FIG. 4) and body fat (FIG. 5) during the high-fat challenge diet at adult age (age of 35 to 53 weeks), relative to the other 2 groups fed with higher fat (30% & 60% E) and lower CHO (50% or 20% E) diets only during weaning period (p<0.05). These results show that a weaning diet with a macronutrient composition (fat and CHO) close to that consumed during the suckling period (high fat diet) has a beneficial effect toward reducing the risk of development of obesity later in life, while a high-CHO, low-fat diet during the weaning period increases the susceptibility to excess body weight and fat mass gain later in life. The inventors believe that this is the first report on “metabolic programming” during the complementary feeding period and reveals the importance of the Fat/CHO content of complementary diet for obesity prevention later in life. In the following sample diet compositions are provided for the age period of 6-8 months (*=carbohydrates as monosaccharides): Menu 1: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Total Breast milk/day 780 540.8 6.73 32.97 57.9 Breakfast Rice cereal 20 76.4 1.6 0.18 17 fortified with Fe (prepared with 160 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Snack carrots puree 30 6.6 0.17 0.12 1.3 Lunch Baby meat (Turkey) 30 22.8 2.86 1.16 0.02 Snack Green beans puree 25 6.25 0.43 0.03 1.18 Snack Banana puree 60 57 0.72 0.18 13.9 Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 710 13 35 91 % Energy 7 44 48 Menu 2: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Breast milk 780 540.8 6.73 32.97 57.9 Breakfast Rice cereal 20 76.4 1.6 0.18 17 fortified with Fe (prepared with 160 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Lunch Baby meat (Veal) 30 30.3 4.05 1.44 0 Snack Pumpkin puree 60 7.8 0.42 0.12 1.32 Snack Pears puree 60 24.6 0.12 0.06 6.24 Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 680 13 35 82 % Energy 8 46 45 Menu 3: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Breast milk 780 540.8 6.73 32.97 57.9 Breakfast Wheat baby 15 56.85 1.8 0.195 12 cereal fortified Fe (prepared with 120 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Lunch Carrots and Chicken 100 65 2.7 1.4 10.2 baby meal Snack Mixed fruit puree 50 27.5 0.35 0.05 6.9 Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 690 11.6 34.6 87.0 % Energy 7 45 47 Menus (6-8 months with breast milk) Menu 1 Menu 2 Menu 3 Range Energy (kcal) 710 680 690 680-710 Protein (g) 13 13 12 12-13 Fat (g) 35 35 35 35.0 CHO (g) 91 82.5 87.0 82-93 % Energy (E) % E % E % E % E Protein 7 8 7 7-8 Fat 44 46 45 44-46 CHO 48 45 47 45-48 In the following sample diet compositions are provided for the age period of 8-12 months (*=carbohydrates as monosaccharides): Menu 1: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Total Breast milk/day 600 416.0 5.2 25.4 44.5 Breakfast Wheat baby cereal 20 75.8 2.4 0.26 16 fortified with Fe (Prepared with 160 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Mashed Banana 20 19 0.24 0.06 4.63 Lunch Baby meat (Turkey) 20 22.8 2.86 1.16 0.02 Pumpkins 80 10.4 0.56 0.16 1.76 Potato puree with 70 72.8 1.26 3.01 9.3 butter Snack 2 baby Biscuits 21.5 85 1.5 1.9 15.5 Sliced apricot 30 9.3 0.27 0.03 2.16 Raspberry 30 7.5 0.42 0.09 1.4 Apple 30 14 0.12 0.03 3.5 Total per day ml/day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 733 15 32 99 % Energy 8 39 51 Menu 2: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Total Breast milk/day 600 416.0 5.2 25.4 44.5 Breakfast/dinner Baby 8 cereals 20 77.4 1.84 0.26 16.9 fortified with Fe (Prepared with 160 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Sliced mango 30 17.1 0.21 0.06 4.23 Lunch Papa baby meat with 250 150 6.5 3.75 22.75 vegetables and pasta Snack Milky baby dessert 130 88.4 1.3 1.04 18.38 with fruit Diced cooked 60 64.8 0.6 5.6 4.56 peaches + 5 g whipping cream Total per day ml/day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day Menu 2 with Breast 814 16 36 111 milk % Energy 8 40 51 Menu 3: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Total Breast milk/day 600 416.0 5.2 25.4 44.5 Breakfast Rice cereal fortified 20 76.4 1.6 0.18 17 with Fe (Prepared with 160 ml Breast milk/ infant formula) Lunch Ground (mine) beef 25 55.3 4.7 4.1 0.0 Carrots puree 50 11 0.3 0.2 2.2 Rice (+2 g olive oil) 50 87 1.3 2.63 15.43 Dinner Milk based soup with 200 104 4.8 2.72 15.36 legumes Whole grain toasted 12.5 26.9 1.2 0.3 5.2 bread Snack Apple puree 30 14 0.12 0.03 3.5 Diced melon 60 11.4 0.36 0.06 2.52 (cantaloupe) Total per day ml/day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day Menu 3 with Breast 802 19 36 106 milk % Energy 10 40 49 Menus 8-12 months with breast milk Menu 1 Menu 2 Menu 3 Range Energy (kcal) 732.6 813.7 801.9 733-814 Protein (g) 14.8 15.6 19.5 15-21 Fat (g) 32.1 36.1 35.5 32-37 CHO (g) 98.8 111.4 105.7 99.111 % Energy (E) % Energy % Energy % Energy % Energy Protein 8 8 10 8-10 Fat 39 40 40 39-41 CHO 51 51 49 49-51 In the following sample diet compositions are provided for the age period of 12-36 months (*=carbohydrates as monosaccharides): Menu 1: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Breakfast Junior Fe fortified Oat 25 100.0 3.75 2.75 15 cereal with, banana, pear Prepared with 160 ml 160 110.0 2.73 4.96 13.6 Growing up milk Fresh blackberries 30 7.6 0.27 0.06 1.5 Lunch tomato sauce with 4 g 35 41.2 0.2 4.09 0.9 olive oil cooked noodles 100 65.3 2.2 0.5 13 Growing up milk 150 103.1 2.56 4.65 12.75 Snack Diced Kiwi 60 30.8 0.7 0.3 6.4 Dessert Caramel 100 94.6 3.1 3 13.8 (Petit Gourmand) Dinner courgette fried in corn 50 26.8 1.3 2.4 oil Diced potatoes 100 76.1 1.8 0.1 17.0 Pork 15 49.5 4.3 3.6 Snack Wafer biscuits 20 107 0.94 6 13.2 Apples 60 33.5 0.24 0.06 8 Growing up milk 120 82.3 2 3.72 10.2 Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 928 26 36 125 (% Energy) 11 35 54 Menu 2: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Breakfast Growing up milk 125 88 2.14 3.88 10.63 1 small egg boiled 30 44 3.75 3.24 0 Sliced whole wheat 25 54 2.3 0.625 10.4 bread Butter (unsalted) 5 37 0.02 4.08 0 Sliced Mango 30 17 0.0 0.0 0.4 Snack Raspberries 60 15 0.84 0.18 2.76 Lunch Growing up milk 120 84 2 3.7 10.2 Sliced whole wheat 25 54 2.3 0.6 10.4 bread Mayonnaise (made 8 55 0.1 6.0 0.1 with whole milk) Tuna in oil 15 28 4 1.4 Sliced banana 50 48 0.6 0.2 11.6 Snack Milky baby dessert 130 88.4 1.3 1.04 18.38 with fruit Dinner Diced beef meat 15 33 4.6 1.65 0 mashed potatoes 100 104 1.8 4.3 15.5 Spinach 50 9 1.1 0.4 0.4 Snack Cereal milk drink 250 240 6.5 6.5 37.5 with fruit Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 998.2 33.4 37.8 128.2 % Energy 13 34 51 Menu 3: g Energy ml (milk) kcal Protein g Fat g CHO* g Breakfast Growing up milk 120 84 2 3.72 10.2 Ready to eat cereal 50 38.5 1.035 1.62 4.95 Diced orange 60 22.2 0.66 0.06 5.1 Snack 4 toddler biscuits* 43 170 3 3.8 31 Apple grape juice (ml) 120 45.6 0.12 0.12 11.9 Lunch Growing up milk 120 84 2 3.72 10.2 (1.71 g true protein/ 100 ml) Ground beef 20.0 44 3.7 3.2 0.0 Diced green beans 50 12 0.85 0.05 2.35 Rice with 7 g olive oil 105 201 2.6 8.3 30.9 Snack Cubed cheese 15 49.5 3.12 4.05 0.135 4 Whole grain crackers 20 82.6 2.02 2.26 14.4 Dinner Growing up milk 120 84 2 3.7 10.2 (1.71 g true protein/ 100 ml) Turkey (50 g) 20 21.2 4.4 0.4 0 Vegetable mix 190 105 2.7 2.5 18 (potato, corn, carrot) Olive oil 5 45 5.0 Snack Fruit cocktail 130 71.51 0.91 0.13 17.94 Total per day kcal/day g/day g/day g/day 1161 31.1 42.7 167.2 % Energy 11 33 54 Menus 12-36 months with growing up milk Menu 1 Menu 2 Menu 3 Range Energy (kcal) 928 998.2 1161 928-1160 Protein (g) 26.0 33.4 31.1 26.0-34.1 Fat (g) 36.2 37.8 42.7 36.2-42.7 CHO* (g) 125 128 167 125-167 % Energy (E) % E % E % E % E Protein 11 13 11 11-13 Fat 35 34 33 33-35 CHO 54 51 54 51-54 REFERENCES Barker D J, Clark P M. Fetal undernutrition and disease in later life. Rev Reprod 1997; 2:105-112. Law C M, Barker D J, Osmond C, Fall C H, Simmonds S J. Early growth and abdominal fatness in adult life. J Epidemiol Community Health, 1992; 46 184-18. Barker D J. Outcome of low birthweight. Horm Res 1994; 42:223-230. Hoet J J, Hanson M A. Intrauterine nutrition: its importance during critical periods for cardiovascular and endocrine development. J Physiol (Lond) 1999; 514:617-627. Ozanne S E, Hales C N. The long-term consequences of intra-uterine protein malnutrition for glucose metabolism. Proc Nutr Soc 1999; 58:615-619. Langley-Evans S C, Sherman R C, Welham S J, Nwawu M O, Gardner D S, Jackson A A. Intrauterine programming of hypertension: the role of the renin-angiotensin system. Biochem Soc Trans 1999; 27:88-93. Tycko B, Ashkenas J. Epigenetics and its role in disease. J. Clin Invest, 2000; 105:245-246. Patel M. S, Vadlamudi S. P and Johanning G. L, Overview of pup in a cup model: hepatic lipogenesis in rats artificially reared on a high-carbohydrate formula J. Nutr, 1993, 123:373-377. Hiremagalur B. K, Vadlamudi S, Johanning G. L and Patel, M. S, Long-term effects of feeding high carbohydrate diet in pre-weaning period by gastrostomy: a new rat model for obesity. Inter J Obesity, 1993, 17:495-502. Song F, Srinivasan M, Aalinkeel R, Patel M S. Use of cDNA Array for identification of genes induced in islets of suckling rats by a high-carbohydrate nutritional intervention. Diabetes 2001; 50:2053-2060. Aalinkeel R, Srinivasan M, Song F and Patel M S. Programming into adulthood of islet adaptations induced by early nutrition in the rat. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2001, 281:E640-648. Michaelsen F K and Jorgensen M. Dietary fat content and energy density during infancy and childhood, Eur J Clin Nutr, 1995, 49: 467-483. Lapinleimu. H, Viikari J, Jokinen E, Salo P, Routi T, Leino A, Ronnemaa T, Seppanen R, Valimaki I, Simell O, Prospective randomised trial in 1062 infants of diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. Lancet. 1995; 345:471-476 It should be understood that various changes and modifications to the presently preferred embodiments described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present subject matter and without diminishing its intended advantages. It is therefore intended that such changes and modifications be covered by the appended claims.
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11738019
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US20080014201A1-20080117
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CXCL13 Antagonists and Their Use for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases
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ACCEPTED
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20080102
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20080117
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[]
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A61K39395
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["A61K39395", "A61K317052", "A61P1100", "A61P2900", "A61K3802"]
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8277809
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20070420
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20121002
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424
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145100
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82334.0
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WEN
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SHARON
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Bugelski", "inventor_name_first": "Peter", "inventor_city": "Pottstown", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Das", "inventor_name_first": "Anuk", "inventor_city": "Berwyn", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Griswold", "inventor_name_first": "Donald", "inventor_city": "North Wales", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Liang", "inventor_name_first": "Bailin", "inventor_city": "Gilbertsville", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Li", "inventor_name_first": "Li", "inventor_city": "Downingtown", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sarisky", "inventor_name_first": "Robert", "inventor_city": "Lansdale", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shang", "inventor_name_first": "Xiaozhou", "inventor_city": "West Chester", "inventor_state": "PA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Methods of treating disorders related to CXCL13 activity utilize CXCL13 antagonists and, optionally, TNFα antagonists, such as antibodies, including specified portions or variants, polypeptides, polynucleotides, siRNA, shRNA, ribozymes, and DNAzymes. Disorders related to CXCL13 activity include inflammatory disorders, such as pulmonary disorders, for example, asthma, emphysema, and COPD, and systemic lupus erythematosus.
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1. A method for treating a CXCL13 activity-related disorder in a cell, tissue, organ or animal comprising: administering to the cell, tissue, organ or animal a CXCL13 antagonist in an amount effective to inhibit the CXCL13 activity in said cell, tissue, organ or animal; and administering to the cell, tissue, organ or animal a TNFα antagonist in an amount effective to inhibit TNFα activity in said cell, tissue, organ or animal. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist is a CXCL13 binding monoclonal antibody or a fragment thereof and the TNFα antagonist is a TNFα binding monoclonal antibody or a fragment thereof. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the antibody fragment is a Fab, Fab′, or F(ab′)2 fragment or derivative thereof. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the animal is a mammal. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein at least one monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered by at least one mode selected from parenteral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intrarticular, intrabronchial, intraabdominal, intracapsular, intracartilaginous, intracavitary, intracelial, intracerebellar, intracerebroventricular, intracolic, intracervical, intragastric, intrahepatic, intramyocardial, intraosteal, intrapelvic, intrapericardiac, intraperitoneal, intrapleural, intraprostatic, intrapulmonary, intrarectal, intrarenal, intraretinal, intraspinal, intrasynovial, intrathoracic, intrauterine, intravesical, intralesional, bolus, vaginal, rectal, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, and transdermal. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein at least one monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered in the amount of from about 0.05 mg/kg to about 30.0 mg/kg body weight of said mammal. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the mammal is a human patient. 8. The method of claim 5, wherein at least one monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered intraperitoneally. 9. The method of claim 5, wherein at least one monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered in a bolus dose followed by an infusion of said antibody. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 activity-related disorder is an inflammatory disorder. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 activity-related disorder is a pulmonary-related disorder. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 activity-related disorder is selected from the group consisting of asthma, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, and ectopic lymphoid follicle formation. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist or TNFα antagonist is selected from the group consisting of a polynucleotide and a polypeptide. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist or TNFα antagonist is selected from the group consisting of an siRNA, shRNA, antisense, ribozyme, and DNAzyme molecule. 15. A method for treating a pulmonary-related disorder in a cell, tissue, organ or animal comprising administering to the cell, tissue, organ or animal a CXCL13 antagonist in an amount effective to inhibit the CXCL13 activity in said cell, tissue, organ or animal. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist is a CXCL13 binding monoclonal antibody or a fragment thereof. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the CXCL13 monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered by at least one mode selected from parenteral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intrarticular, intrabronchial, intraabdominal, intracapsular, intracartilaginous, intracavitary, intracelial, intracerebellar, intracerebroventricular, intracolic, intracervical, intragastric, intrahepatic, intramyocardial, intraosteal, intrapelvic, intrapericardiac, intraperitoneal, intrapleural, intraprostatic, intrapulmonary, intrarectal, intrarenal, intraretinal, intraspinal, intrasynovial, intrathoracic, intrauterine, intravesical, intralesional, bolus, vaginal, rectal, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, and transdermal. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the CXCL13 monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered in the amount of from about 0.05 mg/kg to about 30.0 mg/kg body weight of said mammal. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the CXCL13 monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered intraperitoneally. 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the monoclonal antibody or fragment is administered in a bolus dose followed by an infusion of said antibody. 21. The method of claim 17, wherein the pulmomary-related disorder is selected from the group consisting of asthma, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, and ectopic lymphoid follicle formation. 22. The method of claim 15, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist is selected from the group consisting of a polynucleotide and a polypeptide. 23. The method of claim 15, wherein the CXCL13 antagonist is selected from the group consisting of an siRNA, shRNA, antisense, ribozyme, and DNAzyme molecule. 24. A method for treating an animal with systemic lupus erythematosus comprising: a) providing an antagonist of CXCL-13 to the animal, and b) providing an antagonist of TNFα to the animal; wherein each antagonist is provided in an amount effective to cause a decrease in a symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus in the animal. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the animal is a mammal. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the mammal is a human. 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the amount of each antibody or binding fragment of an antibody provided is from about 0.05 mg per kg to about 50.0 mg per kg body weight of the animal. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the amount of each antibody or binding fragment of an antibody provided is from about 25 mg per kg body weight of the animal to about 40 mg per kg body weight of the animal. 30. The method of claim 24, wherein the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the number of periarterial lymphocyte infiltrate foci identified by examination of the kidney tissues. 31. The method of claim 24, wherein the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the ratio of total urine protein to total urine creatinine. 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. 33. The method of claim 31, wherein the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is the TNFα binding antibody infliximab or fragment thereof. 34. Any invention described herein.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Asthma is a complex, chronic disorder, with a genetic and an environmental component (1). It is characterized by reversible airway obstruction, airway hyperresponsiveness, airway inflammation and remodeling (2). Asthma affects an estimated 15 million Americans and the morbidity and mortality associated with it is on the rise in industrialized countries (3,4). Inflammation in the airway of an allergic asthmatic is associated with the mucosal infiltration of T helper (Th)2 subset of CD4 + T cells and eosinophils (5,6). The interaction between these cells leads to the production of various pro-inflammatory mediators involved in the pathogenesis of asthma (7,8). Other forms of asthma are those that are induced by exercise, viruses, aspirin and occupation. Although the mechanism responsible for these forms of asthma might involve Th2 lymphocytes and cytokines it might be triggered differently (9-12). Many cytokines and chemokines are involved in the pathogenesis of asthma (13,14). Specifically, the Th2 derived cytokines (interleukin 4, 5, 9 and 13) play an important role in allergic diseases including asthma. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic pulmonary inflammation characterized by the infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, B and T cells. These immunocompetent cells are activated by a variety of cytokines and chemokines that are released in the lung in response to a prolonged exposure to toxic gases and particles (15). Bronchitis and emphysema, together with irreversible airflow obstruction, are the clinical manifestations of the disease. No known agents delay the accelerated decline in pulmonary function that characterizes COPD. Recently, it was observed that the progression of COPD was strongly associated with the parenchymal infiltration by innate and adaptive inflammatory immune cells forming an ectopic lymphoid follicle containing a germinal center. The presence of the lymphoid follicle was coupled to a remodeling process that thickened the distal small airway walls (16). This result strongly suggests the potential pathological role of the ectopic lymphoid follicles in COPD. In an effort to identify novel genes involved in the pathogenesis of asthma, researchers have used DNA microarray technology to profile genes that are differentially expressed in animal models of asthma (17,18). Microarray technology is a powerful tool since it enables analysis of the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously and can also be automated allowing for a high-throughput format. In multifactorial diseases, such as asthma, microarray results can provide a gene expression profile which can prove very useful in designing new therapeutics. Also, it can prove very powerful in identifying novel genes and annotating genes of unknown function (19). CXCL13 (a.k.a BLC (B cell homing chemokine) or BCA-1 (B cell attracting chemokine 1) or Angie 2)) is a chemotactic factor that most strongly and selectively attracts B cells. It also promotes migration of certain T cells and macrophages through the receptor CXCR5 (20). CXCL13 is expressed in the follicles of Peyer's patches, spleen and lymph nodes, and is believed to be important in follicle development and homeostasis (21). It has been observed for years that in the sites of chronic inflammation, the arrangement of the inflammatory infiltrate (T, B and stromal cells) shares many architectural features with lymphoid tissue, which forms the so called ectopic lymphoid follicles (21). In addition, extopic high production of CXCL13 is associated with lymphocyte accumulation and ectopic lymphoid follicle formation in chronic inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (21), Sjogren's syndrome (22), various forms of lupus such as systemic lupus erythematosus (23, 24), ulcerative colitis (25, 26), multiple sclerosis (27-29), type I diabetes (30-32) and autoimmune thyroid diseases (33, 34). Although the exact pathogenic role of the ectopic lymphoid follicles is not clear, evidence suggests its importance in the switch from acute, resolving to chronic, persistent inflammation by allowing lymphocytes to accumulate in the local inflamed tissue (35). Therefore, disrupting or eliminating the ectopic lymphoid follicles would provide a novel therapeutic approach to control chronic inflammatory diseases. CXCL13 is an ideal therapeutic target due to its high expression levels in the ectopic lymphoid follicles and its role in maintaining their microstructure and attracting B cells. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus) is a chronic autoimmune disease that is potentially debilitating and sometimes fatal as the immune system attacks the body's cells and tissue, resulting in inflammation and tissue damage. SLE can affect any part of the body, but most often harms the heart, joints, skin, lungs, blood vessels, liver, kidneys and nervous system. The CXCL13 gene (GenBank Accession No. NM — 006419, SEQ ID NO:1) resides on human chromosome 4q21. CXCL13 belongs to the CXC chemokine family. CXCL1 3 is critical for lyphoid organ formation/development, B cell follicle formation, and B cell recruitment. It is highly produced ectopically in the inflamed tissues of multiple chronic inflammatory diseases, and is believed to play an important role in maintaining local B and T cell activation and inflammation. Gene expression can be modulated in several different ways, including by the use of siRNAs, shRNAs, antisense molecules and DNAzymes. SiRNAs and shRNAs both work via the RNAi pathway and have been successfully used to suppress the expression of genes. RNAi was first discovered in worms and the phenomenon of gene silencing related to dsRNA was first reported in plants by Fire and Mello and is thought to be a way for plant cells to combat infection with RNA viruses. In this pathway, the long dsRNA viral product is processed into smaller fragments of 21-25 bp in length by a DICER-like enzyme and then the double-stranded molecule is unwound and loaded into the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC). A similar pathway has been identified in mammalian cells with the notable difference that the dsRNA molecules must be smaller than 30 bp in length in order to avoid the induction of the so-called interferon response, which is not gene specific and leads to the global shut down of protein synthesis in the cell. Synthetic siRNAs can be designed to specifically target one gene and they can easily be delivered to cells in vitro or in vivo. ShRNAs are the DNA equivalents of siRNA molecules and have the advantage of being incorporated into the cells' genome and then being replicated during every mitotic cycle. DNAzymes have also been used to modulate gene expression. DNAzymes are catalytic DNA molecules that cleave single-stranded RNA. They are highly selective for the target RNA sequence and as such can be used to down-regulate specific genes through targeting of the messenger RNA. Accordingly, there is a need to identify and characterize new methods for diagnosing and treatment related to CXCL13 for pulmonary disorders, such as asthma, and related diseases and conditions. Additionally, there is a need to identify and characterize new methods for treating disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to agonists and/or antagonists of CXCL13 or its receptor, CXCR5, and/or one or both of their activities (hereinafter “CXCL13 antagonists”) and a method of using CXCL13 antagonists, including antibodies directed toward CXCL13, and specified portions or variants thereof specific for at least one CXCL13 protein or fragment thereof, to treat pulmonary-related disorders. These CXCL13 antagonists can be administered along with TNFα antagonists, such TNFα antibodies, e.g., infliximab et al. A CXCL13 antagonist, such as a monoclonal antibody, inhibits local B and T cell recruitment and subsequent activation to provide a novel strategy to control chronic immune mediated inflammatory diseases. In one embodiment, the CXCL13 antagonist is an antibody that specifically binds to CXCL13 or its receptor. A particular advantage of such antibodies is that they are capable of binding CXCL13 or its receptor in a manner that prevents its action. The method of the present invention thus employs antibodies having the desirable neutralizing property which makes them ideally suited for therapeutic and preventative treatment of disease states associated with various pulmonary-related disorders in human or nonhuman patients. Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a method of treating a pulmonary-related disease or condition in a patient in need of such treatment which comprises administering to the patient an amount of a neutralizing CXCL13 antibody to inhibit the pulmonary-related disease or condition. In another aspect, the invention provides methods for modulating activity of CXCL13 or its receptor comprising contacting a cell with an agent (e.g., antagonist or agonist) that modulates (inhibits or enhances) the activity or expression of CXCL13 or its receptor such that activity or expression in the cell is modulated. In a preferred embodiment, the agent is an antibody that specifically binds to CXCL13 or its receptor. In other embodiments, the modulator is a peptide, peptidomimetic, or other small molecule. In another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method of treating a pulmonary-related disease or condition in a patient in need of such treatment, which comprises administering to the patient an amount of a neutralizing CXCL13 antibody or other antagonist along with one or more TNFα antagonists to inhibit the pulmonary-related disease or condition. The present invention also provides methods of treating a subject having a pulmonary or related disorder wherein the disorder can be ameliorated by modulating the amount or activity of CXCL13. The present invention also provides methods of treating a subject having a disorder characterized by aberrant activity of CXCL13 or its encoding polynucleotide by administering to the subject an agent that is a modulator of the activity of CXCL13 ora modulator of the expression of CXCL13. In one embodiment, the modulator is a polypeptide or small molecule compound. In another embodiment, the modulator is a polynucleotide. In a particular embodiment, the CXCL13 antagonist is an siRNA molecule, an shRNA molecule, or a DNAzyme capable of preventing the production of CXCL13 by cells. Another aspect of the invention is a method for treating an animal with systemic lupus erythematosus comprising providing an antagonist of CXCL-13 to the animal, and providing an antagonist of TNF-alpha to the animal; wherein each antagonist is provided in an amount effective to cause a decrease in a symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus in the animal. In one embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. In another embodiment of this method the animal is a mammal. In another embodiment of this method the mammal is a human. In another embodiment of this method the amount of each antibody or binding fragment of an antibody provided is from about 25 mg per kg body weight of the animal to about 40 mg per kg body weight of the animal. In another embodiment of this method the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the number of periarterial lymphocyte infiltrate foci identified by examination of the kidney tissues. In another embodiment of this method the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the ratio of total urine protein to total urine creatinine. In another embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. In another embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is the TNFα binding antibody infliximab. The present invention further provides any invention described herein.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/794,018, filed 21 Apr. 2006 and 60/909,128, filed 30 Mar. 2007, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to CXCL13 antagonists and a method of using CXCL13 antagonists to treat pulmonary disorders and symptoms, and conditions, as well as related diseases and conditions. The invention more specifically relates to methods of treating such diseases by the use of CXCL13 antagonists alone or along with TNFα antagonists, such as interfering RNA, DNAzymes, and antibodies directed toward CXCL13, including specified portions or variants, specific for at least one protein or fragment thereof, in an amount effective to inhibit CXCL13 activity. The present invention also relates to a method of using CXCL13 antagonists and TNFα antagonists to treat an animal with other inflammatory diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Asthma is a complex, chronic disorder, with a genetic and an environmental component (1). It is characterized by reversible airway obstruction, airway hyperresponsiveness, airway inflammation and remodeling (2). Asthma affects an estimated 15 million Americans and the morbidity and mortality associated with it is on the rise in industrialized countries (3,4). Inflammation in the airway of an allergic asthmatic is associated with the mucosal infiltration of T helper (Th)2 subset of CD4+ T cells and eosinophils (5,6). The interaction between these cells leads to the production of various pro-inflammatory mediators involved in the pathogenesis of asthma (7,8). Other forms of asthma are those that are induced by exercise, viruses, aspirin and occupation. Although the mechanism responsible for these forms of asthma might involve Th2 lymphocytes and cytokines it might be triggered differently (9-12). Many cytokines and chemokines are involved in the pathogenesis of asthma (13,14). Specifically, the Th2 derived cytokines (interleukin 4, 5, 9 and 13) play an important role in allergic diseases including asthma. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic pulmonary inflammation characterized by the infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, B and T cells. These immunocompetent cells are activated by a variety of cytokines and chemokines that are released in the lung in response to a prolonged exposure to toxic gases and particles (15). Bronchitis and emphysema, together with irreversible airflow obstruction, are the clinical manifestations of the disease. No known agents delay the accelerated decline in pulmonary function that characterizes COPD. Recently, it was observed that the progression of COPD was strongly associated with the parenchymal infiltration by innate and adaptive inflammatory immune cells forming an ectopic lymphoid follicle containing a germinal center. The presence of the lymphoid follicle was coupled to a remodeling process that thickened the distal small airway walls (16). This result strongly suggests the potential pathological role of the ectopic lymphoid follicles in COPD. In an effort to identify novel genes involved in the pathogenesis of asthma, researchers have used DNA microarray technology to profile genes that are differentially expressed in animal models of asthma (17,18). Microarray technology is a powerful tool since it enables analysis of the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously and can also be automated allowing for a high-throughput format. In multifactorial diseases, such as asthma, microarray results can provide a gene expression profile which can prove very useful in designing new therapeutics. Also, it can prove very powerful in identifying novel genes and annotating genes of unknown function (19). CXCL13 (a.k.a BLC (B cell homing chemokine) or BCA-1 (B cell attracting chemokine 1) or Angie 2)) is a chemotactic factor that most strongly and selectively attracts B cells. It also promotes migration of certain T cells and macrophages through the receptor CXCR5 (20). CXCL13 is expressed in the follicles of Peyer's patches, spleen and lymph nodes, and is believed to be important in follicle development and homeostasis (21). It has been observed for years that in the sites of chronic inflammation, the arrangement of the inflammatory infiltrate (T, B and stromal cells) shares many architectural features with lymphoid tissue, which forms the so called ectopic lymphoid follicles (21). In addition, extopic high production of CXCL13 is associated with lymphocyte accumulation and ectopic lymphoid follicle formation in chronic inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (21), Sjogren's syndrome (22), various forms of lupus such as systemic lupus erythematosus (23, 24), ulcerative colitis (25, 26), multiple sclerosis (27-29), type I diabetes (30-32) and autoimmune thyroid diseases (33, 34). Although the exact pathogenic role of the ectopic lymphoid follicles is not clear, evidence suggests its importance in the switch from acute, resolving to chronic, persistent inflammation by allowing lymphocytes to accumulate in the local inflamed tissue (35). Therefore, disrupting or eliminating the ectopic lymphoid follicles would provide a novel therapeutic approach to control chronic inflammatory diseases. CXCL13 is an ideal therapeutic target due to its high expression levels in the ectopic lymphoid follicles and its role in maintaining their microstructure and attracting B cells. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus) is a chronic autoimmune disease that is potentially debilitating and sometimes fatal as the immune system attacks the body's cells and tissue, resulting in inflammation and tissue damage. SLE can affect any part of the body, but most often harms the heart, joints, skin, lungs, blood vessels, liver, kidneys and nervous system. The CXCL13 gene (GenBank Accession No. NM—006419, SEQ ID NO:1) resides on human chromosome 4q21. CXCL13 belongs to the CXC chemokine family. CXCL1 3 is critical for lyphoid organ formation/development, B cell follicle formation, and B cell recruitment. It is highly produced ectopically in the inflamed tissues of multiple chronic inflammatory diseases, and is believed to play an important role in maintaining local B and T cell activation and inflammation. Gene expression can be modulated in several different ways, including by the use of siRNAs, shRNAs, antisense molecules and DNAzymes. SiRNAs and shRNAs both work via the RNAi pathway and have been successfully used to suppress the expression of genes. RNAi was first discovered in worms and the phenomenon of gene silencing related to dsRNA was first reported in plants by Fire and Mello and is thought to be a way for plant cells to combat infection with RNA viruses. In this pathway, the long dsRNA viral product is processed into smaller fragments of 21-25 bp in length by a DICER-like enzyme and then the double-stranded molecule is unwound and loaded into the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC). A similar pathway has been identified in mammalian cells with the notable difference that the dsRNA molecules must be smaller than 30 bp in length in order to avoid the induction of the so-called interferon response, which is not gene specific and leads to the global shut down of protein synthesis in the cell. Synthetic siRNAs can be designed to specifically target one gene and they can easily be delivered to cells in vitro or in vivo. ShRNAs are the DNA equivalents of siRNA molecules and have the advantage of being incorporated into the cells' genome and then being replicated during every mitotic cycle. DNAzymes have also been used to modulate gene expression. DNAzymes are catalytic DNA molecules that cleave single-stranded RNA. They are highly selective for the target RNA sequence and as such can be used to down-regulate specific genes through targeting of the messenger RNA. Accordingly, there is a need to identify and characterize new methods for diagnosing and treatment related to CXCL13 for pulmonary disorders, such as asthma, and related diseases and conditions. Additionally, there is a need to identify and characterize new methods for treating disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to agonists and/or antagonists of CXCL13 or its receptor, CXCR5, and/or one or both of their activities (hereinafter “CXCL13 antagonists”) and a method of using CXCL13 antagonists, including antibodies directed toward CXCL13, and specified portions or variants thereof specific for at least one CXCL13 protein or fragment thereof, to treat pulmonary-related disorders. These CXCL13 antagonists can be administered along with TNFα antagonists, such TNFα antibodies, e.g., infliximab et al. A CXCL13 antagonist, such as a monoclonal antibody, inhibits local B and T cell recruitment and subsequent activation to provide a novel strategy to control chronic immune mediated inflammatory diseases. In one embodiment, the CXCL13 antagonist is an antibody that specifically binds to CXCL13 or its receptor. A particular advantage of such antibodies is that they are capable of binding CXCL13 or its receptor in a manner that prevents its action. The method of the present invention thus employs antibodies having the desirable neutralizing property which makes them ideally suited for therapeutic and preventative treatment of disease states associated with various pulmonary-related disorders in human or nonhuman patients. Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a method of treating a pulmonary-related disease or condition in a patient in need of such treatment which comprises administering to the patient an amount of a neutralizing CXCL13 antibody to inhibit the pulmonary-related disease or condition. In another aspect, the invention provides methods for modulating activity of CXCL13 or its receptor comprising contacting a cell with an agent (e.g., antagonist or agonist) that modulates (inhibits or enhances) the activity or expression of CXCL13 or its receptor such that activity or expression in the cell is modulated. In a preferred embodiment, the agent is an antibody that specifically binds to CXCL13 or its receptor. In other embodiments, the modulator is a peptide, peptidomimetic, or other small molecule. In another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method of treating a pulmonary-related disease or condition in a patient in need of such treatment, which comprises administering to the patient an amount of a neutralizing CXCL13 antibody or other antagonist along with one or more TNFα antagonists to inhibit the pulmonary-related disease or condition. The present invention also provides methods of treating a subject having a pulmonary or related disorder wherein the disorder can be ameliorated by modulating the amount or activity of CXCL13. The present invention also provides methods of treating a subject having a disorder characterized by aberrant activity of CXCL13 or its encoding polynucleotide by administering to the subject an agent that is a modulator of the activity of CXCL13 ora modulator of the expression of CXCL13. In one embodiment, the modulator is a polypeptide or small molecule compound. In another embodiment, the modulator is a polynucleotide. In a particular embodiment, the CXCL13 antagonist is an siRNA molecule, an shRNA molecule, or a DNAzyme capable of preventing the production of CXCL13 by cells. Another aspect of the invention is a method for treating an animal with systemic lupus erythematosus comprising providing an antagonist of CXCL-13 to the animal, and providing an antagonist of TNF-alpha to the animal; wherein each antagonist is provided in an amount effective to cause a decrease in a symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus in the animal. In one embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. In another embodiment of this method the animal is a mammal. In another embodiment of this method the mammal is a human. In another embodiment of this method the amount of each antibody or binding fragment of an antibody provided is from about 25 mg per kg body weight of the animal to about 40 mg per kg body weight of the animal. In another embodiment of this method the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the number of periarterial lymphocyte infiltrate foci identified by examination of the kidney tissues. In another embodiment of this method the symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus is the ratio of total urine protein to total urine creatinine. In another embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is a TNFα binding antibody or a TNFα binding fragment of an antibody. In another embodiment of this method the antagonist of CXCL-13 is a CXCL-13 binding antibody or CXCL-13 binding fragment of an antibody and the antagonist of TNFα is the TNFα binding antibody infliximab. The present invention further provides any invention described herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows that CXCL13 mRNA transcript levels are elevated in diseased lung tissues. FIG. 2 shows that co-treatment with monoclonal antibodies specific for TNF-α and CXCL13 alleviate lung disease symptoms as assessed by ectopic follicle size in diseased lung tissues. FIG. 3 shows that co-treatment with monoclonal antibodies specific for TNF-α and CXCL13 decrease infiltration of B-cells expressing CD22.2 into lung tissues. FIG. 4 shows that co-treatment with monoclonal antibodies specific for TNF-α and CXCL13 decrease infiltration of B-cells expressing CD19 into lung tissues. FIG. 5 shows that co-treatment with monoclonal antibodies specific for TNF-α and CXCL13 decrease infiltration of B-cells expressing CD45R/B220 into lung tissues. FIG. 6 shows that co-treatment with monoclonal antibodies specific for TNF-α and CXCL13 decrease infiltration of B-cells expressing CD4 into lung tissues. FIG. 7 shows that co-administration of mAbs specific for CXCL-13 and TNF-α decreased glomerlonephritis associated protein levels in the urine of NZB/W F1 mice exhibiting systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) symptoms to levels below that of untreated control NZB/W F1 mice that received PBS vehicle alone. FIG. 8 shows that co-administration of mAbs specific for CXCL-13 and TNF-α decreased the rank scored severity of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) associated kidney disease in NZB/W F1 mice exhibiting SLE symptoms to levels below that of untreated control NZB/WF1 mice that received PBS vehicle alone (FIG. 8). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions The following definitions are set forth to illustrate and define the meaning and scope of various terms used to describe the invention herein. An “activity,” a biological activity, and a functional activity of a polypeptide refers to an activity exerted by CXCL13 or its receptor in response to its specific interaction with another protein or molecule as determined in vivo, in situ, or in vitro, according to standard techniques. Such activities can be a direct activity, such as an association with or an enzymatic activity on a second protein, or an indirect activity, such as a cellular process mediated by interaction of the protein with a second protein or a series of interactions as in intracellular signaling or the coagulation cascade. An “antibody” includes any polypeptide or peptide containing molecule that comprises at least a portion of an immunoglobulin molecule, such as but not limited to, at least one complementarity determining region (CDR) of a heavy or light chain or a ligand binding portion thereof, a heavy chain or light chain variable region, a heavy chain or light chain constant region, a framework region, or any portion, fragment or variant thereof. The term “antibody” is further intended to encompass antibodies, digestion fragments, specified portions and variants thereof, including antibody mimetics or comprising portions of antibodies that mimic the structure and/or function of an antibody or specified fragment or portion thereof, including single chain antibodies, single domain antibodies, and fragments thereof. For example, antibody fragments include, but are not limited to, Fab (e.g., by papain digestion), Fab′ (e.g., by pepsin digestion and partial reduction) and F(ab′)2 (e.g., by pepsin digestion), facb (e.g., by plasmin digestion), pFc′ (e.g., by pepsin or plasmin digestion), Fd (e.g., by pepsin digestion, partial reduction and reaggregation), Fv or scFv (e.g., by molecular biology techniques) fragments, are encompassed by the invention (see, e.g., Colligan, et al., eds., Current Protocols in Immunology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY (1994-2001); Colligan et al., Current Protocols in Polypeptide Science, John Wiley & Sons, NY (1997-2001)). “Chimeric” or “fusion” molecules are nucleic acids or polypeptides that are created by combining, for example, one or more CXCL13 antagonists (or their parts) with additional nucleic acid sequence(s). Such combined sequences may be introduced into an appropriate vector and expressed to give rise to a chimeric or fusion polypeptide. “Complement of” or “complementary to” a nucleic acid sequence of the invention refers to a polynucleotide molecule having a complementary base sequence and reverse orientation as compared to a first polynucleotide. “Fragment” is a variant polypeptide having an amino acid sequence that is entirely the same as part but not all of any amino acid sequence of a CXCL13 antagonist or a variant polynucleotide having a nucleic acid sequence that is entirely the same as part but not all of any nucleic acid sequence of any CXCL13 antagonist polynucleotide. Fragments can include, e.g., truncation polypeptides, or variants thereof, such as a continuous series of residues that includes a heterologous amino- and/or carboxy-terminal amino acid sequence. Degradation forms of the CXCL13 antagonists produced by or in a host cell are also included. Other exemplary fragments are characterized by structural or functional attributes, such as fragments that comprise alpha-helix or alpha-helix forming regions, beta-sheet or beta-sheet forming regions, turn or turn-forming regions, coil or coil-forming regions, hydrophilic regions, hydrophobic regions, alpha-amphipathic regions, beta-amphipathic regions, flexible regions, surface-forming regions, substrate binding regions, extracellular regions, and high antigenic index regions. “Identity,” as known in the art, is a relationship between two or more polypeptide sequences or two or more polynucleotide sequences, as determined by comparing the sequences. In the art, “identity” also means the degree of sequence relatedness between polypeptide or polynucleotide sequences, as determined by the match between strings of such sequences. “Identity” and “similarity” can be readily calculated by known methods, including, but not limited to, those described in Computational Molecular Biology, Lesk, A. M., ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 1988; Biocomputing:Informatics and Genome Projects, Smith, D. W., ed., Academic Press, New York, 1993; Computer Analysis of Sequence Data, Part I, Griffin, A. M., and Griffin, H. G., eds., Humana Press, New Jersey, 1994; Sequence Analysis in Molecular Biology, von Heinje, G., Academic Press, 1987; and Sequence Analysis Primer, Gribskov, M. and Devereux, J., eds., M Stockton Press, New York, 1991; and Carillo, H., and Lipman, D., Siam J. Applied Math., 48:1073 (1988). In addition, values for percentage identity can be obtained from amino acid and nucleotide sequence alignments generated using the default settings for the AlignX component of Vector NTI Suite 8.0 (Informax, Frederick, Md.). Preferred methods to determine identity are designed to give the largest match between the sequences tested. Methods to determine identity and similarity are codified in publicly available computer programs. Preferred computer program methods to determine identity and similarity between two sequences include, but are not limited to, the GCG program package (Devereux, J., et al., Nucleic Acids Research 12(1): 387 (1984)), BLASTP, BLASTN, and FASTA (Atschul, S. F. et al., J. Molec. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990)). The BLAST X program is publicly available from NCBI and other sources (BLAST Manual, Altschul, S., et al., NCBINLM NIH Bethesda, Md. 20894: Altschul, S., et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990). The well-known Smith Waterman algorithm may also be used to determine identity. Preferred parameters for polypeptide sequence comparison include the following: (1) Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol Biol. 48:443-453 (1970) Comparison matrix: BLOSSUM62 from Hentikoff and Hentikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, USA. 89:10915-10919 (1992) Gap Penalty: 12 Gap Length Penalty: 4 A program useful with these parameters is publicly available as the “gap” program from Genetics Computer Group, Madison Wis. The aforementioned parameters are the default parameters for peptide sequence comparisons (along with no penalty for end gaps). Preferred parameters for polynucleotide comparison include the following: (1) Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol Biol. 48:443-453 (1970) Comparison matrix: matches=+10, mismatch=0 Gap Penalty: 50 Gap Length Penalty: 3 Available as: The “gap” program from Genetics Computer Group, Madison Wis. These are the default parameters for nucleic acid sequence comparisons. By way of example, a polynucleotide sequence may be identical to a sequence, that is be 100% identical, or it may include up to a certain integer number of nucleotide alterations as compared to the reference sequence. Such alterations are selected from the group consisting of at least one nucleotide deletion, substitution, including transition and transversion, or insertion, and wherein the alterations may occur at the 5′ or 3′ terminal positions of the reference nucleotide sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among the nucleotides in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence. The number of nucleotide alterations is determined by multiplying the total number of nucleotides in the sequence by the numerical percent of the respective percent identity (divided by 100) and subtracting that product from the total number of nucleotides in the sequence, or: n.sub.n.ltorsim.x.sub.n -(x.sub.n.y), wherein n.sub.n is the number of nucleotide alterations, x.sub.n is the total number of nucleotides in the sequence, and y is, for instance, 0.70 for 70%, 0.80 for 80%, 0.85 for 85%, 0.90 for 90%, 0.95 for 95%, etc., and wherein any non-integer product of x.sub.n and y is rounded down to the nearest integer prior to subtracting from x.sub.n. Alterations of a polynucleotide sequence encoding the sequence may create nonsense, missense or frameshift mutations in this coding sequence and thereby alter the polypeptide encoded by the polynucleotide following such alterations. Similarly, a polypeptide sequence may be identical to the reference sequence, that is be 100% identical, or it may include up to a certain integer number of amino acid alterations as compared to the reference sequence such that the percentage identity is less than 100%. Such alterations are selected from the group consisting of at least one amino acid deletion, substitution, including conservative and non-conservative substitution, or insertion, and wherein the alterations may occur at the amino- or carboxy-terminal positions of the reference polypeptide sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among the amino acids in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence. The number of amino acid alterations for a given % identity is determined by multiplying the total number of amino acids in the sequence by the numerical percent of the respective percent identity (divided by 100) and then subtracting that product from the total number of amino acids in the sequence, or: n.sub.a.ltorsim.x.sub.a-(x.sub.a.y), wherein n.sub.a is the number of amino acid alterations, x.sub.a is the total number of amino acids in the sequence, and y is, for instance 0.70 for 70%, 0.80 for 80%, 0.85 for 85% etc., and wherein any non-integer produce of x.sub.a and y is rounded down to the nearest integer prior to subtracting it from x.sub.a. “Nucleic acids” are polymers of nucleotides, wherein a nucleotide comprises a base linked to a sugar which sugars are in turn linked one to another by an interceding at least bivalent molecule, such as phosphoric acid. In naturally occurring nucleic acids, the sugar is either 2′-deoxyribose (DNA) or ribose (RNA). Unnatural poly- or oliogonucleotides contain modified bases, sugars, or linking molecules, but are generally understood to mimic the complementary nature of the naturally occurring nucleic acids after which they are designed. An example of an unnatural oligonucleotide is an antisense molecule composition that has a phosphorothiorate backbone. An “oligonucleotide” generally refers to a nucleic acid molecule having less than 30 nucleotides. A “polypeptide” is a polymer of amino acid residues joined by peptide bonds, and a peptide generally refers to amino acid polymers of 12 or less residues. Peptide bonds can be produced naturally as directed by the nucleic acid template or synthetically by methods well known in the art. A “protein” is a macromolecule comprising one or more polypeptide chains. A protein may further comprise substituent groups attached to the side groups of the amino acids not involved in formation of the peptide bonds. Typically, proteins formed by eukaryotic cell expression also contain carbohydrates. Proteins are defined herein in terms of their amino acid sequence or backbone and substituents are not specified, whether known or not. The term “receptor” denotes a molecule having the ability to affect biological activity, in e.g., a cell, as a result of interaction with a specific ligand or binding partner. Cell membrane bound receptors are characterized by an extracellular ligand-binding domain, one or more membrane spanning or transmembrane domains, and an intracellular effector domain that is typically involved in signal transduction. Ligand binding to cell membrane receptors causes changes in the extracellular domain that are communicated across the cell membrane, direct or indirect interaction with one or more intracellular proteins, and alters cellular properties, such as enzyme activity, cell shape, or gene expression profile. Receptors may also be untethered to the cell surface and may be cytosolic, nuclear, or released from the cell altogether. Non-cell associated receptors are termed soluble receptors. All publications or patents cited herein are entirely incorporated herein by reference, whether or not specifically designated accordingly, as they show the state of the art at the time of the present invention and/or provide description and enablement of the present invention. Publications refer to any scientific or patent publications, or any other information available in any media format, including all recorded, electronic or printed formats. The following references are entirely incorporated herein by reference: Ausubel, et al., ed., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY (1987-2001); Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1989); Harlow and Lane, antibodies, a Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1989); Colligan, et al., eds., Current Protocols in Immunology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY (1994-2001); Colligan et al., Current Protocols in Protein Science, John Wiley & Sons, NY (1997-2001). Biological Function of CXCL13 Novel expression and novel function of CXCL13, and its biological function in lymphoid organ formation/development, B cell follicle formation, and B cell recruitment have been identified in various human diseases and animal models. For the first time, ectopic expression has been linked with lymphoid follical formation associated with pulmonary diseases, particularly but not limited to, COPD. CXCL13 compositions may comprise one or more protein isoforms, immunogenic portions thereof, or polynucleotides that encode such portions. Alternatively, a therapeutic composition may comprise a cell that expresses CXCL13 protein, or a T cell that is specific for cells expressing a polypeptide encoded by the gene, or other type of agonists; and antagonistic agents, such as neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAb), nucleic acid-based therapies, or small molecule compounds to any portion of CXCL13 DNA, RNA or protein. These compositions may be used, for example, for the prevention and treatment of a range of immue-mediated inflammatory diseases. Diagnostic and prognostic methods based on detecting CXCL13 protein, or mRNA encoding such a protein, in a sample are disclosed. CXCL13 and its receptor proteins, polypeptides, and nucleic acid molecules encoding them comprise a family of molecules having certain conserved structural and functional features. Each of these molecules is included in the definition of CXCL13. As used herein, the term “family” is intended to mean two or more proteins or nucleic acid molecules having a common or similar domain structure and having sufficient amino acid or nucleotide sequence identity as defined herein. Family members can be from either the same or a different species. For example, a family can comprise two or more proteins of human origin, or can comprise one or more proteins of human origin and one or more of non-human origin. A domain that may be present in CXCL13 proteins is a signal sequence. As used herein, a “signal sequence” includes a peptide of at least about 10 amino acid residues in length which occurs at the amino terminus of membrane-bound proteins and which contains at least about 45% hydrophobic amino acid residues, such as alanine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, proline, tyrosine, tryptophan, or valine. In a preferred embodiment, a signal sequence contains at least about 10 to 35 amino acid residues, preferably about 10 to 20 amino acid residues, and has at least about 35-60%, more preferably 40-50%, and more preferably at least about 45% hydrophobic residues. A signal sequence serves to direct a protein containing such a sequence to a lipid bilayer. Thus, in one embodiment, a CXCL13 protein may contain a signal sequence. The signal sequence is cleaved during processing of the mature protein. CXCL13 proteins include an extracellular domain. As used herein, an “extracellular domain” refers to a portion of a protein that is localized to the non-cytoplasmic side of a lipid bilayer of a cell when a nucleic acid encoding the protein is expressed in the cell. In addition, a CXCL13 protein includes a transmembrane domain. As used herein, a “transmembrane domain” refers to an amino acid sequence which is at least about 15 amino acid residues in length and which contains at least about 65-70% hydrophobic amino acid residues such as alanine, leucine, phenylalanine, protein, tyrosine, tryptophan, or valine (Erik, et al. Proc. of Sixth Int. Conf. on Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology, p 175-182). In a preferred embodiment, a transmembrane domain contains about 15-30 amino acid residues, preferably about 20-25 amino acid residues, and has at least about 60-80%, more preferably 65-75%, and more preferably at least about 70% hydrophobic residues. CXCL13 proteins have a cytoplasmic domain, particularly including proteins having a carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic domain. As used herein, a “cytoplasmic domain” refers to a portion of a protein that is localized to the cytoplasmic side of a lipid bilayer of a cell when a nucleic acid encoding the protein is expressed in the cell. CXCL13 proteins typically comprise a variety of potential post-translational modification sites (often within an extracellular domain). CXCL13 Antagonists As used herein, the term “CXCL13 antagonists” refers to substances which inhibit or neutralize the biologic activity of CXCL13 or its receptor, CXCR5. Such antagonists accomplish this effect in a variety of ways. One class of CXCL13 antagonists will bind to the CXCL13 protein with sufficient affinity and specificity to neutralize the biologic effects of CXCL13. Included in this class of molecules are antibodies and antibody fragments (such as, for example, F(ab) or F(ab′)2 molecules). Another class of CXCL13 antagonists comprises fragments of the CXCL13 protein, muteins or small organic molecules, i.e., peptidomimetics, that will bind to the CXCL13 or CXCL13 binding partners, thereby inhibiting the biologic activity of CXCL13. The CXCL13 antagonist may be of any of these classes as long as it is a substance that inhibits CXCL13 biologic activity. CXCL13 antagonists include CXCL13 antibody, CXCL13 receptor antibody, modified CXCL13, and partial peptides of the CXCL13. Another class of CXCL13 antagonists includes siRNAs, shRNAs, antisense molecules and DNAzymes targeting the CXCL13 gene sequence as known in the art are disclosed herein. Accordingly, as used herein, a “CXCL13 antibody,” “anti-CXCL13 antibody,” “anti-CXCL13 antibody portion,” or “anti-CXCL13 antibody fragment” and/or “anti-CXCL13 antibody variant” and the like include any protein or polypeptide containing molecule that comprises at least a portion of an immunoglobulin molecule, such as but not limited to, at least one complementarity determining region (CDR) of a heavy or light chain or a ligand binding portion thereof, a heavy chain or light chain variable region, a heavy chain or light chain constant region, a framework region, or any portion thereof, or at least one portion of a CXCL13 binding protein derived from a CXCL13 protein or peptide, which can be incorporated into an antibody for use in the present invention. Such antibody optionally further affects a specific ligand, such as, but not limited to, where such antibody modulates, decreases, increases, antagonizes, agonizes, mitigates, alleviates, blocks, inhibits, abrogates and/or interferes with CXCL13 activity, in vitro, in situ and/or in vivo. As a non-limiting example, a suitable anti-CXCL13 antibody, specified portion or variant of the present invention can bind at least one CXCL13 protein or peptide, or specified portions, variants or domains thereof. A suitable anti-CXCL13 antibody, specified portion, or variant affects CXCL13 function in a variety of ways, such as, but not limited to, RNA, DNA or protein synthesis, CXCL13 release, CXCL13 signaling, CXCL13 binding, CXCL13 production and/or synthesis. Antibodies can include one or more of at least one CDR, at least one variable region, at least one constant region, at least one heavy chain (e.g., g1, g2, g3, g4, m, al, a2, d, e), at least one light chain (e.g., k and l), or any portion or fragment thereof, and can further comprise interchain and intrachain disulfide bonds, hinge regions, glycosylation sites that can be separated by a hinge region, as well as heavy chains and light chains. Light chains typically have a molecular weight of about 25 Kd and heavy chains typically range from about 50K-77 Kd. Light chains can exist in two distinct forms or isotypes, kappa (k) and lambda (I), which can combine with any of the heavy chain types. All light chains have at least one variable region and at least one constant region. The IgG antibody is considered a typical antibody structure and has two intrachain disulfide bonds in the light chain (one in the variable region and one in the constant region), with four in the heavy chain, and such bond encompassing a peptide loop of about 60-70 amino acids comprising a “domain” of about 110 amino acids in the chain. IgG antibodies can be characterized into four classes, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. Each immunoglobulin class has a different set of functions. Table 1 summarizes the physicochemical properties of each of the immunoglobulin classes and subclasses. TABLE 1 Property IgG1 IgG2 IgG3 IgG4 IgM IgA1 IgA2 SigA IgD IgE Heavy Chain γ1 γ1 γ1 γ1 μ α1 α2 α1/α2 δ e Mean Serum 9 3 1 0.5 1.5 3.0 0.5 0.05 0.03 0.00005 conc. (mg/ml) Sedimentation 7s 7s 7s 7s 19s 7s 7s 11s 7s 8s constant Mol. Wt. (×103) 146 146 170 146 970 160 160 385 184 188 Half Life (days) 21 20 7 21 10 6 6 ? 3 2 % intravascular 45 45 45 45 80 42 42 Trace 75 50 distribution Carbohydrate (%) 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 12 7-11 7-11 7-11 9-14 12 Table 2 summarizes non-limiting examples of antibody effector functions for human antibody classes and subclasses. TABLE 2 Effector function IgG1 IgG2 IgG3 IgG4 IgM IgA IgD IgE Complement + +/− ++ − ++ − − − fixation Placental + +/− + + − − − − transfer Binding to +++ +++ − +++ − − − − Staph A Binding to +++ +++ +++ +++ − − − − Strep G +++ = very high; ++ = high; + = moderate; +/− = minimal; − = none; ? = questionable Accordingly, the type of antibody or fragment thereof can be selected for use according to the present invention based on the desired characteristics and functions that are desired for a particular therapeutic or diagnostic use, such as but not limited to, serum half life, intravascular distribution, complement fixation, etc. An isolated CXCL13 polypeptide, or a fragment thereof, can be used as an immunogen to generate antibodies using standard techniques for polyclonal and monoclonal antibody preparation. The full-length polypeptide or protein can be used or, alternatively, the invention provides antigenic peptide fragments for use as immunogens. The antigenic peptide of a CXCL13 protein comprises at least 8 (preferably 10, 15, 20, or 30 or more) amino acid residues and encompasses an epitope of the protein such that an antibody raised against the peptide forms a specific immune complex with the protein. An immunogen typically is used to prepare antibodies by immunizing a suitable (i.e., immunocompetent) subject, such as a rabbit, goat, mouse, or other mammal or vertebrate. An appropriate immunogenic preparation can contain, for example, recombinantly expressed or chemically synthesized polypeptide. The preparation can further include an adjuvant, such as Freund's complete or incomplete adjuvant, or a similar immunostimulatory agent. Antibody-producing cells can be obtained from the peripheral blood or, preferably, the spleen or lymph nodes of humans or other suitable animals that have been immunized with the immunogen of interest. Any other suitable host cell can also be used for expressing heterologous or endogenous nucleic acid encoding an antibody, specified fragment or variant thereof, of the present invention. The fused cells (hybridomas) or recombinant cells can be isolated using selective culture conditions or other suitable known methods, and cloned by limiting dilution or cell sorting, or other known methods. Cells that produce antibodies with the desired specificity can be selected by a suitable assay (e.g., ELISA). In one approach, a hybridoma is produced by fusing a suitable immortal cell line (e.g., a myeloma cell line, such as, but not limited to, Sp2/0, Sp2/0-AG14, NSO, NS1, NS2, AE-1, L.5, >243, P3X63Ag8.653, Sp2 SA3, Sp2 MAI, Sp2 SS1, Sp2 SA5, U937, MLA 144, ACT IV, MOLT4, DA-1, JURKAT, WEHI, K-562, COS, RAJI, NIH 3T3, HL-60, MLA 144, NAMALWA, NEURO 2A, or the like), or heteromyelomas, fusion products thereof, or any cell or fusion cell derived therefrom, or any other suitable cell line as known in the art (see, e.g., www.atcc.org, www.lifetech.com, and the like), with antibody producing cells, such as, but not limited to, isolated or cloned spleen, peripheral blood, lymph, tonsil, or other immune or B cell containing cells, or any other cells expressing heavy or light chain constant or variable or framework or CDR sequences, either as endogenous or heterologous nucleic acid, as recombinant or endogenous, viral, bacterial, algal, prokaryotic, amphibian, insect, reptilian, fish, mammalian, rodent, equine, ovine, goat, sheep, primate, eukaryotic, genomic DNA, cDNA, rDNA, mitochondrial DNA or RNA, chloroplast DNA or RNA, hnRNA, mRNA, tRNA, single, double or triple stranded, hybridized, and the like or any combination thereof. See, e.g., Ausubel, supra, and Colligan, Immunology, supra, chapter 2, entirely incorporated herein by reference. Other suitable methods of producing or isolating antibodies of the requisite specificity can be used, including, but not limited to, methods that select recombinant antibody from a peptide or polypeptide library (e.g., but not limited to, a bacteriophage, ribosome, oligonucleotide, RNA, cDNA, or the like, display library; e.g., as available from Cambridge antibody Technologies, Cambridgeshire, UK; MorphoSys, Martinsreid/Planegg, DE; Biovation, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK; BioInvent, Lund, Sweden; Dyax Corp., Enzon, Affymax/Biosite; Xoma, Berkeley, Calif.; Ixsys. See, e.g., EP Publication No. 368,684, PCT/GB91/01134; PCT/GB92/01755; PCT/GB92/002240; PCT/GB92/00883; PCT/GB93/00605; U.S. Pat. No. 5,962,255; PCT/GB94/01422; PCT/GB94/02662; PCT/GB97/01835; (CAT/MRC); WO90/14443; WO90/14424; WO90/14430; PCT/US94/1234; WO92/18619; WO96/07754; (Scripps); EP 614 989 (MorphoSys); WO95/16027 (BioInvent); WO88/06630; WO90/3809 (Dyax); U.S. Pat. No. 4,704,692 (Enzon); PCT/US91/02989 (Affymax); WO89/06283; EP 371 998; EP 550 400; (Xoma); EP 229 046; PCT/US91/07149 (Ixsys); or stochastically generated peptides or polypeptides—U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,723,323, 5,763,192, 5,814,476, 5,817,483, 5,824,514, and 5,976,862, WO 86/05803, EP 590 689 (Ixsys, now Applied Molecular Evolution (AME), each entirely incorporated herein by reference) or that rely upon immunization of transgenic animals (e.g., SCID mice, Nguyen et al., Microbiol. Immunol. 41:901-907 (1997); Sandhu etal., Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 16:95-118 (1996); Eren et al., Immunol. 93:154-161 (1998), each entirely incorporated by reference as well as related patents and applications) that are capable of producing a repertoire of human antibodies, as known in the art and/or as described herein. Such techniques, include, but are not limited to, ribosome display (Hanes et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94:4937-4942 (May 1997); Hanes et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:14130-14135 (Nov. 1998)); single cell antibody producing technologies (e.g., selected lymphocyte antibody method (“SLAM”) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,627,052, Wen et al., J. Immunol. 17:887-892 (1987); Babcook et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7843-7848 (1996)); gel microdroplet and flow cytometry (Powell et al., Biotechnol. 8:333-337 (1990); One Cell Systems, Cambridge, Mass.; Gray et al., J. Imm. Meth. 182:155-163 (1995); Kenny et al., Bio/Technol. 13:787-790 (1995)); B-cell selection (Steenbakkers et al., Molec. Biol. Reports 19:125-134 (1994); Jonak et al., Progress Biotech, Vol. 5, In Vitro Immunization in Hybridoma Technology, Borrebaeck, ed., Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands (1988)). Methods for engineering or humanizing non-human or human antibodies can also be used and are well known in the art. Generally, a humanized or engineered antibody has one or more amino acid residues from a source that is not human, e.g., but not limited to, mouse, rat, rabbit, non-human primate or other mammal. The human amino acid residues are often referred to as “import” residues, which are typically taken from an “import” variable, constant or other domain of a known human sequence. Known human Ig sequences are disclosed, e.g., www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi; www.ncbi.nih.gov/igblast; www.atcc.org/phage/hdb.html; www.mrc-cpe.cam.ac.uk/ALIGNMENTS.php; www.kabatdatabase.com/top.html; ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/repository/kabat; www.sciquest.com; www.abcam.com; www.antibodyresource.com/onlinecomp.html; www.public.iastate.edu/˜pedro/research_tools.html; www.whfreeman.com/immunology/CH05/kuby05.htm; www.hhmi.org/grants/lectures/1996/vlab; www.path.cam.ac.uk/˜mrc7/mikeimages.html; mcb.harvard.edu/BioLinks/lmmunology.html; www.immunologylink.com; pathbox.wustl.edu/˜hcenter/index.html; www.appliedbiosystems.com; www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/antibody; www.m.ehime-u.ac.jp/˜yasuhito/Elisa.html; www.biodesign.com; www.cancerresearchuk.org; www.biotech.ufl.edu; www.isac-net.org; baserv.uci.kun.nl/˜jraats/links1.html; www.recab.uni-hd.de/immuno.bme.nwu.edu; www.mrc-cpe.cam.ac.uk; www.ibt.unam.mx/vir/V_mice.html; http://www.bioinf.org.uk/abs; antibody.bath.ac.uk; www.unizh.ch; www.cryst.bbk.ac.uk/˜ubcg07s; www.nimr.mrc.ac.uk/CC/ccaewg/ccaewg.html; www.path.cam.ac.uk/˜mrc7/humanisation/TAHHP.html; www.ibt.unam.mx/vir/structure/stat_aim.html; www.biosci.missouri.edu/smithgp/index.html; www.jerini.de; Kabat et al., Sequences of Proteins of Immunological Interest, U.S. Dept. Health (1983), each entirely incorporated herein by reference. Such imported sequences can be used to reduce immunogenicity or reduce, enhance or modify binding, affinity, on-rate, off-rate, avidity, specificity, half-life, or any other suitable characteristic, as known in the art. Generally, part or all of the non-human or human CDR sequences are maintained while the non-human sequences of the variable and constant regions are replaced with human or other amino acids. Antibodies can also optionally be humanized with retention of high affinity for the antigen and other favorable biological properties. To achieve this goal, humanized antibodies can be optionally prepared by a process of analysis of the parental sequences and various conceptual humanized products using three-dimensional models of the parental and humanized sequences. Three-dimensional immunoglobulin models are commonly available and are familiar to those skilled in the art. Computer programs are available which illustrate and display probable three-dimensional conformational structures of selected candidate immunoglobulin sequences. Inspection of these displays permits analysis of the likely role of the residues in the functioning of the candidate immunoglobulin sequence, i.e., the analysis of residues that influence the ability of the candidate immunoglobulin to bind its antigen. In this way, FR residues can be selected and combined from the consensus and import sequences so that the desired antibody characteristic, such as increased affinity for the target antigen(s), is achieved. In general, the CDR residues are directly and most substantially involved in influencing antigen binding. Humanization or engineering of antibodies of the present invention can be performed using any known method, such as but not limited to, those described in, Winter (Jones et al., Nature 321:522 (1986); Riechmann et al., Nature 332:323 (1988); Verhoeyen et al., Science 239:1534 (1988)), Sims et al., J. Immunol. 151: 2296 (1993); Clothia and Lesk, J. Mol. Biol. 196:901 (1987), Carter et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:4285 (1992); Presta et al., J. Immunol. 151:2623 (1993), U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,723,323; 5,976,862; 5,824,514; 5,817,483; 5,814,476; 5,763,192; 5,723,323; 5,766,886; 5,714,352; 6,204,023; 6,180,370; 5,693,762; 5,530,101; 5,585,089; 5,225,539; and 4,816,567; PCT/: US98/16280; US96/18978; US91/09630; US91/05939; US94/01234; GB89/01334; GB91/01134; GB92/01755; WO90/14443; WO90/14424; and WO90/14430; EP 229246; each entirely incorporated herein by reference, including references cited therein. The CXCL13 antibody can also be optionally generated by immunization of a transgenic animal (e.g., mouse, rat, hamster, non-human primate, and the like) capable of producing a repertoire of human antibodies, as described herein and/or as known in the art. Cells that produce a human CXCL13 antibody can be isolated from such animals and immortalized using suitable methods, such as the methods described herein. Transgenic mice that can produce a repertoire of human antibodies that bind to human antigens can be produced by known methods (e.g., but not limited to, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,770,428, 5,569,825, 5,545,806, 5,625,126, 5,625,825, 5,633,425, 5,661,016 and 5,789,650 issued to Lonberg et al.; Jakobovits et al. WO 98/50433, Jakobovits et al. WO 98/24893, Lonberg et al. WO 98/24884, Lonberg et al. WO 97/13852, Lonberg et al. WO 94/25585, Kucherlapate et al. WO 96/34096, Kucherlapate et al. EP 0463 151 B1, Kucherlapate et al. EP 0710 719 A1, Surani et al. US. Pat. No. 5,545,807, Bruggemann et al. WO 90/04036, Bruggemann et al. EP 0438 474 B1, Lonberg et al. EP 0814 259 A2, Lonberg et al. GB 2 272 440 A, Lonberg et al. Nature 368:856-859 (1994), Taylor et al., Int. Immunol. 6(4)579-591 (1994), Green et al, Nature Genetics 7:13-21 (1994), Mendez et al., Nature Genetics 15:146-156 (1997), Taylor et al., Nucleic Acids Research 20(23):6287-6295 (1992), Tuaillon et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90(8)3720-3724 (1993), Lonberg et al., Int Rev Immunol 13(1):65-93 (1995) and Fishwald et al., Nat Biotechnol 14(7):845-851 (1996), which are each entirely incorporated herein by reference). Generally, these mice comprise at least one transgene comprising DNA from at least one human immunoglobulin locus that is functionally rearranged, or which can undergo functional rearrangement. The endogenous immunoglobulin loci in such mice can be disrupted or deleted to eliminate the capacity of the animal to produce antibodies encoded by endogenous genes. Antibodies of the present invention can also be prepared in milk by administering at least one anti-CXCL13 antibody encoding nucleic acid to transgenic animals or mammals, such as goats, cows, horses, sheep, and the like, that produce antibodies in their milk. Such animals can be provided using known methods. See, e.g., but not limited to, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,827,690; 5,849,992; 4,873,316; 5,849,992; 5,994,616; 5,565,362; 5,304,489, and the like, each of which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. Antibodies of the present invention can additionally be prepared using at least one CXCL13 antibody encoding nucleic acid to provide transgenic plants and cultured plant cells (e.g., but not limited to, tobacco and maize) that produce such antibodies, specified portions or variants in the plant parts or in cells cultured therefrom. The antibodies of the invention can bind human CXCL13 with a wide range of affinities (KD). In a preferred embodiment, at least one human mAb of the present invention can optionally bind human CXCL13 with high affinity. For example, a human mAb can bind human CXCL13 with a KD equal to or less than about 10−7 M, such as but not limited to, 0.1-9.9 (or any range or value therein)×10−7, 10−8, 10−9, 10−10, 10−11, 10−12, 10−13 or any range or value therein. The affinity or avidity of an antibody for an antigen can be determined experimentally using any suitable method. (See, for example, Berzofsky, et al., “Antibody-Antigen Interactions,” In Fundamental Immunology, Paul, W. E., Ed., Raven Press: New York, N.Y. (1984); Kuby, Janis Immunology, W. H. Freeman and Company: New York, N.Y. (1992); and methods described herein). The measured affinity of a particular antibody-antigen interaction can vary if measured under different conditions (e.g., salt concentration, pH). Thus, measurements of affinity and other antigen-binding parameters (e.g., KD, Ka, Kd) are preferably made with standardized solutions of antibody and antigen, and a standardized buffer, such as the buffer described herein. A CXCL13 antagonist (e.g., monoclonal antibody) can be used to isolate the CXCL13 polypeptide by standard techniques, such as affinity chromatography or immunoprecipitation. Moreover, such an antibody can be used to detect the protein (e.g., in a cellular lysate or cell supernatant) in order to evaluate the abundance and pattern of expression of the polypeptide. The antibodies can also be used diagnostically to monitor protein levels in tissue as part of a clinical testing procedure, e.g., to, for example, determine the efficacy of a given treatment regimen. Detection can be facilitated by coupling the antibody to a detectable substance. Examples of detectable substances include various enzymes, prosthetic groups, fluorescent materials, luminescent materials, bioluminescent materials, and radioactive materials. Examples of suitable enzymes include horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, β-galactosidase, and acetylcholinesterase; examples of suitable prosthetic group complexes include streptavidin/biotin and avidin/biotin; examples of suitable fluorescent materials include umbelliferone, fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, dichlorotriazinylamine fluorescein, dansyl chloride or phycoerythrin; an example of a luminescent material includes luminol; examples of bioluminescent materials include luciferase, luciferin, and aequorin, and examples of suitable radioactive material include 125I, 131I, 35S or 3H. The term “antibody” is further intended to encompass antibodies, digestion fragments, specified portions and variants thereof, including antibody mimetics or comprising portions of antibodies that mimic the structure and/or function of an antibody or specified fragment or portion thereof, including single chain antibodies and fragments thereof. Functional fragments include antigen-binding fragments that bind to mammalian CXCL13. For example, antibody fragments capable of binding to CXCL13 or portions thereof, including, but not limited to, Fab (e.g., by papain digestion), Fab′ (e.g., by pepsin digestion and partial reduction) and F(ab′)2 (e.g., by pepsin digestion), facb (e.g., by plasmin digestion), pFc′ (e.g., by pepsin or plasmin digestion), Fd (e.g., by pepsin digestion, partial reduction and reaggregation), Fv or scFv (e.g., by molecular biology techniques) fragments, are encompassed by the invention (see, e.g., Colligan, Immunology, supra). Such fragments can be produced by enzymatic cleavage, synthetic or recombinant techniques, as known in the art and/or as described herein. Antibodies can also be produced in a variety of truncated forms using antibody genes in which one or more stop codons have been introduced upstream of the natural stop site. For example, a combination gene encoding a F(ab′)2 heavy chain portion can be designed to include DNA sequences encoding the CH1 domain and/or hinge region of the heavy chain. The various portions of antibodies can be joined together chemically by conventional techniques, or can be prepared as a contiguous protein using genetic engineering techniques. The anti-CXCL13 antibody may be a primate, rodent, or human antibody or a chimeric or humanized antibody. As used herein, the term “human antibody” refers to an antibody in which substantially every part of the protein (e.g., CDR, framework, CL, CH domains (e.g., CH1, CH2, CH3), hinge, (VL, VH)) is substantially non-immunogenic in humans, with only minor sequence changes or variations, and/or is engineered to, derived from, or contains known human antibody components. Similarly, antibodies designated primate (monkey, baboon, chimpanzee, etc.), rodent (mouse, rat, rabbit, guinea pig, hamster, and the like) and other mammals designate such species, sub-genus, genus, sub-family, family specific antibodies. Further, chimeric antibodies of the invention can include any combination of the above. Such changes or variations optionally and preferably retain or reduce the immunogenicity in humans or other species relative to non-modified antibodies. Thus, a human antibody is distinct from a chimeric or humanized antibody. It is pointed out that a human antibody can be produced by a non-human animal or prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell that is capable of expressing functionally rearranged human immunoglobulin (e.g., heavy chain and/or light chain) genes. Further, when a human antibody is a single chain antibody, it can comprise a linker peptide that is not found in native human antibodies. For example, an Fv can comprise a linker peptide, such as 2 to about 8 glycine or other amino acid residues, which connects the variable region of the heavy chain and the variable region of the light chain. Such linker peptides are considered to be of human origin. Bispecific, heterospecific, heteroconjugate or similar antibodies can also be used that are monoclonal, preferably human or humanized, antibodies that have binding specificities for at least two different antigens. In the present case, one of the binding specificities is for at least one CXCL13 protein, the other one is for any other antigen, e.g., CXCL13 receptor or TNFα. Methods for making bispecific antibodies are known in the art. Traditionally, the recombinant production of bispecific antibodies is based on the co-expression of two immunoglobulin heavy chain-light chain pairs, where the two heavy chains have different specificities (Milstein and Cuello, Nature 305:537 (1983)). Because of the random assortment of immunoglobulin heavy and light chains, these hybridomas (quadromas) produce a potential mixture of 10 different antibody molecules, of which only one has the correct bispecific structure. The purification of the correct molecule, which is usually done by affinity chromatography steps, is rather cumbersome, and the product yields are low. Similar procedures are disclosed, e.g., in WO 93/08829, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,210,668, 6,193,967, 6,132,992, 6,106,833, 6,060,285, 6,037,453, 6,010,902, 5,989,530, 5,959,084, 5,959,083, 5,932,448, 5,833,985, 5,821,333, 5,807,706, 5,643,759, 5,601,819, 5,582,996, 5,496,549, 4,676,980, WO 91/00360, WO 92/00373, EP 03089, Traunecker et al., EMBO J. 10:3655 (1991), Suresh et al., Methods in Enzymology 121:210 (1986), each entirely incorporated herein by reference. Anti-CXCL13 antibodies useful in the methods and compositions of the present invention can optionally be characterized by high affinity binding to CXCL13 and optionally and preferably having low toxicity. In particular, an antibody, specified fragment or variant of the invention, where the individual components, such as the variable region, constant region and framework, individually and/or collectively, optionally and preferably possess low immunogenicity, is useful in the present invention. The antibodies that can be used in the invention are optionally characterized by their ability to treat patients for extended periods with measurable alleviation of symptoms and low and/or acceptable toxicity. Low or acceptable immunogenicity and/or high affinity, as well as other suitable properties, can contribute to the therapeutic results achieved. “Low immunogenicity” is defined herein as raising significant HAHA, HACA or HAMA responses in less than about 75%, or preferably less than about 50% of the patients treated and/or raising low titres in the patient treated (less than about 300, preferably less than about 100 measured with a double antigen enzyme immunoassay) (Elliott et al., Lancet 344:1125-1127 (1994), entirely incorporated herein by reference). Suitable antibodies include those that compete for binding to human CXCL13 with monoclonal antibodies that block CXCL13 activation. CXCL13 Antagonists in the Form of siRNA, shRNA, Antisense, Ribozymes, and DNAzymes A therapeutic targeting the inducer of the CXCL13 may provide better chances of success. Gene expression can be modulated in several different ways including by the use of siRNAs, shRNAs, antisense molecules, ribozymes, and DNAzymes. Synthetic siRNAs, shRNAs, ribozymes, and DNAzymes can be designed to specifically target one or more genes and they can easily be delivered to cells in vitro or in vivo. The present invention encompasses antisense nucleic acid molecules, i.e., molecules that are complementary to a sense nucleic acid encoding a CXCL13 polypeptide, e.g., complementary to the coding strand of a double-stranded cDNA molecule or complementary to an mRNA sequence. Accordingly, an antisense nucleic acid can hydrogen bond to a sense nucleic acid. The antisense nucleic acid can be complementary to an entire coding strand, or to only a portion thereof, e.g., all or part of the protein coding region (or open reading frame). An antisense nucleic acid molecule can be antisense to all or part of a non-coding region of the coding strand of a nucleotide sequence encoding a CXCL13 polypeptide. The non-coding regions (“5′ and 3′ untranslated regions”) are the 5′ and 3′ sequences that flank the coding region and are not translated into amino acids. An antisense oligonucleotide can be, for example, about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 or more nucleotides in length. An antisense nucleic acid of the invention can be constructed using chemical synthesis and enzymatic ligation reactions using procedures known in the art. For example, an antisense nucleic acid (e.g., an antisense oligonucleotide) can be chemically synthesized using naturally occurring nucleotides or variously modified nucleotides designed to increase the biological stability of the molecules or to increase the physical stability of the duplex formed between the antisense and sense nucleic acids, e.g., phosphorothioate derivatives, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), and acridine substituted nucleotides can be used. Examples of modified nucleotides which can be used to generate the antisense nucleic acid include 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil, 5-chlorouracil, 5-iodouracil, hypoxanthine, xanthine, 4-acetylcytosine, 5-(carboxyhydroxylmethyl) uracil, 5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2-thiouridine, 5-carboxymethylaminomethyluracil, dihydrouracil, beta-D-galactosylq ueosine, inosine, N6-isopentenyladenine, 1 -methylguanine, 1 -methyl inosine, 2,2-dimethylguanine, 2-methyladenine, 2-methylguanine, 3-methylcytosine, 5-methylcytosine, N6-adenine, 7-methylguanine, 5-methylaminomethyluracil, 5-methoxyaminomethyl-2-thiouracil, beta-D-mannosylqueosine, 5′-methoxycarboxymethyluracil, 5-methoxyuracil, 2-methylthio-N6-isopentenyladenine, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), wybutoxosine, pseudouracil, queosine, 2-thiocytosine, 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 2-thiouracil, 4-thiouracil, 5-methyluracil, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid methylester, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 3-(3-amino-3-N-2-carboxypropyl)uracil, (acp3)w, and 2,6-diaminopurine. Alternatively, the antisense nucleic acid can be produced biologically using an expression vector into which a nucleic acid has been sub-cloned in an antisense orientation (i.e., RNA transcribed from the inserted nucleic acid will be of an antisense orientation to a target nucleic acid of interest, described further in the following subsection). The antisense nucleic acid molecules of the invention are typically administered to a subject or generated in situ such that they hybridize with or bind to cellular mRNA and/or genomic DNA encoding a selected CXCL13 polypeptide to thereby inhibit expression, e.g., by inhibiting transcription and/or translation. The hybridization can be by conventional nucleotide complementarity to form a stable duplex or, for example, in the case of an antisense nucleic acid molecule which binds to DNA duplexes, through specific interactions in the major groove of the double helix. An example of a route of administration of antisense nucleic acid molecules of the invention includes direct injection at a tissue site. Alternatively, antisense nucleic acid molecules can be modified to target selected cells and then be administered systemically. For example, for systemic administration, antisense molecules can be modified such that they specifically bind to receptors or antigens expressed on a selected cell surface, e.g., by linking the antisense nucleic acid molecules to peptides or antibodies that bind to cell surface receptors or antigens. The antisense nucleic acid molecules can also be delivered to cells using the vectors described herein. To achieve sufficient intracellular concentrations of the antisense molecules, vector constructs in which the antisense nucleic acid molecule is placed under the control of a strong pol I or pol III promoter are preferred. An antisense nucleic acid molecule of the invention can be an α-anomeric nucleic acid molecule. An α-anomeric nucleic acid molecule forms specific double-stranded hybrids with complementary RNA in which, contrary to the usual α-units, the strands run parallel to each other (Gaultier et al. (1987) Nucleic Acids Res. 15:6625-6641). The antisense nucleic acid molecule can also comprise a 2′-o-methylribonucleotide (Inoue et al. (1987) Nucleic Acids Res. 15:6131-6148) or a chimeric RNA-DNA analogue (Inoue et al. (1987) FEBS Lett. 215:327-330). The invention also encompasses ribozymes. Ribozymes are catalytic RNA molecules with ribonuclease activity that are capable of cleaving a single-stranded nucleic acid, such as an mRNA, to which they have a complementary region. Thus, ribozymes (e.g., hammerhead ribozymes as described in Haselhoff and Gerlach (1988) Nature 334:585-591) can be used to catalytically cleave mRNA transcripts to thereby inhibit translation of the protein encoded by the mRNA. A ribozyme having specificity for a nucleic acid molecule encoding a CXCL13 polypeptide can be designed based upon the nucleotide sequence of a cDNA disclosed herein. For example, a derivative of a Tetrahymena L-19 IVS RNA can be constructed in which the nucleotide sequence of the active site is complementary to the nucleotide sequence to be cleaved in Cech et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,071; and Cech et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,116,742. Alternatively, an mRNA encoding a CXCL13 polypeptide can be used to select a catalytic RNA having a specific ribonuclease activity from a pool of RNA molecules. See, e.g., Haselhoff and Gerlach supra; Bartel and Szostak (1993) Science 261:1411-1418. The invention also encompasses ribonucleic acid molecules which are complementary, antisense, double stranded homologues, siRNA, or are sequence specific single-stranded RNAs which form short hairpin structures, shRNA (collectively, interfering RNA), that can be used to down-modulate specific gene expression, in this case, CXCL13, and therefore to inhibit protein expression and to elucidate their respective biological functions. (Fire, A., et al. (1998) Nature 391: 806-811; Paddison, P. J. et al. (2002) Genes Develop 16:948-958). The invention further encompasses DNAzymes that are capable of cleaving either RNA (Breaker and Joyce, 1994; Santoro and Joyce, 1997) or DNA (Carmi et al., 1996) molecules. The rate of catalytic cleavage of such nucleic acid enzymes is dependent on the presence and concentration of divalent metal ions such as Ba2+, Sr2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, and Pb2+ (Santoro and Joyce, 1998; Brown et al., 2003). Catalytic DNAzymes, such as the 10:23 and 8:17 DNAzymes, have multiple domains. They have a conserved catalytic domain (catalytic core) flanked by two non-conserved substrate binding domains (hybridizing arms), which are regions of sequence that specifically bind to the substrate. The 10:23 and 8:17 DNAzymes are capable of cleaving nucleic acid substrates at specific RNA phosphodiester bonds (Santoro and Joyce, 1997). The 10:23 DNAzyme has a catalytic domain of 15 deoxynucleotides flanked by two substrate-recognition arms. The 8:17 DNAzyme is of similar size. A catalytic nucleic acid can cleave a nucleic acid substrate with a target sequence that meets minimum requirements. The substrate sequence must be substantially complementary to the hybridizing arms of the catalytic nucleic acid, and the substrate must contain a specific sequence at the site of cleavage. Specific sequence requirements at the cleavage site include, for example, a purine:pyrimidine ribonucleotide sequence for cleavage by the 10:23 DNAzyme (Santoro and Joyce, 1997). In various embodiments, the nucleic acid molecules of the invention can be modified at the base moiety, sugar moiety, or phosphate backbone to improve, e.g., the stability, hybridization, or solubility of the molecule. For example, the nucleotide analogs as described above can be substituted for the naturally occurring nucleotides. In another example, the deoxyribose phosphate backbone of the nucleic acids can be modified to generate peptide nucleic acids (see Hyrup et al. (1996) Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 4(1): 5-23). As used herein, the terms “peptide nucleic acids” or “PNAs” refer to nucleic acid mimics, e.g., DNA mimics, in which the deoxyribose phosphate backbone is replaced by a pseudopeptide backbone and only the four natural nucleobases are retained. The neutral backbone of PNAs has been shown to allow for specific hybridization to DNA and RNA under conditions of low ionic strength. The synthesis of PNA oligomers can be performed using standard solid phase peptide synthesis protocols as described in Hyrup et al. (1996), supra; Perry-O'Keefe et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 14670-675. PNAs can be used in therapeutic and diagnostic applications. For example, PNAs can be used as antisense or antigene agents for sequence-specific modulation of gene expression by, e.g., inducing transcription or translation arrest or inhibiting replication. PNAs can also be used, e.g., in the analysis of single base pair mutations in a gene by, e.g., PNA directed PCR clamping; as artificial restriction enzymes when used in combination with other enzymes, e.g., S1 nucleases (Hyrup (1996), supra; or as probes or primers for DNA sequence and hybridization (Hyrup (1996), supra; Perry-O'Keefe et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 14670-675). In another embodiment, PNAs can be modified, e.g., to enhance their stability or cellular uptake, by attaching lipophilic or other helper groups to PNA, by the formation of PNA-DNA chimeras, or by the use of liposomes or other techniques of drug delivery known in the art. For example, PNA-DNA chimeras can be generated which can combine the advantageous properties of PNA and DNA. Such chimeras allow DNA recognition enzymes, e.g., RNASE H and DNA polymerases, to interact with the DNA portion while the PNA portion would provide high binding affinity and specificity. PNA-DNA chimeras can be linked using linkers of appropriate lengths selected in terms of base stacking, number of bonds between the nucleobases, and orientation (Hyrup (1996), supra). The synthesis of PNA-DNA chimeras can be performed as described in Hyrup (1996), supra, and Finn et al. (1996) Nucleic Acids Res. 24(17): 3357-63. For example, a DNA chain can be synthesized on a solid support using standard phosphoramidite coupling chemistry and modified nucleoside analogs. Compounds, such as 5′-(4-methoxytrityl)amino-5′-deoxy-thymidine phosphoramidite, can be used as a link between the PNA and the 5′ end of DNA (Mag et al. (1989) Nucleic Acids Res. 17:5973-88). PNA monomers are then coupled in a step-wise manner to produce a chimeric molecule with a 5′ PNA segment and a 3′ DNA segment (Finn et al. (1996) Nucleic Acids Res. 24(17):3357-63). Alternatively, chimeric molecules can be synthesized with a 5′ DNA segment and a 3′ PNA segment (Peterser et al. (1975) Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett. 5:1119-11124). In other embodiments, the oligonucleotide can include other appended groups, such as peptides (e.g., for targeting host cell receptors in vivo), or agents facilitating transport across the cell membrane (see, e.g., Letsinger et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6553-6556; Lemaitre et al. (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:648-652; PCT Publication No. WO 88/09810) or the blood-brain barrier (see, e.g., PCT Publication No. WO 89/10134). In addition, oligonucleotides can be modified with hybridization-triggered cleavage agents (see, e.g., Krol et al. (1988) Bio/Techniques 6:958-976) or intercalating agents (see, e.g., Zon (1988) Pharm. Res. 5:539-549). To this end, the oligonucleotide can be conjugated to another molecule, e.g., a peptide, hybridization triggered cross-linking agent, transport agent, hybridization-triggered cleavage agent, etc. Proteins The invention also provides chimeric or fusion proteins. As used herein, a “chimeric protein” or “fusion protein” comprises all or part (preferably biologically active) of a CXCL13 polypeptide operably linked to a heterologous polypeptide (i.e., a polypeptide other than the same CXCL13 polypeptide). Within the fusion protein, the term “operably linked” is intended to indicate that the CXCL13 polypeptide and the heterologous polypeptide are fused in-frame to each other. The heterologous polypeptide can be fused to the amino-terminus or the carboxyl-terminus of the CXCL13 polypeptide. In another embodiment, a CXCL13 polypeptide or a domain or active fragment thereof can be fused with a heterologous protein sequence or fragment thereof to form a chimeric protein, where the polypeptides, domains or fragments are not fused end to end but are interposed within the heterologous protein framework. One useful fusion protein is a GST fusion protein in which the CXCL13 polypeptide is fused to the carboxyl terminus of GST sequences. Such fusion proteins can facilitate the purification of a recombinant CXCL13 polypeptide. In another embodiment, the fusion protein contains a heterologous signal sequence at its amino terminus. For example, the native signal sequence of a CXCL13 polypeptide can be removed and replaced with a signal sequence from another protein. For example, the gp67 secretory sequence of the baculovirus envelope protein can be used as a heterologous signal sequence (Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel et al., eds., John Wiley & Sons, 1992). Other examples of eukaryotic heterologous signal sequences include the secretory sequences of melittin and human placental alkaline phosphatase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.). In yet another example, useful prokaryotic heterologous signal sequences include the phoA secretory signal (Sambrook et al., supra) and the protein A secretory signal (Pharmacia Biotech; Piscataway, N.J.). In yet another embodiment, the fusion protein is an immunoglobulin fusion protein in which all or part of a CXCL13 polypeptide is fused to sequences derived from a member of the immunoglobulin protein family. The immunoglobulin fusion proteins of the invention can be incorporated into pharmaceutical compositions and administered to a subject to inhibit an interaction between a ligand (soluble or membrane-bound) and a protein on the surface of a cell (receptor), to thereby suppress signal transduction in vivo. The immunoglobulin fusion protein can be used to affect the bioavailability of a cognate ligand of a CXCL13 polypeptide. Inhibition of ligand/receptor interaction can be useful therapeutically, both for treating proliferative and differentiative disorders and for modulating (e.g., promoting or inhibiting) cell survival. A preferred embodiment of an immunoglobulin chimeric protein is a CH1 domain-deleted immunoglobulin or “mimetibody” having an active polypeptide fragment interposed within a modified framework region as taught in co-pending application PCT WO/04002417. Moreover, the immunoglobulin fusion proteins of the invention can be used as immunogens to produce antibodies directed against a CXCL13 polypeptide in a subject, to purify ligands and in screening assays to identify molecules that inhibit the interaction of receptors with ligands. Chimeric and fusion proteins of the invention can be produced by standard recombinant DNA techniques. In another embodiment, the fusion gene can be synthesized by conventional techniques, including automated DNA synthesizers. Alternatively, PCR amplification of gene fragments can be carried out using anchor primers which give rise to complementary overhangs between two consecutive gene fragments which can subsequently be annealed and re-amplified to generate a chimeric gene sequence (see, e.g., Ausubel et al., supra). Moreover, many expression vectors are commercially available that already encode a fusion moiety (e.g., a GST polypeptide). A nucleic acid encoding a CXCL13 polypeptide can be cloned into such an expression vector such that the fusion moiety is linked in-frame to the CXCL13 polypeptide. A signal sequence of a CXCL13 polypeptide can be used to facilitate secretion and isolation of the secreted protein or other proteins of interest. Signal sequences are typically characterized by a core of hydrophobic amino acids that are generally cleaved from the mature protein during secretion in one or more cleavage events. Such signal peptides contain processing sites that allow cleavage of the signal sequence from the mature proteins as they pass through the secretory pathway. Thus, the invention pertains to the described polypeptides having a signal sequence, as well as to the signal sequence itself and to the polypeptide in the absence of the signal sequence (i.e., the cleavage products). In one embodiment, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a signal sequence of the invention can be operably linked in an expression vector to a protein of interest, such as a protein that is ordinarily not secreted or is otherwise difficult to isolate. The signal sequence directs secretion of the protein, such as from a eukaryotic host into which the expression vector is transformed, and the signal sequence is subsequently or concurrently cleaved. The protein can then be readily purified from the extracellular medium by art recognized methods. Alternatively, the signal sequence can be linked to the protein of interest using a sequence that facilitates purification, such as with a GST domain. In another embodiment, the signal sequences of the present invention can be used to identify regulatory sequences, e.g., promoters, enhancers, and/or repressors. Since signal sequences are the most amino-terminal sequences of a peptide, the nucleic acids flanking the signal sequence on its amino-terminal side are likely regulatory sequences that affect transcription. Thus, a nucleotide sequence that encodes all or a portion of a signal sequence can be used as a probe to identify and isolate signal sequences and their flanking regions, and these flanking regions can be studied to identify regulatory elements therein. The present invention also pertains to variants of the CXCL13 polypeptides and can include one or more amino acid substitutions, deletions or additions, either from natural mutations or human manipulation, as specified herein. Such mutations or substitutions can include muteins, whose mutations can be significant enough to alter the properties of the peptide without altering the biological activity of the peptide to inhibit the binding of human CXCL13 to its ligand. Of course, the number of amino acid substitutions a skilled artisan would make depends on many factors, including those described above. In certain embodiments of the invention, the number of amino acid substitutions, insertions or deletions for any given CXCL13 polypeptide, fragment or variant will not be more than 1-5, or any range or value therein, as specified herein. The CXCL13 polypeptides may also comprise modified, non-naturally occurring and unusual amino acids substituted or added to their amino acid sequences. A list of exemplary modified, non-naturally occurring and unusual amino acids is provided below. Modified (Unusual) Amino Acid Symbol 2-Aminoadipic acid Aad 3-Aminoadipic acid Baad beta-Alanine, beta-Aminopropionic acid bAla 2-Aminobutyric acid Abu 4-Aminobutyric acid, piperidinic acid 4Abu 6-Aminocaproic acid Acp 2-Aminoheptanoic acid Ahe 2-Aminoisobutyric acid Aib 3-Aminoisobutyric acid Baib 2-Aminopimelic acid Apm 2,4-Diaminobutyric acid Dbu Desmosine Des 2,2′-Diaminopimelic acid Dpm 2,3-Diaminopropionic acid Dpr N-Ethylglycine EtGly N-Ethylasparagine EtAsn Hydroxylysine Hyl Allo-Hydroxylysine Ahyl 3-Hydroxyproline 3Hyp 4-Hydroxyproline 4Hyp Isodesmosine Ide Allo-Isoleucine Aile N-Methylglycine, sarcosine MeGly N-Methylisoleucine Melle 6-N-Methyllysine MeLys N-Methylvaline MeVal Norvaline Nva Norleucine Nle Ornithine Orn Amino acids in a CXCL13 polypeptide that are essential for function can be identified by methods known in the art, such as site-directed mutagenesis or alanine-scanning mutagenesis (e.g., Ausubel, supra, Chapters 8, 15; Cunningham and Wells, Science 244:1081-1085 (1989)). The latter procedure introduces single alanine mutations at every residue in the molecule. The resulting mutant molecules are then tested for biological activity, such as, but not limited to, at least one CXCL13 neutralizing activity. Such variants have an altered amino acid sequence and can function as either agonists (mimetics) or as antagonists. Variants can be generated by mutagenesis, e.g., discrete point mutation or truncation. An agonist can retain substantially the same, or a subset, of the biological activities of the naturally occurring form of the protein. An antagonist of a protein can inhibit one or more of the activities of the naturally occurring form of the protein by, for example, competitively binding to a downstream or upstream member of a cellular signaling cascade that includes the protein of interest. Thus, specific biological effects can be elicited by treatment with a variant of limited function. Treatment of a subject with a variant having a subset of the biological activities of the naturally occurring form of the protein can have fewer side effects in a subject relative to treatment with the naturally occurring form of the protein. Variants of a CXCL13 polypeptide that function as either agonists (mimetics) or as antagonists can be identified by screening combinatorial libraries of mutants, e.g., truncation mutants, of the protein of the invention for agonist or antagonist activity. In one embodiment, a variegated library of variants is generated by combinatorial mutagenesis at the nucleic acid level and is encoded by a variegated gene library. A variegated library of variants can be produced by, for example, enzymatically ligating a mixture of synthetic oligonucleotides into gene sequences such that a degenerate set of potential protein sequences is expressible as individual polypeptides, or alternatively, as a set of larger fusion proteins (e.g., for phage display). There are a variety of methods that can be used to produce libraries of potential variants of the CXCL13 polypeptide from a degenerate oligonucleotide sequence. Methods for synthesizing degenerate oligonucleotides are known in the art (see, e.g., Narang (1983) Tetrahedron 39:3; Itakura et al. (1984) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 53:323; Itakura et al. (1984) Science 198:1056; Ike et al. (1983) Nucleic Acid Res. 11:477). In addition, libraries of fragments of the coding sequence of a CXCL13 polypeptide can be used to generate a variegated population of polypeptides for screening and subsequent selection of variants. For example, a library of coding sequence fragments can be generated by treating a double stranded PCR fragment of the coding sequence of interest with a nuclease under conditions wherein nicking occurs only about once per molecule, denaturing the double stranded DNA, renaturing the DNA to form double stranded DNA which can include sense/antisense pairs from different nicked products, removing single stranded portions from reformed duplexes by treatment with S1 nuclease, and ligating the resulting fragment library into an expression vector. By this method, an expression library can be derived which encodes amino terminal and internal fragments of various sizes of the protein of interest. Several techniques are known in the art for screening gene products of combinatorial libraries made by point mutations or truncation, and for screening cDNA libraries for gene products having a selected property. The most widely used techniques, which are amenable to high through-put analysis, for screening large gene libraries typically include cloning the gene library into replicable expression vectors, transforming appropriate cells with the resulting library of vectors, and expressing the combinatorial genes under conditions in which detection of a desired activity facilitates isolation of the vector encoding the gene whose product was detected. Recursive ensemble mutagenesis (REM), a technique which enhances the frequency of functional mutants in the libraries, can be used in combination with the screening assays to identify variants of a CXCL13 Antagonist polypeptide (Arkin and Yourvan (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:7811-7815; Delgrave et al. (1993) Protein Engineering 6(3):327-331). Compositions and Their Uses In accordance with the invention, the neutralizing CXCL13 antagonists, such as monoclonal antibodies, described herein can be used to inhibit CXCL13 activity. Additionally, such antagonists can be used to inhibit CXCL13-related inflammatory diseases amenable to such treatment, which may include, but are not limited to, pulmonary-related disorders. The individual to be treated may be any mammal and is preferably a primate, a companion animal which is a mammal and, most preferably, a human patient. The amount of antagonist administered will vary according to the purpose it is being used for and the method of administration. The anti-CXCL13 antagonists may be administered by any number of methods that result in an effect in tissue in which CXCL13 activity is desired to be prevented or halted. Further, the CXCL13 antagonists need not be present locally to impart an effect on the CXCL13 activity; therefore, they may be administered wherever access to body compartments or fluids containing CXCL13 is achieved. In the case of inflamed, malignant, or otherwise compromised tissues, these methods may include direct application of a formulation containing the antagonists. Such methods include intravenous administration of a liquid composition, transdermal administration of a liquid or solid formulation, oral, topical administration, or interstitial or inter-operative administration. Adminstration may be affected by the implantation of a device whose primary function may not be as a drug delivery vehicle. Administration may also be oral or by local injection into a tumor or tissue but generally, a monoclonal antibody is administered intravenously. Generally, the dosage range is from about 0.05 mg/kg to about 12.0 mg/kg. This may be as a bolus or as a slow or continuous infusion which may be controlled by a microprocessor controlled and programmable pump device. Alternatively, DNA encoding preferably a fragment of a monoclonal antibody may be isolated from hybridoma cells and administered to a mammal. The DNA may be administered in naked form or inserted into a recombinant vector, e.g., vaccinia virus, in a manner which results in expression of the DNA in the cells of the patient and delivery of the antibody. The monoclonal antibody used in the method of the present invention may be formulated by any of the established methods of formulating pharmaceutical compositions, e.g., as described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1985. For ease of administration, the monoclonal antibody will typically be combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Such carriers include water, physiological saline, or oils. Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous sterile injection solutions which may contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspending agents and thickening agents. Except insofar as any conventional medium is incompatible with the active ingredient and its intended use, its use in any compositions is contemplated. The formulations may be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example, sealed ampules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, water for injections, immediately prior to use. The CXCL13 antagonist nucleic acid molecules, polypeptides, and antibodies can be incorporated into pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration. Such compositions typically comprise the nucleic acid molecule, protein, or antibody and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein the language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, use thereof in the compositions is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions. In another aspect, the invention relates to CXCL13 antagonists, as described herein, which are modified by the covalent attachment of a moiety. Such modification can produce a CXCL13 antagonist with improved pharmacokinetic properties (e.g., increased in vivo serum half-life). The organic moiety can be a linear or branched hydrophilic polymeric group, fatty acid group, or fatty acid ester group. In particular embodiments, the hydrophilic polymeric group can have a molecular weight of about 800 to about 120,000 Daltons and can be a polyalkane glycol (e.g., polyethylene glycol (PEG), polypropylene glycol (PPG)), carbohydrate polymer, amino acid polymer or polyvinyl pyrolidone, and the fatty acid or fatty acid ester group can comprise from about eight to about forty carbon atoms. As used herein, the term “fatty acid” encompasses mono-carboxylic acids and di-carboxylic acids. Fatty acids and fatty acid esters suitable for modifying antibodies of the invention can be saturated or can contain one or more units of unsaturation. Fatty acids that are suitable for modifying antibodies of the invention include, for example, n-dodecanoate (C12, laurate), n-tetradecanoate (C14, myristate), n-octadecanoate (C18, stearate), n-eicosanoate (C20, arachidate), n-docosanoate (C22, behenate), n-triacontanoate (C30), n-tetracontanoate (C40), cis-delta 9-octadecanoate (C18, oleate), all cis-delta5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoate (C20, arachidonate), octanedioic acid, tetradecanedioic acid, octadecanedioic acid, docosanedioic acid, and the like. Suitable fatty acid esters include mono-esters of dicarboxylic acids that comprise a linear or branched lower alkyl group. The lower alkyl group can comprise from one to about twelve, preferably, one to about six, carbon atoms. The modified human polypeptides and antibodies can be prepared using suitable methods, such as by reaction with one or more modifying agents. A “modifying agent” as the term is used herein, refers to a suitable organic group (e.g., hydrophilic polymer, a fatty acid, a fatty acid ester) that comprises an activating group. An “activating group” is a chemical moiety or functional group that can, under appropriate conditions, react with a second chemical group thereby forming a covalent bond between the modifying agent and the second chemical group. For example, amine-reactive activating groups include electrophilic groups such as tosylate, mesylate, halo (chloro, bromo, fluoro, iodo), N-hydroxysuccinimidyl esters (NHS), and the like. Activating groups that can react with thiols include, for example, maleimide, iodoacetyl, acrylolyl, pyridyl disulfides, 5-thiol-2-nitrobenzoic acid thiol (TNB-thiol), and the like. An aldehyde functional group can be coupled to amine- or hydrazide-containing molecules, and an azide group can react with a trivalent phosphorous group to form phosphoramidate or phosphorimide linkages. Suitable methods to introduce activating groups into molecules are known in the art (see for example, Hermanson, G. T., Bioconjugate Techniques, Academic Press: San Diego, Calif. (1996)). The invention includes methods for preparing pharmaceutical compositions for modulating the expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, nucleic acid, or antibody. Such methods comprise formulating a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier with an agent that modulates expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, nucleic acid, or antibody. Such compositions can further include additional active agents. Thus, the invention further includes methods for preparing a pharmaceutical composition by formulating a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier with an agent that modulates expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, nucleic acid, or antibody and one or more additional active compounds. The agent that modulates expression or activity can, for example, be a small molecule. For example, such small molecules include peptides, peptidomimetics, amino acids, amino acid analogs, polynucleotides, polynucleotide analogs, nucleotides, nucleotide analogs, organic or inorganic compounds (i.e., including heteroorganic and organometallic compounds) having a molecular weight less than about 10,000 grams per mole, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight less than about 5,000 grams per mole, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight less than about 1,000 grams per mole, organic or inorganic compounds having a molecular weight less than about 500 grams per mole, and salts, esters, and other pharmaceutically acceptable forms of such compounds. It is understood that appropriate doses of small molecule agents and protein or polypeptide agents depend upon a number of factors within the knowledge of the ordinarily skilled physician, veterinarian, or researcher. The dose(s) of these agents will vary, for example, depending upon the identity, size, and condition of the subject or sample being treated, further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered, if applicable, and the effect which the practitioner desires the agent to have upon the CXCL13 polypeptide, nucleic acid, or antibody. Exemplary doses of a small molecule include milligram or microgram amounts per kilogram of subject or sample weight (e.g., about 1 microgram per kilogram to about 500 milligrams per kilogram, about 100 micrograms per kilogram to about 5 milligrams per kilogram, or about 1 microgram per kilogram to about 50 micrograms per kilogram). Exemplary doses of a protein or polypeptide include gram, milligram or microgram amounts per kilogram of subject or sample weight (e.g., about 1 microgram per kilogram to about 5 grams per kilogram, about 100 micrograms per kilogram to about 500 milligrams per kilogram, or about 1 milligram per kilogram to about 50 milligrams per kilogram). It is furthermore understood that appropriate doses of one of these agents depend upon the potency of the agent with respect to the expression or activity to be modulated. Such appropriate doses can be determined using the assays described herein. When one or more of these agents is to be administered to an animal (e.g., a human) in order to modulate expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, nucleic acid, or antibody, a physician, veterinarian, or researcher can, for example, prescribe a relatively low dose at first, subsequently increasing the dose until an appropriate response is obtained. In addition, it is understood that the specific dose level for any particular animal subject will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific agent employed, the age, body weight, general health, gender, and diet of the subject, the time of administration, the route of administration, the rate of excretion, any drug combination, and the degree of expression or activity to be modulated. A pharmaceutical composition of the invention is formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation or buccal), transdermal (topical), transmucosal, and rectal administration. Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneous application can include the following components: a sterile diluen, such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents, such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens; antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agents, such as ethylenediamine-tetraacetic acid; buffers, such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity, such as sodium chloride or dextrose. The pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic. Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. For intravenous administration, suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor EL (BASF; Parsippany, N.J.) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS). In all cases, the composition must be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. In many cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols, such as mannitol, sorbitol, or sodium chloride in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin. Pharmaceutical excipients and additives useful in stabilizing the present composition include, but are not limited to, polypeptides, peptides, amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates (e.g., sugars, including monosaccharides, di-, tri-, tetra-, and oligosaccharides; derivatized sugars such as alditols, aldonic acids, esterified sugars and the like; and polysaccharides or sugar polymers), which can be present singly or in combination, comprising alone or in combination 1-99.99% by weight or volume. Exemplary but non-limiting polypeptide excipients include serum albumin, such as human serum albumin (HSA), recombinant human albumin (rHA), gelatin, casein, and the like. Representative amino acids, which can also function in a buffering capacity, include alanine, glycine, arginine, betaine, histidine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, cysteine, lysine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, aspartame, and the like. One preferred amino acid is glycine. Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the active compound (e.g., a polypeptide or antibody) in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle that contains a basic dispersion medium, and then incorporating the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. Non-limiting examples of, and methods of preparing such sterile solutions are well known in the art, such as, but limited to, Gennaro, Ed., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Edition, Mack Publishing Co. (Easton, Pa.) 1990. Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. They can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, or capsules. Oral compositions can also be prepared using a fluid carrier for use as a mouthwash, wherein the compound in the fluid carrier is applied orally and swished and expectorated or swallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvant materials can be included as part of the composition. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches, and the like can contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder, such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient, such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent, such as alginic acid, Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant, such as magnesium stearate or Sterotes; a glidant, such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent, such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent, such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring. For administration by inhalation, the compounds are delivered in the form of aerosolized particles from a pressurized container or dispenser that contains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide, or a nebulizer. Alternatively, compositions formulated as particles can be dispersed by electrostatic, mechanical means including vibrations, or ultrasonic means as taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,530,464; 4,533,082; 5,838,350; 6,113,001; 6,514,496; 5,518,179; 5,152,456; 5,261,601; and 4,605,167. Systemic administration can also be by transmucosal or transdermal means. For transmucosal or transdermal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art, and include, for example, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, and fusidic acid derivatives. Transmucosal administration can be accomplished through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories. For transdermal administration, the active compounds are formulated into ointments, salves, gels, or creams, as generally known in the art. The compounds can also be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g., with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and other glycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery. In one embodiment, the active compounds are prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid. Methods for preparation of such formulations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes having monoclonal antibodies incorporated therein or thereon) can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Particularly preferred compositions and methods are taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,891,468 and 6,316,024. It is especially advantageous to formulate oral or parenteral compositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the subject to be treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active compound calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the invention are dictated by and directly dependent on the unique characteristics of the active compound and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieved, and the limitations inherent in the art of compounding such an active compound for the treatment of individuals. For antibodies, the preferred dosage is about 0.1 mg/kg to 100 mg/kg of body weight (generally about 10 mg/kg to 20 mg/kg). If the antibody is to act in the brain, a dosage of about 50 mg/kg to 100 mg/kg is usually appropriate. Generally, partially human antibodies and fully human antibodies have a longer half-life within the human body than other antibodies. Accordingly, the use of lower dosages and less frequent administration is often possible. Modifications, such as lipidation, can be used to stabilize antibodies and to enhance uptake and tissue penetration (e.g., into the brain). A method for lipidation of antibodies is described by Cruikshank et al. ((1997) J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 14:193). The CXCL13 Antagonist nucleic acid molecules can be inserted into vectors and used as gene therapy vectors. Gene therapy vectors can be delivered to a subject by, for example, intravenous injection, local administration (U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,470), or by stereotactic injection (see, e.g., Chen et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3054-3057). The pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy vector can include the gene therapy vector in an acceptable diluent, or can comprise a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is imbedded. Alternatively, where the complete gene delivery vector can be produced intact from recombinant cells, e.g., retroviral vectors, the pharmaceutical preparation can include one or more cells which produce the gene delivery system. The pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration. Pharmacogenomics Agents, or modulators that have a stimulatory or inhibitory effect on activity or expression of a CXCL13 polypeptide as identified by a screening assay described herein, can be administered to individuals to treat (prophylactically or therapeutically) disorders associated with aberrant activity of the polypeptide. In conjunction with such treatment, the pharmacogenomics (i.e., the study of the relationship between an individual's genotype and that individual's response to a foreign compound or drug) of the individual may be considered. Differences in metabolism of therapeutics can lead to severe toxicity or therapeutic failure by altering the relation between dose and blood concentration of the pharmacologically active drug. Thus, the pharmacogenomics of the individual permits the selection of effective agents (e.g., drugs) for prophylactic or therapeutic treatments based on a consideration of the individual's genotype. Such pharmacogenomics can further be used to determine appropriate dosages and therapeutic regimens. Accordingly, the activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, expression of a CXCL13 nucleic acid, or mutation content of a CXCL13 gene in an individual can be determined to thereby select appropriate agent(s) for therapeutic or prophylactic treatment of the individual. Pharmacogenomics deals with clinically significant hereditary variations in the response to drugs due to altered drug disposition and abnormal action in affected persons. See, e.g., Linder (1997) Clin. Chem. 43(2):254-266. In general, two types of pharmacogenetic conditions can be differentiated. Genetic conditions transmitted as a single factor altering the way drugs act on the body are referred to as “altered drug action.” Genetic conditions transmitted as single factors altering the way the body acts on drugs are referred to as “altered drug metabolism.” These pharmacogenetic conditions can occur either as rare defects or as polymorphisms. For example, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is a common inherited enzymopathy in which the main clinical complication is hemolysis after ingestion of oxidant drugs (anti-malarials, sulfonamides, analgesics, nitrofurans) and consumption of fava beans. As an illustrative embodiment, the activity of drug metabolizing enzymes is a major determinant of both the intensity and duration of drug action. The discovery of genetic polymorphisms of drug metabolizing enzymes (e.g., N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT 2) and cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP2C19) has provided an explanation as to why some patients do not obtain the expected drug effects or show exaggerated drug response and serious toxicity after taking the standard and safe dose of a drug. These polymorphisms are expressed in two phenotypes in the population, the extensive metabolizer (EM) and poor metabolizer (PM). The prevalence of PM is different among different populations. For example, the gene coding for CYP2D6 is highly polymorphic and several mutations have been identified in PM, which all lead to the absence of functional CYP2D6. Poor metabolizers of CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 quite frequently experience exaggerated drug response and side effects when they receive standard doses. If a metabolite is the active therapeutic moiety, a PM will show no therapeutic response, as demonstrated for the analgesic effect of codeine mediated by its CYP2D6-formed metabolite morphine. The other extreme are the so called ultra-rapid metabolizers who do not respond to standard doses. Recently, the molecular basis of ultra-rapid metabolism has been identified to be due to CYP2D6 gene amplification. Thus, the activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, expression of a nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide, or mutation content of a gene encoding the polypeptide in an individual can be determined to thereby select appropriate agent(s) for therapeutic or prophylactic treatment of the individual. In addition, pharmacogenetic studies can be used to apply genotyping of polymorphic alleles encoding drug-metabolizing enzymes to the identification of an individual's drug responsiveness phenotype. This knowledge, when applied to dosing or drug selection, can avoid adverse reactions or therapeutic failure and thus enhance therapeutic or prophylactic efficiency when treating a subject with a modulator of activity or expression of the polypeptide, such as a modulator identified by one of the exemplary screening assays described herein. Methods of Treatment The present invention provides for both prophylactic and therapeutic methods of treating a subject at risk of (or susceptible to) a disorder or having a disorder associated with aberrant expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide and/or in which the CXCL13 polypeptide is involved. The present invention provides a method for modulating or treating at least one CXCL13 related disease or condition, in a cell, tissue, organ, animal, or patient, as known in the art or as described herein, using at least one CXCL13 antagonist. Compositions of CXCL13 antagonists may find therapeutic use in the treatment of pulmonary disorder-related conditions, such as asthma, emphysema, COPD, and neonatal chronic lung disease. The present invention also provides a method for modulating or treating at least one immune related disease, in a cell, tissue, organ, animal, or patient including, but not limited to, at least one of rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondilitis, gastric ulcer, seronegative arthropathies, osteoarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, systemic lupus erythematosis, antiphospholipid syndrome, iridocyclitis/uveitis/optic neuritis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, systemic vasculitis/wegener's granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, orchitis/vasectomy reversal procedures, allergic/atopic diseases, allergic rhinitis, eczema, allergic contact dermatitis, allergic conjunctivitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, transplants, organ transplant rejection, graft-versus-host disease, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis syndrome, gram positive sepsis, gram negative sepsis, culture negative sepsis, fungal sepsis, neutropenic fever, urosepsis, meningococcemia, trauma/hemorrhage, burns, ionizing radiation exposure, acute pancreatitis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, alcohol-induced hepatitis, chronic inflammatory pathologies, sarcoidosis, Crohn's pathology, sickle cell anemia, diabetes, nephrosis, atopic diseases, hypersensitity reactions, allergic rhinitis, hay fever, perennial rhinitis, conjunctivitis, endometriosis, urticaria, systemic anaphalaxis, dermatitis, pernicious anemia, hemolytic disease, thrombocytopenia, graft rejection of any organ or tissue, kidney translplant rejection, heart transplant rejection, liver transplant rejection, pancreas transplant rejection, lung transplant rejection, bone marrow transplant (BMT) rejection, skin allograft rejection, cartilage transplant rejection, bone graft rejection, small bowel transplant rejection, fetal thymus implant rejection, parathyroid transplant rejection, xenograft rejection of any organ or tissue, allograft rejection, anti-receptor hypersensitivity reactions, Graves disease, Raynoud's disease, type B insulin-resistant diabetes, myasthenia gravis, antibody-meditated cytotoxicity, type III hypersensitivity reactions, systemic lupus erythematosus, POEMS syndrome (polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy, monoclonal gammopathy, and skin changes syndrome), antiphospholipid syndrome, pemphigus, scleroderma, mixed connective tissue disease, idiopathic Addison's disease, diabetes mellitus, chronic active hepatitis, primary billiary cirrhosis, vitiligo, vasculitis, post-MI cardiotomy syndrome, type IV hypersensitivity, contact dermatitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allograft rejection, granulomas due to intracellular organisms, drug sensitivity, metabolic/idiopathic, Wilson's disease, hemachromatosis, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, diabetic retinopathy, hashimoto's thyroiditis, osteoporosis, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis evaluation, primary biliary cirrhosis, thyroiditis, encephalomyelitis, cachexia, cystic fibrosis, familial hematophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, dermatologic conditions, psoriasis, alopecia, nephrotic syndrome, nephritis, glomerular nephritis, acute renal failure, hemodialysis, uremia, toxicity, preeclampsia, okt3 therapy, anti-cd3 therapy, cytokine therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy (e.g., including but not limited toasthenia, anemia, cachexia, and the like), chronic salicylate intoxication, and the like. See, e.g., the Merck Manual, 12th-17th Editions, Merck & Company, Rahway, N.J. (1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1999), Pharmacotherapy Handbook, Wells et al., eds., Second Edition, Appleton and Lange, Stamford, Conn. (1998, 2000), each entirely incorporated by reference. The present invention also provides a method for modulating or treating at least one malignant disease in a cell, tissue, organ, animal or patient, including, but not limited to, at least one of: leukemia, acute leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), B-cell, T-cell or FAB ALL, acute myeloid leukemia (AML), acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), chromic myelocytic leukemia (CML), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), hairy cell leukemia, myelodyplastic syndrome (MDS), a lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease, a malignamt lymphoma, non-hodgkin's lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, Kaposi's sarcoma, colorectal carcinoma, pancreatic carcinoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, malignant histiocytosis, paraneoplastic syndrome/hypercalcemia of malignancy, solid tumors, adenocarcinomas, sarcomas, malignant melanoma, hemangioma, metastatic disease, cancer related bone resorption, cancer related bone pain, and the like. Disorders characterized by aberrant expression or activity of the CXCL13 polypeptides are further described elsewhere in this disclosure. 1. Prophylactic Methods In one aspect, the invention provides a method for at least substantially preventing in a subject, a disease or condition associated with an aberrant expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide, by administering to the subject an agent that modulates expression or at least one activity of the polypeptide. Subjects at risk for a disease that is caused or contributed to by aberrant expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide can be identified by, for example, any or a combination of diagnostic or prognostic assays as described herein. Administration of a prophylactic agent can occur prior to the manifestation of symptoms characteristic of the aberrancy, such that a disease or disorder is prevented or, alternatively, delayed in its progression. Depending on the type of aberrancy, for example, an agonist or antagonist agent can be used for treating the subject. The appropriate agent can be determined based on screening assays described herein. 2. Therapeutic Methods Another aspect of the invention pertains to methods of modulating expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide for therapeutic purposes. The modulatory method of the invention involves contacting a cell with an agent that modulates one or more of the activities of the polypeptide. An agent that modulates activity can be an agent as described herein, such as a nucleic acid or a protein, a naturally-occurring cognate ligand of the polypeptide, a peptide, a peptidomimetic, or other small molecule. In one embodiment, the agent stimulates one or more of the biological activities of the polypeptide. In another embodiment, the agent inhibits one or more of the biological activities of the CXCL13 polypeptide. Examples of such inhibitory agents include antisense nucleic acid molecules and antibodies and other methods described herein. These modulatory methods can be performed in vitro (e.g., by culturing the cell with the agent) or, alternatively, in vivo (e.g., by administering the agent to a subject). As such, the present invention provides methods of treating an individual afflicted with a disease or disorder characterized by aberrant expression or activity of a CXCL13 polypeptide. In one embodiment, the method involves administering an agent (e.g., an agent identified by a screening assay described herein), or combination of agents that modulate (e.g., up-regulates or down-regulates) expression or activity. Inhibition of activity is desirable in situations in which activity or expression is abnormally high or up-regulated and/or in which decreased activity is likely to have a beneficial effect. A method of the present invention comprises administering an effective amount of a composition or pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one CXCL13 antagonist or specified portion or variant to a cell, tissue, organ, animal or patient in need of such modulation, treatment or therapy. Such a method can optionally further comprise co-administration or combination therapy for treating such immune diseases, wherein the administering of said at least one CXCL13 antagonist, specified portion or variant thereof, further comprises administering, before concurrently, and/or after, at least one selected from at least one of glutiramer acetate (e.g., Copaxone), cyclophasphamide, azathioprine, glucocorticosteroids, methotrexate, Paclitaxel, 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine, mitoxantrone, IL-10, TGBb, CD4, CD52, antegren, CD11, CD18, TNFalpha, IL-1, IL-2, and/or CD4 antibody or antibody receptor fusion, interferon alpha, immunoglobulin, Lismide (Requinimax™), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), elprodil, pirfenidone, oral myelin, or compounds that act on one or more of at least one of: autoimmune suppression of myelin destruction, immune regulation, activation, proliferation, migration and/or suppressor cell function of T-cells, inhibition of T cell receptor/peptide/MHC-II interaction, Induction of T cell anergy, deletion of autoreactive T cells, reduction of trafficking across blood brain barrier, alteration of balance of pro-inflammatory (Th1) and immunomodulatory (Th2) cytokines, inhibition of matrix metalloprotease inhibitors, neuroprotection, reduction of gliosis, promotion of re-myelination), TNF antagonist (e.g., but not limited to, a TNF Ig derived protein or fragment, a soluble TNF receptor or fragment, fusion proteins thereof, or a small molecule TNF antagonist), an antirheumatic, a muscle relaxant, a narcotic, a non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), an analgesic, an anesthetic, a sedative, a local anesthetic, a neuromuscular blocker, an antimicrobial (e.g., aminoglycoside, an antifungal, an antiparasitic, an antiviral, a carbapenem, cephalosporin, a flurorquinolone, a macrolide, a penicillin, a sulfonamide, a tetracycline, another antimicrobial), an antipsoriatic, a corticosteriod, an anabolic steroid, a mineral, a nutritional, a thyroid agent, a vitamin, a calcium related hormone, an antidiarrheal, an antitussive, an antiemetic, an antiulcer, a laxative, an anticoagulant, an erythropoietin (e.g., epoetin alpha), a filgrastim (e.g., G-CSF, Neupogen), a sargramostim (GM-CSF, Leukine), an immunization, an immunoglobulin, an immunosuppressive (e.g., basiliximab, cyclosporine, daclizumab), a growth hormone, a hormone replacement drug, an estrogen receptor modulator, a mydriatic, a cycloplegic, an alkylating agent, an antimetabolite, a mitotic inhibitor, a radiopharmaceutical, an antidepressant, an antimanic agent, an antipsychotic, an anxiolytic, a hypnotic, a sympathomimetic, a stimulant, donepezil, tacrine, an asthma medication, a beta agonist, an inhaled steroid, a leukotriene inhibitor, a methylxanthine, a cromolyn, an epinephrine or analog, dornase alpha (Pulmozyme), a cytokine or a cytokine antagonist. Suitable dosages are well known in the art. See, e.g., Wells et al., eds., Pharmacotherapy Handbook, 2nd Edition, Appleton and Lange, Stamford, Conn. (2000); PDR Pharmacopoeia, Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2000, Deluxe Edition, Tarascon Publishing, Loma Linda, Calif. (2000), each of which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference. TNF antagonists suitable for compositions, combination therapy, co-administration, devices and/or methods of the present invention (further comprising at least one antibody, specified portion and variant thereof, of the present invention), include, but are not limited to, anti-TNF Ig derived proteins, antigen-binding fragments thereof, and receptor molecules which bind specifically to TNF; compounds which prevent and/or inhibit TNF synthesis, TNF release or its action on target cells, such as thalidomide, tenidap, phosphodiesterase inhibitors (e.g., pentoxifylline and rolipram), A2b adenosine receptor agonists and A2b adenosine receptor enhancers; compounds which prevent and/or inhibit TNF receptor signalling, such as mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitors; compounds which block and/or inhibit membrane TNF cleavage, such as metalloproteinase inhibitors; compounds which block and/or inhibit TNF activity, such as angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (e.g., captopril); and compounds which block and/or inhibit TNF production and/or synthesis, such as MAP kinase inhibitors. As used herein, a “tumor necrosis factor Ig derived protein,” “TNF Ig derived protein,” “TNFα Ig derived protein,” or fragment and the like decreases, blocks, inhibits, abrogates or interferes with TNFα activity in vitro, in situ and/or preferably in vivo. For example, a suitable TNF human Ig derived protein of the present invention can bind TNFα and includes anti-TNF Ig derived proteins, antigen-binding fragments thereof, and specified mutants or domains thereof that bind specifically to TNFα. A suitable TNF antibody or fragment can also decrease block, abrogate, interfere, prevent and/or inhibit TNF RNA, DNA or protein synthesis, TNF release, TNF receptor signaling, membrane TNF cleavage, TNF activity, TNF production and/or synthesis. Chimeric Ig derived protein cA2 consists of the antigen binding variable region of the high-affinity neutralizing mouse anti-human TNFα IgG1 Ig derived protein, designated A2, and the constant regions of a human IgG1, kappa immunoglobulin. The human IgG1 Fc region improves allogeneic Ig derived protein effector function, increases the circulating serum half-life and decreases the immunogenicity of the Ig derived protein. The avidity and epitope specificity of the chimeric Ig derived protein cA2 is derived from the variable region of the murine Ig derived protein A2. In a particular embodiment, a preferred source for nucleic acids encoding the variable region of the murine Ig derived protein A2 is the A2 hybridoma cell line. Chimeric A2 (cA2) neutralizes the cytotoxic effect of both natural and recombinant human TNFα in a dose dependent manner. From binding assays of chimeric Ig derived protein cA2 and recombinant human TNFα, the affinity constant of chimeric Ig derived protein cA2 was calculated to be 1.04×10M−1. Preferred methods for determining monoclonal Ig derived protein specificity and affinity by competitive inhibition can be found in Harlow, et al., Ig derived proteins: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1988; Colligan et al., eds., Current Protocols in Immunology, Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley Interscience, New York, (1992-2003); Kozbor et al., Immunol. Today, 4:72-79 (1983); Ausubel et al., eds. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Wiley Interscience, New York (1987-2003); and Muller, Meth. Enzymol., 92:589-601 (1983), which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference. In a particular embodiment, murine monoclonal Ig derived protein A2 is produced by a cell line designated c134A. Chimeric Ig derived protein cA2 is produced by a cell line designated c168A. Additional examples of monoclonal anti-TNF Ig derived proteins that can be used in the present invention are described in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,231,024; Moller, A. et al., Cytokine 2(3):162-169 (1990); U.S. application Ser. No. 07/943,852 (filed Sep. 11, 1992); Rathjen et al., International Publication No. WO 91/02078 (published Feb. 21, 1991); Rubin et al., EPO Patent Publication No. 0 218 868 (published Apr. 22, 1987); Yone et al., EPO Patent Publication No. 0 288 088 (Oct. 26, 1988); Liang, et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 137:847-854 (1986); Meager, et al., Hybridoma 6:305-311 (1987); Fendly et al., Hybridoma 6:359-369 (1987); Bringman, et al., Hybridoma 6:489-507 (1987); and Hirai, et al., J. Immunol. Meth. 96:57-62 (1987), which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference). TNF Receptor Molecules Preferred TNF receptor molecules useful in the present invention are those that bind TNFα with high affinity (see, e.g., Feldmann et al., International Publication No. WO 92/07076 (published Apr. 30, 1992); Schall et al., Cell 61:361-370 (1990); and Loetscher et al., Cell 61:351-359 (1990), which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference) and optionally possess low immunogenicity. In particular, the 55 kDa (p55 TNF-R) and the 75 kDa (p75 TNF-R) TNF cell surface receptors are useful in the present invention. Truncated forms of these receptors, comprising the extracellular domains (ECD) of the receptors or functional portions thereof (see, e.g., Corcoran et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 223:831-840 (1994)), are also useful in the present invention. Truncated forms of the TNF receptors, comprising the ECD, have been detected in urine and serum as 30 kDa and 40 kDa TNFα inhibitory binding proteins (Engelmann, H. et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:1531-1536 (1990)). TNF receptor multimeric molecules and TNF immunoreceptor fusion molecules, and derivatives and fragments or portions thereof, are additional examples of TNF receptor molecules which are useful in the methods and compositions of the present invention. The TNF receptor molecules which can be used in the invention are characterized by their ability to treat patients for extended periods with good to excellent alleviation of symptoms and low toxicity. Low immunogenicity and/or high affinity, as well as other undefined properties, may contribute to the therapeutic results achieved. TNF receptor multimeric molecules useful in the present invention comprise all or a functional portion of the ECD of two or more TNF receptors linked via one or more polypeptide linkers or other nonpeptide linkers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG). The multimeric molecules can further comprise a signal peptide of a secreted protein to direct expression of the multimeric molecule. These multimeric molecules and methods for their production have been described in U.S. application Ser. No. 08/437,533 (filed May 9, 1995), the contents of which are entirely incorporated herein by reference. TNF immunoreceptor fusion molecules useful in the methods and compositions of the present invention comprise at least one portion of one or more immunoglobulin molecules and all or a functional portion of one or more TNF receptors. These immunoreceptor fusion molecules can be assembled as monomers, or hetero- or homo-multimers. The immunoreceptor fusion molecules can also be monovalent or multivalent. An example of such a TNF immunoreceptor fusion molecule is TNF receptor/IgG fusion protein. TNF immunoreceptor fusion molecules and methods for their production have been described in the art (Lesslauer et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 21:2883-2886 (1991); Ashkenazi et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:10535-10539 (1991); Peppel et al., J. Exp. Med. 174:1483-1489 (1991); Kolls et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:215-219 (1994); Butler et al., Cytokine 6(6):616-623 (1994); Baker et al., Eur. J. Immunol. 24:2040-2048 (1994); Beutler et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,447,851; and U.S. application Ser. No. 08/442,133 (filed May 16, 1995), each of which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference). Methods for producing immunoreceptor fusion molecules can also be found in Capon et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,116,964; Capon et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,538; and Capon et al., Nature 337:525-531 (1989), which references are entirely incorporated herein by reference. A functional equivalent, derivative, fragment or region of TNF receptor molecule refers to the portion of the TNF receptor molecule, or the portion of the TNF receptor molecule sequence which encodes TNF receptor molecule, that is of sufficient size and sequences to functionally resemble TNF receptor molecules that can be used in the present invention (e.g., bind TNFα with high affinity and possess low immunogenicity). A functional equivalent of TNF receptor molecule also includes modified TNF receptor molecules that functionally resemble TNF receptor molecules that can be used in the present invention (e.g., bind TNFα with high affinity and possess low immunogenicity). For example, a functional equivalent of TNF receptor molecule can contain a “SILENT” codon or one or more amino acid substitutions, deletions or additions (e.g., substitution of one acidic amino acid for another acidic amino acid; or substitution of one codon encoding the same or different hydrophobic amino acid for another codon encoding a hydrophobic amino acid). See Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley-lnterscience, New York (1987-2003). While having described the invention in general terms, the embodiments of the invention will be further disclosed in the following examples which should not be construed as limiting the scope of the claims. EXAMPLE 1 CXCL13 mRNA Transcript Levels are Elevated in Diseased Lung Tissues The levels of mRNA transcripts encoding the CXCL13 protein are elevated in the lung tissue of untreated SP-C/TNFα mice, and SP-C/TNFα mice treated with a TNFα specific mAb relative to control C57BL6 mice (FIG. 1). SP-C/TNF-alpha mice are transgenic mice derived from the C57BL6 mouse strain that constituatively over-express murine TNFα in the lung tissues Over expression of TNFα in the lung (SP-C/TNFα transgenic mice) causes many pathological changes similar to those found in COPD patients, including pulmonary inflammation, emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis [16] and the formation of ectopic lymphoid follicles. SP-C/TNFα mice are a model for such pulmonary diseases as pulmonary inflammation emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis, and Congestive Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). The formation of ectopic lymphoid follicles in the lungs is a pathology associated with each of these pulmonary diseases. Ectopic lyphoid follicles in the lungs can be formed through B cell infiltration into lung and other pulmonary tissues. The results in FIG. 1 indicate that increased CXCL13 protein levels in the lung tissues of SP-C/TNFα mice contribute to the formation of ectopic lymphoid follicles in the lungs and the onset of associated pulmonary diseases in these animals. For this experiment, twelve-week old control C57BL6 mice and untreated SP-C/TNFα mice received intraperitoneal injections of 200 μL of PBS every Monday and Friday for six weeks. SP-C/TNFα mice received 0.5 mg of the TNFα specific cV1q mAb in 200 μL of PBS by intraperitoneal injection every Monday and Friday for six weeks. The cV1q mAb is a monoclonal rat IgG1 isotype monoclonal antibody that binds murine TNFα. The cV1q mAb was generated using standard methods. Six weeks after injections started, mice were sacrificed in compliance with institutional animal care and use guidelines. Lungs were removed from sacrificed animals, homogenized, and mRNA was extracted and isolated using standard methods. RT-PCR specific for CXCL13 mRNAs and GAPDH mRNAs was also performed using standard methods. CXCL13 and GAPDH mRNA levels were then quantified using standard methods and CXCL13 mRNA levels were normalized to GAPDH housekeeping gene mRNA levels. Data presented represent the mean±the standard deviation of the normalized CXCL13 mRNA levels from 5 different mice (FIG. 1). EXAMPLE 2 Co-Treatment with Monoclonal Antibodies Specific for TNFα and CXCL13 Alleviate Lung Disease Symptoms Co-administration of mAbs specific for TNFα and CXCL13 alleviate lung disease associated symptoms in SP-C/TNFα mice (FIG. 2). Ectopic follicle size was significantly reduced in SP-C/TNFα mice co-treated with mAbs specific for TNFα and CXCL13 relative to untreated control animals (FIG. 2). In SP-C/TNFα transgenic mice treated with anti-TNFα mAb for 8 weeks, airway infiltration of neutrophils was significantly reduced; however, treatment had little impact on the ectopic lymphoid follicles. This finding indicates that once formed, the ectopic lymphoid follicles maintain their homeostasis in a TNFα independent fashion. For this experiment, twelve-week old control SP-C/TNFα mice received intraperitoneal injections every Monday and Friday for six weeks. Control animals received injections of 200 μL of PBS alone. Anti-TNFα treated animals received 0.5 mg of the TNFα specific cV1q mAb in 200 μL of PBS. Anti-CXCL13 treated animals received 0.5 mg of the CXCL13 specific MAB4701 mAb in 200 μL of PBS. Co-treated animals received 0.5 mg of the TNFα specific cV1q mAb and 0.5 mg of the CXCL13 specific MAB4701 mAb in 200 μL of PBS. MAB4701 is a monoclonal rat IgG1 isotype monoclonal antibody that binds murine CXCL13. The MAB4701 mAb was generated using standard methods and is available commercially (R&D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.). Six weeks after injections started, mice were sacrificed in compliance with institutional animal care and use guidelines. Lungs were removed from sacrificed animals, sectioned, slides prepared and histopathological analyses were performed to quantitate ectopic follicle size and formation using standard methods. A Phase 3 Imaging System (Glen Mills, Pa.) and associated analytical software was used to perform microscopy and measure the size of 10-20 follicles per tissue slide per mouse. Data presented (FIG. 2) represent the mean±the standard deviation of the results from analyses of 5 different mice from each treatment group. It is hypothesized that the results described above may indicate that anti-CXCL13 therapy alone may be useful in treating respiratory-related diseases. Because the mouse model has increased expression of TNFα, inhibition of TNFα along with anti-CXCL13 therapy may be necessary to show amelioration of the disease state in this model. For models in which TNFα is not overexpressed, inhibition of CXCL13 may be sufficient for amelioration of the disease state. Additionally, in the model described above, TNF expression is through transgenic animals and is independent of disease progression. In a pathological situation, e.g., patient treatment, TNF expression most likely will be reduced with the reduction of inflammation, so if a CXCL13 antagonist can reduce the migration and accumulation of TNFα producing cells, it alone could be therapeutically effective. This is tested in in vivo disease models. EXAMPLE 3 Co-Treatment with Monoclonal Antibodies Specific for TNF-Alpha and CXCL13 Decrease B-Cell Infiltration into Lung Tissues Co-administration of mAbs specific for TNFα and CXCL13 decrease B-cell infiltration into lung tissues (FIG. 3, 4, 5, and 6). B-cell infiltration was assayed by flow cytometry via detection of the CD22.2, CD19, CD45R/B220, and CD4 B-cell markers, respectively. B-cell infiltration in lung tissue was significantly reduced in SP-C/TNFα mice co-treated with mAbs specific for TNFα and CXCL13 relative to untreated control animals (FIG. 3, 4, 5, and 6). Animals were prepared and treatments performed as described in Example 2 above. Six weeks after injections started, mice were sacrificed in compliance with institutional animal care and use guidelines. Lung tissues were then minced and digested with collagenase VII (1500 IU/ml) at 37° C. for 45 minutes to liberate individual cells. Cell preparations were then incubated with labeled, commercially available CD22.2 (FIG. 3), CD19 (FIG. 4), CD45R/B220 (FIG. 5), and CD4 (FIG. 6) specific mAbs using standard methods. B-cells in the cell population prepared carry either the CD22.2, CD19, CD45R/B220, or CD4 markers and are dectably labeled after incubation with the commercially available CD22.2, CD19, CD45R/B220, or CD4 mAbs. This labeling is the basis for the identification of B-cells by flow cytometry. Flow cytometry analysis was performed on cell populations using standard methods and the percentage of B-cells present in the cell population was then determined, for each marker, using standard methods. Data presented (FIG. 3, 4, 5, and 6) represent the mean±the standard deviation of the results from analyses of the lung cell preparations of 5 different mice from each treatment group. The sequences of CXCL13, CXCR5, and TNFα described herein are as follows: TABLE 3 SEQ ID NO Nucleotide/Protein Name/Species 1 Nucleotide Murine CXCL13 2 Protein Murine CXCL13 3 Nucleotide Human CXCL13 4 Protein Human CXCL13 5 Nucleotide Murine TNFα 6 Protein Murine TNFα 7 Nucleotide Human TNFα 8 Protein Human TNFα 9 Nucleotide Human CXCR-5 10 Protein Human CXCR-5 11 Nucleotide Murine CXCR-5 12 Protein Murine CXCR-5 EXAMPLE 4 Co-Administration of Monoclonal Antibodies Specific for TNFα and CXCL13 Treats Kidney Pathologies Associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Co-administration of mAbs specific for CXCL-13 and TNFα treated kidney pathologies associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in a murine model of SLE. Glomerulonephritis is an inflammation of internal kidney structures called glomeruli and is a hallmark of SLE. Proteinuria is the excessive secretion of serum proteins into the urine and is a measure of kidney disease resulting from SLE associated glomerlonephritis. Histological changes in the kidney tissues, such as the formation of periarterial lymphocytic infiltrate foci, are another hallmark of kidney disease resulting from SLE associated glomerlonephritis. Co-administration of mAbs specific for CXCL-13 and TNFα decreased glomerlonephritis associated protein levels in the urine of NZB/W F1 mice exhibiting SLE symptoms to levels below that of untreated control NZB/W F1 mice that received PBS vehicle alone (FIG. 7). Additionally, co-administration of mAbs specific for CXCL-13 and TNFα decreased the rank scored severity of SLE associated kidney disease in NZB/W F1 mice exhibiting SLE symptoms to levels below that of untreated control NZB/WF1 mice that received PBS vehicle alone (FIG. 8). The severity of SLE associated kidney disease in NZB/W F1 mice was determined using a ranked scoring system. Scores were based on the number of periarterial lymphocyte infiltrate foci identified by histological examination of the kidney tissues and the severity of glomerlonephritis associated protein levels in the kidney tissues of NZB/W F1 mice from each treatment group (FIG. 8). For these experiments, 12-week old NZB/W F1 mice were obtained from Jackson Labs (Bar Harbor, Me.). NZB/W F1 mice present systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-like symptoms as they age and are an accepted murine model of SLE. On day 0, the study animals were randomly assigned to control or treatment groups (n=15/group). Animals were administered an intraperitoneal injection of PBS vehicle (control animals), anti-CXCL13 mAb (1 mg per mouse in PBS), anti-TNFα mAb (1 mg per mouse in PBS), or both the anti-CXCL13 mAb (1 mg per mouse in PBS) and the anti-TNFα mAb (1 mg per mouse in PBS) weekly from 18 weeks of age through 38 weeks of age. The anti-CXCL13 mAb is a neutralizing rat anti-CXCL13 mAb (R&D Systems Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.). The anti-TNF-alpha mAb is a chimarized rat anti-TNF-alpha mAb from Centocor, Inc. which was generated using standard methods. Animals were monitored weekly. Urine was collected periodically via free catch and stored at −80° C. Animals were sacrificed at the end of the study and kidneys were harvested into appropriate storage buffers before further analysis. Animals were cared for, handled, and sacrificed using approved institutional animal care and use guidelines. The total protein and creatine present in the urine collected was determined using standard methods and an Ace Analyzer (Alpha Wasserman, West Caldwell, N.J.). Urine total protein was measured in 100 μl of undiluted urine samples, and creatinine was measured in 100 μl of 1:10 diluted urine samples in deionized distilled H2O. These values were then used to calculate the resulting ratio of urine total protein to creatine. Urine total protein/creatinine ratio were expressed as mean plus or minus standard error and statistically significant differences between samples was determined using a two tailed analysis of variance by standard t-test at a p-value<0.05. Histological analysis was performed on kidneys harvested when animals were 38 weeks old. Harvested kidney's were immediately immersed in a 0.7% periodate lysine paraformaldehyde (PLP) buffer composed of 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 0.7% paraformaldehyde, 75 mM L lysine, and 10 mM NaIO4. The kidneys were embedded in paraffin blocks after overnight fixation with the PLP buffer. Standard methods were used for the preparation of 7 μM sections and hematoxylin and eosin staining. Samples were examined and scored for SLE associated kidney disease severity in a blinded fashion. Scoring was based on the number of periarterial lymphocyte infiltrate foci identified by histological examination of the kidney tissues and the severity of glomerlonephritis associated protein levels in the kidney tissues of NZB/W F1 mice from each treatment group. Kruskal-Wallis Analysis of Variance on Ranks analysis was performed with Dunn's correction for multiple comparisons and a p-value<0.05 was used to identify differences between treatment groups to be accepted as statistically significant. Although illustrated and described above with reference to certain specific embodiments, the present invention is nevertheless not intended to be limited to the details shown. Rather, the present invention is directed to the CXCL13 antagonist polypeptides, polynucleotides, antibodies, apparatus, and kits disclosed herein and uses thereof, and methods for controlling the levels of CXCL13, optionally along with controlling the levels of TNF-α, and various modifications may be made in the details within the scope and range of equivalents of the claims and without departing from the spirit of the invention.
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A
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393
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95
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12002115
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US20080145363A1-20080619
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Therapeutic combination of a VEGF antagonist and anti-hypertensive agent
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ACCEPTED
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20080605
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20080619
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[]
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A61K3900
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["A61K3900", "A61P4300", "A61P3500"]
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7449182
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20071214
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20081111
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424
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134100
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76635.0
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LOCKARD
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JON
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Cedarbaum", "inventor_name_first": "Jesse M.", "inventor_city": "Larchmont", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Holash", "inventor_name_first": "Jocelyn", "inventor_city": "Alameda", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Disclosed are compositions and methods for treating a disease or condition related to angiogenesis with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor and one or more anti-hypertensive agent(s). The method of the invention is useful for preventing the development of hypertension and/or reducing hypertension in a subject treated with a VEGF inhibitor.
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1-15. (canceled) 16. A method of treating a disease or condition which is ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by a VEGF antagonist in a human subject, comprising administering a combination of a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent wherein the VEGF antagonist is VEGFR1R2-FcΔC1 (a) (SEQ ID NOs:4). 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the disease or condition treated is selected from the group consisting of cancer, diabetes, vascular permeability, edema, psoriasis, arthritis, asthma, ascites, pleural effusion, chronic airway inflammation, capillary leak syndrome, sepsis, an eye disorder, abnormal angiogenesis, metastatic cancer, corneal transplant rejection, corneal lympangiogenesis and angiogenesis. 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the human subject suffers from hypertension, is at risk for development of hypertension, is a subject in which the prevention or inhibition of hypertension is desirable. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the subject is at risk for cardiovascular disease, is over 65 years of age, or cannot otherwise be treated with an appropriate dose of the VEGF antagonist without developing hypertension. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the VEGF antagonist and anti-hypertensive agent are administered separately or in combination.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The field of the invention is related to therapeutic methods of treating diseases in a mammal with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonist in combination with one or more anti-hypertensive agents. 2. Description of Related Art Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been recognized as a primary stimulus of angiogenesis in pathological conditions. Approaches to methods of blocking VEGF include soluble receptor constructs, antisense molecules, RNA aptamers, and antibodies. See, for example, PCT WO/0075319, for a description of VEGF-receptor based antagonists. Combination therapies using an anti-VEGF antibody and chemotherapeutic agents, such as paclitaxel (TAXOL™), are known (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,219).
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<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the invention features a pharmaceutical composition comprising a high affinity vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) antagonist, one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent(s), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. More specifically, the VEGF antagonist a high affinity fusion protein dimer (or “trap”) comprising a fusion polypeptide having an immunoglobulin-like (Ig) domain 2 of the VEGF receptor Flt1 and Ig domain 3 of the VEGF receptor Flk1 or Flt4, and a multimerizing component. Even more specifically, the VEGF antagonist comprises a fusion polypeptide selected from the group consisting of Flt1D2.Flk1D3.FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:1-2), VEGFR1R2-FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:3-4), or a functionally equivalent thereof. In specific embodiments, the one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent are selected from the group consisting of ACE inhibitors (ACCUPRIL™ (Parke-Davis); ALTACE™ (Monarch); CAPTOPRIL™ (Mylan); ENALAPRILATE™ (Baxter); LOTENSIN™ (Novartis); MAVIK™ (Bristol-Myers Squibb); PRINIVIL™ (Merck); UNIVASC™ (Schwarz), VASOTEC™ (Merck); calcium-channel antagonists such as nifedipine, β-adrenergic receptor antagonists, such as for example, propanalol, sotalol; angiotensin II receptor antagonists; α-adrenergic receptor antagonists; direct active vasodilators; and diuretic agents used in the treatment of hypertension. In preferred embodiments, the anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent is an ACE inhibitor or a β-adrenergic receptor blocker. In a second aspect, the invention features a pharmaceutical composition comprising a vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) antagonist, one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent(s), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the VEGF antagonist is a dimer composed of two fusion proteins each having an immunoglobulin-like (Ig) domain 2 of the VEGF receptor Flt1 and Ig domain 3 of the VEGF receptor Flk1 or Flt4, and a multimerizing component. In specific embodiments, the VEGF antagonist is selected from the group consisting of Flt1D2.Flk1D3.FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:1-2), VEGFR1R2-FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:3-4), or a functionally equivalent thereof. In a third aspect, the invention features a method of treating a disease or condition which is ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by a VEGF antagonist in a human, comprising administering a combination of a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. The combined therapeutics of the invention achieves maximal anti-angiogenic activity while minimizing the known side effects resulting from treatment with anti-angiogenic agents, specifically, hypertension. The combination of an anti-angiogenic agent with an ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker may also be used to prevent proteinuria in subjects at risk thereof. Diseases and/or conditions, or recurrences thereof, which are ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by treatment with the combination of the invention are those treated with a VEGF inhibitor such as the VEGF trap described above. For example, conditions ameliorated by treatment with a VEGF inhibitor include diseases such as cancer or diabetes. Conditions which are ameliorated, inhibited, prevented, or reduced by treatment with the combined therapeutics of the invention include vascular permeability, edema, or inflammation such as brain edema associated with injury, stroke, or tumor, edema associated with inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis or arthritis, asthma, edema associated with burns, ascites and pleural effusion associated with tumors, inflammation or trauma, chronic airway inflammation, capillary leak syndrome, sepsis kidney disease associated with increased leakage of protein, eye disorders such as eye related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, abnormal angiogenesis such as polycystic ovary disease, entometriosis and endometrial carcinoma. A VEGF inhibitor may also be used to induce regression or reduction of the size of an existing tumor or metastatic cancer; diabetes, decrease tumor neovascularization, improve transplant corneal survival time, inhibit corneal transplant rejection or corneal lympangiogenesis and angiogenesis. A subject to be treated is preferably a subject with one of the above listed conditions who suffers from hypertension, is at risk for development of hypertension or in which the prevention or inhibition of hypertension is desirable, e.g., a subject at risk for cardiovascular disease, a subject over 65 years of age, or a patient who cannot otherwise be treated with an appropriate dose of the VEGF antagonist without developing hypertension. The VEGF inhibitor and anti-hypertensive agent may be administered simultaneously, separately or in combination, or sequentially over a relatively short period of time, e.g., within minutes, hours, or days. In a fourth aspect, the invention features a method of preventing the development of hypertension during treatment with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor in a patient at risk thereof, comprising administering a combination of a VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. In a fifth aspect, the invention features a method of treating hypertension during treatment with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor in a patient at risk thereof, comprising administering a combination of a VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. Other objects and advantages will become apparent from a review of the ensuing detailed description. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit under 35 USC § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional 60/652,394 filed 11 Feb. 2005, which application is herein specifically incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The field of the invention is related to therapeutic methods of treating diseases in a mammal with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonist in combination with one or more anti-hypertensive agents. 2. Description of Related Art Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been recognized as a primary stimulus of angiogenesis in pathological conditions. Approaches to methods of blocking VEGF include soluble receptor constructs, antisense molecules, RNA aptamers, and antibodies. See, for example, PCT WO/0075319, for a description of VEGF-receptor based antagonists. Combination therapies using an anti-VEGF antibody and chemotherapeutic agents, such as paclitaxel (TAXOL™), are known (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,342,219). BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the invention features a pharmaceutical composition comprising a high affinity vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) antagonist, one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent(s), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. More specifically, the VEGF antagonist a high affinity fusion protein dimer (or “trap”) comprising a fusion polypeptide having an immunoglobulin-like (Ig) domain 2 of the VEGF receptor Flt1 and Ig domain 3 of the VEGF receptor Flk1 or Flt4, and a multimerizing component. Even more specifically, the VEGF antagonist comprises a fusion polypeptide selected from the group consisting of Flt1D2.Flk1D3.FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:1-2), VEGFR1R2-FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:3-4), or a functionally equivalent thereof. In specific embodiments, the one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent are selected from the group consisting of ACE inhibitors (ACCUPRIL™ (Parke-Davis); ALTACE™ (Monarch); CAPTOPRIL™ (Mylan); ENALAPRILATE™ (Baxter); LOTENSIN™ (Novartis); MAVIK™ (Bristol-Myers Squibb); PRINIVIL™ (Merck); UNIVASC™ (Schwarz), VASOTEC™ (Merck); calcium-channel antagonists such as nifedipine, β-adrenergic receptor antagonists, such as for example, propanalol, sotalol; angiotensin II receptor antagonists; α-adrenergic receptor antagonists; direct active vasodilators; and diuretic agents used in the treatment of hypertension. In preferred embodiments, the anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent is an ACE inhibitor or a β-adrenergic receptor blocker. In a second aspect, the invention features a pharmaceutical composition comprising a vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF) antagonist, one or more anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent(s), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the VEGF antagonist is a dimer composed of two fusion proteins each having an immunoglobulin-like (Ig) domain 2 of the VEGF receptor Flt1 and Ig domain 3 of the VEGF receptor Flk1 or Flt4, and a multimerizing component. In specific embodiments, the VEGF antagonist is selected from the group consisting of Flt1D2.Flk1D3.FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:1-2), VEGFR1R2-FcΔC1(a) (SEQ ID NOs:3-4), or a functionally equivalent thereof. In a third aspect, the invention features a method of treating a disease or condition which is ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by a VEGF antagonist in a human, comprising administering a combination of a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. The combined therapeutics of the invention achieves maximal anti-angiogenic activity while minimizing the known side effects resulting from treatment with anti-angiogenic agents, specifically, hypertension. The combination of an anti-angiogenic agent with an ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker may also be used to prevent proteinuria in subjects at risk thereof. Diseases and/or conditions, or recurrences thereof, which are ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by treatment with the combination of the invention are those treated with a VEGF inhibitor such as the VEGF trap described above. For example, conditions ameliorated by treatment with a VEGF inhibitor include diseases such as cancer or diabetes. Conditions which are ameliorated, inhibited, prevented, or reduced by treatment with the combined therapeutics of the invention include vascular permeability, edema, or inflammation such as brain edema associated with injury, stroke, or tumor, edema associated with inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis or arthritis, asthma, edema associated with burns, ascites and pleural effusion associated with tumors, inflammation or trauma, chronic airway inflammation, capillary leak syndrome, sepsis kidney disease associated with increased leakage of protein, eye disorders such as eye related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, abnormal angiogenesis such as polycystic ovary disease, entometriosis and endometrial carcinoma. A VEGF inhibitor may also be used to induce regression or reduction of the size of an existing tumor or metastatic cancer; diabetes, decrease tumor neovascularization, improve transplant corneal survival time, inhibit corneal transplant rejection or corneal lympangiogenesis and angiogenesis. A subject to be treated is preferably a subject with one of the above listed conditions who suffers from hypertension, is at risk for development of hypertension or in which the prevention or inhibition of hypertension is desirable, e.g., a subject at risk for cardiovascular disease, a subject over 65 years of age, or a patient who cannot otherwise be treated with an appropriate dose of the VEGF antagonist without developing hypertension. The VEGF inhibitor and anti-hypertensive agent may be administered simultaneously, separately or in combination, or sequentially over a relatively short period of time, e.g., within minutes, hours, or days. In a fourth aspect, the invention features a method of preventing the development of hypertension during treatment with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor in a patient at risk thereof, comprising administering a combination of a VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. In a fifth aspect, the invention features a method of treating hypertension during treatment with a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor in a patient at risk thereof, comprising administering a combination of a VEGF) antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent. Other objects and advantages will become apparent from a review of the ensuing detailed description. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Before the present methods and compositions are described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular methods, and experimental conditions described, as such methods and conditions may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims. As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus for example, a reference to “a method” includes one or more methods, and/or steps of the type described herein and/or which will become apparent to those persons skilled in the art upon reading this disclosure and so forth. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described. All publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference to describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited. General Description In the normal mammal, blood pressure is strictly controlled by a complex system of physiological factors. This is important for survival because high blood pressure (hypertension) can lead to a number of adverse medical events and conditions, such as, for example, stroke, acute coronary syndrome, myocardial infarction, and renal failure. Studies show that VEGF transiently dilates coronary arteries in vitro (Ku et. al. (1993) Am J Physiol 265:H585-H592) and to induce hypotension (Yang et. al. (1996) J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 27:838-844). Methods for treating eclampsia and preemclampsia are known (see, for example, US patent application publication 2003/0220262, WO 98/28006, WO 00/13703) is described a method for treating hypertension comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of an angiogenic factor such as VEGF, or an agonist thereof. US patent application publication 2003/0144298 shows that administration of high levels of a VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor leads to a sustained increase in blood pressure in rats when administered chronically. VEGF Antagonists and VEGF-Specific Fusion Polypeptide Traps In a preferred embodiment, the VEGF antagonist is a dimeric fusion protein capable of binding VEGF with a high affinity composed of two receptor-Fc fusion protein consisting of the principal ligand-binding portions of the human VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 receptor extracellular domains fused to the Fc portion of human IgG1 (termed a “VEGF trap”). Specifically, the VEGF trap consists of Ig domain 2 from VEGFR1, which is fused to Ig domain 3 from VEGFR2, which in turn is fused to the Fc domain of IgG1 (SEQ ID NO:2). In a preferred embodiment, an expression plasmid encoding the VEGF trap is transfected into CHO cells, which secrete VEGF trap into the culture medium. The resulting VEGF trap is a dimeric glycoprotein with a protein molecular weight of 97 kDa and contains ˜15% glycosylation to give a total molecular weight of 115 kDa. Since the VEGF trap binds its ligands using the binding domains of high-affinity receptors, it has a greater affinity for VEGF than do monoclonal antibodies. The VEGF trap binds VEGF-A (KD=1.5 pM), PLGF1 (KD=1.3 nM), and PLGF2 (KD=50 pM); binding to other VEGF family members has not yet been fully characterized. Anti-Hypertensive Therapeutic Agents The invention may be practiced with a VEGF inhibitor, preferably a VEGF trap as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,833,349, herein specifically incorporated by reference, and an agent which is capable of lowering blood pressure. Anti-hypertensive agents include calcium channel blockers, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin II receptor antagonists (A-II antagonists), diuretics, β-adrenergic receptor blockers, vasodilators and α-adrenergic receptor blockers. Calcium channel blockers include amlodipine; bepridil; clentiazem; diltiazem; fendiline; gallopamil; mibefradil; prenylamine; semotiadil; terodiline; verapamil; aranidipine; barnidipine; benidipine; cilnidipine; efonidipine; elgodipine; felodipine; isradipine; lacidipine; lercanidipine; manidipine; nicardipine; nifedipine; nilvadipine; nimodipine; nisoldipine; nitrendipine; cinnarizine; flunarizine; lidoflazine; lomerizine; bencyclane; etafenone; and perhexyline. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-Inhibitors) include alacepril; benazepril; captopril; ceronapril; delapril; enalapril; fosinopril; imidapril; lisinopril; moveltipril; perindopril; quinapril; ramipril; spirapril; temocapril; and trandolapril. Angiotensin-II receptor antagonists include, but are not limited to: candesartan (U.S. Pat. No. 5,196,444); eprosartan; irbesartan; losartan; and valsartan. β-blockers include, but are not limited to: acebutolol; alprenolol; amosulalol; arotinolol; atenolol; befunolol; betaxolol; bevantolot; bisoprolol; bopindolol; bucumolol; bufetolol; bufuralol; bunitrolol; bupranolol; butidrine hydrochloride; butofilolol; carazolol; carteolol; carvedilol; celiprolol; cetamolol; cloranololdilevalol; epanolol; indenolol; labetalol; levobunolol; mepindolol; metipranolol; metoprolol; moprolol; nadolol; nadoxolol; nebivalol; nipradilol; oxprenolol; penbutolol; pindolol; practolol; pronethalol; propranolol; sotalol; sulfinalol; talinolol; tertatolol; tilisolol; timolol; toliprolol; and xibenolol. α-blockers include, but are not limited to: amosulalol; arotinolol; dapiprazole; doxazosin; fenspiride; indoramin; labetolol, naftopidil; nicergoline; prazosin; tamsulosin; tolazoline; trimazosin; and yohimbine. Vasodilators include cerebral vasodilators, coronary vasodilators and peripheral vasodilators. Cerebral vasodilators include bencyclane; cinnarizine; citicoline; cyclandelate; ciclonicate; diisopropylamine dichloroacetate; eburnamonine; fasudil; fenoxedil; flunarizine; ibudilast; ifenprodil; lomerizine; nafronyl; nicametate; nicergoline; nimodipine; papaverine; tinofedrine; vincamine; vinpocetine; and viquidil. Coronary vasodilators include, but are not limited to: amotriphene; bendazol; benfurodil hemisuccinate; benziodarone; chloracizine; chromonar; clobenfural; clonitrate; cloricromen; dilazep; dipyridamole; droprenilamine; efloxate; erythrityl tetranitrate; etafenone; fendiline; floredil; ganglefene; hexestrol bis(β-diethylaminoethyl)ether; hexobendine; itramin tosylate; khellin; lidoflazine; mannitol hexanitrate; medibazine; nitroglycerin; pentaerythritol tetranitrate; pentrinitrol; perhexyline; pimefylline; prenylamine; propatyl nitrate; trapidil; tricromyl; trimetazidine; trolnitrate phosphate; visnadine. Peripheral vasodilators include, but are not limited to: aluminium nicotinate; bamethan; bencyclane; betahistine; bradykinin; brovincamine; bufeniode; buflomedil; butalamine; cetiedil; ciclonicate; cinepazide; cinnarizine; cyclandelate; diisopropylamine dichloroacetate; eledoisin; fenoxedil; flunarizine; hepronicate; ifenprodil; iloprost; inositol niacinate; isoxsuprine; kallidin; kallikrein; moxisylyte; nafronyl; nicametate; nicergoline; nicofuranose; nylidrin; pentifylline; pentoxifylline; piribedil; prostaglandin E1; suloctidil; tolazoline; and xanthinol niacinate. Diuretic includes but is not limited to diuretic benzothiadiazine derivatives, diuretic organomercurials, diuretic purines, diuretic steroids, diuretic sulfonamide derivatives, diuretic uracils and other diuretics such as amanozine; amiloride; arbutin; chlorazanil; ethacrynic acid; etozolin; hydracarbazine; isosorbide; mannitol; metochalcone; muzolimine; perhexyline; ticrynafen; triamterene; and urea. Treatment Population A human subject preferably treated with the combined therapeutics described herein is a subject in which it is desirable to prevent or reduce one or more side effects resulting from treatment with an anti-angiogenic agent, such as hypertension, proteinuria. Particularly preferred subjects are those suffering from hypertension, over 65 years of age, or subjects in which reduction of or prevention of undesirable side effects allows a maximal dose of the anti-angiogenic agent to be used which otherwise could not be used without placing the subject at risk for an adverse medical event. Patients suffering from renal cell carcinoma, pancreatic carcinoma, advanced breast cancer, colorectal cancer, malignant mesothelioma, multiple myeloma, ovarian cancer, or melanoma may be treated with the combined therapeutics of the invention. Diseases and/or conditions, or recurrences thereof, which are ameliorated, inhibited, or reduced by treatment with the combined therapeutics of the invention cancer, diabetes, vascular permeability, edema, or inflammation such as brain edema associated with injury, stroke, or tumor, edema associated with inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis or arthritis, asthma, edema associated with burns, ascites and pleural effusion associated with tumors, inflammation or trauma, chronic airway inflammation, capillary leak syndrome, sepsis kidney disease associated with increased leakage of protein, eye disorders such as eye related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy, abnormal angiogenesis such as polycystic ovary disease, entometriosis and endometrial carcinoma. A VEGF inhibitor may also be used to induce regression or reduction of the size of an existing tumor or metastatic cancer; diabetes, decrease tumor neovascularization, improve transplant corneal survival time, inhibit corneal transplant rejection or corneal lympangiogenesis and angiogenesis. Combination Therapies In numerous embodiments, a VEGF antagonist may be administered in combination with one or more additional compounds or therapies, including a second VEGF antagonist molecule. Combination therapy includes administration of a single pharmaceutical dosage formulation which contains a VEGF antagonist and one or more additional agents; as well as administration of a VEGF antagonist and one or more additional agent(s) in its own separate pharmaceutical dosage formulation. For example, a VEGF antagonist and a cytotoxic agent, a chemotherapeutic agent or a growth inhibitory agent can be administered to the patient together in a single dosage composition such as a combined formulation, or each agent can be administered in a separate dosage formulation. Where separate dosage formulations are used, the VEGF-specific fusion protein of the invention and one or more additional agents can be administered concurrently, or at separately staggered times, i.e., sequentially. The term “cytotoxic agent” as used herein refers to a substance that inhibits or prevents the function of cells and/or causes destruction of cells. The term is intended to include radioactive isotopes (e.g. I131, I125, Y90 and Re186), chemotherapeutic agents, and toxins such as enzymatically active toxins of bacterial, fungal, plant or animal origin, or fragments thereof. A “chemotherapeutic agent” is a chemical compound useful in the treatment of cancer. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents include alkylating agents such as thiotepa and cyclosphosphamide (CYTOXAN®); alkyl sulfonates such as busulfan, improsulfan and piposulfan; aziridines such as benzodopa, carboquone, meturedopa, and uredopa; ethylenimines and methylamelamines including altretamine, triethylenemelamine, trietylenephosphoramide, triethylenethiophosphaoramide and trimethylolomelamine; nitrogen mustards such as chlorambucil, chlornaphazine, cholophosphamide, estramustine, ifosfamide, mechlorethamine, mechlorethamine oxide hydrochloride, melphalan, novembichin, phenesterine, prednimustine, trofosfamide, uracil mustard; nitrosureas such as carmustine, chlorozotocin, fotemustine, lomustine, nimustine, ranimustine; antibiotics such as aclacinomysins, actinomycin, authramycin, azaserine, bleomycins, cactinomycin, calicheamicin, carabicin, caminomycin, carzinophilin, chromomycins, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, detorubicin, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine, doxorubicin, epirubicin, esorubicin, idarubicin, marcellomycin, mitomycins, mycophenolic acid, nogalamycin, olivomycins, peplomycin, potfiromycin, puromycin, quelamycin, rodorubicin, streptonigrin, streptozocin, tubercidin, ubenimex, zinostatin, zorubicin; anti-metabolites such as methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil; folic acid analogues such as denopterin, methotrexate, pteropterin, trimetrexate; purine analogs such as fludarabine, 6-mercaptopurine, thiamiprine, thioguanine; pyrimidine analogs such as ancitabine, azacitidine, 6-azauridine, carmofur, cytarabine, dideoxyuridine, doxifluridine, enocitabine, floxuridine; androgens such as calusterone, dromostanolone propionate, epitiostanol, mepitiostane, testolactone; anti-adrenals such as aminoglutethimide, mitotane, trilostane; folic acid replenisher such as frolinic acid; aceglatone; aldophosphamide glycoside; aminolevulinic acid; amsacrine; bestrabucil; bisantrene; edatraxate; defofamine; demecolcine; diaziquone; elformithine; elliptinium acetate; etoglucid; gallium nitrate; hydroxyurea; lentinan; lonidamine; mitoguazone; mitoxantrone; mopidamol; nitracrine; pentostatin; phenamet; pirarubicin; podophyllinic acid; 2-ethylhydrazide; procarbazine; PSK®; razoxane; sizofuran; spirogermanium; tenuazonic acid; triaziquone; 2,2′,2″-trichlorotriethylamine; urethan; vindesine; dacarbazine; mannomustine; mitobronitol; mitolactol; pipobroman; gacytosine; arabinoside (“Ara-C”); cyclophosphamide; thiotepa; taxanes, e.g. paclitaxel (TAXOL®, Bristol-Myers Squibb Oncology, Princeton, N.J.) and docetaxel (TAXOTERE®; Aventis Antony, France); chlorambucil; gemcitabine; 6-thioguanine; mercaptopurine; methotrexate; platinum analogs such as cisplatin and carboplatin; vinblastine; platinum; etoposide (VP-16); ifosfamide; mitomycin C; mitoxantrone; vincristine; vinorelbine; navelbine; novantrone; teniposide; daunomycin; aminopterin; xeloda; ibandronate; CPT-11; topoisomerase inhibitor RFS 2000; difluoromethylornithine; retinoic acid; esperamicins; capecitabine; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above. Also included in this definition are anti-hormonal agents that act to regulate or inhibit hormone action on tumors such as anti-estrogens including for example tamoxifen, raloxifene, aromatase inhibiting 4(5)-imidazoles, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, trioxifene, keoxifene, LY 117018, onapristone, and toremifene (Fareston); and anti-androgens such as flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, leuprolide, and goserelin; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above. A “growth inhibitory agent” when used herein refers to a compound or composition which inhibits growth of a cell, especially a cancer cell either in vitro or in vivo. Examples of growth inhibitory agents include agents that block cell cycle progression (at a place other than S phase), such as agents that induce G1 arrest and M-phase arrest. Classical M-phase blockers include the vincas (vincristine and vinblastine), TAXOL®, and topo II inhibitors such as doxorubicin, epirubicin, daunorubicin, etoposide, and bleomycin. Those agents that arrest G1 also spill over into S-phase arrest, for example, DNA alkylating agents such as tamoxifen, prednisone, dacarbazine, mechlorethamine, cisplatin, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, and ara-C. Methods of Administration The invention provides compositions and methods of treatment comprising a VEGF antagonist, such as a VEGF antagonist, and an anti-hypertensive agent. Various delivery systems are known and can be used to administer the composition of the invention, e.g., encapsulation in liposomes, microparticles, microcapsules, recombinant cells capable of expressing the compound, receptor-mediated endocytosis (see, e.g., Wu and Wu, 1987, J. Biol. Chem. 262:4429-4432), construction of a nucleic acid as part of a retroviral or other vector, etc. Methods of introduction can be enteral or parenteral and include but are not limited to intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, intranasal, intraocular, and oral routes. The compounds may be administered by any convenient route, for example by infusion or bolus injection, by absorption through epithelial or mucocutaneous linings (e.g., oral mucosa, rectal and intestinal mucosa, etc.) and may be administered together with other biologically active agents. Administration can be systemic or local. Administration can be acute or chronic (e.g. daily, weekly, monthly, etc.) or in combination with other agents. Pulmonary administration can also be employed, e.g., by use of an inhaler or nebulizer, and formulation with an aerosolizing agent. In another embodiment, the active agent can be delivered in a vesicle, in particular a liposome, in a controlled release system, or in a pump. In another embodiment where the active agent of the invention is a nucleic acid encoding a protein, the nucleic acid can be administered in vivo to promote expression of its encoded protein, by constructing it as part of an appropriate nucleic acid expression vector and administering it so that it becomes intracellular, e.g., by use of a retroviral vector (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,980,286), by direct injection, or by use of microparticle bombardment, or coating with lipids or cell-surface receptors or transfecting agents, or by administering it in linkage to a homeobox-like peptide which is known to enter the nucleus. In a specific embodiment, it may be desirable to administer the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention locally to the area in need of treatment; this may be achieved, for example, and not by way of limitation, by local infusion during surgery, topical application, e.g., by injection, by means of a catheter, or by means of an implant, the implant being of a porous, nonporous, or gelatinous material, including membranes, such as silastic membranes, fibers, or commercial skin substitutes. A composition useful in practicing the methods of the invention may be a liquid comprising an agent of the invention in solution, in suspension, or both. The term “solution/suspension” refers to a liquid composition where a first portion of the active agent is present in solution and a second portion of the active agent is present in particulate form, in suspension in a liquid matrix. A liquid composition also includes a gel. The liquid composition may be aqueous or in the form of an ointment. An aqueous suspension or solution/suspension useful for practicing the methods of the invention may contain one or more polymers as suspending agents. Useful polymers include water-soluble polymers such as cellulosic polymers and water-insoluble polymers such as cross-linked carboxyl-containing polymers. An aqueous suspension or solution/suspension of the present invention is preferably viscous or muco-adhesive, or even more preferably, both viscous and mucoadhesive. Pharmaceutical Compositions The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a VEGF antagonist, an anti-hypertensive agent, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in animals, and more particularly, in humans. The term “carrier” refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the therapeutic is administered. Such pharmaceutical carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin, such as peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil and the like. Suitable pharmaceutical excipients include starch, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, talc, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene, glycol, water, ethanol and the like. The composition, if desired, can also contain minor amounts of wetting or emulsifying agents, or pH buffering agents. These compositions can take the form of solutions, suspensions, emulsion, tablets, pills, capsules, powders, sustained-release formulations and the like. Examples of suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences” by E. W. Martin. The composition of the invention can be formulated as neutral or salt forms. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts include those formed with free amino groups such as those derived from hydrochloric, phosphoric, acetic, oxalic, tartaric acids, etc., and those formed with free carboxyl groups such as those derived from sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, ferric hydroxides, isopropylamine, triethylamine, 2-ethylamino ethanol, histidine, procaine, etc. The amount of the composition of the invention that will be effective for its intended therapeutic use can be determined by standard clinical techniques based on the present description. In addition, in vitro assays may optionally be employed to help identify optimal dosage ranges. Generally, suitable dosage ranges for intravenous administration are generally about 20-500 micrograms of active compound per kilogram body weight. Suitable dosage ranges for intranasal administration are generally about 0.01 pg/kg body weight to 1 mg/kg body weight. Effective doses may be extrapolated from dose-response curves derived from in vitro or animal model test systems. For systemic administration, a therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from in vitro assays. For example, a dose can be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating concentration range that includes the IC50 as determined in cell culture. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in humans. Initial dosages can also be estimated from in vivo data, e.g., animal models, using techniques that are well known in the art. One having ordinary skill in the art could readily optimize administration to humans based on animal data. Dosage amount and interval may be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the compounds that are sufficient to maintain therapeutic effect. In cases of local administration or selective uptake, the effective local concentration of the compounds may not be related to plasma concentration. One having skill in the art will be able to optimize therapeutically effective local dosages without undue experimentation. The amount of compound administered will, of course, be dependent on the subject being treated, on the subject's weight, the severity of the affliction, the manner of administration, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. The therapy may be repeated intermittently while symptoms are detectable or even when they are not detectable. The therapy may be provided alone or in combination with other drugs. Kits The invention also provides an article of manufacturing comprising packaging material and a pharmaceutical agent contained within the packaging material, wherein the pharmaceutical agent comprises at least one VEGF antagonist and at least one anti-hypertensive agent, and wherein the packaging material comprises a label or package insert which indicates that the VEGF antagonist and anti-hypertensive agent can be used for treating cancer or reducing tumor growth. Other features of the invention will become apparent in the course of the following descriptions of exemplary embodiments which are given for illustration of the invention and are not intended to be limiting thereof. EXAMPLES The following example is put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the methods and compositions of the invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.) but some experimental errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Centigrade, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. Example 1 Treatment of Malignant Pleural Effusion and Prevention of Hypertension Adult patients with pathologic diagnosis of stage IIIB-IV NSCLC who are eligible for systemic chemotherapy, and also have an MPE which requires therapeutic drainage are eligible for inclusion in the study. Patients undergoing chemotherapy with another agent, or having prior chemotherapy with an inhibitor of VEGF, or active or untreated brain metastases are excluded. Treatment with VEGF antagonist (SEQ ID NO:4) is an intravenous dose of 300-5000 mg/kg and an anti-hypertensive agent such as an ACE inhibitor or β-adrenergic receptor blocker. The anti-hypertensive therapeutic agent may be given separately or in combination with the VEGF antagonist, prior to administration of the VEGF antagonist, simultaneously, or following administration of the VEGF antagonist. Example 2 Treatment of Solid Tumor and Prevention of Hypertension Patients with refractory solid tumors or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma receiving no concurrent treatment for their cancer are treated with the VEGF trap (SEQ ID NO:4) as follows. The dose levels range from 100 to 5000 mg/kg given subcutaneously. Each patient receives a single initial dose of the VEGF trap followed by weekly injections at the required dose level. Blood pressure is monitored and tumor burden is assessed at the beginning and end of the weekly dosing period; patients with stable disease, partial or complete responses may continue dosing for up to an additional 6 months in a continuation study.
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A
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39
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00
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11756499
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US20080009503A1-20080110
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METHOD OF TREATING DIABETES
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ACCEPTED
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20071226
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20080110
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[]
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A61K31495
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["A61K31495", "A61P310", "A61P900"]
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8822473
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20070531
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20140902
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514
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252120
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82278.0
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KAROL
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JODY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Wolff", "inventor_name_first": "Andrew", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jerling", "inventor_name_first": "Marcus", "inventor_city": "Bromma", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "SE"}]
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Methods are provided for lowering plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease and slowing or delaying the development of or worsening of hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient.
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1. A method of lowering plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R1 is methyl, R4 is not methyl; or R2 and R3 together form —OCH2O—; R6, R7, R8, R9 and R10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R6 and R7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R7 and R8 together form —O—CH2O—; R11 and R12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula I is ranolazine, which is named N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2-methoxyphenoxy)propyl]-1-piperazineacetamide, as a racemic mixture, or an isomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 3. A method for treating a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease comprising a) selecting a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, either acutely or non-acutely; and b) administering to that patient an effective amount of ranolazine. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the patient exhibits an acute cardiovascular disease event. 5. The method of claim 3, wherein the cardiovascular disease is angina. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the cardiovascular disease is chronic angina. 7. The method of claim 4, wherein the ranolazine is administered to the patient intravenously. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the intravenous administration is for up to about 96 hours. 9. The method of claim 3, wherein the ranolazine is administered to the patient orally. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the ranolazine is administered as an immediate release formulation. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the ranolazine is administered as a sustained release formulation. 12. The method of claim 9, wherein the ranolazine is administered in a formulation that has both immediate release and sustained release aspects. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the sustained release formulation provides a plasma level of ranolazine between 550 and 7500 ng base/ml over a 24 hour period. 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the sustained release formulation comprises at least 50% by weight ranolazine, a pH dependent binder, and a pH independent binder. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the sustained release formulation comprises at least 50% by weight ranolazine, from about 5 to about 12.5% by weight methacrylic acid copolymer, from about 1 to about 3% by weight of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium stearate. 16. A method for reducing the plasma level of HbA1c in a patient with at least one cardiovascular disease comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of ranolazine. 17. A method for delaying or slowing the development of worsening hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of ranolazine. 18. A method for delaying or slowing the development of hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of ranolazine.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Diabetes mellitus is a disease characterized by hyperglycemia; altered metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins; and an increased risk of complications from vascular disease. Diabetes is an increasing public health problem, as it is associated with both increasing age and obesity. There are two major types of diabetes mellitus: 1) Type I, also known as insulin dependent diabetes (IDDM) and 2) Type TI, also known as insulin independent or non-insulin dependent diabetes (NIDDM). Both types of diabetes mellitus are due to insufficient amounts of circulating insulin and a decrease in the response of peripheral tissue to insulin. Type I diabetes results from the body's failure to produce insulin, the hormone that “unlocks” the cells of the body, allowing glucose to enter and fuel them. The complications of Type I diabetes include heart disease and stroke; retinopathy (eye disease); kidney disease (nephropathy); neuropathy (nerve damage); as well as maintenance of good skin, foot and oral health. Type II diabetes results from the body's inability to either produce enough insulin or the cells inability to use the insulin that is naturally produced by the body. The condition where the body is not able to optimally use insulin is called insulin resistance. Type II diabetes is often accompanied by high blood pressure and this may contribute to heart disease. In patients with type II diabetes mellitus, stress, infection, and medications (such as corticosteroids) can also lead to severely elevated blood sugar levels. Accompanied by dehydration, severe blood sugar elevation in patients with type II diabetes can lead to an increase in blood osmolality (hyperosmolar state). This condition can lead to coma. Insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood by stimulating the uptake and metabolism of glucose by muscle and adipose tissue. Insulin stimulates the storage of glucose in the liver as glycogen, and in adipose tissue as triglycerides. Insulin also promotes the utilization of glucose in muscle for energy. Thus, insufficient insulin levels in the blood, or decreased sensitivity to insulin, gives rise to excessively high levels of glucose and triglycerides in the blood. The early symptoms of untreated diabetes mellitus are related to elevated blood sugar levels, and loss of glucose in the urine. High amounts of glucose in the urine can cause increased urine output and lead to dehydration. Dehydration causes increased thirst and water consumption. The inability to utilize glucose energy eventually leads to weight loss despite an increase in appetite. Some untreated diabetes patients also complain of fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients with diabetes are prone to developing infections of the bladder, skin, and vaginal areas. Fluctuations in blood glucose levels can lead to blurred vision. Extremely elevated glucose levels can lead to lethargy and coma (diabetic coma). People with glucose levels between normal and diabetic have impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). This condition is also called pre-diabetes or insulin resistance syndrome. People with IGT do not have diabetes, but rather have blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes. Their bodies make more and more insulin, but because the tissues don't respond to it, their bodies can't use sugar properly. Recent studies have shown that IGT itself may be a risk factor for the development of heart disease. It is estimated that people with pre-diabetes have a 1.5-fold risk of cardiovascular disease compared to people with normal blood glucose. People with diabetes have a 2- to 4-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease. High blood levels of glucose and triglycerides cause the thickening of capillary basement membrane, which results in the progressive narrowing of vessel lumina. The vasculopathogies give rise to conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, which may result in blindness, coronary heart disease, intercapillary glomerulosclerois, neuropathy, and ulceration and gangrene of the extremities. The toxic effects of excess plasma levels of glucose include the glycosylation of cells and tissues. Glycosylated products accumulate in tissues and may eventually form cross-linked proteins, which cross-linked proteins are termed advanced glycosylation end products. It is possible that non-enzymatic glycosylation is directly responsible for expansion of the vascular matrix and vascular complications of diabetes. For example, glycosylation of collagen results in excessive cross-linking, resulting in atherosclerotic vessels. Also, the uptake of glycosylated proteins by macrophages stimulates the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by these cells. The cytokines activate or induce degradative and proliferative cascades in mesenchymal and endothelial cells respectively. The glycosylation of hemoglobin provides a convenient method to determine an integrated index of the glycemic state. The level of glycosylated proteins reflects the level of glucose over a period of time and is the basis of an assay referred to as the hemoglobulin A1 (HbA1c) assay HbA1c reflects a weighted average of blood glucose levels during the previous 120 days; plasma glucose in the previous 30 days contributes about 50% to the final result in an HbA1c assay. The test for A1c (also known as HbA1c, glycohemoglobin, or glycated hemoglobin) indicates how well diabetes has been controlled over the last few months. The closer A1c is to 6%, the better the control of diabetes. For every 30 mg/dl increase in A1c blood glucose, there is a 1% increase in A1c, and the risk of complications increases. Another explanation for the toxic effects of hyperglycemia includes sorbitol formation. Intracellular glucose is reduced to its corresponding sugar alcohol, sorbitol, by the enzyme aldose reductase; the rate of production of sorbitol is determined by the ambient glucose concentration. Thus, tissues such as lens, retina, arterial wall and schwann cells of peripheral nerves have high concentrations of sorbitol. Hyperglycemia also impairs the function of neural tissues because glucose competes with myoinositol resulting in reduction of cellular concentrations and, consequently, altered nerve function and neuropathy. Increased triglyceride levels are also a consequence of insulin deficiency. High triglyceride levels are also associated with vascular disease. Thus, controlling blood glucose and triglyceride levels is a desirable therapeutic goal. A number of oral antihyperglycemic agents are known. Medications that increase the insulin output by the pancreas include sulfonylureas (including chlorpropamide [Orinase®], tolbutamide [Tolinase®], glyburide [Micronase®], glipizide [Glucotrol®], and glimepiride [Amaryl®]) and meglitinides (including reparglinide [Prandin®] and nateglinide [Starlix®]). Medications that decrease the amount of glucose produced by the liver include biguanides (including metformin [Glucophage®]. Medications that increase the sensitivity of cells to insulin include thazolidinediones (including troglitazone [Resulin®], pioglitazone [Actos®] and rosiglitazone [Avandia®]). Medications that decrease the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine include alpha glucosidase inhibitors (including acarbose [Precose®] and miglitol [Glyset®]). Actos® and Avandia® can change the cholesterol patterns in diabetics. HDL (or good cholesterol) increases on these medications. Precose® works on the intestine; its effects are additive to diabetic medications that work at other sites, such as sulfonylureas. ACE inhibitors can be used to control high blood pressure, treat heart failure, and prevent kidney damage in people with hypertension or diabetes. ACE inhibitors or combination products of an ACE inhibitor and a diuretic, such as hydrochlorothazide, are marketed. However, none of these treatments is ideal. Blood pressure control can reduce cardiovascular disease (for example, myocardial infarction and stroke) by approximately 33% to 50% and can reduce microvascular disease (eye, kidney, and nerve disease) by approximately 33%. The Center for Disease Control has found that for every 10 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) reduction in systolic blood pressure, the risk for any complication related to diabetes is reduced by 12%. Improved control of cholesterol and lipids (for example HDL, LDL, and triglycerides) can reduce cardiovascular complications by 20% to 50%. Total cholesterol should be less than 200 mg/dl. Target levels for high density lipoprotein (HDL or “good” cholesterol) are above 45 mg/dl for men and above 55 mg/dl for women, while low density lipoprotein (LDL or “bad” cholesterol) should be kept below 100 mg/dl. Target triglyceride levels for women and men are less than 150 mg/dl. Approximately 50% of patients with diabetes develop some degree of diabetic retinopathy after 10 years of diabetes, and 80% of diabetics have retinopathy after 15 years. In a study (the DCCT study) conducted by the National Institute of Diabetes and Disgestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) it was shown that keeping blood glucose levels as close to normal as possible slows the onset and progression of eye, kidney, and nerve diseases caused by diabetes. In the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) clinical trial type 2 diabetics were studied. The DPP study found that over the 3 years of the study, diet and exercise sharply reduced the chances that a person with IGT would develop diabetes. Administration of metformin (Glucophage®) also reduced risk, although less dramatically. The DCCT study showed a correlation between HbA1c and the mean blood glucose. The DPP study showed that HbA1c is strongly correlated with adverse outcome risk. In a series of reports from the American Heart Association's Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease it was reported that about two-thirds of people with diabetes eventually die of heart or blood vessel disease. Studies also showed that the increase in cardiovascular disease risk associated with diabetes can be lessened by controlling individual risk factors such as glucose level, obesity, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure. It is important for a person suffering from diabetes to reduce the risk of complications such as cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. It is also important for diabetics to reduce total cholesterol and triglyceride levels to reduce cardiovascular complications. Reduction of these possible complication risks is also important for a person suffering from IGT (a pre-diabetic). Thus, if HbA1c and blood glucose levels can be controlled, the risk of complications such as cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy can be reduced or their onset delayed. If total cholesterol and triglyceride levels can be reduced, then cardiovascular complications can be reduced. U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,264, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses ranolazine, (±)—N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-propyl]-1-piperazineacetamide, and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, and their use in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, including arrhythmias, variant and exercise-induced angina, and myocardial infarction. In its dihydrochloride salt form, ranolazine is represented by the formula: This patent also discloses intravenous (IV) formulations of dihydrochloride ranolazine further comprising propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 400, Tween 80 and 0.9% saline. U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,229, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses the use of ranolazine and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts and esters for the treatment of tissues experiencing a physical or chemical insult, including cardioplegia, hypoxic or reperfusion injury to cardiac or skeletal muscle or brain tissue, and for use in transplants. Oral and parenteral formulations are disclosed, including controlled release formulations. In particular, Example 7D of U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,229 describes a controlled release formulation in capsule form comprising microspheres of ranolazine and microcrystalline cellulose coated with release controlling polymers. This patent also discloses IV ranolazine formulations which at the low end comprise 5 mg ranolazine per milliliter of an IV solution containing about 5% by weight dextrose. And at the high end, there is disclosed an IV solution containing 200 mg ranolazine per milliliter of an IV solution containing about 4% by weight dextrose. The presently preferred route of administration for ranolazine and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts and esters is oral. A typical oral dosage form is a compressed tablet, a hard gelatin capsule filled with a powder mix or granulate, or a soft gelatin capsule (softgel) filled with a solution or suspension. U.S. Pat. No. 5,472,707, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses a high-dose oral formulation employing supercooled liquid ranolazine as a fill solution for a hard gelatin capsule or softgel. U.S. Pat. No. 6,503,911, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses sustained release formulations that overcome the problem of affording a satisfactory plasma level of ranolazine while the formulation travels through both an acidic environment in the stomach and a more basic environment through the intestine, and has proven to be very effective in providing the plasma levels that are necessary for the treatment of angina and other cardiovascular diseases. U.S. Pat. No. 6,852,724, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses methods of treating cardiovascular diseases, including arrhythmias variant and exercise-induced angina and myocardial infarction. U.S. Patent Application Publication Number 2006/0177502, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses oral sustained release dosage forms in which the ranolazine is present in 35-50%, preferably 40-45% ranolazine. In one embodiment the ranolazine sustained release formulations of the invention include a pH dependent binder; a pH independent binder; and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. Suitable pH dependent binders include, but are not limited to, a methacrylic acid copolymer, for example Eudragit® (Eudragit® L100-55, pseudolatex of eudragit® L100-55, and the like) partially neutralized with a strong base, for example, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or ammonium hydroxide, in a quantity sufficient to neutralize the methacrylic acid copolymer to an extent of about 1-20%, for example about 3-6%. Suitable pH independent binders include, but are not limited to, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), for example Methocel® E10M Premium CR grade HPMC or Methocel® E4M Premium HPMC. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include magnesium stearate and microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel® pH101). In acute or emergency situations in which a patient either is or recently has experienced an acute cardiovascular disease event there is a need to initially and rapidly stabilize the patient. Once the patient has been stabilized there is a need to maintain the patient's stability by providing treatment over an extended period of time. In diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases there is a need to reduce the HbA1c level while treating the cardiovascular disease. There is a need for a method for treating diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from an acute cardiovascular diseases comprising administering ranolazine in an intravenous (IV) formulation that provides therapeutically effective plasma concentrations of ranolazine in humans to treat the acute cardiovascular disease while reducing the HbA1c level of the patient. There is also a need for a method for treating diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases comprising administering ranolazine in an oral formulation that provides therapeutically effective plasma concentrations of ranolazine in humans to treat the cardiovascular disease while reducing the HbA1c level of the patient. During angina clinical trials using ranolazine, it was surprisingly discovered that treatment of diabetic angina patients with ranolazine was not only effective in treating angina, but also reduced hemoglobulin A1 (HbA1c) levels and, over the long term, reduced triglyceride levels. Ranolazine was also found to reduce triglyceride levels in non-diabetic patients. Ranolazine was also found to lower glucose plasma levels and, over the long term, total cholesterol levels, while increasing HDL cholesterol levels. Thus, ranolazine provides a method of treating diabetes pre-diabetes, or the non-diabetes condition by reducing the levels of potentially toxic metabolites in blood and/or complications associated with diabetes. Ranolazine also can reduce the number of medications necessary for a patient with both cardiovascular problems and diabetes or pre-diabetes.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of this invention to provide an effective method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease while minimizing undesirable side effects. Accordingly, in a first aspect, the invention relates to a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R 1 is methyl, R 4 is not methyl; or R 2 and R 3 together form —OCH 2 O—; R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R 6 and R 7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R 7 and R 8 together form —O—CH 2 O—; R 11 and R 12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof. The compounds of Formula I are disclosed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,264, the complete disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. A preferred compound of this invention is ranolazine, which is named N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2-methoxyphenoxy)propyl]-1-piperazineacetamide, as a racemic mixture, or an isomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A second aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, wherein the cardiovascular disease is angina. A third aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, wherein the cardiovascular disease is chronic angina. A fourth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of ranolazine. A fifth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R 1 is methyl, R 4 is not methyl; or R 2 and R 3 together form —OCH 2 O—; R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R 6 and R 7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R 7 and R 8 together form —O—CH 2 O—; R 11 and R 12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof; to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered as an immediate release formulation. A sixth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R 1 is methyl, R 4 is not methyl; or R 2 and R 3 together form —OCH 2 O—; R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R 6 and R 7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R 7 and R 8 together form —O—CH 2 O—; R 11 and R 12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof; to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered as a sustained release formulation. A seventh aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered in a formulation that has both immediate release and sustained release aspects. An eighth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a sustained release formulation comprising a compound of Formula I to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the sustained release formulation provides a plasma level of ranolazine between 550 and 7500 ng base/ml over a 24 hour period. A ninth aspect of the invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering a compound of Formula I wherein the dosage is from about 250 mg bid to about 2000 mg bid to a mammal. A tenth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering from about 250 mg bid to about 2000 mg bid of ranolazine. An eleventh aspect of this invention is a method of reducing negative consequences of diabetes comprising administration of ranolazine. A twelfth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying or slowing the development of diabetes comprising administration of ranolazine. A thirteenth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying the initiation of insulin treatment comprising administration of ranolazine. A fourteenth aspect of this invention is a method of reducing HbA1c levels in a patient without leading to hypoglycemia comprising administration of ranolazine. A fifteenth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying or slowing the development of worsening hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of ranolazine. A sixteenth aspect of this invention is a method of reducing or slowing the development of hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of ranolazine.
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This is a Continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 10/443,314, filed on May 21, 2003, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/382,781, filed May 21, 2002, and to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/459,332, filed Mar. 31, 2003, the complete disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Methods are provided for treating diabetes, lowering plasma level of HbA1c, in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease comprising administering ranolazine to these patients. BACKGROUND Diabetes mellitus is a disease characterized by hyperglycemia; altered metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins; and an increased risk of complications from vascular disease. Diabetes is an increasing public health problem, as it is associated with both increasing age and obesity. There are two major types of diabetes mellitus: 1) Type I, also known as insulin dependent diabetes (IDDM) and 2) Type TI, also known as insulin independent or non-insulin dependent diabetes (NIDDM). Both types of diabetes mellitus are due to insufficient amounts of circulating insulin and a decrease in the response of peripheral tissue to insulin. Type I diabetes results from the body's failure to produce insulin, the hormone that “unlocks” the cells of the body, allowing glucose to enter and fuel them. The complications of Type I diabetes include heart disease and stroke; retinopathy (eye disease); kidney disease (nephropathy); neuropathy (nerve damage); as well as maintenance of good skin, foot and oral health. Type II diabetes results from the body's inability to either produce enough insulin or the cells inability to use the insulin that is naturally produced by the body. The condition where the body is not able to optimally use insulin is called insulin resistance. Type II diabetes is often accompanied by high blood pressure and this may contribute to heart disease. In patients with type II diabetes mellitus, stress, infection, and medications (such as corticosteroids) can also lead to severely elevated blood sugar levels. Accompanied by dehydration, severe blood sugar elevation in patients with type II diabetes can lead to an increase in blood osmolality (hyperosmolar state). This condition can lead to coma. Insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood by stimulating the uptake and metabolism of glucose by muscle and adipose tissue. Insulin stimulates the storage of glucose in the liver as glycogen, and in adipose tissue as triglycerides. Insulin also promotes the utilization of glucose in muscle for energy. Thus, insufficient insulin levels in the blood, or decreased sensitivity to insulin, gives rise to excessively high levels of glucose and triglycerides in the blood. The early symptoms of untreated diabetes mellitus are related to elevated blood sugar levels, and loss of glucose in the urine. High amounts of glucose in the urine can cause increased urine output and lead to dehydration. Dehydration causes increased thirst and water consumption. The inability to utilize glucose energy eventually leads to weight loss despite an increase in appetite. Some untreated diabetes patients also complain of fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients with diabetes are prone to developing infections of the bladder, skin, and vaginal areas. Fluctuations in blood glucose levels can lead to blurred vision. Extremely elevated glucose levels can lead to lethargy and coma (diabetic coma). People with glucose levels between normal and diabetic have impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). This condition is also called pre-diabetes or insulin resistance syndrome. People with IGT do not have diabetes, but rather have blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes. Their bodies make more and more insulin, but because the tissues don't respond to it, their bodies can't use sugar properly. Recent studies have shown that IGT itself may be a risk factor for the development of heart disease. It is estimated that people with pre-diabetes have a 1.5-fold risk of cardiovascular disease compared to people with normal blood glucose. People with diabetes have a 2- to 4-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease. High blood levels of glucose and triglycerides cause the thickening of capillary basement membrane, which results in the progressive narrowing of vessel lumina. The vasculopathogies give rise to conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, which may result in blindness, coronary heart disease, intercapillary glomerulosclerois, neuropathy, and ulceration and gangrene of the extremities. The toxic effects of excess plasma levels of glucose include the glycosylation of cells and tissues. Glycosylated products accumulate in tissues and may eventually form cross-linked proteins, which cross-linked proteins are termed advanced glycosylation end products. It is possible that non-enzymatic glycosylation is directly responsible for expansion of the vascular matrix and vascular complications of diabetes. For example, glycosylation of collagen results in excessive cross-linking, resulting in atherosclerotic vessels. Also, the uptake of glycosylated proteins by macrophages stimulates the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by these cells. The cytokines activate or induce degradative and proliferative cascades in mesenchymal and endothelial cells respectively. The glycosylation of hemoglobin provides a convenient method to determine an integrated index of the glycemic state. The level of glycosylated proteins reflects the level of glucose over a period of time and is the basis of an assay referred to as the hemoglobulin A1 (HbA1c) assay HbA1c reflects a weighted average of blood glucose levels during the previous 120 days; plasma glucose in the previous 30 days contributes about 50% to the final result in an HbA1c assay. The test for A1c (also known as HbA1c, glycohemoglobin, or glycated hemoglobin) indicates how well diabetes has been controlled over the last few months. The closer A1c is to 6%, the better the control of diabetes. For every 30 mg/dl increase in A1c blood glucose, there is a 1% increase in A1c, and the risk of complications increases. Another explanation for the toxic effects of hyperglycemia includes sorbitol formation. Intracellular glucose is reduced to its corresponding sugar alcohol, sorbitol, by the enzyme aldose reductase; the rate of production of sorbitol is determined by the ambient glucose concentration. Thus, tissues such as lens, retina, arterial wall and schwann cells of peripheral nerves have high concentrations of sorbitol. Hyperglycemia also impairs the function of neural tissues because glucose competes with myoinositol resulting in reduction of cellular concentrations and, consequently, altered nerve function and neuropathy. Increased triglyceride levels are also a consequence of insulin deficiency. High triglyceride levels are also associated with vascular disease. Thus, controlling blood glucose and triglyceride levels is a desirable therapeutic goal. A number of oral antihyperglycemic agents are known. Medications that increase the insulin output by the pancreas include sulfonylureas (including chlorpropamide [Orinase®], tolbutamide [Tolinase®], glyburide [Micronase®], glipizide [Glucotrol®], and glimepiride [Amaryl®]) and meglitinides (including reparglinide [Prandin®] and nateglinide [Starlix®]). Medications that decrease the amount of glucose produced by the liver include biguanides (including metformin [Glucophage®]. Medications that increase the sensitivity of cells to insulin include thazolidinediones (including troglitazone [Resulin®], pioglitazone [Actos®] and rosiglitazone [Avandia®]). Medications that decrease the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine include alpha glucosidase inhibitors (including acarbose [Precose®] and miglitol [Glyset®]). Actos® and Avandia® can change the cholesterol patterns in diabetics. HDL (or good cholesterol) increases on these medications. Precose® works on the intestine; its effects are additive to diabetic medications that work at other sites, such as sulfonylureas. ACE inhibitors can be used to control high blood pressure, treat heart failure, and prevent kidney damage in people with hypertension or diabetes. ACE inhibitors or combination products of an ACE inhibitor and a diuretic, such as hydrochlorothazide, are marketed. However, none of these treatments is ideal. Blood pressure control can reduce cardiovascular disease (for example, myocardial infarction and stroke) by approximately 33% to 50% and can reduce microvascular disease (eye, kidney, and nerve disease) by approximately 33%. The Center for Disease Control has found that for every 10 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) reduction in systolic blood pressure, the risk for any complication related to diabetes is reduced by 12%. Improved control of cholesterol and lipids (for example HDL, LDL, and triglycerides) can reduce cardiovascular complications by 20% to 50%. Total cholesterol should be less than 200 mg/dl. Target levels for high density lipoprotein (HDL or “good” cholesterol) are above 45 mg/dl for men and above 55 mg/dl for women, while low density lipoprotein (LDL or “bad” cholesterol) should be kept below 100 mg/dl. Target triglyceride levels for women and men are less than 150 mg/dl. Approximately 50% of patients with diabetes develop some degree of diabetic retinopathy after 10 years of diabetes, and 80% of diabetics have retinopathy after 15 years. In a study (the DCCT study) conducted by the National Institute of Diabetes and Disgestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) it was shown that keeping blood glucose levels as close to normal as possible slows the onset and progression of eye, kidney, and nerve diseases caused by diabetes. In the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) clinical trial type 2 diabetics were studied. The DPP study found that over the 3 years of the study, diet and exercise sharply reduced the chances that a person with IGT would develop diabetes. Administration of metformin (Glucophage®) also reduced risk, although less dramatically. The DCCT study showed a correlation between HbA1c and the mean blood glucose. The DPP study showed that HbA1c is strongly correlated with adverse outcome risk. In a series of reports from the American Heart Association's Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease it was reported that about two-thirds of people with diabetes eventually die of heart or blood vessel disease. Studies also showed that the increase in cardiovascular disease risk associated with diabetes can be lessened by controlling individual risk factors such as glucose level, obesity, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure. It is important for a person suffering from diabetes to reduce the risk of complications such as cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. It is also important for diabetics to reduce total cholesterol and triglyceride levels to reduce cardiovascular complications. Reduction of these possible complication risks is also important for a person suffering from IGT (a pre-diabetic). Thus, if HbA1c and blood glucose levels can be controlled, the risk of complications such as cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy can be reduced or their onset delayed. If total cholesterol and triglyceride levels can be reduced, then cardiovascular complications can be reduced. U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,264, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses ranolazine, (±)—N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-propyl]-1-piperazineacetamide, and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, and their use in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, including arrhythmias, variant and exercise-induced angina, and myocardial infarction. In its dihydrochloride salt form, ranolazine is represented by the formula: This patent also discloses intravenous (IV) formulations of dihydrochloride ranolazine further comprising propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 400, Tween 80 and 0.9% saline. U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,229, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses the use of ranolazine and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts and esters for the treatment of tissues experiencing a physical or chemical insult, including cardioplegia, hypoxic or reperfusion injury to cardiac or skeletal muscle or brain tissue, and for use in transplants. Oral and parenteral formulations are disclosed, including controlled release formulations. In particular, Example 7D of U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,229 describes a controlled release formulation in capsule form comprising microspheres of ranolazine and microcrystalline cellulose coated with release controlling polymers. This patent also discloses IV ranolazine formulations which at the low end comprise 5 mg ranolazine per milliliter of an IV solution containing about 5% by weight dextrose. And at the high end, there is disclosed an IV solution containing 200 mg ranolazine per milliliter of an IV solution containing about 4% by weight dextrose. The presently preferred route of administration for ranolazine and its pharmaceutically acceptable salts and esters is oral. A typical oral dosage form is a compressed tablet, a hard gelatin capsule filled with a powder mix or granulate, or a soft gelatin capsule (softgel) filled with a solution or suspension. U.S. Pat. No. 5,472,707, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses a high-dose oral formulation employing supercooled liquid ranolazine as a fill solution for a hard gelatin capsule or softgel. U.S. Pat. No. 6,503,911, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses sustained release formulations that overcome the problem of affording a satisfactory plasma level of ranolazine while the formulation travels through both an acidic environment in the stomach and a more basic environment through the intestine, and has proven to be very effective in providing the plasma levels that are necessary for the treatment of angina and other cardiovascular diseases. U.S. Pat. No. 6,852,724, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses methods of treating cardiovascular diseases, including arrhythmias variant and exercise-induced angina and myocardial infarction. U.S. Patent Application Publication Number 2006/0177502, the specification of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses oral sustained release dosage forms in which the ranolazine is present in 35-50%, preferably 40-45% ranolazine. In one embodiment the ranolazine sustained release formulations of the invention include a pH dependent binder; a pH independent binder; and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. Suitable pH dependent binders include, but are not limited to, a methacrylic acid copolymer, for example Eudragit® (Eudragit® L100-55, pseudolatex of eudragit® L100-55, and the like) partially neutralized with a strong base, for example, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or ammonium hydroxide, in a quantity sufficient to neutralize the methacrylic acid copolymer to an extent of about 1-20%, for example about 3-6%. Suitable pH independent binders include, but are not limited to, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), for example Methocel® E10M Premium CR grade HPMC or Methocel® E4M Premium HPMC. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include magnesium stearate and microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel® pH101). In acute or emergency situations in which a patient either is or recently has experienced an acute cardiovascular disease event there is a need to initially and rapidly stabilize the patient. Once the patient has been stabilized there is a need to maintain the patient's stability by providing treatment over an extended period of time. In diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases there is a need to reduce the HbA1c level while treating the cardiovascular disease. There is a need for a method for treating diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from an acute cardiovascular diseases comprising administering ranolazine in an intravenous (IV) formulation that provides therapeutically effective plasma concentrations of ranolazine in humans to treat the acute cardiovascular disease while reducing the HbA1c level of the patient. There is also a need for a method for treating diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic coronary patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases comprising administering ranolazine in an oral formulation that provides therapeutically effective plasma concentrations of ranolazine in humans to treat the cardiovascular disease while reducing the HbA1c level of the patient. During angina clinical trials using ranolazine, it was surprisingly discovered that treatment of diabetic angina patients with ranolazine was not only effective in treating angina, but also reduced hemoglobulin A1 (HbA1c) levels and, over the long term, reduced triglyceride levels. Ranolazine was also found to reduce triglyceride levels in non-diabetic patients. Ranolazine was also found to lower glucose plasma levels and, over the long term, total cholesterol levels, while increasing HDL cholesterol levels. Thus, ranolazine provides a method of treating diabetes pre-diabetes, or the non-diabetes condition by reducing the levels of potentially toxic metabolites in blood and/or complications associated with diabetes. Ranolazine also can reduce the number of medications necessary for a patient with both cardiovascular problems and diabetes or pre-diabetes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of this invention to provide an effective method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease while minimizing undesirable side effects. Accordingly, in a first aspect, the invention relates to a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R1 is methyl, R4 is not methyl; or R2 and R3 together form —OCH2O—; R6, R7, R8, R9 and R10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R6 and R7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R7 and R8 together form —O—CH2O—; R11 and R12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof. The compounds of Formula I are disclosed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,264, the complete disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. A preferred compound of this invention is ranolazine, which is named N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2-methoxyphenoxy)propyl]-1-piperazineacetamide, as a racemic mixture, or an isomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A second aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, wherein the cardiovascular disease is angina. A third aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, wherein the cardiovascular disease is chronic angina. A fourth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of ranolazine. A fifth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R1 is methyl, R4 is not methyl; or R2 and R3 together form —OCH2O—; R6, R7, R8, R9 and R10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R6 and R7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R7 and R8 together form —O—CH2O—; R11 and R12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof; to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered as an immediate release formulation. A sixth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I: wherein: R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 are each independently hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, cyano, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or N-optionally substituted alkylamido, provided that when R1 is methyl, R4 is not methyl; or R2 and R3 together form —OCH2O—; R6, R7, R8, R9 and R10 are each independently hydrogen, lower acyl, aminocarbonylmethyl, cyano, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, halo, lower alkylthio, lower alkyl sulfinyl, lower alkyl sulfonyl, or di-lower alkylamino; or R6 and R7 together form —CH═CH—CH═CH—; or R7 and R8 together form —O—CH2O—; R11 and R12 are each independently hydrogen or lower alkyl; and W is oxygen or sulfur; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, or an isomer thereof; to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered as a sustained release formulation. A seventh aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the compound of Formula I is administered in a formulation that has both immediate release and sustained release aspects. An eighth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a sustained release formulation comprising a compound of Formula I to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the sustained release formulation provides a plasma level of ranolazine between 550 and 7500 ng base/ml over a 24 hour period. A ninth aspect of the invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering a compound of Formula I wherein the dosage is from about 250 mg bid to about 2000 mg bid to a mammal. A tenth aspect of this invention is a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administering from about 250 mg bid to about 2000 mg bid of ranolazine. An eleventh aspect of this invention is a method of reducing negative consequences of diabetes comprising administration of ranolazine. A twelfth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying or slowing the development of diabetes comprising administration of ranolazine. A thirteenth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying the initiation of insulin treatment comprising administration of ranolazine. A fourteenth aspect of this invention is a method of reducing HbA1c levels in a patient without leading to hypoglycemia comprising administration of ranolazine. A fifteenth aspect of this invention is a method of delaying or slowing the development of worsening hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of ranolazine. A sixteenth aspect of this invention is a method of reducing or slowing the development of hyperglycemia in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of ranolazine. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1. CV Death/MI/Severe recurrent ischemia FIG. 2. Effect of Ranolazine on HbA1c Levels. FIG. 3. CARISA Primary Endpoint: Exercise Duration at Trough. This figure shows changes from baseline (in sec) for diabetics and non-diabetics on placebo, 750 mg ranolazine bid, or 1000 mg ranolazine bid. FIG. 4. CARISA: Exercise Duration at Peak. This figure shows changes from baseline (in sec) for diabetics and non-diabetics on placebo, 750 mg ranolazine bid, or 1000 mg ranolazine bid. FIG. 5. CARISA: Exercise Time to Onset of Angina. This figure shows changes from baseline (in sec) in trough and peak for diabetics and non-diabetics on placebo, 750 mg ranolazine bid, or 1000 mg ranolazine bid. FIG. 6. CARISA: Change from Baseline in HbA1c (all diabetic patients). This figure shows percentage of HbA1c for diabetics on placebo, 750 mg ranolazine bid, or 1000 mg ranolazine bid at baseline and at last study value. FIG. 7. CARISA: Change from Baseline in HbA1c (Dependent vs Non-insulin Dependent Diabetic Patients. This figure shows percentage of HbA1c for both insulin dependent and non-insulin dependent diabetics on placebo, 750 mg ranolazine bid, or 1000 mg ranolazine bid at baseline and at last study value. FIG. 8: Change in HbA1c (%). FIG. 8A shows the percentage change in HbA1a in patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus before or at the start of randomization for this trial versus the months (16) of follow-up. FIG. 8A shows M4 M8 M16 Placebo N = 770 N = 598 N = 122 Ranolazine N = 707 N = 535 N = 112 P-value <0.001 <0.001 =0.13 FIG. 8B shows the percentage change in HbA1c in patients that were either pre-diabetic or non-diabetic at the start of randomization for this trial (had not been diagnosed as diabetic before the start of this trial) versus the months (16) of follow-up. FIG. 8B shows M4 M8 M16 Placebo N = 1428 N = 1113 N = 260 Ranolazine N = 1401 N = 1113 N = 266 P-value <0.001 =0.002 =0.025 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention provides a method of lowering the plasma level of HbA1c in a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from at least one cardiovascular disease, comprising administration of a compound of Formula I. Diabetes, as defined herein, is a disease state characterized by hyperglycemia; altered metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins; and an increased risk of complications from vascular disease. Pre-diabetes, as defined herein, includes people with glucose levels between normal and diabetic have impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). This condition is also called pre-diabetes or insulin resistance syndrome. People with IGT do not have diabetes, but rather have blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes. Their bodies make more and more insulin, but because the tissues don't respond to it, their bodies can't use sugar properly. Glycemic control is the regulation of blood glucose levels Hemoglobin undergoes glycosylation on its amino terminal valine residue to form the glucosyl valine adduct of hemoglobin (HbA1c). The toxic effects of hyperglycemia may be the result of accumulation of such nonenzymatically glycosylated products. The covalent reaction of glucose with hemoglobin also provides a convenient method to determine an integrated index of the glycemic state. For example, the half-life of the modified hemoglobin is equal to that of the erythrocyte (about 120 days). Since the amount of glycosylated protein is proportional to the glucose concentration and the time of exposure of the protein to glucose, the concentration of HbA1c in the circulation reflects the glycemic state over an extended period (4 to 12 weeks) prior to sampling. Thus, a rise in HbA1c from 5% to 10% suggests a prolonged doubling of the mean blood glucose concentration With respect to the compound of Formula I, the following words and phrases are generally intended to have the meanings as set forth below, except to the extent that the context in which they are used indicates otherwise. “Aminocarbonylmethyl” refers to a group having the following structure: where A represents the point of attachment. “Halo” or “halogen” refers to fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo. “Lower acyl” refers to a group having the following structure: where R. is lower alkyl as is defined herein, and A represents the point of attachment, and includes such groups as acetyl, propanoyl, n-butanoyl and the like. “Lower alkyl” refers to an unbranched saturated hydrocarbon chain of 1-4 carbons, such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and n-butyl. “Lower alkoxy” refers to a group —OR wherein R is lower alkyl as herein defined. “Lower alkylthio” refers to a group —SR wherein R is lower alkyl as herein defined. “Lower alkyl sulfinyl” refers to a group of the formula: wherein R is lower alkyl as herein defined, and A represents the point of attachment. “Lower alkyl sulfonyl” refers to a group of the formula: wherein R is lower alkyl as herein defined, and A represents the point of attachment. “N-Optionally substituted alkylamido” refers to a group having the following structure: wherein R is independently hydrogen or lower alkyl and R′ is lower alkyl as defined herein, and A represents the point of attachment. The term “compound of Formula I” is intended to encompass the compounds of the invention as disclosed, and the pharmaceutically acceptable salts, pharmaceutically acceptable esters, and prodrugs of such compounds. “Isomers” refers to compounds having the same atomic mass and atomic number but differing in one or more physical or chemical properties. All isomers of the compounds of Formula I, including the R- and S-enantiomers are within the scope of the invention. In many cases, the compounds of this invention are capable of forming acid and/or base salts by virtue of the presence of amino and/or carboxyl groups or groups similar thereto. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to salts that retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the compounds of Formula I, and which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. Pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts can be prepared from inorganic and organic bases. Salts derived from inorganic bases, include by way of example only, sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary and tertiary amines, such as alkyl amines, dialkyl amines, trialkyl amines, substituted alkyl amines, di(substituted alkyl) amines, tri(substituted alkyl) amines, alkenyl amines, dialkenyl amines, trialkenyl amines, substituted alkenyl amines, di(substituted alkenyl) amines, tri(substituted alkenyl) amines, cycloalkyl amines, di(cycloalkyl) amines, tri(cycloalkyl) amines, substituted cycloalkyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkyl amines, cycloalkenyl amines, di(cycloalkenyl) amines, tri(cycloalkenyl) amines, substituted cycloalkenyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkenyl amine, trisubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, aryl amines, diaryl amines, triaryl amines, heteroaryl amines, diheteroaryl amines, triheteroaryl amines, heterocyclic amines, diheterocyclic amines, triheterocyclic amines, mixed di- and tri-amines where at least two of the substituents on the amine are different and are selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and the like. Also included are amines where the two or three substituents, together with the amino nitrogen, form a heterocyclic or heteroaryl group. Specific examples of suitable amines include, by way of example only, isopropylamine, trimethyl amine, diethyl amine, tri(iso-propyl) amine, tri(n-propyl) amine, ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, tromethamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, N-alkylglucamines, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be prepared from inorganic and organic acids. Salts derived from inorganic acids include hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Salts derived from organic acids include acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluene-sulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like. As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents and the like. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active ingredient, its use in the therapeutic compositions is contemplated. Supplementary active ingredients can also be incorporated into the compositions. The term “therapeutically effective amount” refers to that amount of a compound of Formula I that is sufficient to effect treatment, as defined below, when administered to a mammal in need of such treatment. The therapeutically effective amount will vary depending upon the subject and disease condition being treated, the weight and age of the subject, the severity of the disease condition, the manner of administration and the like, which can readily be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art. The term “treatment” or “treating” means any treatment of a disease in a mammal, including: (i) preventing the disease, that is, causing the clinical symptoms of the disease not to develop; (ii) inhibiting the disease, that is, arresting the development of clinical symptoms; and/or (iii) relieving the disease, that is, causing the regression of clinical symptoms. The “patient” is a mammal, preferably a human. Physiologically acceptable pH” refers to the pH of an intravenous solution which is compatible for delivery into a human patient. Preferably, physiologically acceptable pH's range from about 4 to about 8.5 and preferably from about 4 to 7. Without being limited by any theory, the use of intravenous solutions having a pH of about 4 to 6 are deemed physiologically acceptable as the large volume of blood in the body effectively buffers these intravenous solutions. “Coronary diseases” or “cardiovascular diseases” refer to diseases of the cardiovasculature arising from any one or more than one of, for example, heart failure, including congestive heart failure, acute heart failure, ischemia, recurrent ischemia, myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina (including exercise-induced angina, variant angina, stable angina, unstable angina), acute coronary syndrome, diabetes, and intermittent claudication. The treatment of such disease states is disclosed in various U.S. patents and patent applications, including U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,503,911 and 6,528,511, U.S. Patent Application Serial Nos. 2003/0220344 and 2004/0063717, the complete disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. “An acute coronary disease event” refers to any condition relating to one or more coronary diseases which has/have manifested itself/themselves or has deteriorated to the point where the patient seeks medical intervention typically but not necessarily in an emergency situation. “Acute coronary syndrome” or “ACS” refers to a range of acute myocardial ischemic states. It encompasses unstable angina and non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (UA/NSTEMI), and ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). STEMI refers to a complete occlusion by thrombus. In a preferred embodiment, ACS refers to those patients with a non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTEACS). NSTEACS refers to a partial occlusion by the thrombus. NSTEACS is further defined as chest discomfort or anginal equivalent occurring at rest, lasting ≧10 minutes, and consistent with myocardial ischemia, and the presence of ischemic symptoms (≧5 minutes) at rest within 48 hours of admittance which may include index episode, and having at least one of the following indicators of moderate—high risk: Elevated cardiac troponin (above local MI limit) or CK-MB (>ULN) ST-depression (horizontal or down-sloping)≧0.1 mV Diabetes mellitus (requiring insulin or oral therapy) A Risk Score of ≧3 wherein one point is assigned for each of the following variables and a total score calculated as the arithmetic sum: Age ≧65 years; Known CAD (prior MI, CABG, PCI or angiographic stenosis ≧50%); Three or more cardiac risk factors (DM, elevated cholesterol, hypertension, family history); More than one episode of ischemic discomfort at rest in the prior 24 hours; Chronic aspirin use in the 7 days preceding onset of symptoms; ST segment depression ≧0.05 mV; and Elevated cardiac troponin or CK-MB. These risk indicators are also referred to as TIMI (thrombolysis in myocardial ischemia) risk factors and are further discussed in Chase, et al., Annals of Emergency Medicine, 48(3):252-259 (2006); Sadanandan, et al., J Am Coll Cardiol., 44(4):799-803 (2004); and Conway, et al., Heart, 92:1333-1334 (2006), each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. “Unstable angina” or “UA” refers to a clinical syndrome between stable angina and acute myocardial infarction. This definition encompasses many patients presenting with varying histories and reflects the complex pathophysiological mechanisms operating at different times and with different outcomes. Three main presentations have been described—angina at rest, new onset angina, and increasing angina. “ECG” refers to an electrocardiogram. “Cardiovascular intervention” or “coronary intervention” refers to any invasive procedure to treat a coronary disease including, but not limited to, “percutaneous coronary intervention” or PCI. It is contemplated that PCI encompasses a number of procedures used to treat patients with diseases of the heart. Examples of PCI include, but are not limited to, PTCA (percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty), implantation of stents, pacemakers, and other coronary devices, CABG (coronary artery bypass graft surgery) and the like. “Optional” and “optionally” mean that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances in which it does not. For example, “optional pharmaceutical excipients” indicates that a formulation so described may or may not include pharmaceutical excipients other than those specifically stated to be present, and that the formulation so described includes instances in which the optional excipients are present and instances in which they are not. “Emergency” refers to an acute situation in which the patient is initially seen by medical personnel. Emergency situations can include, but are not limited to, medical facilities such as hospitals or clinics, emergency rooms at medical facilities such as hospitals or clinics, and emergency situations which involve police and/or medical personnel such as firemen, ambulance attendants, or other medically trained persons. “Stabilized” or “stable” refers to a condition in which a patient is not considered to be in immediate risk of morbidity. “Immediate release” (“IR”) refers to formulations or dosage units that rapidly dissolve in vitro and are intended to be completely dissolved and absorbed in the stomach or upper gastrointestinal tract. Conventionally, such formulations release at least 90% of the active ingredient within 30 minutes of administration. “Sustained release” (“SR”) refers to formulations or dosage units used herein that are slowly and continuously dissolved and absorbed in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract over a period of about six hours or more. Preferred sustained release formulations are those exhibiting plasma concentrations of ranolazine suitable for no more than twice daily administration with two or less tablets per dosing as described below. “Intravenous (IV) infusion” or “intravenous administration” refers to solutions or dosage units used herein that are provided to the patient by intravenous route. Such IV infusions can be provided to the patient until for up to about 96 hours in order to stabilize the patient's cardiovascular condition. The method and timing for delivery of an IV infusion is within the skill of the attending medically trained person. “Renal insufficiency” refers to when a patient's kidneys no longer have enough kidney function to maintain a normal state of health. Renal insufficiency includes both acute and chronic renal failure, including end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Methods of this Invention As noted previously, in one aspect, this invention provides for a method for treating a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from an acute cardiovascular disease event. In a further embodiment of this aspect, the diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from acute cardiovascular disease event exhibits one or more conditions associated with non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome. Patients presenting themselves with an acute coronary disease event include, but are not limited to, those who are being treated for one or more of the following: angina including stable angina, unstable angina (UA), exercised-induced angina, variant angina, arrhythmias, intermittent claudication, myocardial infarction including non-STE myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), heart failure including congestive (or chronic) heart failure, acute heart failure, or recurrent ischemia. The methods of this aspect of the invention are preferably achieved by administering to the presenting patient an IV solution comprising a selected concentration of ranolazine. Heretofore, the art provided IV solutions comprising ranolazine which comprised low concentrations of ranolazine (see, e.g., Kluge et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,264 where Example 11 of that patent describes using 1.4 mg of ranolazine per mL in an IV solution comprising significant amounts of both propylene glycol (20 g/100 mL) and polyethylene glycol (20 g/100 mL)). Propylene glycol is a viscous liquid as is polyethylene glycol (see, e.g., the Merck Index, 12th Ed., 1996). The increased viscosity resulting from the use of such IV solutions makes the rapid delivery of ranolazine to the patient suffering from an acute cardiovascular disease event more cumbersome and requires that a significant amount of propylene glycol and polyethylene glycol be co-administered. Alternatively, the art provided IV solutions comprising ranolazine which comprised either high or very high concentrations of ranolazine (either 5 mg/mL or 200 mg/mL) relative to that employed in the IV solutions used herein. See, e.g., Dow, et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,229. In an acute cardiovascular disease event where the patient is suffering from or at risk of suffering from renal insufficiency, the use of such concentrations of ranolazine can result in higher ranolazine plasma levels. Accordingly, the use of such concentrations is contraindicated for treating patients presenting with an acute cardiovascular disease event as the attending physician has little if any time to assess the renal function of that patient prior to initiating treatment. In the methods of this invention, the IV solution has a selected amount of ranolazine comprising from about 1.5 to 3 mg per milliliter of solution, preferably about 1.8 to 2.2 mg per milliliter and, even more preferably, about 2 mg per milliliter. In contrast to Kluge, et al., supra., the IV solution does not contain any propylene glycol or any polyethylene glycol. Rather the compositions of this invention comprise ranolazine, sterile water and dextrose monohydrate or sodium chloride. As such, the compositions of this invention are less viscous than those described by Kluge et al. allowing for more efficient rapid titration of the patient with the IV solution. The IV solution of this invention is different from the injectable formulations since injectable formulations typically have excipients that may not be needed and may be contraindicated for IV formulations of this invention. For example, an injectable formulation can have an anti-spasmodic agent such as gluconic acid. As such, the IV solutions of this invention do not contain such anti-spasmodic agents and especially gluconic acid. The IV solution of this invention is used to stabilize a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient suffering from an acute cardiovascular disease event. In particular, the presenting patient is immediately administered this IV solution of ranolazine for a period until the patient is stabilized. Such stabilization typically occurs within from about 12 to about 96 hours. In a preferred embodiment, the patient suffering from an acute cardiovascular disease event is treated by: initiating administration of an IV solution to said patient wherein said IV solution comprises a selected concentration of ranolazine of from about 1.5 to about 3 mg per milliliter, preferably about 1.8 to about 2.2 mg per milliliter and, even more preferably, about 2 mg per milliliter; titrating the IV administration of the IV ranolazine solution to the patient comprising: i) a sufficient amount of the IV solution to provide for about 200 mg of ranolazine delivered to the patient over about a 1 hour period; ii) followed by either: a sufficient amount of the IV solution to provide for about 80 mg of ranolazine per hour; or if said patient is suffering from renal insufficiency, a sufficient amount of the IV solution to provide for about 40 mg of ranolazine per hour; and maintaining the titration of b) above until the patient stabilizes which typically occurs within from about 12 to about 96 hours. In one embodiment, the infusion of the intravenous formulation of ranolazine is initiated such that a target peak ranolazine plasma concentration of about 2500 ng base/mL (wherein ng base/mL refers to ng of the free base of ranolazine/mL) is achieved. The downward adjustment of ranolazine infusion for a patient experiencing adverse events deemed to be treatment related, is within the knowledge of the skilled in the art and, based on the concentration of ranolazine in the IV solution, easy to achieve. Adverse events in addition to those described above include, but are not limited to, profound and persistent QTc prolongation, not attributed to other reversible factors such as hypokalemia; dizziness; nausea/vomiting; diplopia; parasthesia; confusion; and orthostatic hypotension. In one embodiment, the dose of intravenous solution of ranolazine may be adjusted to a lower dose such as, but not limited to, about 60 mg/hr, about 40 mg/hr, or about 30 mg/hr. In another embodiment, the intravenous delivery of ranolazine may be temporarily discontinued for 1-3 hrs and then restarted at the same or lower dose for patients experiencing adverse events deemed to be treatment related. In a preferred embodiment, once stabilized the diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient is then administered an oral sustained release formulation of ranolazine. Specifically, this invention is particularly useful for treating a high risk coronary disease patient with a subsequent acute coronary disease event by treating a patient with ranolazine. A high risk coronary patient is one who previously had at least one acute coronary disease event. In a preferred embodiment, a high risk patient has a TIMI risk score of 3 or higher. In one embodiment, the oral dose of ranolazine is administered about 1 hour prior to the termination of the intravenous infusion of ranolazine. In one aspect of this embodiment, at the time of transition from intravenous to oral dose, for the intravenous dose of ranolazine of about 80 mg/hr, the oral dose administered is 1000 mg once or twice daily (2×500 mg). In another aspect of this embodiment, at the time of transition from intravenous to oral dose, for the intravenous dose of ranolazine of about 60 mg/hr, the oral dose administered is 750 mg once or twice daily (2×375 mg). In still another aspect of this embodiment, at the time of transition from intravenous to oral dose, for the intravenous dose of ranolazine of about 40 mg/hr, the oral dose administered is 500 mg (1×500 mg). In still another aspect of this embodiment, at the time of transition from intravenous to oral dose, for the intravenous dose of ranolazine of about 30 mg/hr, the oral dose administered is 375 mg (1×375 mg). The downward adjustment of the oral dose for a patient experiencing adverse events deemed to be treatment related, is also within the knowledge of the skilled in the art. For example, the oral dose of ranolazine can be adjusted for patients with newly developed severe renal insufficiency. Other adverse events include, but are not limited to, profound and persistent QTc prolongation, not attributed to other reversible factors such as hypokalemia; dizziness; nausea/vomiting; diplopia; parasthesia; confusion; and orthostatic hypotension. In one embodiment, the oral dose of ranolazine may be adjusted downward to 500 mg once or twice daily, if not already at this dose or lower. In one embodiment, the oral dose of ranolazine may be adjusted to the next lower dose such as, but not limited to, 750 mg once or twice daily, 500 mg once or twice daily, or 375 mg once or twice daily. In one embodiment, a starting oral dose of 375 mg once or twice daily may be administered to a patient treated with moderate CYP3A inhibitors, such as, diltiazem >180 mg/day, fluconazole and the like, and P-gp inhibitors such as, verapamil, cyclosporine and the like. In one embodiment, the 1000 mg oral dose of ranolazine is administered such that a mean peak ranolazine plasma concentration of about 2500 ng base/mL ±1000 ng base/mL is achieved. In one embodiment, the invention relates to a method for reducing ischemia associated with cardiovascular intervention in a patient comprising intravenously administering an intravenous formulation of ranolazine at least about 4 hours and preferably about 6 hours prior to intervention. In a further aspect of this embodiment, the invention further comprises continuing to administer the ranolazine intravenously for at least about 4 hours and preferably about 6 hours after the intervention. In a preferred embodiment, a patient receives intravenous ranolazine for at least about 4 hours or at least about 6 hours prior to the intervention and then receives intravenous ranolazine for at least about 4 hours or at least about 6 hours after intervention. In these embodiments of the invention, the ranolazine intravenously administered is an intravenous formulation as described herein. Without limiting the scope of the invention, the formulations of the invention can be used for treating various diseases, such as, cardiovascular diseases e.g., arteriosclerosis, hypertension, arrhythmia (e.g. ischemic arrhythmia, arrhythmia due to myocardial infarction, myocardial stunning, myocardial dysfunction, arrhythmia after PTCA or after thrombolysis, etc.), angina pectoris, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, heart failure (e.g., congestive heart failure, acute heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy, etc.), restenosis after PTCA, PTCI (percutaneous transluminal coronary intervention), and shock (e.g., hemorrhagic shock, endotoxin shock, etc.); renal diseases e.g., diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, ischemic acute renal insufficiency, etc.; organ disorders associated with ischemia or ischemic reperfusion e.g., heart muscle ischemic reperfusion associated disorders, acute renal insufficiency, or disorders induced by surgical treatment such as CABG (coronary artery bypass grafting) surgeries, vascular surgeries, organ transplantation, non-cardiac surgeries or PTCA; cerebrovascular diseases e.g., ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, etc.; cerebro ischemic disorders e.g., disorders associated with cerebral infarction, disorders caused after cerebral apoplexy such as sequelae, or cerebral edema; and ischemia induced in donor tissues used in transplants where donor tissues include but are not limited to, renal transplants, skin grafts, cardiac transplants, lung transplants, corneal transplants, and liver transplants. The formulations of this invention can also be used as an agent for myocardial protection during CABG surgeries, vascular surgeries, PTCA, PTCI, organ transplantation, or non-cardiac surgeries. Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for myocardial protection before, during, or after CABG surgeries, vascular surgeries, PTCA, organ transplantation, or non-cardiac surgeries. Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for myocardial protection in patients presenting with ongoing cardiac (acute coronary syndromes, e.g., myocardial infarction or unstable angina) or cerebral ischemic events (e.g., stroke). Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for chronic myocardial protection in patients with diagnosed coronary heart disease (e.g., previous myocardial infarction or unstable angina) or patients who are at high risk for myocardial infarction (age greater than 65 and two or more risk factors for coronary heart disease). Compositions of the Invention Intravenous Formulation In one aspect, the invention provides an intravenous (IV) solution comprising a selected concentration of ranolazine. Specifically, the IV solution preferably comprises about 1.5 to about 3.0 mg of ranolazine per milliliter of a pharmaceutically acceptable aqueous solution, more preferably about 1.8 to about 2.2 mg and even more preferably about 2 mg. In order to allow for the rapid intravenous flow of ranolazine into the patient, the IV solution preferably contains no viscous components including by way of example as propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol (e.g., polyethylene glycol 400). It is understood that minor amounts of viscous components that do not materially alter the viscosity may be included in the intravenous formulations of this invention. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the viscosity of the IV solution is preferably less than 10 cSt (centistokes) at 20° C., more preferably less than 5 cSt at 20° C. and even more preferably less than 2 cSt at 20° C. In one embodiment, the IV solution comprises: about 1.5 to about 3.0 mg of ranolazine per mL of IV solution; and either about 4.8 to about 5.0 weight percent dextrose or about 0.8 to about 1.0 weight percent sodium chloride. In one embodiment, the IV solution comprises: about 1.8 to about 2.2 mg of ranolazine per mL of IV solution; and either about 4.8 to about 5.0 weight percent dextrose or about 0.8 to about 1.0 weight percent sodium chloride. In one embodiment, the IV solution of this invention comprises: about 2 mg of ranolazine per mL of IV solution; and either about 4.8 to about 5.0 weight percent dextrose or about 0.9 weight percent sodium chloride. The IV solutions described herein can be prepared from a stock solution comprising a 20 mL container for single use delivery which container comprises a sterile aqueous solution of ranolazine at a concentration of about 25 mg/mL; either about 36 mg/mL dextrose monohydrate or about 0.9 weight percent sodium chloride; and having a pH of about 4. Surprisingly, employing such high concentrations of ranolazine and dextrose monohydrate or ranolazine and sodium chloride in the stock solutions provide for compositions which are stable and have adequate shelf-lives, preferably of greater than 6 months. Exemplary methods for preparing the stock solutions are described in Examples 1 and 2. In a typical setting, two 20 mL containers described herein are injected into an IV container containing 460 mL of sterile saline (0.9 weight percent (w %) sodium chloride) or an aqueous dextrose solution (water containing 5 weight percent dextrose monohydrate) to provide for an IV solution of about 2 mg/mL of ranolazine maintained at physiologically acceptable pH. Containers useful herein include, but are not limited to, vials, syringes, bottles, IV bags, and the like. In another embodiment, the intravenous formulation as above, is diluted with a sterile diluent prior to use. In one embodiment, the sterile diluent is 5% dextrose or a 0.9 weight percent saline solution. In one embodiment, the intravenous formulation is further diluted into bags of sterile diluent. Oral Formulation In one embodiment, a formulation of ranolazine is an oral formulation. In one embodiment, an oral formulation of ranolazine is a tablet. In one embodiment, the tablet of ranolazine is up to 500 mg. In another embodiment, the tablet of ranolazine is up to 1000 mg. In a preferred embodiment, the ranolazine tablet is 375 mg, and/or 500 mg. The oral formulation of ranolazine is thoroughly discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,607 and U.S. Publication No. 2003/0220344, which are both incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. The oral sustained release ranolazine dosage formulations of this invention are administered one, twice, or three times in a 24 hour period in order to maintain a plasma ranolazine level above the threshold therapeutic level and below the maximally tolerated levels, which is preferably a plasma level of about 550 to 7500 ng base/mL in a patient. In a preferred embodiment, the plasma level of ranolazine ranges about 1500-3500 ng base/mL. In order to achieve the preferred plasma ranolazine level, it is preferred that the oral ranolazine dosage forms described herein are administered once or twice daily. If the dosage forms are administered twice daily, then it is preferred that the oral ranolazine dosage forms are administered at about twelve hour intervals. In addition to formulating and administering oral sustained release dosage forms of this invention in a manner that controls the plasma ranolazine levels, it is also important to minimize the difference between peak and trough plasma ranolazine levels. The peak plasma ranolazine levels are typically achieved at from about 30 minutes to eight hours or more after initially ingesting the dosage form while trough plasma ranolazine levels are achieved at about the time of ingestion of the next scheduled dosage form. It is preferred that the sustained release dosage forms of this invention are administered in a manner that allows for a peak ranolazine level no more than 8 times greater than the trough ranolazine level, preferably no more than 4 times greater than the trough ranolazine level, preferably no more than 3 times greater than the trough ranolazine level, and most preferably no greater than 2 times trough ranolazine level. The sustained release ranolazine formulations of this invention provide the therapeutic advantage of minimizing variations in ranolazine plasma concentration while permitting, at most, twice-daily administration. The formulation may be administered alone, or (at least initially) in combination with an immediate release formulation if rapid achievement of a therapeutically effective plasma concentration of ranolazine is desired or by soluble IV formulations and oral dosage forms. Without limiting the scope of the invention, the formulations of the invention can be used for treating various diseases, such as, cardiovascular diseases e.g., arteriosclerosis, hypertension, arrhythmia (e.g. ischemic arrhythmia, arrhythmia due to myocardial infarction, myocardial stunning, myocardial dysfunction, arrhythmia after PTCA or after thrombolysis, etc.), angina pectoris, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, heart failure (e.g., congestive heart failure, acute heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy, etc.), restenosis after PTCA, PTCI (percutaneous transluminal coronary intervention), and shock (e.g., hemorrhagic shock, endotoxin shock, etc.); renal diseases e.g., diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance or pre-diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, ischemic acute renal insufficiency, etc.; organ disorders associated with ischemia or ischemic reperfusion e.g., heart muscle ischemic reperfusion associated disorders, acute renal insufficiency, or disorders induced by surgical treatment such as CABG (coronary artery bypass grafting) surgeries, vascular surgeries, organ transplantation, non-cardiac surgeries or PTCA; cerebrovascular diseases e.g., ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, etc.; cerebro ischemic disorders e.g., disorders associated with cerebral infarction, disorders caused after cerebral apoplexy such as sequelae, or cerebral edema; and ischemia induced in donor tissues used in transplants where donor tissues include but are not limited to, renal transplants, skin grafts, cardiac transplants, lung transplants, corneal transplants, and liver transplants. The formulations of this invention can also be used as an agent for myocardial protection during CABG surgeries, vascular surgeries, PTCA, PTCI, organ transplantation, or non-cardiac surgeries. Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for myocardial protection before, during, or after CABG surgeries, vascular surgeries, PTCA, organ transplantation, or non-cardiac surgeries. Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for myocardial protection in patients presenting with ongoing cardiac (acute coronary syndromes, e.g., myocardial infarction or unstable angina) or cerebral ischemic events (e.g., stroke). Preferably, the formulations of this invention can be used for chronic myocardial protection in patients with diagnosed coronary heart disease (e.g., previous myocardial infarction or unstable angina) or patients who are at high risk for myocardial infarction (age greater than 65 and two or more risk factors for coronary heart disease). Pharmaceutical Compositions and Administration The compounds of the invention are usually administered in the form of pharmaceutical compositions. This invention therefore provides pharmaceutical compositions that contain, as the active ingredient, one or more of the compounds of the invention, or an isomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, carriers, including inert solid diluents and fillers, diluents, including sterile aqueous solution and various organic solvents, permeation enhancers, solubilizers and adjuvants. The compounds of the invention may be administered alone or in combination with other therapeutic agents. Such compositions are prepared in a manner well known in the pharmaceutical art (see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mace Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 17th Ed. (1985) and “Modern Pharmaceutics”, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 3rd Ed. (G. S. Banker & C. T. Rhodes, Eds.). One preferred mode for administration is parental, particularly by injection. The forms in which the novel compositions of the present invention may be incorporated for administration by injection include aqueous or oil suspensions, or emulsions, with sesame oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, or peanut oil, as well as elixirs, mannitol, dextrose, or a sterile aqueous solution, and similar pharmaceutical vehicles. Aqueous solutions in saline are also conventionally used for injection, but less preferred in the context of the present invention. Ethanol, glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like (and suitable mixtures thereof), cyclodextrin derivatives, and vegetable oils may also be employed. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. The prevention of the action of microorganisms can be brought about by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating the compound of the invention in the required amount in the appropriate solvent with various other ingredients as enumerated above, as required, followed by filtration and sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the various sterilized active ingredients into a sterile vehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum-drying and freeze-drying techniques which yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. Oral administration is another route for administration of the compounds of Formula I. Administration may be via tablet, capsule or enteric-coated tablets, or the like. In making the pharmaceutical compositions that include at least one compound of either Formula I, the active ingredient is usually diluted by an excipient and/or enclosed within a carrier such that the formulation can be in the form of a capsule, sachet, paper or other container. When the excipient serves as a diluent, it can be a solid, semi-solid, or liquid material (as above), which acts as a vehicle, carrier or medium for the active ingredient. Thus, the compositions can be in the form of tablets, pills, powders, lozenges, sachets, cachets, elixirs, suspensions, emulsions, solutions, syrups, aerosols (as a solid or in a liquid medium), ointments containing, for example, up to 10% by weight of the active compound, soft and hard gelatin capsules, sterile injectable solutions, and sterile packaged powders. Some examples of suitable excipients include lactose, dextrose, sucrose, sorbitol, mannitol, starches, gum acacia, calcium phosphate, alginates, tragacanth, gelatin, calcium silicate, microcrystalline cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulose, sterile water, syrup, and methyl cellulose. The formulations can additionally include: lubricating agents such as talc, magnesium stearate, and mineral oil; wetting agents; emulsifying and suspending agents; preserving agents such as methyl- and propylhydroxy-benzoates; sweetening agents; and flavoring agents. The compositions of the invention can be formulated so as to provide quick, sustained or delayed release of the active ingredient after administration to the patient by employing procedures known in the art. Controlled release drug delivery systems for oral administration include osmotic pump systems and dissolutional systems containing polymer-coated reservoirs or drug-polymer matrix formulations. Examples of controlled release systems are given in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770; 4,326,525; 4,902,514; 5,616,345; and WO 0013687. Another formulation for use in the methods of the present invention employs transdermal delivery devices (“patches”). Such transdermal patches may be used to provide continuous or discontinuous infusion of the compounds of the present invention in controlled amounts. The construction and use of transdermal patches for the delivery of pharmaceutical agents is well known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,023,252, 4,992,445 and 5,001,139. Such patches may be constructed for continuous, pulsatile, or on demand delivery of pharmaceutical agents. The compositions are preferably formulated in a unit dosage form. The term “unit dosage forms” refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human subjects and other mammals, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect, in association with a suitable pharmaceutical excipient (e.g., a tablet, capsule, ampoule). The compounds of Formula I are effective over a wide dosage range and are generally administered in a pharmaceutically effective amount. Preferably, for oral administration, each dosage unit contains from 10 mg to 2 g of a compound of Formula I, more preferably 10 to 1500 mg, more preferably from 10 to 1000 mg, more preferably from 10 to 700 mg, and for parenteral administration, preferably from 10 to 700 mg of a compound of Formula I, more preferably about 50 to 200 mg. It will be understood, however, that the amount of the compound of Formula I actually administered will be determined by a physician, in the light of the relevant circumstances, including the condition to be treated, the chosen route of administration, the actual compound administered and its relative activity, the age, weight, and response of the individual patient, the severity of the patient's symptoms, and the like. For preparing solid compositions such as tablets, the principal active ingredient is mixed with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a solid preformulation composition containing a homogeneous mixture of a compound of the present invention. When referring to these preformulation compositions as homogeneous, it is meant that the active ingredient is dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition may be readily subdivided into equally effective unit dosage forms such as tablets, pills and capsules. The tablets or pills of the present invention may be coated or otherwise compounded to provide a dosage form affording the advantage of prolonged action, or to protect from the acid conditions of the stomach. For example, the tablet or pill can comprise an inner dosage and an outer dosage component, the latter being in the form of an envelope over the former. The two components can be separated by an enteric layer that serves to resist disintegration in the stomach and permits the inner component to pass intact into the duodenum or to be delayed in release. A variety of materials can be used for such enteric layers or coatings, such materials including a number of polymeric acids and mixtures of polymeric acids with such materials as shellac, cetyl alcohol, and cellulose acetate. In one embodiment, the preferred compositions of the invention are formulated so as to provide quick, sustained or delayed release of the active ingredient after administration to the patient, especially sustained release formulations. The most preferred compound of the invention is ranolazine, which is named (±)-N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-4-[2-hydroxy-3-(2 methoxyphenoxy)propyl]-1-piperazine-acetamide, or its isomers, or its pharmaceutically effective salts. Unless otherwise stated, the ranolazine plasma concentrations used in the specification and examples refer to ranolazine free base. The preferred sustained release formulations of this invention are preferably in the form of a compressed tablet comprising an intimate mixture of compound and a partially neutralized pH-dependent binder that controls the rate of dissolution in aqueous media across the range of pH in the stomach (typically approximately 2) and in the intestine (typically approximately about 5.5). An example of a sustained release formulation is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,303,607; 6,479,496; 6,369,062; and 6,525,057, the complete disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. To provide for a sustained release of compound, one or more pH-dependent binders are chosen to control the dissolution profile of the compound so that the formulation releases the drug slowly and continuously as the formulation passed through the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. The dissolution control capacity of the pH-dependent binder(s) is particularly important in a sustained release formulation because a sustained release formulation that contains sufficient compound for twice daily administration may cause untoward side effects if the compound is released too rapidly (“dose-dumping”). Accordingly, the pH-dependent binders suitable for use in this invention are those which inhibit rapid release of drug from a tablet during its residence in the stomach (where the pH is below about 4.5), and which promotes the release of a therapeutic amount of compound from the dosage form in the lower gastrointestinal tract (where the pH is generally greater than about 4.5). Many materials known in the pharmaceutical art as “enteric” binders and coating agents have the desired pH dissolution properties. These include phthalic acid derivatives such as the phthalic acid derivatives of vinyl polymers and copolymers, hydroxyalkylcelluloses, alkylcelluloses, cellulose acetates, hydroxyalkylcellulose acetates, cellulose ethers, alkylcellulose acetates, and the partial esters thereof, and polymers and copolymers of lower alkyl acrylic acids and lower alkyl acrylates, and the partial esters thereof. Preferred pH-dependent binder materials that can be used in conjunction with the compound to create a sustained release formulation are methacrylic acid copolymers. Methacrylic acid copolymers are copolymers of methacrylic acid with neutral acrylate or methacrylate esters such as ethyl acrylate or methyl methacrylate. A most preferred copolymer is methacrylic acid copolymer, Type C, USP (which is a copolymer of methacrylic acid and ethyl acrylate having between 46.0% and 50.6% methacrylic acid units). Such a copolymer is commercially available, from Röhm Pharma as Eudragit® L 100-55 (as a powder) or L30D-55 (as a 30% dispersion in water). Other pH-dependent binder materials which may be used alone or in combination in a sustained release formulation dosage form include hydroxypropyl cellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, cellulose acetate phthalate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, polyvinylpyrrolidone phthalate, and the like. One or more pH-independent binders may be in used in sustained release formulations in oral dosage forms. It is to be noted that pH-dependent binders and viscosity enhancing agents such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, neutral poly(meth)acrylate esters, and the like, may not themselves provide the required dissolution control provided by the identified pH-dependent binders. The pH-independent binders may be present in the formulation of this invention in an amount ranging from about 1 to about 10 wt %, and preferably in amount ranging from about 1 to about 3 wt % and most preferably about 2.0 wt %. As shown in Table 1, the preferred compound of the invention, ranolazine, is relatively insoluble in aqueous solutions having a pH above about 6.5, while the solubility begins to increase dramatically below about pH 6. TABLE 1 Solution pH Solubility (mg/mL) USP Solubility Class 4.81 161 Freely Soluble 4.89 73.8 Soluble 4.90 76.4 Soluble 5.04 49.4 Soluble 5.35 16.7 Sparingly Soluble 5.82 5.48 Slightly soluble 6.46 1.63 Slightly soluble 6.73 0.83 Very slightly soluble 7.08 0.39 Very slightly soluble 7.59 0.24 Very slightly soluble (unbuffered water) 7.79 0.17 Very slightly soluble 12.66 0.18 Very slightly soluble Increasing the pH-dependent binder content in the formulation decreases the release rate of the sustained release form of the compound from the formulation at pH is below 4.5 typical of the pH found in the stomach. The enteric coating formed by the binder is less soluble and increases the relative release rate above pH 4.5, where the solubility of compound is lower. A proper selection of the pH-dependent binder allows for a quicker release rate of the compound from the formulation above pH 4.5, while greatly affecting the release rate at low pH. Partial neutralization of the binder facilitates the conversion of the binder into a latex like film which forms around the individual granules. Accordingly, the type and the quantity of the pH-dependent binder and amount of the partial neutralization composition are chosen to closely control the rate of dissolution of compound from the formulation. The dosage forms of this invention should have a quantity of pH-dependent binders sufficient to produce a sustained release formulation from which the release rate of the compound is controlled such that at low pHs (below about 4.5) the rate of dissolution is significantly slowed. In the case of methacrylic acid copolymer, type C, USP (Eudragit® L 100-55), a suitable quantity of pH-dependent binder is between 5% and 15%. The pH dependent binder will typically have from about 1 to about 20% of the binder methacrylic acid carboxyl groups neutralized. However, it is preferred that the degree of neutralization ranges from about 3 to 6%. The sustained release formulation may also contain pharmaceutical excipients intimately admixed with the compound and the pH-dependent binder. Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may include, for example, pH-independent binders or film-forming agents such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, neutral poly(meth)acrylate esters (e.g. the methyl methacrylate/ethyl acrylate copolymers sold under the trademark Eudragit® NE by Röhm Pharma, starch, gelatin, sugars carboxymethylcellulose, and the like. Other useful pharmaceutical excpients include diluents such as lactose, mannitol, dry starch, microcrystalline cellulose and the like; surface active agents such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters, sorbitan esters and the like; and coloring agents and flavoring agents. Lubricants (such as tale and magnesium stearate) and other tableting aids are also optionally present. The sustained release formulations of this invention have an active compound content of above about 50% by weight to about 95% or more by weight, more preferably between about 70% to about 90% by weight and most preferably from about 70 to about 80% by weight; a pH-dependent binder content of between 5% and 40%, preferably between 5% and 25%, and more preferably between 5% and 15%; with the remainder of the dosage form comprising pH-independent binders, fillers, and other optional excipients. One particularly preferred sustained release formulations of this invention is shown below in Table 2. TABLE 2 Weight Preferred Ingredient Range (%) Range (%) Most Preferred Active ingredient 50-95 70-90 75 Microcrystalline cellulose (filler) 1-35 5-15 10.6 Methacrylic acid copolymer 1-35 5-12.5 10.0 Sodium hydroxide 0.1-1.0 0.2-0.6 0.4 Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 0.5-5.0 1-3 2.0 Magnesium stearate 0.5-5.0 1-3 2.0 The sustained release formulations of this invention are prepared as follows: compound and pH-dependent binder and any optional excipients are intimately mixed (dry-blended). The dry-blended mixture is then granulated in the presence of an aqueous solution of a strong base that is sprayed into the blended powder. The granulate is dried, screened, mixed with optional lubricants (such as talc or magnesium stearate), and compressed into tablets. Preferred aqueous solutions of strong bases are solutions of alkali metal hydroxides, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide, preferably sodium hydroxide, in water (optionally containing up to 25% of water-miscible solvents such as lower alcohols). The resulting tablets may be coated with an optional film-forming agent, for identification, taste-masking purposes and to improve ease of swallowing. The film forming agent will typically be present in an amount ranging from between 2% and 4% of the tablet weight. Suitable film-forming agents are well known to the art and include hydroxypropyl. methylcellulose, cationic methacrylate copolymers (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate/methyl-butyl methacrylate copolymers—Eudragit® E—Röhm. Pharma), and the like. These film-forming agents may optionally contain colorants, plasticizers, and other supplemental ingredients. The compressed tablets preferably have a hardness sufficient to withstand 8 Kp compression. The tablet size will depend primarily upon the amount of compound in the tablet. The tablets will include from 300 to 1100 mg of compound free base. Preferably, the tablets will include amounts of compound free base ranging from 400-600 mg, 650-850 mg, and 900-1100 mg. In order to influence the dissolution rate, the time during which the compound containing powder is wet mixed is controlled. Preferably the total powder mix time, i.e. the time during which the powder is exposed to sodium hydroxide solution, will range from 1 to 10 minutes and preferably from 2 to 5 minutes. Following granulation, the particles are removed from the granulator and placed in a fluid bed dryer for drying at about 60° C. It has been found that these methods produce sustained release formulations that provide lower peak plasma levels and yet effective plasma concentrations of compound for up to 12 hours and more after administration, when the compound is used as its free base, rather than as the more pharmaceutically common dihydrochloride salt or as another salt or ester. The use of free base affords at least one advantage: The proportion of compound in the tablet can be increased, since the molecular weight of the free base is only 85% that of the dihydrochloride. In this manner, delivery of an effective amount of compound is achieved while limiting the physical size of the dosage unit. Utility and Testing The method is effective in the treatment of diabetes. Activity testing is conducted as described in the Examples below, and by methods apparent to one skilled in the art. The Examples that follow serve to illustrate this invention. The Examples are intended to in no way limit the scope of this invention, but are provided to show how to make and use the compounds of this invention. In the Examples, all temperatures are in degrees Centigrade. Examples 1-4 illustrate the preparation of representative pharmaceutical formulations containing a compound of Formula I. EXAMPLE 1 20-mL Type 1 flint vial of Ranolazine Injection filled to deliver 20 mL (at 1, 5, or mg/mL ranolazine concentration). Compositions: Ranolazine 1.0, 5.0, 25.0 mg/mL Dextrose monohydrate 55.0, 52.0, 36.0 mg/mL Hydrochloric acid q.s. pH to 4.0 ± 0.2 Sodium hydroxide q.s. pH to 4.0 ± 0.2 Water for Injection q.s. Container/Closure System: Vial: Type 1 Flint, 20-cc, 20-mm finish Stopper: Rubber, 20-mm, West 4432/50, gray butyl, teflon coated Seal: Aluminum, 20-mm, flip-top oversea Method of Manufacture The intraveous formulation of ranolazine is manufactured via an aseptic fill process as follows. In a suitable vessel, the required amount of dextrose monohydrate was dissolved in Water for Injection (WFI) at about 78% of the final batch weight. With continuous stirring, the required amount of ranolazine was added to the dextrose solution. To facilitate the dissolution of ranolazine, the solution pH was adjusted to a target of 3.88-3.92 with an 0.1 N or 1.0 N HCl solution. Additionally, 1 N NaOH may have been utilized to further adjust the solution to the target pH of 3.88-3.92. After ranolazine was dissolved, the batch was adjusted to the final weight with WFI. Upon confirmation that in-process specifications had been met, the ranolazine-formulated bulk solution was sterilized by sterile filtration through two 0.2 μm sterile filters. Subsequently, the sterile ranolazine-formulated bulk solution was aseptically filled into sterile glass vials and aseptically stoppered with sterile stoppers. The stoppered vials were then sealed with clean flip-top aluminum overseals. The vials then went through a final inspection. EXAMPLE 2 20-mL Type 1 flint vial of Ranolazine Injection are filled to deliver 20 mL (25 mg/mL concentration). Composition: Ranolazine 25.0 mg/mL Dextrose monohydrate 36.0 mg/mL Hydrochloric acid Adjust pH to 3.3-4.7 Water for Injection q.s. Container/Closure System: Vial: Type 1 tubing, untreated, 20-mL, 20-mm finish Stopper: Rubber, 20-mm, West 4432/50, gray butyl Seal: Aluminum, 20-mm, blue flip-off overseal Method of Manufacture Water for Injection (WFI) is charged in a suitable vessel at about 90% of the final batch weight. About 90-95% of the required amount of 5 N HCl is added into the compounding vessel. With continuous stirring, the required amount of ranolazine is slowly added, followed by the addition of dextrose monohydrate into the ranolazine solution. To solubilize ranolazine, the solution pH is adjusted with 5 N HCl solution to a target of 3.9-4.1. The batch is subsequently adjusted to the final weight with WFI. Upon confirmation that in-process specifications have been met, the ranolazine-formulated bulk solution is sterilized by filtration through two redundant 0.22 μm sterilizing filters. The sterile ranolazine-formulated bulk solution is then aseptically filled into 20 mL sterile/depyrogenated vials and aseptically stoppered with sterile/depyrogenated stoppers. The stoppered vials are sealed with clean flip-top aluminum overseals. The sealed vials are terminally sterilized by a validated terminal sterilization cycle at 121.1° C. for 30 minutes. After the terminal sterilization process, the vials go through an inspection. To protect the drug product from light, the vials are individually packaged into carton boxes. EXAMPLE 3 Patients with Diabetes or the Metabolic Syndrome Presenting with Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome (NSTEACS) Background Data obtained from a clinical trial of patients admitted with non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTEACS) was evaluated to determine the prevalence and outcome of those patients also suffering with diabetes and/or metabolic syndrome. The patients were treated with ranolazine which has been associated with improved glycemic parameters. See U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/443,314, published as US 2004/0063717, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Methods MERLIN-TIMI 36 randomized 6560 patients at presentation with NSTEACS were treated with either placebo or the anti-ischemic agent ranolazine, which has also been associated with improved glycemic parameters. Median clinical follow-up was 12 months. Metabolic syndrome was defined as having any 3 of the following: 1) waist circumference ≧102 cm (men) and ≧88 cm (women), 2) triglycerides (TG) ≧150 mg/dL or drug treatment for elevated TG, 3) High density lipoproteins (HDL) <40 mg/dL (men) and <50 mg/dL (women), or drug treatment for reduced HDL, 4) Systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≧130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≧85 mmHg or drug treatment for hypertension, and 5) fasting glucose >100 mg/dL. Results At randomization, 2191 (33.4%) of all patient carried a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (DM) and 2628 (40.1%) patients had metabolic syndrome. Patients with DM and metabolic syndrome were more likely to be female and have known coronary artery disease and had higher TIMI Risk scores at presentation, but were less likely to have an index diagnosis of NSTEMI (44.8% for DM v. 51.2% for metabolic syndrome v. 62.8% for no diagnosis, p<0.001). The rate of revascularization was similar among all groups (40.4% v. 39.7% v. 37.4%, p=0.11). There was a stepwise increase in the risk of severe recurrent ischemia, myocardial infarction, and cardiovascular death in patients with DM at highest risk followed by those with metabolic syndrome and then patients with neither at lowest risk. (FIG. 1). Conclusions Metabolic syndrome and diabetes are common among patients presenting with NSTEACS and confer increased cardiovascular risk. EXAMPLE 4 Sustained release tablets containing the following ingredients are prepared: Weight A preferred Ingredient Range (%) Ranolazine Form'n (mg) Ranolazine 75 500 Microcrystalline cellulose 10.6 70.7 (filler) Methacrylic acid copolymer 10.0 66.7 Sodium hydroxide 0.4 2.7 Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 2.0 13.3 Magnesium stearate 2.0 13.3 Compound and pH-dependent binder and any optional excipients are intimately mixed (dry-blended). The dry-blended mixture is then granulated in the presence of an aqueous solution of a strong base that is sprayed into the blended powder. The granulate is dried, screened, mixed with optional lubricants (such as talc or magnesium stearate), and compressed into tablets. Preferred aqueous solutions of strong bases are solutions of alkali metal hydroxides, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide, preferably sodium hydroxide, in water (optionally containing up to 25% of water-miscible solvents such as lower alcohols). The resulting tablets may be coated with an optional film-forming agent, for identification, taste-masking purposes and to improve ease of swallowing. The film forming agent will typically be present in an amount ranging from between 2% and 4% of the tablet weight. Suitable film-forming agents are well known to the art and include hydroxypropyl. methylcellulose, cationic methacrylate copolymers (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate/methyl-butyl methacrylate copolymers—Eudragit® E—Röhm. Pharma), and the like. These film-forming agents may optionally contain colorants, plasticizers, and other supplemental ingredients. The compressed tablets preferably have a hardness sufficient to withstand 8 Kp compression. The tablet size will depend primarily upon the amount of compound in the tablet. The tablets will include from 300 to 1100 mg of compound free base. Preferably, the tablets will include amounts of compound free base ranging from 400-600 mg, 650-850 mg, and 900-1100 mg. In order to influence the dissolution rate, the time during which the compound containing powder is wet mixed is controlled. Preferably the total powder mix time, i.e. the time during which the powder is exposed to sodium hydroxide solution, will range from 1 to 10 minutes and preferably from 2 to 5 minutes. Following granulation, the particles are removed from the granulator and placed in a fluid bed dryer for drying at about 60° C. EXAMPLE 5 Hemoglobin A1c Assays HbA1c levels were assayed following a modification of the method of Phillipov (Components of total measurement error for hemoglobin A1c determination. Phillipov, G., et al. Clin. Chem. (2001), 47(10):1851). (see FIG. 2) EXAMPLE 6 Triglyceride Levels Test compounds, dissolved in DMSO and suspended in 0.5% tylose, are administered perorally by means of a pharyngeal tube to Syrian gold hamsters. To determine the CETP activity, blood samples (approximately 250.mu.l) are taken by retro-orbital puncture prior to the start of the experiment. The compounds are subsequently administered perorally using a pharyngeal tube. Identical volumes of solvent without compounds are administered to the control animals. Subsequently, the animals are fasted. Then at various times, up to 24 hours after administration of the compounds, blood samples are taken by puncture of the retro-orbital venous plexus. The blood samples are coagulated by incubation at 4° C. overnight. The samples are centrifuged at 6000×.g for 10 minutes. The concentration of cholesterol and triglycerides in the resulting serum are determined using modifications of commercially available enzyme tests (cholesterol enzymatic 14366 Merck, triglycerides 14364 Merck). EXAMPLE 7 In order to study the anti-diabetic actions of the compounds, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus can be induced by chemical destruction of the pancreas with an i.v. injection of STZ (60 mg/kg, controls can be given saline vehicle). The volume of the injection is equivalent to 0.1 ml/100 g body weight. The injection is delivered into the pre-cannulated jugular vein of young (190-220 g) male Sprague Dawley rats (see below for procedure). At the same time osmotic mini pumps are implanted subcutaneously (see below for procedure) to deliver drugs at a constant rate over the course of the study. Depending on the length of the study, a second mini pump may need to be implanted. In order to confirm the diabetic state, animals have a blood sample taken from the tail (snip the end off the tail) and their blood glucose determined. Animals with blood glucose levels exceeding 13 mM are considered diabetic and randomized into 4 groups. Two groups receive insulin injections subcutaneously daily to achieve partial glucose control (fasting glucose levels approximately 50% of uncontrolled diabetic animals). One of the partially controlled diabetic groups is treated with the test compound. In addition, two non-diabetic groups are included, one receives the test compound and one does not. Neither of the non-diabetic groups of rats receive insulin. On a weekly basis, 500 μL blood samples are taken by retro-orbital eye bleed, in isofluorane-anesthetized animals for determinations of the following: blood glucose, serum non-esterified free fatty acids, serum triglycerides, HbA1c, serum insulin, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and serum concentrations of the test compound. Body weight is also measured weekly. Once stable HbA1c is reached, the study is terminated. When this is established, animals are cannulated in the carotid artery following aseptic techniques. Blood pressure is measured in anesthetized and awake rats. The next day, an oral glucose tolerance test is performed. An oral glucose tolerance test involves administering 1 g glucose/kg by gavage. Arterial blood samples (0.3 ml) are collected through the jugular catheter that was previously used for measuring blood pressure, prior to and at 10, 20, 30, and 60 min following the glucose challenge and the plasma separated for glucose and insulin assays. Induction of STZ-Diabetes and Implantation of Osmotic Mini Pumps. Under isofluorane anesthesia, the tails of rats are cleaned with warm water followed by ethanol. A tail vein injection of either STZ or saline is made under anesthesia, using sterile needles and syringe and filter-sterilized solutions. Following i.v. injection, the area has pressure applied to prevent bleeding, and the animal is placed in a clean cage with sterile bedding. In addition to the STZ or saline injection, at the initial time of anesthesia, rats have mini-pumps implanted subcutaneously in the neck region. If the study proceeds beyond 4-weeks, a second implantation is performed. Basically, a small area of the neck is shaved and cleaned extensively with an iodine solution, a small 1-cm incision using a scalpel is made in the dermal layer and the pump is inserted aseptically port-first into the Sub-Q space. The incision is then closed with 1-2 surgical staples as required. Implantation of Carotid Artery Catheter for Measurement of Blood Pressure and Implementation of Oral Glucose Tolerance Test. Following conditions using sterile techniques and instruments, an anesthetized rat is laid on its back with the head toward the surgeon and lubricating ointment placed in both eyes. A midline incision is made along the neck to expose the left common carotid artery. A tunnel is made for the catheter using blunt dissection in the subcutaneous pocket on the dorsal section of the neck where it is externalized. Half-curved forceps are used to isolate the artery and soft plastic tubing passed under the posterior portion of the artery to temporarily impede the blood flow to the isolated area. The anterior portion of the external carotid artery is then ligated with a piece of 4-0 silk suture and light tension is created on the artery by anchoring a pair of hemostats to the ends of the suture material. The external carotid is then semi-transected and a 0.033 or 0.040 mm O.D. catheter inserted and pushed toward the aorta, (around 2-3-cm deep). The catheter is tied in place, secured to the pectoral muscle to prevent removal of the catheter, and the anterior portion of the external carotid permanently ligated and observed for any leakage of blood. Externally, the catheter is tied at the back of the neck and a piece of suture tied around the knot leaving both ends about 2 inches long for retrieval from under the skin. The knotted catheter is retracted back under the skin to prevent being pulled out by the rat. For blood pressure measurements, the catheter is attached to a pressure transducer and a data-acquisition system. For blood glucose tolerance testing, the catheter is attached to a needle and syringe for collection of blood samples. EXAMPLE 8 In order to study the anti-diabetic actions of the compounds, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus are induced by chemical destruction of the pancreas with an i.v. injection of STZ (60 mg/kg, controls are given saline vehicle). The volume of the injection is equivalent to 0.1 ml/100 g body weight. The injection is delivered into the pre-cannulated jugular vein of young (280-300 g) male Sprague Dawley rats with 2 catheters surgically implanted in the jugular vein and external carotid artery. In order to confirm the diabetic state, animals have a blood sample taken from the cannula and their blood glucose is determined. Animals with blood glucose levels exceeding 13 mM are considered diabetic. The pre-implanted catheter is flushed daily with heparinized saline to maintain patency. One week after the induction of diabetes, rats undergo pharmacokinetic studies with the compounds of the invention. Animals have their catheters retrieved from under the skin and tested for patency. An injection plug is attached to a 19-gauge IV set, filled with 0.1% heparinized saline and the needle end inserted into the catheters. The test compound(s) is (are) administered via the jugular vein catheter either by bolus injection or steady infusion, or by oral gavage (1 ml/kg and 2 ml/kg, respectively). At 10 time points using 5-6 animals, 300 μl of blood is drawn from the line in the carotid artery and 300 μl saline flushed in to replace blood volume. 300 μl of blood at 10 time points from a 300 μm animal represents 10% total blood volume. If a 24-hour sample is drawn, the catheters are tied off at skin level and the animals returned to their cages. They are then sacrificed at 24 hours by exanguination under anesthesia to collect the last blood sample. If there is no 24-hour sample, the animals are sacrificed by exanguination under anesthesia at the last blood collection. EXAMPLE 9 Exercise Performance and Hemoglobin A1c in Angina Patients with Diabetes The CARISA (Combination Assessment of Ranolazine in Stable Angina) study randomized 823 symptomatic chronic angina patients on diltiazem, atenolol or amlodipine to ranolazine 750 mg bid, 1000 mg bid or placebo in a parallel, double-blind, 12 week study. Modified Bruce treadmill tests were performed at baseline, and after 2, 6, and 12 weeks of treatment at trough and peak plasma levels. The ranolazine formulation used in this study was that shown in Example 4. Ranolazine prolonged exercise duration (ED) similarly in both diabetic (D) and non-diabetic (ND) patients at trough (FIG. 3) and peak (FIG. 4). The 750 mg dose of ranolazine prolonged exercise duration at trough drug concentrations by 29 seconds in angina patients with diabetes and by 22 seconds in non-diabetic angina patients. The 1000 mg dose of ranolazine prolonged exercise duration at trough drug concentrations by 34 seconds in angina patients with diabetes and by 21 seconds in non-diabetic angina patients. Time to angina increased on ranolazine (FIG. 5) and angina frequency decreased. The improvement with ranolazine was not significantly different in D vs. ND patients (treatment by diabetes interaction p-values ≧0.26). Adverse events were similar: 25%, 25% and 34% of D had at least one adverse event on placebo, ranolazine 750 and 1000 mg respectively vs. 27%, 33%, and 32% in ND patients. Ranolazine 750 and 1000 mg bid were associated with an average absolute reduction HbA1c of 0.48 percentage points and 0.70 percentage points, respectively compared to placebo at 12 weeks (p<0.01) (FIG. 6). The reductions were greater in those patients on insulin (0.8 and 1.1 percentage points, respectively) (FIG. 7). Glucose and triglyceride values for the diabetic patients in the study are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 Glucose and Triglyceride Values (all diabetic patients) RAN 750 mg RAN 1000 mg Placebo bid bid Glucose (mg/dL) Baseline 177.8 ± 10.8 168 ± 8.0 165.2 ± 7.8 Change from baseline 1.2 ± 7.1 8.0 ± 8.8 1.7 ± 7.2 Triglycerides (mg/dL) Baseline 233.0 ± 56.8 192.0 ± 14.5 196 ± 17.5 Change from Baseline 26.3 ± 21.2 21.2 ± 13.5 −7.3 ± 9.3 All values are Mean ± SEM EXAMPLE 10 Carbohydrate and Lipid Parameters in MARISA and CARISA Ranolazine (RAN) increased treadmill exercise capacity in patients with chronic angina both alone (MARISA, N=191) and when added to background anti-anginal therapy with atenolol, diltiazem, or amlodipine (CARISA, N=823). Angina frequency and nitroglycerin consumption were reduced by ranolazine. The ranolazine formulation used in the CARISA and MARISA studies was that shown in Example 4. The most frequently reported adverse events (dizziness constipation and nausea) were generally mild and occurred in fewer than 10% of patients. The potential use of ranolazine in diabetics is of interest because approximately one in four angina patients has diabetes. Efficacy and tolerability of ranolazine were similar in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients in both MARISA and CARISA. In diabetic patients in CARISA (N=131), ranolazine 750 and 1000 mg bid were associated with a mean absolute reduction in HbA1c of 0.48 percentage points and 0.70 percentage points, respectively, compared to placebo at 12 weeks (each p<0.01). The reductions versus placebo were greater in those patients on insulin (N=31; 0.84 and 1.05 percentage points), on 750 and 1000 mg bid (p<0.02 and p<0.01), respectively. Fasting glucose was not affected by ranolazine in diabetic patients in CARISA, regardless of insulin treatment; one hypoglycemic episode was reported on placebo and one on ranolazine. After 12-24 months of open-label treatment, HbA1c decreased from baseline in the diabetic patients by 1.1 percentage points. During the first 12 weeks of ranolazine treatment of diabetic patients in CARISA, mean total and LDL cholesterol increased by up to 16 and 11 mg/dL, respectively; however, because of mean increases in HDL cholesterol up to 5 mg/dL, the HDL/LDL ratio changed little. Over 3 years of open-label treatment in the combined MARISA/CARISA diabetic population, total and LDL cholesterol decreased from baseline, while HDL cholesterol continued to increase. EXAMPLE 11 Effect of Ranolazine on Hyperglycemia in the MERLIN-TIMI 36 Randomized Controlled Trial Background A prospective evaluation of the effect of ranolazine on hyperglycemia as part of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Methods MERLIN-TIMI 36 randomized patients with non-ST elevation ACS to ranolazine or placebo to compare HbA1c (%) and the time to onset of worsening hyperglycemia (>1% increase in HbA1c). HbA1c data are reported as least-square means. Patients categorized as “diabetic” had been diagnosed as diabetic before or at the time of randomization. Patients categorized as “no diabetes” had not been diagnosed as diabetic before or at the time of randomization. Some patients characterized as “no diabetes” may have been diagnosed as “diabetic” during the trial; however, these patients are still listed in the “no diabetes” category in FIG. 8B. Results Among 4306 patients with serial measurements, ranolazine significantly reduced HbA1c at 4 months compared with placebo (5.9% vs. 6.2%, change from baseline −0.30 vs. −0.04 p=0.001). In patients with DM treated with ranolazine, HbA1c declined from 7.2 to 6.8 (Δ-0.64, p<0.001, see FIG. 8A). As such, patients with DM were significantly more likely to achieve an HbA1c <7% at 4 months when treated with ranolazine versus placebo (59% vs. 49%, p<0.001). In addition, worsening of hyperglycemia by 1 year of follow-up was less likely in diabetic patients treated with ranolazine (14.2% vs. 20.6%; HR 0.63; 95% CI 0.51, 0.77, p<0.001). Notably, in patients without DM at randomization or baseline (fasting glucose <100 mg/dL and HbA1c <6%), the incidence of new fasting glusose >110 mg/dL or HbA1c ≧6% was also reduced by ranolazine (31.8% vs. 41.2%; HR 0.68; 95% CI 0.53, 0.88; p=0.003; see FIG. 8B). Reported hypoglycemia in patents with DM was similar between treatment groups (3% vs 3$). Conclusion Ranolazine significantly improved HbA1c in patients with DM and reduced the incidence of newly increased HbA1c in those without evidence of previous hyperglycemia.
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A
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314
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95
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11726461
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US20070172481A1-20070726
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GDF3 propeptides and related methods
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ACCEPTED
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20070711
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20070726
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[]
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A61K39395
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["A61K39395", "C07K1622"]
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8293238
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20070321
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20121023
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424
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141100
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79834.0
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XIE
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XIAOZHEN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Knopf", "inventor_name_first": "John", "inventor_city": "Carlisle", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Seehra", "inventor_name_first": "Jasbir", "inventor_city": "Lexington", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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In certain aspects, the present invention provides compositions and methods for regulating body weight, in particular, for treating obesity and obesity-associate disorders. The present invention also provides methods of screening compounds that modulate activity of GDF3. The compositions and methods provided herein are also useful in treating diseases associated with abnormal activity of GDF3.
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1. An antibody that binds to a mature GDF3 peptide and competes with GDF3 propeptide for binding to the mature GDF3 peptide. 2. The antibody of claim 1, wherein the mature GDF3 peptide consists of the sequence of amino acids 317-424 of SEQ ID NO:3. 3. The antibody of claim 1, wherein the antibody comprises at least one CDR region that confers binding to the mature GDF3 peptide. 4. The antibody of claim 1, wherein the antibody is a humanized or fully human antibody. 5. A pharmaceutical preparation comprising an antibody of claim 1.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily contains a variety of growth factors that share common sequence elements and structural motifs. These proteins are known to exert biological effects on a large variety of cell types in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Many of members of the superfamily perform important functions during embryonic development in pattern formation and tissue specification and can influence a variety of differentiation processes, including adipogenesis, myogenesis, chondrogenesis, cardiogenesis, hematopoiesis, and epithelial cell differentiation. The family is divided into two general branches: the BMP/GDF and the TGF-beta/Activin/BMP10 branches, whose members have diverse, often complementary effects. By manipulating the activity of a member of the TGF-beta family, it is often possible to cause significant physiological changes in an organism. For example, the Piedmontese and Belgian Blue cattle breeds carry a loss-of-function mutation in the GDF-8/myostatin gene that causes a marked increase in muscle mass. Grobet et al., Nat Genet. 1997 September; 17(1):71-4. Changes in fat, bone, cartilage, muscle and other tissues may be achieved by agonizing or antagonizing signaling that is mediated by an appropriate TGF-beta family member. Thus, there is a need for agents (e.g., polypeptides) that function as potent regulators of TGF-beta signaling.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides GDF3 propeptides. Such propeptides may be used for the treatment of a variety of disorders, particularly disorders relating to body fat content or body weight, such as obesity and Type II diabetes. GDF3 propeptides may also be used to antagonize GDF3 generally, in any GDF3 related process, including, for example, cancers associated with GDF3 activity. GDF3 propeptides may antagonize other members of the BMP family and may therefore be useful in the treatment of additional disorders. Examples of GDF3 propeptides include the naturally occurring propeptides of GDF3, as well as functional variants thereof. Additionally, the disclosure provides antibodies that bind a mature GDF3 peptide in a manner similar to a GDF3 propeptide. Such antibodies may also be used to treat disorders relating to body fat content or body weight or other GDF3 related disorders. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides pharmaceutical preparations comprising a GDF3 propeptide that binds to a mature GDF3 polypeptide, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Optionally the GDF3 propeptide binds to a mature GDF3 with a Kd less than 10 micromolar or less than 1 micromolar, 100, 10 or 1 nanomolar. Optionally, the GDF3 propeptide inhibits an activity of mature GDF3, such as receptor binding or intracellular signal transduction events triggered by GDF3. A GDF3 propeptide for use in such a preparation may be any of those disclosed herein, such as a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2 or having an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97% or 99% identical to an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2. A GDF3 propeptide may include a functional fragment of a natural GDF3 propeptide, such as one comprising at least 10, 20 or 30 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:1 or 2. A GDF3 propeptide will generally not contain a full-length or functional portion of a mature GDF3 polypeptide, and preferably a GDF3 propeptide will include no more than 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 or 5 amino acids of a mature portion of a GDF3 polypeptide. A GDF3 propeptide may include one or more alterations in the amino acid sequence relative to a naturally occurring GDF3 propeptide. The alteration in the amino acid sequence may, for example, alter glycosylation of the polypeptide when produced in a mammalian, insect or other eukaryotic cell or alter proteolytic cleavage of the polypeptide relative to the naturally occurring GDF3 polypeptide. A GDF3 propeptide may be a fusion protein that has, as one domain, a GDF3 propeptide and one or more additional domains that provide a desirable property, such as improved pharmacokinetics, easier purification, targeting to particular tissues, etc. For example, a domain of a fusion protein may enhance one or more of in vivo stability, in vivo half life, uptake/administration, tissue localization or distribution, formation of protein complexes, multimerization of the fusion protein, and/or purification. A GDF3 propeptide fusion protein may include an immunoglobulin Fc domain or a serum albumin domain. A fusion protein may include a purification subsequence, such as an epitope tag, a FLAG tag, a polyhistidine sequence, and a GST fusion. A GDF3 propeptide may be fused to a polypeptide that blocks binding to a type I receptor. Optionally, a GDF3 propeptide includes one or more modified amino acid residues selected from: a glycosylated amino acid, a PEGylated amino acid, a farnesylated amino acid, an acetylated amino acid, a biotinylated amino acid, an amino acid conjugated to a lipid moiety, and an amino acid conjugated to an organic derivatizing agent. A pharmaceutical preparation may also include one or more additional compounds such as a compound that is used to treat a GDF3 associated disorder. Preferably, a pharmaceutical preparation is substantially pyrogen free. Preferably, a pharmaceutical composition comprising a GDF3 propeptide will not include, as a separate component, an active mature GDF3 protein. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides nucleic acids encoding a GDF3 propeptide that do not encode a complete, translatable mature portion of a GDF3. An isolated polynucleotide may comprise a coding sequence for a GDF3 propeptide, such as described above. An isolated nucleic acid may include a sequence coding for a GDF3 propeptide and a sequence that would code for part or all of a mature portion, but for a stop codon positioned within the mature portion or positioned between the propeptide and the mature portion. For example, an isolated polynucleotide may comprise a full-length GDF3 polynucleotide sequence such as SEQ ID NO:7 or 8, or a partially truncated version, said isolated polynucleotide further comprising a transcription termination codon at least three hundred nucleotides before the 3′-terminus or otherwise positioned such that translation of the polynucleotide gives rise to a GDF3 propeptide optionally fused to a truncated mature peptide portion. Nucleic acids disclosed herein may be operably linked to a promoter for expression, and the disclosure provides cells transformed with such recombinant polynucleotides. Preferably the cell is a mammalian cell such as a CHO cell. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for making a GDF3 propeptide. Such a method may include expressing any of the propeptide encoding nucleic acids disclosed herein in a suitable cell, such as a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell. Such a method may comprise: a) culturing a cell under conditions suitable for expression of the propeptide, wherein said cell is transformed with a GDF3 propeptide expression construct; and b) recovering the propeptide so expressed. Propeptides may be recovered as crude, partially purified or highly purified fractions using any of the well known techniques for obtaining protein from cell cultures. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for inhibiting adipocyte growth or proliferation, in vivo or ex vivo. A method for inhibiting adipocyte growth or proliferation may comprise contacting an adipocyte with an effective amount of a GDF3 propeptide disclosed herein. Optionally, the adipocyte is a mammalian adipocyte, such as a human adipocyte. Similarly, a GDF3 propeptide may be used to inhibit the growth, proliferation or differentiation of an adipocyte precursor cell. In certain aspects, a GDF3 polypeptide disclosed herein may be used in a method for treating a subject having a disorder associated with abnormal cell growth and differentiation. A method may comprise administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a GDF3 propeptide. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for antagonizing a GDF3 activity in a mammal or in a cell, ex vivo or in vivo. A method may comprise administering to the mammal or contacting the cell with a GDF3 propeptide. The effect of a GDF3 propeptide on GDF3 signaling may be monitored by detecting a signal transduction event mediated by mature GDF3. The effect of a GDF3 propeptide on mature GDF3 activity may also be monitored by detecting the degree of cell proliferation of GDF3-sensitive cell type. Optionally, a cell to be contacted is a mammalian cell, such as a human cell, and preferably an adipocyte or an adipocyte precursor cell. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides a use of a GDF3 propeptide for making a medicament for the treatment of a disorder associated with unwanted fat content or body weight or other GDF3 associated disorders. In further aspects, the disclosure provides methods for identifying an agent that may be used for treating a GDF3 associated disorder. A method may comprise: a) identifying a test agent that binds a mature GDF3 polypeptide competitively with a GDF3 propeptide; and b) evaluating the effect of the agent on a heart disorder. A test agent may be, for example, a variant GDF3 propeptide, an antibody, or a small molecule. In further aspects, the disclosure provides methods for identifying an agent that modulates adipocyte proliferation or growth. A method may comprise (a) identifying a test agent that binds a mature portion of GDF3 competitively with a GDF3 propeptide; and (b) evaluating the effect of the agent on adipocyte proliferation or growth. Similar methods may be used with adipocyte precursor cells.
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 11/165,963, filed on Jun. 24, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/583,073, filed Jun. 24, 2004, which applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily contains a variety of growth factors that share common sequence elements and structural motifs. These proteins are known to exert biological effects on a large variety of cell types in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Many of members of the superfamily perform important functions during embryonic development in pattern formation and tissue specification and can influence a variety of differentiation processes, including adipogenesis, myogenesis, chondrogenesis, cardiogenesis, hematopoiesis, and epithelial cell differentiation. The family is divided into two general branches: the BMP/GDF and the TGF-beta/Activin/BMP10 branches, whose members have diverse, often complementary effects. By manipulating the activity of a member of the TGF-beta family, it is often possible to cause significant physiological changes in an organism. For example, the Piedmontese and Belgian Blue cattle breeds carry a loss-of-function mutation in the GDF-8/myostatin gene that causes a marked increase in muscle mass. Grobet et al., Nat Genet. 1997 September; 17(1):71-4. Changes in fat, bone, cartilage, muscle and other tissues may be achieved by agonizing or antagonizing signaling that is mediated by an appropriate TGF-beta family member. Thus, there is a need for agents (e.g., polypeptides) that function as potent regulators of TGF-beta signaling. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides GDF3 propeptides. Such propeptides may be used for the treatment of a variety of disorders, particularly disorders relating to body fat content or body weight, such as obesity and Type II diabetes. GDF3 propeptides may also be used to antagonize GDF3 generally, in any GDF3 related process, including, for example, cancers associated with GDF3 activity. GDF3 propeptides may antagonize other members of the BMP family and may therefore be useful in the treatment of additional disorders. Examples of GDF3 propeptides include the naturally occurring propeptides of GDF3, as well as functional variants thereof. Additionally, the disclosure provides antibodies that bind a mature GDF3 peptide in a manner similar to a GDF3 propeptide. Such antibodies may also be used to treat disorders relating to body fat content or body weight or other GDF3 related disorders. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides pharmaceutical preparations comprising a GDF3 propeptide that binds to a mature GDF3 polypeptide, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Optionally the GDF3 propeptide binds to a mature GDF3 with a Kd less than 10 micromolar or less than 1 micromolar, 100, 10 or 1 nanomolar. Optionally, the GDF3 propeptide inhibits an activity of mature GDF3, such as receptor binding or intracellular signal transduction events triggered by GDF3. A GDF3 propeptide for use in such a preparation may be any of those disclosed herein, such as a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2 or having an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97% or 99% identical to an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2. A GDF3 propeptide may include a functional fragment of a natural GDF3 propeptide, such as one comprising at least 10, 20 or 30 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:1 or 2. A GDF3 propeptide will generally not contain a full-length or functional portion of a mature GDF3 polypeptide, and preferably a GDF3 propeptide will include no more than 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 or 5 amino acids of a mature portion of a GDF3 polypeptide. A GDF3 propeptide may include one or more alterations in the amino acid sequence relative to a naturally occurring GDF3 propeptide. The alteration in the amino acid sequence may, for example, alter glycosylation of the polypeptide when produced in a mammalian, insect or other eukaryotic cell or alter proteolytic cleavage of the polypeptide relative to the naturally occurring GDF3 polypeptide. A GDF3 propeptide may be a fusion protein that has, as one domain, a GDF3 propeptide and one or more additional domains that provide a desirable property, such as improved pharmacokinetics, easier purification, targeting to particular tissues, etc. For example, a domain of a fusion protein may enhance one or more of in vivo stability, in vivo half life, uptake/administration, tissue localization or distribution, formation of protein complexes, multimerization of the fusion protein, and/or purification. A GDF3 propeptide fusion protein may include an immunoglobulin Fc domain or a serum albumin domain. A fusion protein may include a purification subsequence, such as an epitope tag, a FLAG tag, a polyhistidine sequence, and a GST fusion. A GDF3 propeptide may be fused to a polypeptide that blocks binding to a type I receptor. Optionally, a GDF3 propeptide includes one or more modified amino acid residues selected from: a glycosylated amino acid, a PEGylated amino acid, a farnesylated amino acid, an acetylated amino acid, a biotinylated amino acid, an amino acid conjugated to a lipid moiety, and an amino acid conjugated to an organic derivatizing agent. A pharmaceutical preparation may also include one or more additional compounds such as a compound that is used to treat a GDF3 associated disorder. Preferably, a pharmaceutical preparation is substantially pyrogen free. Preferably, a pharmaceutical composition comprising a GDF3 propeptide will not include, as a separate component, an active mature GDF3 protein. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides nucleic acids encoding a GDF3 propeptide that do not encode a complete, translatable mature portion of a GDF3. An isolated polynucleotide may comprise a coding sequence for a GDF3 propeptide, such as described above. An isolated nucleic acid may include a sequence coding for a GDF3 propeptide and a sequence that would code for part or all of a mature portion, but for a stop codon positioned within the mature portion or positioned between the propeptide and the mature portion. For example, an isolated polynucleotide may comprise a full-length GDF3 polynucleotide sequence such as SEQ ID NO:7 or 8, or a partially truncated version, said isolated polynucleotide further comprising a transcription termination codon at least three hundred nucleotides before the 3′-terminus or otherwise positioned such that translation of the polynucleotide gives rise to a GDF3 propeptide optionally fused to a truncated mature peptide portion. Nucleic acids disclosed herein may be operably linked to a promoter for expression, and the disclosure provides cells transformed with such recombinant polynucleotides. Preferably the cell is a mammalian cell such as a CHO cell. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for making a GDF3 propeptide. Such a method may include expressing any of the propeptide encoding nucleic acids disclosed herein in a suitable cell, such as a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell. Such a method may comprise: a) culturing a cell under conditions suitable for expression of the propeptide, wherein said cell is transformed with a GDF3 propeptide expression construct; and b) recovering the propeptide so expressed. Propeptides may be recovered as crude, partially purified or highly purified fractions using any of the well known techniques for obtaining protein from cell cultures. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for inhibiting adipocyte growth or proliferation, in vivo or ex vivo. A method for inhibiting adipocyte growth or proliferation may comprise contacting an adipocyte with an effective amount of a GDF3 propeptide disclosed herein. Optionally, the adipocyte is a mammalian adipocyte, such as a human adipocyte. Similarly, a GDF3 propeptide may be used to inhibit the growth, proliferation or differentiation of an adipocyte precursor cell. In certain aspects, a GDF3 polypeptide disclosed herein may be used in a method for treating a subject having a disorder associated with abnormal cell growth and differentiation. A method may comprise administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a GDF3 propeptide. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides methods for antagonizing a GDF3 activity in a mammal or in a cell, ex vivo or in vivo. A method may comprise administering to the mammal or contacting the cell with a GDF3 propeptide. The effect of a GDF3 propeptide on GDF3 signaling may be monitored by detecting a signal transduction event mediated by mature GDF3. The effect of a GDF3 propeptide on mature GDF3 activity may also be monitored by detecting the degree of cell proliferation of GDF3-sensitive cell type. Optionally, a cell to be contacted is a mammalian cell, such as a human cell, and preferably an adipocyte or an adipocyte precursor cell. In certain aspects, the disclosure provides a use of a GDF3 propeptide for making a medicament for the treatment of a disorder associated with unwanted fat content or body weight or other GDF3 associated disorders. In further aspects, the disclosure provides methods for identifying an agent that may be used for treating a GDF3 associated disorder. A method may comprise: a) identifying a test agent that binds a mature GDF3 polypeptide competitively with a GDF3 propeptide; and b) evaluating the effect of the agent on a heart disorder. A test agent may be, for example, a variant GDF3 propeptide, an antibody, or a small molecule. In further aspects, the disclosure provides methods for identifying an agent that modulates adipocyte proliferation or growth. A method may comprise (a) identifying a test agent that binds a mature portion of GDF3 competitively with a GDF3 propeptide; and (b) evaluating the effect of the agent on adipocyte proliferation or growth. Similar methods may be used with adipocyte precursor cells. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a human GDF3 propeptide amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1). One, or all three, of the underlined cysteine residues may be altered to a non-cysteine amino acid to improve protein expression. Any of the residues in the C-terminal sequence HPSRKRR may also be removed during protein processing. FIG. 2 shows a mouse GDF3 propeptide amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2). FIG. 3 shows a human GDF3 precursor amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3). The signal peptide (residues 1-21) is underlined; the prodomain (residues 22-316) is in bold, also referred to as SEQ ID NO: 1; and the mature protein (residues 317-424) is shaded. The potential N-linked glycosylation sites are boxed. FIG. 4 shows a mouse GDF3 precursor amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4). The signal peptide (residues 1-21) is underlined; the prodomain (residues 22-312) is in bold, also referred to as SEQ ID NO: 2; and the mature protein (residues 313-420) is shaded. The potential N-linked glycosylation sites are boxed. FIG. 5 shows a nucleic acid sequence encoding a human GDF3 propeptide (SEQ ID NO: 5). FIG. 6 shows a nucleic acid sequence encoding a mouse GDF3 propeptide (SEQ ID NO: 6). FIG. 7 shows a nucleic acid sequence encoding a human GDF3 precursor protein (SEQ ID NO: 7). FIG. 8 shows a nucleic acid sequence encoding a mouse GDF3 precursor protein (SEQ ID NO: 8). FIG. 9 shows binding of a GDF3 Propeptide-Fc fusion to mature GDF3 protein. GDF3 propeptide was immobilized on a Biacore™ chip. Conditioned media obtained from cells expressing mature GDF3 was injected onto the chip at 50 μl/min. The upper trace shows the binding of GDF3 to the propeptide. The lower trace shows the absence of binding in a control reaction where media from cells not expressing GDF3 was injected onto the chip. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 1. Overview In certain aspects, the present invention relates to GDF3 propeptides. As used herein, the term “GDF3” refers to a family of GDF3 proteins and GDF3-related proteins, derived from any species, as well as variants thereof. Members of the GDF3 family are generally encoded as a larger precursor, and members of the family share a region of high homology near the C-terminus, corresponding generally to the mature portion. For example, a human GDF3 mature polypeptide shares about 65% amino acid identity with a mouse GDF3 mature polypeptide. A naturally occurring GDF3 protein is generally encoded as a larger precursor that typically contains a signal sequence at its N-terminus followed by a cleavage site and a propeptide, followed by another dibasic amino acid cleavage site and a mature domain. A propeptide is generally the portion that is N-terminal to the mature domain and C-terminal to the signal peptide or any portion thereof that retains functional activity. Optionally, a GDF3 propeptide, after cleavage, reassociates with its mature peptide covalently or non-covalently, as in the case of insulin, relaxin, inhibin, activin, and TGF-β. The term “GDF3 propeptide” is used to refer to polypeptides comprising any naturally occurring propeptide of a GDF3 family member as well as any variants thereof (including mutants, fragments and peptidomimetic forms) that retain a useful activity. As used herein, GDF3 propeptides include fragments, functional variants, and modified forms (e.g., peptidomimetic forms) of GDF3 propeptides. A “GDF3 propeptide” will not include a full-length mature GDF3 domain, although a GDF3 propeptide may include portions of the mature domain, particularly portions that are not fully functional. For example, a GDF3 propeptide may contain fewer than 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 or 5 amino acids of its cognate mature domain. Examples of GDF3 precursor proteins include human GDF3 and mouse GDF3 (also called Vgr-2). These precursor sequences are illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, respectively, and include signal peptide, propeptide, and mature peptide. GDF-3 transcripts were detected primarily in adult bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and adipose tissue (McPherron et al., 1993, J Biol Chem. 268:3444-9). Expression of human GDF3 was also found in human embryonal carcinoma (EC) cell lines and in primary testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) of adolescents and adults. Thus human GDF3 represents an embryonal carcinoma stem cell-associated marker both in vitro and in vivo (Caricasole et al., 1998, Oncogene 16:95-103). Further, expression of mouse GDF3 homolog gene (also called Vgr2) was found at highest levels during midgestation mouse development, and its transcripts were localized to the osteogenic zone of developing bone (Jones et al, 1996, Mol Endocrinol. 6:1961-8). Recently, a linkage between GDF3 expression and adipocyte fatty acid metabolism was found (Witthuhn et al., 2001, Cytokine 14:129-135). In addition, it was recently found that human GDF3 gene is expressed in pluripotent cells and mapped to chromosome 12p13, a hotspot for teratocarcinoma (Clark, et al., 2004, Stem Cells 22(2):169-79). Accordingly, a GDF3 peptide (including a GDF3 mature propeptide and a GDF3 propeptide) disclosed herein may be used to treat a variety of disorders, including obesity, tumors, osteoporosis or other disorders related to undesirable GDF3 activity. In September 2004, Wang et al. (Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004 Sep. 3; 321(4):1024-31) published data confirming the role of GDF-3 in regulating body weight and body fat content. Wang et al. found that overexpression of GDF-3 in mice caused weight gain when the mice were fed a high fat diet. The mice exhibited greatly increased adipose tissue mass, increased body adiposity, highly hypertrophic adipocytes, hepatic steatosis, and elevated plasma leptin. GDF-3 stimulated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) expression in adipocytes. PPAR is a nuclear receptor that regulates adipogenesis. Thus, a preferred use of GDF-3 propeptides disclosed herein is for the purpose of treating obesity in subjects in need thereof. The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of this invention and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms are discussed below or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner in describing the compositions and methods of the invention and how to make and use them. The scope or meaning of any use of a term will be apparent from the specific context in which the term is used. “About” and “approximately” shall generally mean an acceptable degree of error for the quantity measured given the nature or precision of the measurements. Typically, exemplary degrees of error are within 20 percent (%), preferably within 10%, and more preferably within 5% of a given value or range of values. Alternatively, and particularly in biological systems, the terms “about” and “approximately” may mean values that are within an order of magnitude, preferably within 5-fold and more preferably within 2-fold of a given value. Numerical quantities given herein are approximate unless stated otherwise, meaning that the term “about” or “approximately” can be inferred when not expressly stated. The methods of the invention may include steps of comparing sequences to each other, including wild-type sequence to one or more mutants/sequence variants Such comparisons typically comprise alignments of polymer sequences, e.g., using sequence alignment programs and/or algorithms that are well known in the art (for example, BLAST, FASTA and MEGALIGN, to name a few). The skilled artisan can readily appreciate that, in such alignments, where a mutation contains a residue insertion or deletion, the sequence alignment will introduce a “gap” (typically represented by a dash, or “A”) in the polymer sequence not containing the inserted or deleted residue. “Homologous,” in all its grammatical forms and spelling variations, refers to the relationship between two proteins that possess a “common evolutionary origin,” including proteins from superfamilies in the same species of organism, as well as homologous proteins from different species of organism. Such proteins (and their encoding nucleic acids) have sequence homology, as reflected by their sequence similarity, whether in terms of percent identity or by the presence of specific residues or motifs and conserved positions. The term “sequence similarity,” in all its grammatical forms, refers to the degree of identity or correspondence between nucleic acid or amino acid sequences that may or may not share a common evolutionary origin. However, in common usage and in the instant application, the term “homologous,” when modified with an adverb such as “highly,” may refer to sequence similarity and may or may not relate to a common evolutionary origin. 2. GDF3 Propeptides In certain aspects, the invention relates to GDF3 propeptides, including fragments, functional variants, and modified forms. Preferably any such variations will have biological activities that are similar to or the same as biological activities of their corresponding wild-type GDF3 propeptides. For example, a GDF3 propeptide of the invention may bind to and inhibit a function of a GDF3 mature protein. Optionally, a GDF3 propeptide regulates growth of a tissue such as fat, bone, cartilage, and muscle. In a specific embodiment, a GDF3 propeptide influences the amount of adipose tissue in a subject. Examples of GDF3 propeptides include a human GDF3 propeptide (SEQ ID NO: 1) and a mouse GDF3 propeptide (SEQ ID NO: 2). In one specific example, human GDF3 cDNA (SEQ ID NO: 7, FIG. 7) encodes a 347-amino acid precursor protein (SEQ ID NO: 3, FIG. 3). Cleavage of the human GDF3 precursor protein at a putative polybasic proteolytic cleavage site (residues 233-237 of SEQ ID NO: 3) generates a mature GDF3 protein consisting of 110 amino acids (FIG. 3) and a GDF3 propeptide consisting of 211 amino acids (FIGS. 1 and 3; SEQ ID NO: 1). The human GDF3 propeptide contains potential glycosylation sites (FIG. 3). In another specific example, mouse GDF3 cDNA (SEQ ID NO: 8, FIG. 8) encodes a 354-amino acid precursor protein. Cleavage of the mouse GDF3 precursor protein at a putative polybasic proteolytic cleavage site (residues 240-244 of SEQ ID NO: 4) generates a mouse mature GDF3 protein consisting of 110 amino acids and a GDF3 propeptide consisting of 218 amino acids (FIGS. 2 and 4; SEQ ID NO: 2). The mouse GDF3 propeptide contains a potential glycosylation site (FIG. 4). In certain embodiments, isolated fragments of the GDF3 propeptides can be obtained by screening polypeptides recombinantly produced from the corresponding fragment of the nucleic acid encoding a GDF3 propeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2). In addition, fragments can be chemically synthesized using techniques known in the art such as conventional Merrifield solid phase f-Moc or t-Boc chemistry. The fragments can be produced (recombinantly or by chemical synthesis) and tested to identify those peptidyl fragments that can function, for example, as antagonists (inhibitors) or agonists (activators) of GDF3 activity. In certain embodiments, a functional variant of the GDF3 propeptides has an amino acid sequence that is at least 75% identical to an amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2. In certain cases, the functional variant has an amino acid sequence at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to an amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1 or 2. In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates making functional variants by modifying the structure of a GDF3 propeptide for such purposes as enhancing therapeutic efficacy, or stability (e.g., ex vivo shelf life and resistance to proteolytic degradation in vivo). Such modified GDF3 propeptides when designed to retain at least one activity of the naturally-occurring form of the GDF3 propeptides, are considered functional equivalents of the naturally-occurring propeptides. Modified GDF3 propeptides can also be produced, for instance, by amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition. For instance, it is reasonable to expect that an isolated replacement of a leucine with an isoleucine or valine, an aspartate with a glutamate, a threonine with a serine, or a similar replacement of an amino acid with a structurally related amino acid (e.g., conservative mutations) will not have a major effect on the biological activity of the resulting molecule. Conservative replacements are those that take place within a family of amino acids that are related in their side chains. Whether a change in the amino acid sequence of a GDF3 propeptide results in a functional homolog can be readily determined by assessing the ability of the variant propeptide to produce a response in cells in a fashion similar to the wild-type propeptide. In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates making mutations in the RXXR proteolytic cleavage site of the GDF3 sequence to make the site less susceptible to proteolytic cleavage. Computer analysis (using a commercially available software, e.g., MacVector, Omega, PCGene, Molecular Simulation, Inc.) can be used to identify proteolytic cleavage sites. As will be recognized by one of skill in the art, most of the described mutations, variants or modifications may be made at the nucleic acid level or, in some cases, by post translational modification or chemical synthesis. Such techniques are well known in the art. For example, the cleavage site may be modified to include one or more glycosylation sites that block cleavage. Inhibition of cleavage will give rise to a covalently linked (i.e., uncleaved) GDF3 propeptide-mature domain fusion. Such an uncleaved GDF3 propeptide will bind to the cognate type I receptor but fail to bind the type II receptor, as type II receptor binding will be blocked by the associated propeptide portion. Accordingly, such a peptide will block signaling by endogenous GDF3 and may interfere with signaling by other TGF-beta family members that share the same Type I receptor. In certain embodiments, the human GDF3 propeptide sequence may be altered to eliminate one or more cysteine residues. Preferably the final sequence will have an even number of cysteines. Three cysteines that may, in particular, be altered are underlined in FIG. 1. Of these, the cysteine in the sequence “RCS”, which is not apparently conserved in the mouse sequence, will preferably be altered. Alternation may include deletion or replacement with a non-cysteine amino acid. In a preferred embodiment, the sequence alteration is designed, possibly in coordination with other sequence alterations to provide a glycosylation site. In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates specific mutations of the GDF3 propeptide sequences so as to alter the glycosylation of the polypeptide. Such mutations may be selected so as to introduce or eliminate one or more glycosylation sites, such as O-linked or N-linked glycosylation sites. Asparagine-linked glycosylation recognition sites generally comprise a tripeptide sequence, asparagine-X-threonine (where “X” is any amino acid) which is specifically recognized by appropriate cellular glycosylation enzymes. The alteration may also be made by the addition of, or substitution by, one or more serine or threonine residues to the sequence of the wild-type GDF3 propeptide (for O-linked glycosylation sites). A variety of amino acid substitutions or deletions at one or both of the first or third amino acid positions of a glycosylation recognition site (and/or amino acid deletion at the second position) results in non-glycosylation at the modified tripeptide sequence. Another means of increasing the number of carbohydrate moieties on a GDF3 propeptide is by chemical or enzymatic coupling of glycosides to the GDF3 propeptide. Depending on the coupling mode used, the sugar(s) may be attached to (a) arginine and histidine; (b) free carboxyl groups; (c) free sulfhydryl groups such as those of cysteine; (d) free hydroxyl groups such as those of serine, threonine, or hydroxyproline; (e) aromatic residues such as those of phenylalanine, tyrosine, or tryptophan; or (f) the amide group of glutamine. These methods are described in WO 87/05330 published Sep. 11, 1987, and in Aplin and Wriston (1981) CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem., pp. 259-306, incorporated by reference herein. Removal of one or more carbohydrate moieties present on a GDF3 propeptide may be accomplished chemically and/or enzymatically. Chemical deglycosylation may involve, for 10 example, exposure of the GDF3 propeptide to the compound trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, or an equivalent compound. This treatment results in the cleavage of most or all sugars except the linking sugar (N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine), while leaving the amino acid sequence intact. Chemical deglycosylation is further described by Hakimuddin et al. (1987) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 259:52 and by Edge et al. (1981) Anal. Biochem. 118:131. Enzymatic cleavage of carbohydrate moieties on GDF3 propeptides can be achieved by the use of a variety of endo- and exo-glycosidases as described by Thotakura et al. (1987) Meth. Enzymol. 138:350. The sequence of a propeptide may be adjusted, as appropriate, depending on the type of expression system used, as mammalian, yeast, insect and plant cells may all introduce differing glycosylation patterns that can be affected by the amino acid sequence of the peptide. This disclosure further contemplates a method of generating mutants, particularly sets of combinatorial mutants of the GDF3 propeptide, as well as truncation mutants; pools of combinatorial mutants are especially useful for identifying functional variant sequences. The purpose of screening such combinatorial libraries may be to generate, for example, GDF3 propeptide variants which can act as either agonists or antagonist, or alternatively, which possess novel activities all together. A variety of screening assays are provided below, and such assays may be used to evaluate variants. For example, a GDF3 propeptide variant may be screened for its ability to bind to a GDF3 mature polypeptide or for the ability to prevent binding of a GDF3 mature polypeptide to a cell expressing a GDF3 receptor, such as an activin type II receptor or a type I receptor. In certain embodiments, the activity of a GDF3 propeptide or its variants may also be tested in a cell-based or in vivo assay. For example, the effect of a GDF3 propeptide variant on adipogenesis (e.g., adipocyte proliferation and differentiation) in an adipocyte or precursor cell may be assessed. This may, as needed, be performed in the presence of recombinant GDF3, and cells may be transfected so as to produce GDF3, and the subject GDF3 propeptide variant. Likewise, a GDF3 propeptide may be administered to a mouse or other animal (e.g., the db/db obese mice), and one or more properties, such as fat cell number, size or proliferation rate may be assessed. The body mass index (BMI) or another estimate of body fat content may also be evaluated. As another example, the effect of a GDF3 propeptide variant on the expression of genes involved in bone production in an osteoblast or precursor may be assessed. This may, as needed, be performed in the presence of recombinant GDF3, and cells may be transfected so as to produce GDF3, and the subject GDF3 propeptide variant. Likewise, a GDF3 propeptide may be administered to a mouse or other animal, and one or more bone properties, such as density or volume may be assessed. The healing rate for bone fractures may also be evaluated. Combinatorially-derived variants can be generated which have a selective potency relative to a naturally occurring GDF3 propeptide. Such variant proteins, when expressed from recombinant DNA constructs, can be used in gene therapy protocols. Likewise, mutagenesis can give rise to variants which have intracellular half-lives dramatically different than the corresponding wild-type propeptide. For example, the altered protein can be rendered either more stable or less stable to proteolytic degradation or other cellular process which result in destruction of, or otherwise inactivation of a native GDF3 propeptide. Such variants, and the genes which encode them, can be utilized to alter GDF3 propeptide levels by modulating the half-life of the propeptide. For instance, a short half-life can give rise to more transient biological effects and, when part of an inducible expression system, can allow tighter control of recombinant GDF3 propeptide levels within the cell. In a preferred embodiment, the combinatorial library is produced by way of a degenerate library of genes encoding a library of polypeptides which each include at least a portion of potential GDF3 propeptide sequences. For instance, a mixture of synthetic oligonucleotides can be enzymatically ligated into gene sequences such that the degenerate set of potential GDF3 propeptide nucleotide sequences are expressible as individual polypeptides, or alternatively, as a set of larger fusion proteins (e.g., for phage display). There are many ways by which the library of potential homologs can be generated from a degenerate oligonucleotide sequence. Chemical synthesis of a degenerate gene sequence can be carried out in an automatic DNA synthesizer, and the synthetic genes then be ligated into an appropriate vector for expression. The synthesis of degenerate oligonucleotides is well known in the art (see for example, Narang, S A (1983) Tetrahedron 39:3; Itakura et al., (1981) Recombinant DNA, Proc. 3rd Cleveland Sympos. Macromolecules, ed. A G Walton, Amsterdam: Elsevier pp 273-289; Itakura et al., (1984) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 53:323; Itakura et al., (1984) Science 198:1056; Ike et al., (1983) Nucleic Acid Res. 11:477). Such techniques have been employed in the directed evolution of other proteins (see, for example, Scott et al., (1990) Science 249:386-390; Roberts et al., (1992) PNAS USA 89:2429-2433; Devlin et al., (1990) Science 249: 404-406; Cwirla et al., (1990) PNAS USA 87: 6378-6382; as well as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,223,409, 5,198,346, and 5,096,815). Alternatively, other forms of mutagenesis can be utilized to generate a combinatorial library. For example, GDF3 propeptide variants (both agonist and antagonist forms) can be generated and isolated from a library by screening using, for example, alanine scanning mutagenesis and the like (Ruf et al., (1994) Biochemistry 33:1565-1572; Wang et al., (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269:3095-3099; Balint et al., (1993) Gene 137:109-118; Grodberg et al., (1993) Eur. J. Biochem. 218:597-601; Nagashima et al., (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268:2888-2892; Lowman et al., (1991) Biochemistry 30:10832-10838; and Cunningham et al., (1989) Science 244:1081-1085), by linker scanning mutagenesis (Gustin et al., (1993) Virology 193:653-660; Brown et al., (1992) Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:2644-2652; McKnight et al., (1982) Science 232:316); by saturation mutagenesis (Meyers et al., (1986) Science 232:613); by PCR mutagenesis (Leung et al., (1989) Method Cell Mol Biol 1:11-19); or by random mutagenesis, including chemical mutagenesis, etc. (Miller et al., (1992) A Short Course in Bacterial Genetics, CSHL Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; and Greener et al., (1994) Strategies in Mol Biol 7:32-34). Linker scanning mutagenesis, particularly in a combinatorial setting, is an attractive method for identifying truncated (bioactive) forms of GDF3 propeptides. A wide range of techniques are known in the art for screening gene products of combinatorial libraries made by point mutations and truncations, and, for that matter, for screening cDNA libraries for gene products having a certain property. Such techniques will be generally adaptable for rapid screening of the gene libraries generated by the combinatorial mutagenesis of GDF3 propeptides. The most widely used techniques for screening large gene libraries typically comprises cloning the gene library into replicable expression vectors, transforming appropriate cells with the resulting library of vectors, and expressing the combinatorial genes under conditions in which detection of a desired activity facilitates relatively easy isolation of the vector encoding the gene whose product was detected. Each of the illustrative assays described below are amenable to high through-put analysis as necessary to screen large numbers of degenerate sequences created by combinatorial mutagenesis techniques. In certain embodiments, the GDF3 propeptides of the present invention include peptidomimetics. As used herein, the term “peptidomimetic” includes chemically modified peptides and peptide-like molecules that contain non-naturally occurring amino acids, peptoids, and the like. Peptidomimetics provide various advantages over a peptide, including enhanced stability when administered to a subject. Methods for identifying a peptidomimetic are well known in the art and include the screening of databases that contain libraries of potential peptidomimetics. For example, the Cambridge Structural Database contains a collection of greater than 300,000 compounds that have known crystal structures (Allen et al., Acta Crystallogr. Section B, 35:2331 (1979)). Where no crystal structure of a target molecule is available, a structure can be generated using, for example, the program CONCORD (Rusinko et al., J. Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 29:251 (1989)). Another database, the Available Chemicals Directory (Molecular Design Limited, Informations Systems; San Leandro Calif.), contains about 100,000 compounds that are commercially available and also can be searched to identify potential peptidomimetics of the GDF3 propeptides. To illustrate, by employing scanning mutagenesis to map the amino acid residues of a GDF3 propeptide which are involved in binding to another protein, peptidomimetic compounds can be generated which mimic those residues involved in binding. For instance, non-hydrolyzable peptide analogs of such residues can be generated using benzodiazepine (e.g., see Freidinger et al., in Peptides: Chemistry and Biology, G. R. Marshall ed., ESCOM Publisher: Leiden, Netherlands, 1988), azepine (e.g., see Huffman et al., in Peptides: Chemistry and Biology, G. R. Marshall ed., ESCOM Publisher: Leiden, Netherlands, 1988), substituted gamma lactam rings (Garvey et al., in Peptides: Chemistry and Biology, G. R. Marshall ed., ESCOM Publisher: Leiden, Netherlands, 1988), keto-methylene pseudopeptides (Ewenson et al., (1986) J. Med. Chem. 29:295; and Ewenson et al., in Peptides: Structure and Function (Proceedings of the 9th American Peptide Symposium) Pierce Chemical Co. Rockland, Ill., 1985), β-turn dipeptide cores (Nagai et al., (1985) Tetrahedron Lett 26:647; and Sato et al., (1986) J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:1231), and b-aminoalcohols (Gordon et al., (1985) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 126:419; and Dann et al., (1986) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 134:71). In certain embodiments, the GDF3 propeptides of the invention may further comprise post-translational modifications in addition to any that are naturally present in the propeptide. Such modifications include, but are not limited to, acetylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, phosphorylation, lipidation, and acylation. As a result, the modified GDF3 propeptides may contain non-amino acid elements, such as polyethylene glycols, lipids, poly- or mono-saccharide, and phosphates. Effects of such non-amino acid elements on the functionality of a GDF3 propeptide may be tested as described herein for other GDF3 propeptide variants. When a GDF3 propeptide is produced in cells by cleaving a nascent form of the GDF3 protein, post-translational processing may also be important for correct folding and/or function of the protein. Different cells (such as CHO, HeLa, MDCK, 293, W138, NIH-3T3 or HEK293) have specific cellular machinery and characteristic mechanisms for such post-translational activities and may be chosen to ensure the correct modification and processing of the GDF3 protein into a GDF3 propeptide. In certain aspects, functional variants or modified forms of the GDF3 propeptides include fusion proteins having at least a portion of the GDF3 propeptides and one or more fusion domains. Well known examples of such fusion domains include, but are not limited to, polyhistidine, Glu-Glu, glutathione S transferase (GST), thioredoxin, protein A, protein G, an immunoglobulin heavy chain constant region (Fc), maltose binding protein (MBP), or human serum albumin. A fusion domain may be selected so as to confer a desired property. For example, some fusion domains are particularly useful for isolation of the fusion proteins by affinity chromatography. For the purpose of affinity purification, relevant matrices for affinity chromatography, such as glutathione-, amylase-, and nickel- or cobalt-conjugated resins are used. Many of such matrices are available in “kit” form, such as the Pharmacia GST purification system and the QIAexpress™ system (Qiagen) useful with (HIS6) fusion partners. As another example, a fusion domain may be selected so as to facilitate detection of the GDF3 propeptide. Examples of such detection domains include the various fluorescent proteins (e.g., GFP) as well as “epitope tags,” which are usually short peptide sequences for which a specific antibody is available. Well known epitope tags for which specific monoclonal antibodies are readily available include FLAG, influenza virus haemagglutinin (HA), and c-myc tags. In some cases, the fusion domains have a protease cleavage site, such as for Factor Xa or Thrombin, which allows the relevant protease to partially digest the fusion proteins and thereby liberate the recombinant proteins therefrom. The liberated proteins can then be isolated from the fusion domain by subsequent chromatographic separation. In certain preferred embodiments, a GDF3 propeptide is fused with a domain that stabilizes the propeptide in vivo (a “stabilizer” domain). By “stabilizing” is meant anything that increases serum half life, regardless of whether this is because of decreased destruction, decreased clearance by the kidney, or other pharmacokinetic effect. Fusions with the Fc portion of an immunoglobulin are known to confer desirable pharmacokinetic properties on a wide range of proteins. Likewise, fusions to human serum albumin can confer desirable properties. Other types of fusion domains that may be selected include multimerizing (e.g., dimerizing, tetramerizing) domains and functional domains (that confer an additional biological function, such as further stimulation of muscle growth). In certain embodiments, the GDF3 propeptides of the present invention contain one or more modifications that are capable of stabilizing the GDF3 propeptides. For example, such modifications enhance the in vitro half life of the propeptides, enhance circulatory half life of the propeptides or reducing proteolytic degradation of the propeptides. Such stabilizing modifications include, but are not limited to, fusion proteins (including, for example, fusion proteins comprising a GDF3 propeptide and a stabilizer domain), modifications of a glycosylation site (including, for example, addition of a glycosylation site to a GDF3 propeptide), and modifications of carbohydrate moiety (including, for example, removal of carbohydrate moieties from a GDF3 propeptide). In the case of fusion proteins, a GDF3 propeptide is fused to a stabilizer domain such as an IgG molecule (e.g., an Fc domain). As used herein, the term “stabilizer domain” not only refers to a fusion domain (e.g., Fc) as in the case of fusion proteins, but also includes nonproteinaceous modifications such as a carbohydrate moiety, or nonproteinaceous polymer, such as polyethylene glycol. It is understood that different elements of the fusion proteins may be arranged in any manner that is consistent with the desired functionality. For example, a GDF3 propeptide may be placed C-terminal to a heterologous domain, or, alternatively, a heterologous domain may be placed C-terminal to a GDF3 propeptide. The propeptide domain and the heterologous domain need not be adjacent in a fusion protein, and additional domains or amino acid sequences may be included C- or N-terminal to either domain or between the domains. In a preferred embodiment, the Fc portion will be positioned C-terminal to the propeptide. A GDF3 propeptide fusion protein or coupled protein system (e.g. non-fusion covalent linkage by crosslinking) may also include a second inhibitor domain, which is a polypeptide affinity reagent that selectively binds to a GDF3 type I receptor. Such receptor may, for example, be one of ALK1, ALK2, ALK3, ALK4, ALK5, ALK6 or ALK7. The affinity reagent may be an antibody agent. An antibody agent may be, for example, a recombinant antibody; a monoclonal antibody; a VH domain; a VL domain; an scFv; an Fab fragment; an Fab′ fragment; an F(ab′)2; an Fv; or a disulfide linked Fv, a fully human antibody or a humanized chimeric antibody, or an antigen binding fragment thereof. An affinity reagent may also comprise a peptide or scaffolded peptide that selectively binds to GDF3 and competes with the binding of an ALK receptor. An affinity reagent may include a GDF3 binding domain of a cognate ALK receptor. For example, an extracellular domain of an ALK receptor (preferably human) may be used. The affinity reagent may be a small organic molecule that selectively binds to GDF3 and competes with the binding of an ALK receptor. While one may readily identify soluble, extracellular portions of ALK receptors, tow examples are provided here. An example of a human ALK7 ligand binding domain is shown below: LKCVCLLCDSSNFTCQTEGACWASVMLTNGKEQVIK (SEQ ID NO:9) SCVSLPELNAQVFCHSSNNVTKTECCFTDFCNNITKL HLP An example of a human ALK4 ligand binding domain is shown below: ALLCACTSCLQANYTCETDGACMVSIFNLDGMEHHV (SEQ ID NO:10) RTCIPKVELVPAGKPFYCLSSEDLRNTHCCYTDY In certain embodiments, the present invention makes available isolated and/or purified forms of the GDF3 propeptides, which are isolated from, or otherwise substantially free of, other proteins. In certain embodiments, GDF3 propeptides (unmodified or modified) of the invention can be produced by a variety of art-known techniques. For example, such GDF3 propeptides can be synthesized using standard protein chemistry techniques such as those described in Bodansky, M. Principles of Peptide Synthesis, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1993) and Grant G. A. (ed.), Synthetic Peptides: A User's Guide, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York (1992). In addition, automated peptide synthesizers are commercially available (e.g., Advanced ChemTech Model 396; Milligen/Biosearch 9600). Alternatively, the GDF3 propeptides, fragments or variants thereof may be recombinantly produced using various expression systems (e.g., E. coli, Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, COS cells, baculovirus) as is well known in the art (also see below). In a further embodiment, the modified or unmodified GDF3 propeptides may be produced by digestion of naturally occurring or recombinantly produced GDF3 by using, for example, a protease, e.g., trypsin, thermolysin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, or paired basic amino acid converting enzyme (PACE). Computer analysis (using a commercially available software, e.g., MacVector, Omega, PCGene, Molecular Simulation, Inc.) can be used to identify proteolytic cleavage sites. Alternatively, such GDF3 propeptides may be produced from naturally occurring or recombinantly produced GDF3 such as standard techniques known in the art, such as by chemical cleavage (e.g., cyanogen bromide, hydroxylamine). In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates making mutations in the proteolytic cleavage site of the GDF3 sequence to make the site less susceptible to proteolytic cleavage. The result is a GDF3 polypeptide containing both propeptide and mature portion, which may be useful as an antagonist of GDF3. More preferably, the mature portion is engineered with a stop codon, such that the GDF3 propeptide is produced with some portion of the mature peptide attached. In one specific embodiment, a mutant may contain a point mutation at amino acid 247, 248, 249 or 250 of SEQ ID NO: 3. In another specific embodiment, such mutant may contain a point mutation at amino acid 249, 250, 251 or 252 of SEQ ID NO: 4. 3. Nucleic Acids Encoding GDF3 Propeptides In certain aspects, the invention provides isolated and/or recombinant nucleic acids encoding any of the GDF3 propeptides, including functional variants, disclosed herein. For example, SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6 encode GDF3 propeptides. The subject nucleic acids may be single-stranded or double stranded. Such nucleic acids may be DNA or RNA molecules. These nucleic acids are may be used, for example, in methods for making GDF3 propeptides or as direct therapeutic agents (e.g., in a gene therapy approach). The subject nucleic acids encoding GDF3 propeptides are further understood to include nucleic acids that are variants of SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6. Variant nucleotide sequences include sequences that differ by one or more nucleotide substitutions, additions or deletions, such as allelic variants; and will, therefore, include coding sequences that differ from the nucleotide sequence of the coding sequence designated in SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6. In certain embodiments, the invention provides isolated or recombinant nucleic acid sequences that are at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that nucleic acid sequences complementary to SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6, and variants of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6 are also within the scope of this invention. In further embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences of the invention can be isolated, recombinant, and/or fused with a heterologous nucleotide sequence, or in a DNA library. In other embodiments, nucleic acids of the invention also include nucleotide sequences that hybridize under highly stringent conditions to the nucleotide sequence designated in SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6, complement sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6, or fragments thereof. As discussed above, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand readily that appropriate stringency conditions which promote DNA hybridization can be varied. One of ordinary skill in the art will understand readily that appropriate stringency conditions which promote DNA hybridization can be varied. For example, one could perform the hybridization at 6.0× sodium chloride/sodium citrate (SSC) at about 45° C., followed by a wash of 2.0×SSC at 50° C. For example, the salt concentration in the wash step can be selected from a low stringency of about 2.0×SSC at 50° C. to a high stringency of about 0.2×SSC at 50° C. In addition, the temperature in the wash step can be increased from low stringency conditions at room temperature, about 22° C., to high stringency conditions at about 65° C. Both temperature and salt may be varied, or temperature or salt concentration may be held constant while the other variable is changed. In one embodiment, the invention provides nucleic acids which hybridize under low stringency conditions of 6×SSC at room temperature followed by a wash at 2×SSC at room temperature. Isolated nucleic acids which differ from the nucleic acids as set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 5-6 due to degeneracy in the genetic code are also within the scope of the invention. For example, a number of amino acids are designated by more than one triplet. Codons that specify the same amino acid, or synonyms (for example, CAU and CAC are synonyms for histidine) may result in “silent” mutations which do not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein. However, it is expected that DNA sequence polymorphisms that do lead to changes in the amino acid sequences of the subject proteins will exist among mammalian cells. One skilled in the art will appreciate that these variations in one or more nucleotides (up to about 3-5% of the nucleotides) of the nucleic acids encoding a particular protein may exist among individuals of a given species due to natural allelic variation. Any and all such nucleotide variations and resulting amino acid polymorphisms are within the scope of this invention. In certain embodiments, the recombinant nucleic acids of the invention may be operably linked to one or more regulatory nucleotide sequences in an expression construct. Regulatory nucleotide sequences will generally be appropriate to the host cell used for expression. Numerous types of appropriate expression vectors and suitable regulatory sequences are known in the art for a variety of host cells. Typically, said one or more regulatory nucleotide sequences may include, but are not limited to, promoter sequences, leader or signal sequences, ribosomal binding sites, transcriptional start and termination sequences, translational start and termination sequences, and enhancer or activator sequences. Constitutive or inducible promoters as known in the art are contemplated by the invention. The promoters may be either naturally occurring promoters, or hybrid promoters that combine elements of more than one promoter. An expression construct may be present in a cell on an episome, such as a plasmid, or the expression construct may be inserted in a chromosome. In a preferred embodiment, the expression vector contains a selectable marker gene to allow the selection of transformed host cells. Selectable marker genes are well known in the art and will vary with the host cell used. In certain aspects of the invention, the subject nucleic acid is provided in an expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a GDF3 propeptide and operably linked to at least one regulatory sequence. Regulatory sequences are art-recognized and are selected to direct expression of the GDF3 propeptide. Accordingly, the term regulatory sequence includes promoters, enhancers, and other expression control elements. Exemplary regulatory sequences are described in Goeddel; Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). For instance, any of a wide variety of expression control sequences that control the expression of a DNA sequence when operatively linked to it may be used in these vectors to express DNA sequences encoding a GDF3 propeptide. Such useful expression control sequences, include, for example, the early and late promoters of SV40, tet promoter, adenovirus or cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter, RSV promoters, the lac system, the trp system, the TAC or TRC system, T7 promoter whose expression is directed by T7 RNA polymerase, the major operator and promoter regions of phage lambda, the control regions for fd coat protein, the promoter for 3-phosphoglycerate kinase or other glycolytic enzymes, the promoters of acid phosphatase, e.g., Pho5, the promoters of the yeast α-mating factors, the polyhedron promoter of the baculovirus system and other sequences known to control the expression of genes of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or their viruses, and various combinations thereof. It should be understood that the design of the expression vector may depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed and/or the type of protein desired to be expressed. Moreover, the vector's copy number, the ability to control that copy number and the expression of any other protein encoded by the vector, such as antibiotic markers, should also be considered. A recombinant nucleic acid of the invention can be produced by ligating the cloned gene, or a portion thereof, into a vector suitable for expression in either prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells (yeast, avian, insect or mammalian), or both. Expression vehicles for production of a recombinant GDF3 propeptides include plasmids and other vectors. For instance, suitable vectors include plasmids of the types: pBR322-derived plasmids, pEMBL-derived plasmids, pEX-derived plasmids, pBTac-derived plasmids and pUC-derived plasmids for expression in prokaryotic cells, such as E. coli. Some mammalian expression vectors contain both prokaryotic sequences to facilitate the propagation of the vector in bacteria, and one or more eukaryotic transcription units that are expressed in eukaryotic cells. The pcDNAI/amp, pcDNAI/neo, pRc/CMV, pSV2gpt, pSV2neo, pSV2-dhfr, pTk2, pRSVneo, pMSG, pSVT7, pko-neo and pHyg derived vectors are examples of mammalian expression vectors suitable for transfection of eukaryotic cells. Some of these vectors are modified with sequences from bacterial plasmids, such as pBR322, to facilitate replication and drug resistance selection in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Alternatively, derivatives of viruses such as the bovine papilloma virus (BPV-1), or Epstein-Barr virus (pHEBo, pREP-derived and p205) can be used for transient expression of proteins in eukaryotic cells. Examples of other viral (including retroviral) expression systems can be found below in the description of gene therapy delivery systems. The various methods employed in the preparation of the plasmids and in transformation of host organisms are well known in the art. For other suitable expression systems for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, as well as general recombinant procedures, see Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., ed. by Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989) Chapters 16 and 17. In some instances, it may be desirable to express the recombinant polypeptide by the use of a baculovirus expression system. Examples of such baculovirus expression systems include pVL-derived vectors (such as pVL1392, pVL1393 and pVL941), pAcUW-derived vectors (such as pAcUW1), and pBlueBac-derived vectors (such as the 13-gal containing pBlueBac III). In a preferred embodiment, a vector will be designed for production of a subject GDF3 propeptide in CHO cells, such as a Pcmv-Script vector (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.), pcDNA4 vectors (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and pCI-neo vectors (Promega, Madison, Wis.). As will be apparent, the subject gene constructs can be used to cause expression of the subject GDF3 propeptide in cells propagated in culture, e.g., to produce proteins, including fusion proteins or variant proteins, for purification. This invention also pertains to a host cell transfected with a recombinant gene including a coding sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 5 or 6) for one or more of the subject GDF3 propeptides. The host cell may be any prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell. For example, a GDF3 propeptide of the invention may be expressed in bacterial cells such as E. coli, insect cells (e.g., using a baculovirus expression system), yeast, or mammalian cells. Other suitable host cells are known to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the present invention further pertains to methods of producing the subject GDF3 propeptides. For example, a host cell transfected with an expression vector encoding a GDF3 propeptide can be cultured under appropriate conditions to allow expression of the GDF3 propeptide to occur. The GDF3 propeptide may be secreted and isolated from a mixture of cells and medium containing the propeptide. Alternatively, the propeptide may be retained cytoplasmically or in a membrane fraction and the cells harvested, lysed and the protein isolated. A cell culture includes host cells, media and other byproducts. Suitable media for cell culture are well known in the art. The propeptide can be isolated from cell culture medium, host cells, or both using techniques known in the art for purifying proteins, including ion-exchange chromatography, gel filtration chromatography, ultrafiltration, electrophoresis, and immunoaffinity purification with antibodies specific for particular epitopes of the propeptide. In a preferred embodiment, the GDF3 propeptide is a fusion protein containing a domain which facilitates its purification. In another embodiment, a fusion gene coding for a purification leader sequence, such as a poly-(His)/enterokinase cleavage site sequence at the N-terminus of the desired portion of the recombinant GDF3 propeptide, can allow purification of the expressed fusion protein by affinity chromatography using a Ni2+ metal resin. The purification leader sequence can then be subsequently removed by treatment with enterokinase to provide the purified GDF3 propeptide (e.g., see Hochuli et al., (1987) J. Chromatography 411:177; and Janknecht et al., PNAS USA 88:8972). Techniques for making fusion genes are well known. Essentially, the joining of various DNA fragments coding for different polypeptide sequences is performed in accordance with conventional techniques, employing blunt-ended or stagger-ended termini for ligation, restriction enzyme digestion to provide for appropriate termini, filling-in of cohesive ends as appropriate, alkaline phosphatase treatment to avoid undesirable joining, and enzymatic ligation. In another embodiment, the fusion gene can be synthesized by conventional techniques including automated DNA synthesizers. Alternatively, PCR amplification of gene fragments can be carried out using anchor primers which give rise to complementary overhangs between two consecutive gene fragments which can subsequently be annealed to generate a chimeric gene sequence (see, for example, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, eds. Ausubel et al., John Wiley & Sons: 1992). 4. Antibodies Another aspect of the invention pertains to antibodies. In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to an antibody that is specifically reactive with a GDF3 peptide which includes a mature GDF3 peptide and a GDF3 propeptide. Optionally, these subject antibodies bind competitively to mature GDF3 peptide and may be used as an antagonist of GDF3 activity. For example, the antibody may compete with GDF3 propeptide for binding to the mature GDF3. Such an antibody is expected to interfere with binding of GDF3 to its cognate Type II receptors. For example, by using immunogens derived from a GDF3 mature peptide, anti-protein/anti-peptide antisera or monoclonal antibodies can be made by standard protocols (see, for example, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual ed. by Harlow and Lane (Cold Spring Harbor Press: 1988)). A mammal, such as a mouse, a hamster or rabbit can be immunized with an immunogenic form of the GDF3 peptide, an antigenic fragment which is capable of eliciting an antibody response, or a fusion protein. In a preferred embodiment, the inoculated mouse does not express endogenous GDF3, thus facilitating the isolation of antibodies that would otherwise be eliminated as anti-self antibodies. Techniques for conferring immunogenicity on a protein or peptide include conjugation to carriers or other techniques well known in the art. An immunogenic portion of a GDF3 peptide can be administered in the presence of adjuvant. The progress of immunization can be monitored by detection of antibody titers in plasma or serum. Standard ELISA or other immunoassays can be used with the immunogen as antigen to assess the levels of antibodies. Following immunization of an animal with an antigenic preparation of a GDF3, antisera can be obtained and, if desired, polyclonal antibodies can be isolated from the serum. To produce monoclonal antibodies, antibody-producing cells (lymphocytes) can be harvested from an immunized animal and fused by standard somatic cell fusion procedures with immortalizing cells such as myeloma cells to yield hybridoma cells. Such techniques are well known in the art, and include, for example, the hybridoma technique (originally developed by Kohler and Milstein, (1975) Nature, 256: 495-497), the human B cell hybridoma technique (Kozbar et al., (1983) Immunology Today, 4: 72), and the EBV-hybridoma technique to produce human monoclonal antibodies (Cole et al., (1985) Monoclonal Antibodies and Cancer Therapy, Alan R. Liss, Inc. pp. 77-96). Hybridoma cells can be screened immunochemically for production of antibodies specifically reactive with GDF3 and monoclonal antibodies isolated from a culture comprising such hybridoma cells. The term “antibody” as used herein is intended to include fragments thereof which are also specifically reactive with a subject GDF3 peptide. Antibodies can be fragmented using conventional techniques and the fragments screened for utility in the same manner as described above for whole antibodies. For example, F(ab)2 fragments can be generated by treating antibody with pepsin. The resulting F(ab)2 fragment can be treated to reduce disulfide bridges to produce Fab fragments. Fragments of antibodies may also be obtained by recombinant techniques; for example, variable domains of an antibody may be amplified by PCR, expressed as independent domains and assessed for antigen binding. The antibody of the present invention is further intended to include bispecific, single-chain, and chimeric and humanized molecules having affinity for a GDF3 peptide conferred by at least one CDR region of the antibody. In preferred embodiments, the antibody further comprises a label attached thereto and able to be detected (e.g., the label can be a radioisotope, fluorescent compound, enzyme or enzyme co-factor). In certain preferred embodiments, an antibody of the invention is a monoclonal antibody, and in certain embodiments, the invention makes available methods for generating novel antibodies. For example, a method for generating a monoclonal antibody that binds specifically to a GDF3 peptide may comprise administering to a mouse an amount of an immunogenic composition comprising the GDF3 peptide effective to stimulate a detectable immune response, obtaining antibody-producing cells (e.g., cells from the spleen) from the mouse and fusing the antibody-producing cells with myeloma cells to obtain antibody-producing hybridomas, and testing the antibody-producing hybridomas to identify a hybridoma that produces a monocolonal antibody that binds specifically to the GDF3 peptide. Once obtained, a hybridoma can be propagated in a cell culture, optionally in culture conditions where the hybridoma-derived cells produce the monoclonal antibody that binds specifically to the GDF3 peptide. The monoclonal antibody may be purified from the cell culture. The adjective “specifically reactive with” as used in reference to an antibody is intended to mean, as is generally understood in the art, that the antibody is sufficiently selective between the antigen of interest (e.g., a GDF3 peptide) and other antigens that are not of interest that the antibody is useful for, at minimum, detecting the presence of the antigen of interest in a particular type of biological sample. In certain methods employing the antibody, such as therapeutic applications, a higher degree of specificity in binding may be desirable. Monoclonal antibodies generally have a greater tendency (as compared to polyclonal antibodies) to discriminate effectively between the desired antigens and cross-reacting polypeptides. One characteristic that influences the specificity of an antibody:antigen interaction is the affinity of the antibody for the antigen. Although the desired specificity may be reached with a range of different affinities, generally preferred antibodies will have an affinity (a dissociation constant) of about 10−6, 10−7, 10−8, 10−9 or less. In addition, the techniques used to screen antibodies in order to identify a desirable antibody may influence the properties of the antibody obtained. For example, if an antibody is to be used for binding an antigen in solution, it may be desirable to test solution binding. A variety of different techniques are available for testing interaction between antibodies and antigens to identify particularly desirable antibodies. Such techniques include ELISAs, surface plasmon resonance binding assays (e.g., the Biacore binding assay, Bia-core AB, Uppsala, Sweden), sandwich assays (e.g., the paramagnetic bead system of IGEN International, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md.), western blots, immunoprecipitation assays, and immunohistochemistry. In certain specific aspects, the disclosure provides antibodies that bind to a GDF3 propeptide. Such antibodies may be generated much as described above, using a propeptide or fragment thereof as an antigen. Antibodies of this type can be used, e.g., to detect GDF3 propeptides in biological samples and/or to monitor GDF3 propeptide levels in an individual. The level of GDF3 propeptides maybe measured in a variety of sample types such as, for example, in cells, and/or in bodily fluid, such as in whole blood samples, blood serum, blood plasma and urine. In certain cases, an antibody that specifically binds to a GDF3 propeptide can be used to stimulate activity of GDF3, thereby stimulating the growth of tissues such as adipose tissue. 5. Screening Assays In certain aspects, the present invention relates to the use of a GDF3 peptide (including a GDF3 mature peptide and a GDF3 propeptide) to identify compounds (agents) which are agonist or antagonists of a GDF3 mature peptide. Compounds identified through this screening can be tested in tissues such as fat, bone, cartilage, or muscle, to assess their ability to modulate tissue growth in vitro. Optionally, these compounds can further be tested in animal models to assess their ability to modulate tissue growth in vivo. There are numerous approaches to screening for therapeutic agents for modulating bone/cartilage growth by targeting a GDF3 peptide. In certain embodiments, high-throughput screening of compounds can be carried out to identify agents that perturb a GDF3 peptide-mediated effects on adipose tissue growth (e.g., adipocyte growth or proliferation) or other tissues, such as bone, cartilage or muscle. In one embodiment, the assay is used to identify compounds that specifically modulate (increase or decrease) expression or activity of a GDF3 peptide. In another embodiment, the compounds can be identified by their ability to interact with a GDF3 peptide (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide or a GDF3 propeptide). In yet another embodiment, the assay is carried out to screen and identify compounds that specifically reduce or increase binding of a GDF3 peptide to its binding partner. A variety of assay formats will suffice and, in light of the present disclosure, those not expressly described herein will nevertheless be comprehended by one of ordinary skill in the art. As described herein, the test compounds (agents) of the invention may be created by any combinatorial chemical method. Alternatively, the subject compounds may be naturally occurring biomolecules synthesized in vivo or in vitro. Compounds (agents) to be tested for their ability to act as modulators of adipocyte growth can be produced, for example, by bacteria, yeast, plants or other organisms (e.g., natural products), produced chemically (e.g., small molecules, including peptidomimetics), or produced recombinantly. Test compounds contemplated by the present invention include non-peptidyl organic molecules, peptides, polypeptides, peptidomimetics, sugars, hormones, and nucleic acid molecules. In a specific embodiment, the test agent is a small organic molecule having a molecular weight of less than about 2,000 daltons. The test compounds of the invention can be provided as single, discrete entities, or provided in libraries of greater complexity, such as made by combinatorial chemistry. These libraries can comprise, for example, alcohols, alkyl halides, amines, amides, esters, aldehydes, ethers and other classes of organic compounds. Presentation of test compounds to the test system can be in either an isolated form or as mixtures of compounds, especially in initial screening steps. Optionally, the compounds may be optionally derivatized with other compounds and have derivatizing groups that facilitate isolation of the compounds. Non-limiting examples of derivatizing groups include biotin, fluorescein, digoxygenin, green fluorescent protein, isotopes, polyhistidine, magnetic beads, glutathione S transferase (GST), photoactivatible crosslinkers or any combinations thereof. In many drug screening programs which test libraries of compounds and natural extracts, high throughput assays are desirable in order to maximize the number of compounds surveyed in a given period of time. Assays which are performed in cell-free systems, such as may be derived with purified or semi-purified proteins, are often preferred as “primary” screens in that they can be generated to permit rapid development and relatively easy detection of an alteration in a molecular target which is mediated by a test compound. Moreover, the effects of cellular toxicity or bioavailability of the test compound can be generally ignored in the in vitro system, the assay instead being focused primarily on the effect of the drug on the molecular target as may be manifest in an alteration of binding affinity between a GDF3 peptide and its binding protein. Merely to illustrate, in an exemplary screening assay of the present invention, the compound of interest is contacted with an isolated and purified GDF3 propeptide which is ordinarily capable of binding to a GDF3 mature peptide, as appropriate for the intention of the assay. To the mixture of the compound and GDF3 propeptide is then added a composition containing a GDF3 mature peptide. Detection and quantification of GDF3 propeptide complexes provides a means for determining the compound's efficacy at inhibiting (or potentiating) complex formation between the GDF3 propeptide and its binding protein. The efficacy of the compound can be assessed by generating dose response curves from data obtained using various concentrations of the test compound. Moreover, a control assay can also be performed to provide a baseline for comparison. For example, in a control assay, isolated and purified GDF3 mature peptide is added to a composition containing the GDF3 propeptide, and the formation of GDF3 propeptide/mature peptide complex is quantitated in the absence of the test compound. It will be understood that, in general, the order in which the reactants may be admixed can be varied, and can be admixed simultaneously. Moreover, in place of purified proteins, cellular extracts and lysates may be used to render a suitable cell-free assay system. Complex formation between the GDF3 propeptide and its binding protein may be detected by a variety of techniques. For instance, modulation of the formation of complexes can be quantitated using, for example, detectably labeled proteins such as radiolabelled (e.g., 32P, 35S, 14C or 3H), fluorescently labeled (e.g., FITC), or enzymatically labeled GDF3 propeptide or its binding protein, by immunoassay, or by chromatographic detection. In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates the use of fluorescence polarization assays and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays in measuring, either directly or indirectly, the degree of interaction between a GDF3 propeptide and its binding protein. Further, other modes of detection such as those based on optical waveguides (PCT Publication WO 96/26432 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,677,196), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), surface charge sensors, and surface force sensors are compatible with many embodiments of the invention. Moreover, the present invention contemplates the use of an interaction trap assay, also known as the “two hybrid assay,” for identifying agents that disrupt or potentiate interaction between a GDF3 peptide and its binding protein. See for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,283,317; Zervos et al. (1993) Cell 72:223-232; Madura et al. (1993) J Biol Chem 268:12046-12054; Bartel et al. (1993) Biotechniques 14:920-924; and Iwabuchi et al. (1993) Oncogene 8:1693-1696). In a specific embodiment, the present invention contemplates the use of reverse two hybrid systems to identify compounds (e.g., small molecules or peptides) that dissociate interaction between a GDF3 peptide and its binding protein. See for example, Vidal and Legrain, (1999) Nucleic Acids Res 27:919-29; Vidal and Legrain, (1999) Trends Biotechnol 17:374-81; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,525,490; 5,955,280; 5,965,368. In one specific example, interaction between a GDF3 propeptide and a GDF3 mature peptide can be assayed by making a construct which expresses a FLAG-tagged GDF3 precursor protein. The FLAG-tagged precursor protein is expressed in cells and processed into a GDF3 propeptide and a FLAG-tagged mature peptide. The protein lysates prepared from the cells are then affinity-purified by antibodies against FLAG. Complexes containing a GDF3 propeptide and a GDF3 mature peptide can be determined by the presence of a GDF3 propeptide in these affinity-purified protein samples (e.g., by immunoblot). In certain embodiments, the subject compounds are identified by their ability to interact with a GDF3 peptide (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide or a GDF3 propeptide). The interaction between the compound and the GDF3 peptide may be covalent or non-covalent. For example, such interaction can be identified at the protein level using in vitro biochemical methods, including photo-crosslinking, radiolabeled ligand binding, and affinity chromatography (Jakoby W B et al., 1974, Methods in Enzymology 46: 1). In certain cases, the compounds may be screened in a mechanism based assay, such as an assay to detect compounds which bind to a GDF3 peptide. This may include a solid phase or fluid phase binding event. Alternatively, the gene encoding a GDF3 peptide can be transfected with a reporter system (e.g., β-galactosidase, luciferase, or green fluorescent protein) into a cell and screened against the library preferably by a high throughput screening or with individual members of the library. Other mechanism based binding assays may be used, for example, binding assays which detect changes in free energy. Binding assays can be performed with the target fixed to a well, bead or chip or captured by an immobilized antibody or resolved by capillary electrophoresis. The bound compounds may be detected usually using colorimetric or fluorescence or surface plasmon resonance. In certain aspects, the present invention provides methods and agents for controlling weight gain and obesity. At the cellular level, adipocyte proliferation and differentiation, which leads to the generation of additional fat cells (adipocytes), is critical in the development of obesity. Therefore, any compound identified can be tested in whole cells or tissues, in vitro or in vivo, to confirm their ability to modulate adipogeneis by measuring adipocyte proliferation or differentiation. Various methods known in the art can be utilized for this purpose. For example, the effect of a GDF3 peptide (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide or a GDF3 propeptide) or test compounds on adipogenesis can be determined by measuring differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes to mature adipocytes in cell based assays, such as, by observing the accumulation of triacylglycerol in Oil Red O staining vesicles and by the appearance of certain adipocyte markers such as FABP (aP2/422) and PPARγ2. See, for example, Reusch et al., 2000, Mol Cell Biol. 20:1008-20; Deng et al., 2000, Endocrinology. 141:2370-6; Bell et al., 2000, Obes Res. 8:249-54. Another example of cell-based assays includes analyzing the role of GDF3 peptides and test compounds in proliferation of adipocytes or adipocyte precursor cells (e.g., 3T3-L1 cells), such as, by monitoring bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cells. See, for example, Pico et al., 1998, Mol Cell Biochem. 189:1-7; Masuno et al., 2003, Toxicol Sci. 75:314-20. The present invention also contemplates in vivo assays to measure adipogenesis and body weight gain. For example, Witthuhn et al., Cytokine, 14:129-135 (2001) discloses upregulation of GDF3 expression in adipose tissue of FABP/aP2 null mice which develop obesity. Therefore, the subjective compounds can be tested in the FABP/aP2 null mice to see if they regulate adipocyte proliferation or differentiation in vivo. Alternatively, the subject compounds can be assayed in the FABP/aP2 null mice for their ability to reduce or prevent obesity. Other animal models for obesity studies, such as ob/ob and db/db mice, and Zucker fatty (fa/fa) rat, can be used similarly for the same purpose. See, for example, Grasa et al., 2000, Horm Metab Res. 32:246-50; Zhang et al., 1996, J Biol Chem. 271:9455-9. These references are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety for their disclosure of using animal models for study on obesity and obesity-related disorders. In certain aspects, the present invention provides methods and agents for controlling abnormal cell growth and differentiation, and disorders related thereto, in particular tumor growth. Thus, any compound identified can be tested in whole cells or tissues, in vitro or in vivo, to confirm their ability to inhibit cell growth (proliferation) or differentiation. Preferred cells are tumor cells, such as testicular germ cell tumor cells (Clark, et al., 2004, Stem Cells 22:169-79; Caricasole et al., 1998, Oncogene 16:95-103). Methods for evaluating anti-tumor activity of a compound are well known and routine in the art. See, for example, Harstrick et al., 1989, Cancer. 63:1079-83; Sun et al., 2004, Anticancer Res. 24:179-86. In other aspects, the present invention provides methods and agents for stimulating bone formation and increasing bone mass. Therefore, any compound identified can be tested in whole cells or tissues, in vitro or in vivo, to confirm their ability to modulate bone or cartilage growth. Various methods known in the art can be utilized for this purpose. For example, the effect of a GDF3 peptide (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide or a GDF3 propeptide) or test compounds on bone or cartilage growth can be determined by measuring induction of Msx2 or differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells into osteoblasts in cell based assays (see, e.g., Daluiski et al., Nat Genet. 2001, 27(1):84-8; Hino et al., Front Biosci. 2004, 9:1520-9). Another example of cell-based assays includes analyzing the osteogenic activity of the GDF3 peptides and test compounds in mesenchymal progenitor and osteoblastic cells. To illustrate, recombinant adenoviruses expressing a human GDF3 propeptide were constructed to infect pluripotent mesenchymal progenitor C3H10T1/2 cells, preosteoblastic C2C12 cells, and osteoblastic TE-85 cells. Osteogenic activity is then determined by measuring the induction of alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, and matrix mineralization (see, e.g., Cheng et al., J bone Joint Surg Am. 2003, 85-A(8):1544-52). The present invention also contemplates in vivo assays to measure bone or cartilage growth. For example, Namkung-Matthai et al., Bone, 28:80-86 (2001) discloses a rat osteoporotic model in which bone repair during the early period after fracture is studied. Kubo et al., Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, 68:197-202 (1999) also discloses a rat osteoporotic model in which bone repair during the late period after fracture is studied. These references are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety for their disclosure of rat model for study on osteoporotic bone fracture. In certain aspects, the present invention makes use of fracture healing assays that are known in the art. These assays include fracture technique, histological analysis, and biomechanical analysis, which are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. No. 6,521,750, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for its disclosure of experimental protocols for causing as well as measuring the extent of fractures, and the repair process. It is understood that the screening assays of the present invention apply to not only the subject GDF3 propeptides and variants of the GDF3 propeptides, but also any test compounds including agonists and antagonist of a GDF3 protein. Further, these screening assays are useful for drug target verification and quality control purposes. 6. Exemplary Therapeutic Uses In certain aspects, compositions (e.g., GDF3 propeptides) of the present invention can be used for treating or preventing a disease or condition that is associated with abnormal activity of GDF3. These diseases, disorders, or conditions are generally referred to herein as “GDF3-associated disorders,” which are described in detail below. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides methods of treating or preventing an individual in need thereof through administering to the individual a therapeutically effective amount of a GDF3 propeptide as described above. These methods are particularly aimed at therapeutic and prophylactic treatments of animals, and more particularly, humans. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compositions and methods for regulating body fat content in an animal and for treating or preventing conditions related thereto, and particularly, health-compromising conditions related thereto. According to the present invention, to regulate (control) body weight can refer to reducing or increasing body weight, reducing or increasing the rate of weight gain, or increasing or reducing the rate of weight loss, and also includes actively maintaining, or not significantly changing body weight (e.g., against external or internal influences which may otherwise increase or decrease body weight). One embodiment of the present invention relates to regulating body weight by administering to an animal a GDF3 propeptide. As discussed above, inhibitors of GDF-3 will tend to inhibit increases in body fat content in response to overeating, and particularly in response to a high fat diet. In one specific embodiment, the present invention relates to methods and compounds for reducing body weight and/or reducing weight gain in an animal, and more particularly, for treating or ameliorating obesity in patients at risk for or suffering from obesity. In another specific embodiment, the present invention is directed to methods and compounds for treating an animal that is unable to gain or retain weight (e.g., an animal with a wasting syndrome). Such methods are effective to increase body weight and/or mass, or to reduce weight and/or mass loss, or to improve conditions associated with or caused by undesirably low (e.g., unhealthy) body weight and/or mass. In the former embodiment, the method comprises administering to an animal a GDF3 antagonist compound, such as GDF3 propeptides (both naturally-occurring peptides and homologues or mimetics thereof). In the latter embodiment, the methods comprise administering to an animal that is at risk for developing or has low body weight and/or a detrimental condition related thereto, a GDF3 agonist compound, such as a GDF3 mature peptide or a homologue (mimetic) thereof, and an antibody specific for GDF3 propeptide. As used herein, the phrase “GDF3 agonist compound” or “GDF3 agonist” refers to any fragment, homologue or mimetic (peptide or non-peptide) of a GDF3 mature peptide (e.g., a naturally occurring or prototype) which is characterized by its ability to agonize (e.g., stimulate, induce, increase, enhance) the biological activity of the naturally occurring GDF3 mature peptide (e.g., interaction/binding with and/or activation of a GDF3 receptor). The phrase “GDF3 antagonist compound” or “GDF3 antagonist” refers to any fragment, homologue or mimetic (peptide or non-peptide) of a GDF3 mature peptide (e.g., naturally occurring or prototype) which is characterized by its ability to antagonize (e.g., inhibit, block, decrease, compete against) the biological activity of the naturally-occurring GDF3 mature peptide (e.g., interaction/binding with and/or activation of a GDF3 receptor). Terms used herein in connection with GDF3 genes and proteins (e.g., “compound,” “analog,” “homologue,” and “mimetic”) are also described in detail above. In one embodiment of the present invention, a GDF3 compound is an isolated nucleic acid molecule that encodes a GDF3 peptide, a peptide analog thereof, or a fusion protein comprising such a peptide. In addition, nucleic acid molecules useful in the present invention may include antisense nucleic acids and double-stranded small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that inhibit or reduce GDF3 gene expression. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are administered in an amount effective to induce a measurable decrease or increase in the body weight and/or mass of the animal, or minimally, to increase the rate of gain or reduce the rate of loss of body weight and/or mass in the animal. Optionally, the subject compounds can be administered in conjunction with one or more other compounds that are useful for regulating body weight and/or mass, and particularly, for decreasing or increasing body weight in an animal. Preferably, decreasing or increasing body weight and/or mass and/or increasing or reducing the rate of weight and/or mass loss/gain in an animal is effective for treating or ameliorating undesired health-compromising conditions associated with low or high body weight, such conditions being discussed below. According to the present invention, “undesirable” gain of body weight and/or mass refers to any gain of body weight or body mass (e.g., gain of body mass can occur in the absence of measurable or significant weight gain) in an individual, as compared to a prior weight or body mass of that individual, where such weight and/or mass gain is unintended, unexpected, and/or unhealthy, as determined by the individual or by a medical professional evaluating such individual. Similarly, “unhealthy” or “health-compromising” weight and/or mass gain is referred to herein as any gain of body weight or body mass which is either deemed by the individual or medical professional to be unhealthy, or which results in a symptom that can be associated with poor health, such as diabetes or cardiovascular conditions. Accordingly, “undesirable” loss of body weight and/or mass refers to any loss of body weight or body mass (e.g., loss of body mass can occur in the absence of measurable or significant weight gain) in an individual, as compared to a prior weight or body mass of that individual, where such weight and/or mass loss is unintended, unexpected, and/or unhealthy, as determined by the individual or by a medical professional evaluating such individual. Similarly, “unhealthy” or “health-compromising” weight and/or mass loss is referred to herein as any loss of body weight or body mass which is either deemed by the individual or medical professional to be unhealthy, or which results in a symptom that can be associated with poor health, such as heart problems, weakened immune function, lack of strength or energy, and/or depression. In certain embodiments, methods and compounds of the present invention are useful for treating any condition or disorder that is characterized by or associated with undesirable or unhealthy body weight or body mass gain or loss. With regard to undesirable or unhealthy body weight or body mass gain, such conditions include, but are not limited to, non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension, osteoarthritis, stroke, respiratory problems, and gall bladder disease. Other conditions associated with undesirable or unhealthy body weight or body mass gain, such conditions include, but are not limited to depression, mood disorders, reproductive dysfunction, and pharmaceutical non-compliance. With regard to undesirable or unhealthy body weight or body mass loss, such conditions, include, but are not limited to, wasting syndromes (e.g., wasting disease, cachexia and sarcopenia) and conditions associated with such syndromes, including, but not limited to, aging, cancer, AIDS (or HIV infection), extensive surgery, chronic infections, immunologic diseases, hyperthyroidism, extraintestinal Crohn's disease, psychogenic disease, chronic heart failure or other severe trauma. According to the present invention, the phrase “wasting syndrome” is used generally to refer to any condition characterized by undesirable weight and/or body mass loss. The term “cachexia” is used to refer to a metabolic and sometimes, eating disorder, which is additionally characterized by hypermetabolism and hypercatabolism, and which results in a loss of fat-free mass, and particularly, body cell mass. “Sarcopenia” refers to another such disorder which is typically characterized by loss of muscle mass. The term “wasting disease” is used to more specifically refer to loss of body weight, including both the fat and the fat-free compartments, which is typically found in the elderly, or in late stage cachexia or sarcopenia. In one specific embodiment, methods and compounds of the present invention are particularly useful for treating obesity. As used herein, the terms “obese” and “obesity” refer to a condition in which an animal (typically human) has a body mass index (BMI) of greater than 27 kilograms per square meter. The phrase, “to treat obesity” in a patient refers to reducing, ameliorating or preventing obesity in a patient that suffers from obesity or is at risk of becoming obese. Preferably, the disorder (e.g., obesity), or the potential for developing the disorder, is reduced, optimally, to an extent that the patient no longer suffers from or does not develop the disorder (e.g., excessive accumulation of fat stores in adipose tissue), or the discomfort and/or altered functions and detrimental conditions associated with such disorder. More particularly, “to control” or “to regulate” body weight, or specifically “to treat obesity,” includes the administration of the subject compounds as disclosed herein to prevent the onset of the symptoms or complications of undesired body weight, to alleviate the symptoms or complications, or to eliminate the disorder. Treating obese patients, for example, may include, but is not limited to, lowering body weight and/or decreasing the rate of weight gain. Individuals having a BMI equal to or less than 27 kilograms per square meter, while not considered to be obese according to the present invention, can also be treated using the method of the present invention to reduce body weight, for example, for cosmetic purposes, athletic training purposes, or for health-associated purposes. The present invention is also useful for treating individuals (e.g., patients) with a percent body fat greater than 20%, and preferably, greater than about 25%, and more preferably, greater than about 30%, and even more preferably, greater than about 35%, 40%, and 45%, in increasing preference. It is to be noted that certain individuals, such as certain athletes, can actually have a BMI greater than 27 kilograms per square meter, while having a relatively low or healthy percent body fat, and therefore, one of skill in the art will appreciate that such individuals may not actually be considered to be obese. On the other hand, the present invention is useful for treating patients having undesirable low body weight by administration of GDF3 agonists. In the methods of the present invention, therapeutic compositions can be administered to any animal, and preferably, to any member of the vertebrate class (e.g., mammals), including without limitation, primates, rodents, livestock, and domestic pets. Livestock include mammals to be consumed or that produce useful products (e.g., sheep for wool production). Preferred mammals to treat include humans. According to the present invention, the term “patient,” “individual” or “subject” is used to describe both human and non-human animals. In a preferred embodiment, the present method is used for treating obese patients. In certain embodiments, the present invention contemplates use of the subject compounds (e.g., GDF3 propeptides) in combination with other therapeutic modalities. Thus, in addition to the therapies described above, one may also provide to the patient other “standard” therapies for regulating body weight and for treating or preventing conditions related thereto. Examples of these standard therapies include, but are not limited to, melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), leptin, anabolic steroids, growth hormones, erythropoietin, cytokines, and anti-cytokine agents. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,716,810. For example, these combinatorial therapies may be achieved with a single composition or pharmacological formulation that includes both agents, or with two distinct compositions or formulations, at the same time. Alternatively, one agent may precede or follow administration of the other agent by intervals ranging from minutes to weeks. In embodiments where two or more different kinds of therapeutic agents are applied separately to an individual, one would generally ensure that a significant period of time did not expire between the time of each delivery, such that these different kinds of agents would still be able to exert an advantageously combined effect on the target tissues or cells. In one specific embodiment, the methods disclosed herein can also be used in conjunction with other methods related to the treatment of excess body weight or related conditions, including, but not limited to, co-administration of another body weight regulating compound (e.g., leptin), exercise, diet, or liposuction. For example, post-operative or post-dietetic administration of a therapeutic composition of the present invention could be used to reduce the reoccurrence of weight gain, to generally reduce adipose tissue in areas of the patient's body which were not treated. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compositions and methods for controlling abnormal cell growth and differentiation, and treating disorders related thereto, such as tumors. For example, human embryonal carcinoma and testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) can be therapeutic targets of the subject compounds. One embodiment of the present invention relates to treating or preventing tumors by administering to an animal a GDF3 propeptide. Optionally, the subject compounds can be administered in conjunction with one or more other antitumor compounds in an animal. Exemplary antitumor compounds include, but are not limited to, aminoglutethimide, amsacrine, anastrozole, asparaginase, bcg, bicalutamide, bleomycin, buserelin, busulfan, campothecin, capecitabine, carboplatin, carmustine, chlorambucil, cisplatin, cladribine, clodronate, colchicine, cyclophosphamide, cyproterone, cytarabine, dacarbazine, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, dienestrol, diethylstilbestrol, docetaxel, doxorubicin, epirubicin, estradiol, estramustine, etoposide, exemestane, filgrastim, fludarabine, fludrocortisone, fluorouracil, fluoxymesterone, flutamide, gemcitabine, genistein, goserelin, hydroxyurea, idarubicin, ifosfamide, imatinib, interferon, irinotecan, ironotecan, letrozole, leucovorin, leuprolide, levamisole, lomustine, mechlorethamine, medroxyprogesterone, megestrol, melphalan, mercaptopurine, mesna, methotrexate, mitomycin, mitotane, mitoxantrone, nilutamide, nocodazole, octreotide, oxaliplatin, paclitaxel, pamidronate, pentostatin, plicamycin, porfimer, procarbazine, raltitrexed, rituximab, streptozocin, suramin, tamoxifen, temozolomide, teniposide, testosterone, thioguanine, thiotepa, titanocene dichloride, topotecan, trastuzumab, tretinoin, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, and vinorelbine. In a specific embodiment, the subject compounds can be combined with a compound selected from cisplatin, carboplatin, and iproplatin in treating germ cell tumors such as TGCTs. In other embodiments, the present invention provides methods of inducing bone and/or cartilage formation, preventing bone loss, increasing bone mineralization or preventing the demineralization of bone. For example, the subject GDF3 propeptides and compounds identified in the present invention have application in treating osteoporosis and the healing of bone fractures and cartilage defects in humans and other animals. GDF3 propeptides may be useful in patients that are diagnosed with subclinical low bone density, as a protective measure against the development of osteoporosis. In one specific embodiment, methods and compositions of the present invention may find medical utility in the healing of bone fractures and cartilage defects in humans and other animals. The subject methods and compositions may also have prophylactic use in closed as well as open fracture reduction and also in the improved fixation of artificial joints. De novo bone formation induced by an osteogenic agent contributes to the repair of congenital, trauma-induced, or oncologic resection induced craniofacial defects, and also is useful in cosmetic plastic surgery. Further, methods and compositions of the invention may be used in the treatment of periodontal disease, and in other tooth repair processes. In certain cases, the subject GDF3 propeptides may provide an environment to attract bone-forming cells, stimulate growth of bone-forming cells or induce differentiation of progenitors of bone-forming cells. GDF3 propeptides of the invention may also be useful in the treatment of osteoporosis. Further, GDF3 propeptides may be used in cartilage defect repair and prevention/reversal of osteoarthritis. In another specific embodiment, the invention provides a therapeutic method and composition for repairing fractures and other conditions related to cartilage and/or bone defects or periodontal diseases. The invention further provides therapeutic methods and compositions for wound healing and tissue repair. The types of wounds include, but are not limited to, burns, incisions and ulcers. See e.g., PCT Publication No. WO84/01106. Such compositions comprise a therapeutically effective amount of at least one of the GDF3 propeptide of the invention in admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle, carrier or matrix. In another specific embodiments, methods and compositions (e.g., GDF3 propeptides) of the invention can be applied to conditions causing bone loss such as osteoporosis, hyperparathyroidism, Cushing's disease, thyrotoxicosis, chronic diarrheal state or malabsorption, renal tubular acidosis, or anorexia nervosa. Many people know that being female, having a low body weight, and leading a sedentary lifestyle are risk factors for osteoporosis (loss of bone mineral density, leading to fracture risk). However, osteoporosis can also result from the long-term use of certain medications. Osteoporosis resulting from drugs or another medical condition is known as secondary osteoporosis. In a condition known as Cushing's disease, the excess amount of cortisol produced by the body results in osteoporosis and fractures. The most common medications associated with secondary osteoporosis are the corticosteroids, a class of drugs that act like cortisol, a hormone produced naturally by the adrenal glands. Although adequate levels of thyroid hormones (which are produced by the thyroid gland) are needed for the development of the skeleton, excess thyroid hormone can decrease bone mass over time. Antacids that contain aluminum can lead to bone loss when taken in high doses by people with kidney problems, particularly those undergoing dialysis. Other medications that can cause secondary osteoporosis include phenyloin (Dilantin) and barbiturates that are used to prevent seizures; methotrexate (Rheumatrex, Immunex, Folex PFS), a drug for some forms of arthritis, cancer, and immune disorders; cyclosporine (Sandimmune, Neoral), a drug used to treat some autoimmune diseases and to suppress the immune system in organ transplant patients; luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists (Lupron, Zoladex), used to treat prostate cancer and endometriosis; heparin (Calciparine, Liquaemin), an anticlotting medication; and cholestyramine (Questran) and colestipol (Colestid), used to treat high cholesterol. Gum disease causes bone loss because these harmful bacteria in our mouths force our bodies to defend against them. The bacteria produce toxins and enzymes under the gum-line, causing a chronic infection. In other embodiments, the present invention provides methods and therapeutic agents, for example, antagonists of GDF3 propeptides, for treating diseases or disorders associated with abnormal or unwanted bone growth. For example, patients having the disease known as Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) grow an abnormal “second skeleton” that prevents any movement. Additionally, abnormal bone growth can occur after hip replacement surgery and thus ruin the surgical outcome. This is a more common example of pathological bone growth and a situation in which antagonists of GDF3 propeptides may be therapeutically useful. Antagonists of GDF3 propeptides may also be useful for treating other forms of abnormal bone growth, such as the pathological growth of bone following trauma, burns or spinal cord injury. In addition, antagonists of GDF3 propeptides may be useful for treating or preventing the undesirable conditions associated with the abnormal bone growth seen in connection with metastatic prostate cancer or osteosarcoma. Examples of these antagonists of GDF3 propeptides include, but are not limited to, compounds that disrupt interaction between a GDF3 propeptide and its binding partner (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide) and antibodies that specifically bind to a GDF3 propeptide. 7. Pharmaceutical Compositions In certain embodiments, compounds (e.g., GDF3 propeptides or GDF3 antibodies) of the present invention are formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. For example, a subject compound of the invention can be administered alone or as a component of a pharmaceutical formulation (therapeutic composition). The subject compounds may be formulated for administration in any convenient way for use in human or veterinary medicine. In certain embodiments, the therapeutic method of the invention includes administering the composition topically, systemically, or locally as an implant or device. When administered, the therapeutic composition for use in this invention is, of course, in a pyrogen-free, physiologically acceptable form. Further, the composition may desirably be encapsulated or injected in a viscous form for delivery to the tissue site, such as fat, bone, cartilage or tissue damage. For example, topical administration may be suitable for wound healing and tissue repair. Therapeutically useful agents other than the subject compounds which may also optionally be included in the composition as described above, may alternatively or additionally, be administered simultaneously or sequentially with a subject compound in the methods of the invention. Preferably for bone and/or cartilage formation, the composition would include a matrix capable of delivering a subject compound (e.g., a GDF3 propeptide) or other therapeutic compounds to the site of bone and/or cartilage damage, providing a structure for the developing bone and cartilage and optimally capable of being resorbed into the body. For example, the matrix may provide slow release of the subject compounds. Such matrices may be formed of materials presently in use for other implanted medical applications. The choice of matrix material is based on biocompatibility, biodegradability, mechanical properties, cosmetic appearance and interface properties. The particular application of the subject compositions will define the appropriate formulation. Potential matrices for the compositions may be biodegradable and chemically defined calcium sulfate, tricalciumphosphate, hydroxyapatite, polylactic acid and polyanhydrides. Other potential materials are biodegradable and biologically well defined, such as bone or dermal collagen. Further matrices are comprised of pure proteins or extracellular matrix components. Other potential matrices are non-biodegradable and chemically defined, such as sintered hydroxyapatite, bioglass, aluminates, or other ceramics. Matrices may be comprised of combinations of any of the above mentioned types of material, such as polylactic acid and hydroxyapatite or collagen and tricalciumphosphate. The bioceramics may be altered in composition, such as in calcium-aluminate-phosphate and processing to alter pore size, particle size, particle shape, and biodegradability. In certain embodiments, methods of the invention can be administered for orally, e.g., in the form of capsules, cachets, pills, tablets, lozenges (using a flavored basis, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth), powders, granules, or as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid, or as an oil-in-water or water-in-oil liquid emulsion, or as an elixir or syrup, or as pastilles (using an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia) and/or as mouth washes and the like, each containing a predetermined amount of an agent as an active ingredient. An agent may also be administered as a bolus, electuary or paste. In solid dosage forms for oral administration (capsules, tablets, pills, dragees, powders, granules, and the like), one or more therapeutic compounds of the present invention may be mixed with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate, and/or any of the following: (1) fillers or extenders, such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and/or silicic acid; (2) binders, such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sucrose, and/or acacia; (3) humectants, such as glycerol; (4) disintegrating agents, such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate; (5) solution retarding agents, such as paraffin; (6) absorption accelerators, such as quaternary ammonium compounds; (7) wetting agents, such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate; (8) absorbents, such as kaolin and bentonite clay; (9) lubricants, such a talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof; and (10) coloring agents. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the pharmaceutical compositions may also comprise buffering agents. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugars, as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like. Liquid dosage forms for oral administration include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and elixirs. In addition to the active ingredient, the liquid dosage forms may contain inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers, such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can also include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, coloring, perfuming, and preservative agents. Suspensions, in addition to the active compounds, may contain suspending agents such as ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols, polyoxyethylene sorbitol, and sorbitan esters, microcrystalline cellulose, aluminum metahydroxide, bentonite, agar-agar and tragacanth, and mixtures thereof. Certain compositions disclosed herein may be administered topically, either to skin or to mucosal membranes. The topical formulations may further include one or more of the wide variety of agents known to be effective as skin or stratum corneum penetration enhancers. Examples of these are 2-pyrrolidone, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, dimethylacetamide, dimethylformamide, propylene glycol, methyl or isopropyl alcohol, dimethyl sulfoxide, and azone. Additional agents may further be included to make the formulation cosmetically acceptable. Examples of these are fats, waxes, oils, dyes, fragrances, preservatives, stabilizers, and surface active agents. Keratolytic agents such as those known in the art may also be included. Examples are salicylic acid and sulfur. Dosage forms for the topical or transdermal administration include powders, sprays, ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, solutions, patches, and inhalants. The active compound may be mixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and with any preservatives, buffers, or propellants which may be required. The ointments, pastes, creams and gels may contain, in addition to a subject compound of the invention (e.g., a GDF3 propeptide), excipients, such as animal and vegetable fats, oils, waxes, paraffins, starch, tragacanth, cellulose derivatives, polyethylene glycols, silicones, bentonites, silicic acid, talc and zinc oxide, or mixtures thereof. Powders and sprays can contain, in addition to a subject compound, excipients such as lactose, talc, silicic acid, aluminum hydroxide, calcium silicates, and polyamide powder, or mixtures of these substances. Sprays can additionally contain customary propellants, such as chlorofluorohydrocarbons and volatile unsubstituted hydrocarbons, such as butane and propane. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions suitable for parenteral administration may comprise one or more compounds of the invention in combination with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable sterile isotonic aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, or sterile powders which may be reconstituted into sterile injectable solutions or dispersions just prior to use, which may contain antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient or suspending or thickening agents. Examples of suitable aqueous and nonaqueous carriers which may be employed in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include water, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof, vegetable oils, such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters, such as ethyl oleate. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of coating materials, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. The compositions of the invention may also contain adjuvants, such as preservatives, wetting agents, emulsifying agents and dispersing agents. Prevention of the action of microorganisms may be ensured by the inclusion of various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, paraben, chlorobutanol, phenol sorbic acid, and the like. It may also be desirable to include isotonic agents, such as sugars, sodium chloride, and the like into the compositions. In addition, prolonged absorption of the injectable pharmaceutical form may be brought about by the inclusion of agents which delay absorption, such as aluminum monostearate and gelatin. It is understood that the dosage regimen will be determined by the attending physician considering various factors which modify the action of the subject compounds of the invention (e.g., a GDF3 propeptide). The various factors include, but are not limited to, amount of bone weight desired to be formed, the site of bone damage, the condition of the damaged bone, the size of a wound, type of damaged tissue, the patient's age, sex, and diet, the severity of any infection, time of administration, and other clinical factors. Optionally, the dosage may vary with the type of matrix used in the reconstitution and the types of compounds in the composition. The addition of other known growth factors to the final composition, may also effect the dosage. Progress can be monitored by periodic assessment of bone growth and/or repair, for example, X-rays, histomorphometric determinations, and tetracycline labeling. In certain embodiments, one or more compounds of the invention can be administered, together (simultaneously) or at different times (sequentially or overlapping). In addition, the subject compounds can be administered with another type of therapeutic agents, for example, a body weight-reducing agent, a cartilage-inducing agent, a bone-inducing agent or a muscle-inducing agent. The two types of compounds may be administered simultaneously or at different times. It is expected that the subject compounds of the invention may act in concert with or perhaps synergistically with another therapeutic agent. For example, a variety of osteogenic, cartilage-inducing and bone-inducing factors have been described, particularly bisphosphonates. See e.g., European Patent Application Nos. 148,155 and 169,016. For example, other factors that can be combined with the subject GDF3 propeptides include various growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factors (TGF-α and TGF-β), and insulin-like growth factor (IGF). Agents (compounds) for regulating body weight and for treating body weight associated disorders are described above. In certain embodiments, the present invention also provides gene therapy for the in vivo production of GDF3 protein. In one embodiment, such gene therapy would achieve its therapeutic effect by introduction of a polynucleotide which encodes a GDF3 peptide (e.g., a GDF3 mature peptide or a GDF3 propeptide) into cells or tissues having the disorders as listed above. In another embodiment, such gene therapy would achieve its therapeutic effect by introduction of nucleic acids that inhibit gene expression of GDF3, such as GDF3 antisense probes and double-stranded small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Methods of making and using antisense nucleic acids and siRNAs are known in the art. See, for example, Crooke, 2004, Annu Rev Med. 55:61-95; Schutze, 2004, Mol Cell Endocrinol. 213(2):115-9, and articles referenced therein. In certain embodiments, delivery of the nucleic acids for gene therapy can be achieved using a recombinant expression vector such as a chimeric virus or a colloidal dispersion system. Preferred for therapeutic delivery of these polynucleotides is the use of targeted liposomes. Various viral vectors which can be utilized for gene therapy as taught herein include adenovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV), herpes virus, vaccinia, or, preferably, an RNA virus such as a retrovirus. Preferably, the retroviral vector is a derivative of a murine or avian retrovirus. Examples of retroviral vectors in which a single foreign gene can be inserted include, but are not limited to: Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMuLV), Harvey murine sarcoma virus (HaMuSV), murine mammary tumor virus (MuMTV), and Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). A number of additional retroviral vectors can incorporate multiple genes. All of these vectors can transfer or incorporate a gene for a selectable marker so that transduced cells can be identified and generated. Retroviral vectors can be made target-specific by attaching, for example, a sugar, a glycolipid, or a protein. Preferred targeting is accomplished by using an antibody. Those of skill in the art will recognize that specific polynucleotide sequences can be inserted into the retroviral genome or attached to a viral envelope to allow target specific delivery of the retroviral vector encoding a GDF3 peptide. In one preferred embodiment, the vector is targeted to fat, bone, cartilage or muscle cells/tissues. Alternatively, tissue culture cells can be directly transfected with plasmids encoding the retroviral structural genes gag, pol and env, by conventional calcium phosphate transfection. These cells are then transfected with the vector plasmid containing the genes of interest. The resulting cells release the retroviral vector into the culture medium. Another targeted delivery system for the subject nucleic acids is a colloidal dispersion system. Colloidal dispersion systems include macromolecule complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems including oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. The preferred colloidal system of this invention is a liposome. Liposomes are artificial membrane vesicles which are useful as delivery vehicles in vitro and in vivo. RNA, DNA and intact virions can be encapsulated within the aqueous interior and be delivered to cells in a biologically active form (see e.g., Fraley, et al., 1981, Trends Biochem. Sci., 6:77). Methods for efficient gene transfer using a liposome vehicle, are known in the art (see e.g., Mannino, et al., 1988, Biotechniques, 6:682). The composition of the liposome is usually a combination of phospholipids, usually in combination with steroids, especially cholesterol. Other phospholipids or other lipids may also be used. The physical characteristics of liposomes depend on pH, ionic strength, and the presence of divalent cations. Examples of lipids useful in liposome production include phosphatidyl compounds, such as phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingolipids, cerebrosides, and gangliosides. Illustrative phospholipids include egg phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, and distearoylphosphatidylcholine. The targeting of liposomes is also possible based on, for example, organ-specificity, cell-specificity, and organelle-specificity and is known in the art. EXAMPLES The invention now being generally described, it will be more readily understood by reference to the following examples, which are included merely for purposes of illustration of certain embodiments and embodiments of the present invention, and are not intended to limit the invention. Example 1 Construction, Expression, and Purification of GDF3 pro-Fc Fusion A human GDF3 propeptide sequence was PCR amplified from a full length GDF3 cDNA and cloned into a human CMV derived expression vector in such a way that upon ligation it gave a fusion peptide with a murine IgG2a Fc domain. This construct was transiently transfected in HEK293 cells using polyethylenimine (PEI). After seven days, cells were harvested and conditioned media was collected for purification. Recombinant GDF3pro-Fc fusion was expressed in HEK293 cells and purified by standard techniques. For example, the protein can be purified as follows. Recombinant GDF3 pro-MuIgG2a fusion is purified by protein A affinity chromatography. 1 liter batch of conditioned media is filtrated, concentrated and loaded on a 4 ml rProtein A Sepharose Fast Flow column (Amersham Biosciences) previously equilibrated with TBS (pH 8.0). After protein loading, the column is washed with 20 column volumes (CV) of TBS, 10 CV of TBS-0.05% Tween 20, followed by additional wash with 10 CV of TBS to remove non-specifically bound proteins. Bound GDF3 pro-MuIgG2a protein is eluted with 100 mM Glycine (pH 3.0). Eluted fraction is immediately neutralized by addition of 1 M Tris and dialyzed against PBS (pH 8.0). Example 2 GDF3 pro-Fc Fusion Peptide Binds to Mature GDF3 BiaCore chip analysis was conducted. Purified GDF3 pro-Fc was coupled onto a BiaCore CM5 chip using the amine coupling procedure. Conditioned medium from cells expressing human GDF-3 was injected onto the chip and binding was detected, as shown in the upper trace in FIG. 9. In a control experiment, conditioned medium from cells that do not express GDF3 was injected onto the chip and little or no binding was detected, as shown in the lower trace in FIG. 9. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE All publications and patents mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each individual publication or patent was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. While specific embodiments of the subject matter have been discussed, the above specification is illustrative and not restrictive. Many variations will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon review of this specification and the claims below. The full scope of the invention should be determined by reference to the claims, along with their full scope of equivalents, and the specification, along with such variations.
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A
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393
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95
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11904751
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US20090089863A1-20090402
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Secure tunnel performance using a multi-session secure tunnel
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ACCEPTED
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20090318
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20090402
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[]
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H04L932
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["H04L932", "G06F1516"]
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8782772
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20070928
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20140715
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726
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005000
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77840.0
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TURCHEN
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JAMES
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Vanniarajan", "inventor_name_first": "Kadirvel Chockalingam", "inventor_city": "Hyderabad", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IN"}]
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A method of communicating data over a network is provided. A secure tunnel may be implemented through the network between two computers. Performance limitations of the secure tunnel with a single session can be alleviated by establishing multiple sessions for the tunnel.
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1. A method of communicating data over a network, the method comprising acts of: establishing a first secure point-to-point session through the network between a first computer and a second computer; establishing a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the first computer and the second computer; and implementing a secure tunnel through the network between the first computer and the second computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises authenticating the second secure point-to-point session using authentication parameters negotiated during the act of establishing the first secure point-to-point session. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the first computer comprises a client, wherein the second computer comprises a server, wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises sending an authentication credential from the first computer to the second computer for the client to authenticate with the server, and wherein the connection identification is provided by the server to the client during authentication of the first secure point-to-point session. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a secure socket tunneling protocol. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a virtual private network tunnel based on a secure socket tunneling protocol. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session are associated with the secure tunnel via a same authentication. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the same authentication for the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session comprises the client authenticating the server using a secure socket layer channel and the server authenticating the client using a point-to-point protocol. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising: determining at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel; and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session is performed when it is determined that the at least one performance characteristic is below a threshold. 9. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether throughput of the secure tunnel is lower than available bandwidth of the network. 10. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether latency in the secure tunnel is above a threshold. 11. The method of claim 8 further comprising determining whether data loss in the network between the client and server is above a threshold. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the first computer comprises a client, wherein the second computer comprises a server, and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session comprises: sending from the client a call connect request including a session cookie; validating by the server the call connect request using the session cookie; sending from the server a call connect acknowledgment with a challenge for a crypto-binding; sending from the client a call connected message with the crypto-binding to indicate that the second secure point-to-point session can be established; and validating by the server the crypto-binding to authenticate the client. 13. At least one computer-readable medium having stored thereon computer-executable instructions that, when executed, perform a method of communicating data over a network, the method comprising: establishing a first secure point-to-point session through the network between a first computer and a second computer; establishing a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the first computer and the second computer; and implementing a secure tunnel through the network between the first computer and the second computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 14. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the act of implementing the secure tunnel comprises implementing a secure socket tunneling protocol. 15. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network further comprises: determining at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel; and wherein the act of establishing the second secure point-to-point session is performed when it is determined that the at least one performance characteristic is below a threshold. 16. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network comprises determining whether throughput of the secure channel is lower than available bandwidth of the network. 17. The computer-readable medium of claim 13, wherein the method of communicating data over the network comprises determining whether latency in the secure tunnel is above a threshold. 18. A computer comprising: at least one processor programmed to: establish a first secure point-to-point session through a network between the computer and another computer; establish a second secure point-to-point session through the network between the computer and another computer; and implement a secure tunnel through the network between the computer and another computer employing both the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session. 19. The computer of claim 18, wherein the first secure point-to-point session and the second secure point-to-point session are associated with the secure tunnel via a same authentication. 20. The computer of claim 18, wherein the at least one processor is further programmed to: automatically establish the second secure point-to-point session when it is determined that at least one performance characteristic of the secure tunnel is below a threshold.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, both the mobility of users of computing devices and the number of locations where users can receive network access have increased significantly. Reliable and secure networks are desirable for many enterprises (e.g., business, government, agencies, etc.). Thus, it is desirable to enable a remote user working outside an enterprise network to connect to the network in a secure fashion, often via a public network (e.g., the Internet). Among many techniques developed to transmit traffic over a public network, virtual private network (VPN) technology is widely used to provide a secure tunnel between remote users and an enterprise network by enabling exchange of encrypted data over any public network, such as, for example, the Internet or other wide area networks. VPN technology typically encompasses protocols such as, for example, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and Layer Two Tunneling Protocol with Internet Protocol security (L2TP/IPSec).
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Applicants have appreciated that performance of a secure tunnel may be limited by performance of the underlying connection (e.g., a TCP connection for SSTP). For example, the bandwidth that the TCP connection can utilize may be less than an available bandwidth, which may impact performance of the secure tunnel. To improve network utilization in one embodiment, multiple secure sessions for a single secure tunnel between end points (e.g., a client and a server) may be established. This alleviates the problem associated with underutilizing capabilities of the connection. The overall throughput achieved by a secure tunnel over a connection (e.g., TCP connection) may be increased by establishing multiple sessions over the tunnel. After establishing a secure tunnel with a first session, a technique may be used to securely associate additional sessions established for the same secure tunnel. The multiple sessions over the SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications and protocols transmitting data over the tunnel.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, both the mobility of users of computing devices and the number of locations where users can receive network access have increased significantly. Reliable and secure networks are desirable for many enterprises (e.g., business, government, agencies, etc.). Thus, it is desirable to enable a remote user working outside an enterprise network to connect to the network in a secure fashion, often via a public network (e.g., the Internet). Among many techniques developed to transmit traffic over a public network, virtual private network (VPN) technology is widely used to provide a secure tunnel between remote users and an enterprise network by enabling exchange of encrypted data over any public network, such as, for example, the Internet or other wide area networks. VPN technology typically encompasses protocols such as, for example, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and Layer Two Tunneling Protocol with Internet Protocol security (L2TP/IPSec). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Applicants have appreciated that performance of a secure tunnel may be limited by performance of the underlying connection (e.g., a TCP connection for SSTP). For example, the bandwidth that the TCP connection can utilize may be less than an available bandwidth, which may impact performance of the secure tunnel. To improve network utilization in one embodiment, multiple secure sessions for a single secure tunnel between end points (e.g., a client and a server) may be established. This alleviates the problem associated with underutilizing capabilities of the connection. The overall throughput achieved by a secure tunnel over a connection (e.g., TCP connection) may be increased by establishing multiple sessions over the tunnel. After establishing a secure tunnel with a first session, a technique may be used to securely associate additional sessions established for the same secure tunnel. The multiple sessions over the SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications and protocols transmitting data over the tunnel. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in various figures is represented by a like numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a is a conceptual illustration of an environment in which data may be sent over a VPN connection; FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of two computers connected via a SSTP connection in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of functional blocks supporting a SSTP connection in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram illustrating user and kernel mode components that support a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating a method of establishing multiple sessions over a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6A-6D are schematic diagrams illustrating of a process of authentication of a client and a server to establish multiple sessions over a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram illustrating a computing device on which embodiments of the invention can be implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Data sent between computers in an encrypted form over a network using existing VPN protocols may encounter difficulties in, for example, traversing network address translation (NAT) routers, proxy server and firewalls located between the computers. VPN protocols often require special set up in these routers, proxies and firewalls. Recently developed Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) is a secure tunneling protocol over hypertext transport protocol secure (HTTPS) connection that may support tunneling for any application or protocol. SSTP may allow any network traffic on top of it to be NAT and firewall friendly since HTTPS can traverse virtually all firewalls, proxies (e.g., an internet server provider (ISP) proxy) and is NAT friendly. An example of a network traffic that can be carried over SSTP is a point-to-point protocol (PPP) traffic. Using PPP, which may provide client authentication, provides a mechanism to use SSTP as a SSTP tunnel. A SSTP tunnel may be established over a secure channel (e.g., HTTPS channel) on top of a network connection such as a TCP connection. Embodiments of the present invention are directed to establishing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel through a network between two computers. In some embodiments of the invention, the secure tunnel is based on the recently developed SSTP and is a SSTP tunnel. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, as multiple sessions may be used to improve performance of other types of tunnels. As mentioned above, the inventors have appreciated that performance limitations of a network connection over which a secure tunnel is established may affect performance of the secure tunnel. Examples of network performance characteristics associated with a TCP connection may be bandwidth utilization, packet loss and latency. The inventors have further appreciated that drawbacks associated with network performance limitations of a secure tunnel (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single session can be alleviated by establishing multiple sessions in parallel for the tunnel. Multiple sessions enable improved performance for the connection, as information may travel over the multiple sessions simultaneously as a connection may be provided with multiple sessions in a manner that is transparent to any applications utilizing the connection. When network characteristics indicate that a secure tunnel with a single session underutilizes network capabilities, one or more additional sessions may be established. In one embodiment described in detail below, the tunnel provided with multiple sessions is a SSTP tunnel. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect and that multiple sessions can also be provided for other types of tunnels. In one embodiment of the invention, a SSTP tunnel with a single SSTP session may be established between computers, for example, a client and a server. To establish the tunnel, a client may connect to a server (e.g., using HTTPS). The server may be a VPN server or other server that serves as a gateway to an enterprise network. After the client connects to the server using HTTPS or other protocol, a higher-level protocol (e.g., PPP) may then negotiate and initiate as described in more detail below. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a computer system 100 on which aspects of the invention may be implemented. Computer system 100 comprises a client 102 and a server 104 communicating over a network 106. Network 106 may be a public network such as the Internet, but the invention is not limited in this respect, as network 106 may be any suitable network. In one embodiment of the invention, server 104 is a SSTP server and client 102 is a SSTP client, meaning that each is capable of forming a connection using SSTP. Client 102 and server 104 may comprise one or more computing devices that include software or components allowing creating a SSTP channel between client 102 and server 104. Therefore, both client 102 and server 104 may include components implemented in software, hardware or combination thereof that provide functionality enabling establishing a secure tunnel between the client and the server. Server 104 may act as a gateway for a single computing device or multiple computing devices. In the example illustrated, computers 112 that operate behind server 104 may belong, for example, to an enterprise network. Client 102, when located outside the enterprise network, may access applications on computers 112 via server 104. It should be appreciated that any of the computers described above and any of their components can be implemented in any of numerous ways. For example, the functional components or operations described herein may be implemented using software, hardware or a combination thereof. When implemented in software, the software code can be executed on any suitable processor or collection of processors, whether provided in a single computer or distributed among multiple computers. Further, it should be appreciated that a computer may be embodied in any of a number of forms, such as a rack-mounted computer, a desktop computer, a laptop computer, or a tablet computer. Additionally, a computer may be embedded in a device not generally regarded as a computer but with suitable processing capabilities, including a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a smart phone or any other suitable portable or fixed electronic device. As shown in FIG. 1, SSTP tunnel 108 may be created through network 106. SSTP tunnel 106 is a secure communication channel over which data may be securely (e.g., via encryption) transmitted over network 106. In some embodiments of the invention, SSTP tunnel 106 is a VPN tunnel that utilizes the SSTP protocol. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect and that other protocols may be used to create a tunnel. Furthermore, the SSTP protocol may serve as a firewall traversal mechanism for any suitable network connection. A connection utilizing the SSTP protocol is referred to herein as a SSTP connection. An SSTP connection can be implemented, for example, as shown in the examples which follow, and as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/561,947, entitled “SECURE TUNNEL OVER HTTPS CONNECTION,” filed on Nov. 21, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference. Some changes have been made to reflect updates to the SSTP protocol. FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of two computers (e.g., a client and a server) connected via a SSTP connection according to one embodiment of the invention. A first computer 202 (e.g., client 102 from FIG. 1 supporting user applications such as email, web browsing, database access, etc.) may be coupled to a second computer 204 (e.g., server 104 from FIG. 1). In the exemplary embodiment, the first computer 202 is outside an enterprise network protected, for example, by a firewall. The second computer 204 may be a server supporting client-server communications for the applications on the first computer 202. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, and the second computer 204 may be a remote access server dedicated to serving as gateway supporting communications with computers outside the enterprise network. The computers 202 and 204 may be connected via network 206, which may be a public network such as the Internet. Application 208 and other applications represented by “Application n” 210 may send and receive data using client network interface 212. The client network interface 212 may present a communication application programming interface (API) 214 to the applications 208 and 210. One example of the communication API is an API to implement the PPP. It should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as any protocol can be supported as long as both computers 202 and 204 agree to it. The client network interface 212 may include an HTTPS module 216 for coupling to the network 206. At the server side, a server network interface 218 may include an HTTPS module 220 coupled to the network 206 and may also include a communication API 224. Communication API 224 may attach to one or more server hosting applications (e.g., 226-230). In one embodiment, one of the server applications may include an authentication server 230. The authentication server 230 may be used to authenticate client credentials during session startup, and may also include support for secure socket layer (SSL) key exchange as part of establishing the HTTPS session. Traffic between the second computer 204 and various application servers (e.g., 226, 228 and 230) may be routed using IP/IPv6 routing protocols or other routing protocols. In one embodiment, an application on the client, such as, for example, a web browser application, may start up and connect with the network 206 via, for example, an Internet Service Provider (ISP). A connection may be established to the server network interface 218 from the client network interface 212 to establish a SSTP tunnel, which is discussed in more detail below. After establishing the SSTP tunnel, the server network interface 218 may forward data traffic to one or more of the server applications 226, 228 and 230 using an agreed to protocol, for example, PPP. In one exemplary embodiment, for example, in a corporate environment, the authentication server 230 may be used to establish the identity of a user at the first computer 202. Once the user has been authenticated, the user may be granted access to one or more corporate applications, such as e-mail, database access, corporate bulletin boards, etc. FIG. 3 is an exemplary block diagram of functional components or modules supporting a SSTP connection according to one embodiment of the invention. The SSTP connection may be used to transmit outbound traffic from a computer such as, for example, the first computer 202 or the second computer 204 illustrated in FIG. 2. Data transmission using the SSTP protocol may follow a three stage process: (1) secure session establishment, (2) SSTP control traffic, and (3) SSTP data traffic. Secure session establishment involves establishing a TCP connection between the client and server followed by a standard SSL handshake, including Diffie-Hellman key exchange. These establish a HTTPS session. Once the HTTPS session is established, a SSTP driver (SSTPDRV) may activate a state machine that manages the SSTP protocol. A PPP session negotiation may then be made over the SSTP connection and the PPP session is in place, the channel is ready for tunneling application traffic through the network via the PPP protocol. After the initial session setup and security negotiation are complete, an application 302 may send data to a socket interface 304, such as, for example, a Winsock interface. The socket interface 304 may pass the data down the protocol stack to a TCP/IP interface 306. The TCP/IP interface 306 may then determine that the packet is destined for the SSTP tunnel and route the data to the appropriate protocol layer, which, in one embodiment, is a PPP module 308. The SSTP protocol may exist at the same level as other secure protocols, such as, for example, PPTP 310 or L2TP 312. The PPP module 308 performs PPP framing and encapsulation and passes the data to a dedicated SSTP module 314. The SSTP module 314 may handle interactions between the kernel and user modes, perform specialized buffering, support SSTP command set and perform other suitable functions. The processed data may then be sent to the HTTPS module 316 for encryption using SSL and sent back to the TCP/IP interface 306. The TCP/IP interface 306 may recognize this traffic as standard HTTPS traffic and may route it to the network 318. HTTPS traffic is widely used for such applications as, for example, Internet commerce, and is usually not blocked by ISPs or firewalls. When used with a web proxy, the HTTPS traffic is forwarded to an appropriate port, such as, for example, a standard HTTPS port 443. Data over the secure tunnel using the SSTP protocol may include control traffic and data traffic. An exemplary command set for control and data traffic and their corresponding packet format follows. The SSTP protocol consists of two types of packets: Control Packet (SCP—SSTP Control Packet); Data Packet (SDP—SSTP Data Packet). As the names imply, the control packet may be some channel specific control message and the data packet carries the data from the higher layer. The SSTP protocol has a primary header which will be common across both the control and the data message. typedefBYTE SSTP_PACKET_TYPE, *PSSTP_PACKET_TYPE; #define SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_CONTROL ((BYTE)0) #define SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_DATA ((BYTE)1) #define SSTP_VERSION_1 ((BYTE)0x00010000) typedef struct _SSTP_LENGTH { USHORT Reserved : 4; USHORT Length : 12; } SSTP_LENGTH, *PSSTP_LENGTH; typedef struct _SSTP_HEADER { BYTE Version; BYTE Reserved:7; BYTE ControlMessage:1; SSTP_LENGTH Length; union { SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE ControlMessage; BYTE Payload[0] }; } SSTP_HEADER, *PSSTP_HEADER; Version—1 Byte Control/Data—1 byte with just the least significant bit being used. The rest are reserved bits Length—2 Bytes—Restricted to 12 bits The Length field is the length of the SSTP packet excluding the SSTP_HEADER. It cannot exceed 4095 bytes. The SSTP protocol should not accept transmission requests (from higher layers—in our case PPP) exceeding this limit, as otherwise SSTP protocol will have to handle fragmentation. Control Message Format The SSTP control message, as discussed above, will be present after the SSTP_HEADER, provided the PacketType is SSTP_PACKET_TYPE_CONTROL. The control message will consist of a ControlMessageType and a number of attribute-length-value fields which form the complete control message. The control message types are defined as follows: Name Value SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST 0x0001 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK 0x0002 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_NAK 0x0003 SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECTED 0x0004 SSTP_MSG_CALL_ABORT 0x0005 SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT 0x0006 SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT_ACK 0x0007 SSTP_MSG_ECHO_REQUEST 0x0008 SSTP_MSG_ECHO_RESPONSE 0x0009 typedef struct _SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE { USHORT MessageType; USHORT NumAttributes; BYTE Attributes[0]; } SSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE, *PSSTP_CONTROL_MESSAGE; typedef struct _SSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE { BYTE Reserved; // Can be used for metadata for attribute BYTE AttributeId; SSTP_LENGTH AttributeLength; BYTE Value[0]; // Of size AttributeLength bytes to follow } SSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE, *PSSTP_CONTROL_ATTRIBUTE; Name Value SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID 0x01 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_STATUS_INFO 0x02 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING 0x03 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ 0x04 SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_SESSION_COOKIE 0x05 The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_SESSION_COOKIE is an optional attribute which, when sent in the SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST, may act as a differentiator for the server to categorize this request to be a new session to an already existing SSTP connection as against a new SSTP connection itself. This optional attribute may be a nonce received with an earlier connection establishment from the server. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ attribute may be sent by the server to the client if it chooses to validate the authenticity of the client based on the authentication data from the higher layer (for example, PPP). This may comprise the nonce, which may be the session cookie for multi-session establishment, and the hash protocol to be used for computing the crypto-binding. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING is an attribute sent by the client to the server once the higher layer authentication is complete which may use the hash algorithm as specified by the server and use the higher layer authentication data to compute the crypto-binding value. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS attribute is used to indicate the completion status of a request. This can occur more than once in a control message. The value is of 8 bytes size with the following structure: typedef struct _SSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS { BYTE Reserved[3]; BYTE AttribId; DWORD Status; BYTE AttribValue [0]; } SSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS, *PSSTP_ATTRIB_VALUE_COMPLETION_STATUS; In a negative acknowledgement (NAK) message, this attribute will provide more information on why a specific attribute is being rejected. For example, a server may response with AttribId SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID and Status being ERROR_NOT_SUPPORTED to indicate that transporting the specific protocol over SSTP is not supported by the server. In the above event, the original attribute has some specific value to which the server is not adhering, this attribute will have some value specific to the attribute being rejected starting with AttribValue. For example, if the client is negotiating for SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID with values A, B and C, if the server is not accepting B and C, it may send 2 COMPLETION_STATUS attribute with the AttribValue holding a USHORT of the protocol ID not being accepted. If the attribute value that is being rejected exceeds 64 bytes, the value size will be truncated to 64 bytes in the NAK message. The SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID attribute specifies the protocol id that will be transmitted over the SSTP encapsulation. In a given message, there can be multiples of this attribute for all the various protocol IDs to be supported. typedef enum_SSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID { SSTP_PROTOCOL_ID_PPP =1 } SSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID, *PSSTP_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID; When a client tries to establish a SSTP session with the server, the SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST attribute will be the first message that gets sent out. This has the following attributes: SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_PRIMARY_SESSION_COOKIE SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_ENCAPSULATED_PROTOCOL_ID A client can resend this message with different values for the various attributes (or a different set of attributes) based on the outcome of the earlier request. There may be a predefined number of renegotiation of parameters after which the connection will be aborted. SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK may be sent in response to a connect request and it will have the CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ. Otherwise, this message will not have any attributes: SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING_REQ. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_NAK attribute may be sent in response to a connect request and it will have the list of attributes that are not accepted by the server. In response to a NAK, the client MUST send out a new CONNECT_REQUEST with all the attributes and their values that it wants. It cannot provide only the adjusted values. Unless the server is ACKing, it will not store the attribute values passed by the client. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECTED attribute may be sent by the client to complete the handshake with the server in response to SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_ACK. This may have the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CRYPTO_BINDING computed after the higher layer authentication is done. When a client wants to add more sessions to an existing SSTP session, it may do so by passing the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_PRIMARY_SESSION_COOKIE (which may be a nonce established in the earlier session establishment) in SSTP_MSG_CALL_CONNECT_REQUEST. This may enable the server to identify the appropriate authentication data that should be used to validate the crypto-binding. The server will provide the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_CALL_CONNECT_ACK with the crypto-binding request with a different Nonce value which the client has to use to recomputed the crypto-binding. SSTP_MSG_CALL_ECHO_REQUEST is a keep-alive message and it does not have any associated attributes. SSTP_SG_CALL_ECHO_RESPONSE is a keep-alive message sent in response to the echo request and it doesn't have any attributes associated. If the response has not been received from the remote site for 2 iterations and there is no data traffic flowing, the connection will be aborted. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT attribute may be sent by either the client/server to initiate disconnect. All the data packets received from the server after a disconnect request has been sent will be dropped. This can optionally have a SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS. After the disconnect request has been sent to the remote site, the local site should wait for a disconnect timeout or until the disconnect ACK is received. There will not be any retransmission done. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT_ACK attribute may be sent by either the client or server, after receiving the SSTP_MSG_CALL_DISCONNECT from the remote site. This may not have any attributes. The SSTP_MSG_CALL_ABORT attribute may be sent whenever there is a failure in the basic SSTP negotiation. It could be a failure to converge on the connect request parameters or it could be due to a failure to match the Fast Reconnect cookie to a connection context. This may have the SSTP_ATTRIBUTE_COMPLETION_STATUS to indicate the reason for the failure. Data Message Format When the ControlMessage bit is OFF, the payload will represent the protocol data negotiated. As discussed above, in one embodiment, the payload of one protocol may be supported. However, in another embodiment, the SSTP channel protocol may be used to route packets of heterogeneous protocols. FIG. 4 is a simplified and representative block diagram of functional blocks (e.g., components or modules) supporting one embodiment of a SSTP connection showing the relationships of the functional blocks with respect to user and kernel modes of operation. This figure is used to illustrate in more detail the control and data traffic associated with the SSTP protocol. User mode modules 402 support all user applications and are restricted from direct access to hardware. Kernel mode modules 404 maintain control over all hardware resources and are the only modules to have direct access to hardware, such as a network interface. In this illustrative figure, the user mode modules are an application/socket interface 406, a remote access connection manager and PPP engine 408 (RASMAN), a SSTP service 410 (SSTPSVC) and a HTTP/WinHTTP module 412. Kernel mode modules include a network driver interface specification 414 (NDIS) that is the definition of application to hardware network protocols and HTTP/HTTPS system files 416. The NDIS 414 includes a TCP/IP module 418, a wide area network (WAN) framing module 420, a NDIS wide area network module 422, and a SSTP driver 424 (SSTPDRV). The dashed lines in FIG. 4 indicate trans-mode connections, while solid lines indicate connections within a mode. In operation, after the HTTPS session is successfully established (e.g., a TCP connection and the SSL handshake are performed), the SSTPSVC 410 at a first computer, e.g., first computer 202 of FIG. 2, may setup a SSTP session context with the remote site, for example, second computer 204 of FIG. 2. That is, after the SSL handshake is done, the SSTPSVC 410 may trigger contextual setup activity within the HTTPS module. After this is done, the SSTPDRV 424 may then start a SSTP finite state machine over the HTTPS session. During this phase, only SSTPDRV/SSTPSVC 410 and 424 and HTTPS 416 modules are interacting. Once this setup is complete, a binding will be created between the NDISWAN 422 and the SSTP session. The remote access connection manager (RASMAN) 408 may be notified of the SSTP session by the NDISWAN and may initiate the PPP negotiation over the SSTP connection. The PPP finite state machine may be implemented in the RASMAN 408 (within a loaded PPP module). The PPP control packet will be passed directly from RASMAN 408 to the NDISWAN 422. The NDISWAN 422 will pass it to SSTPDRV 424. The SSTP driver will hand over the packet to SSTPSVC 410 and the SSTPSVC 410 will pass it on to HTTPS module 412. Typically, the HTTPS module 412 passes the data to the TCP/IP module 418 for routing over the network. There will be an outstanding SSTP_POST request with just the initial header sent to the remote server. The server will immediately reply back with a PUT response. The PUT request continuation (as entity body) will form the client-to-server data traffic and the response entity body will be the server-to-client data traffic. After the headers are exchanged, the SSTP protocol is available for use. After the PPP negotiation is complete, the channel may be ready for tunneling application traffic. When the channeling tunnel is ready, data traffic may be carried over the link. The kernel mode TCP/IP module 418 may accept traffic in a form of a data packet from the application and socket interface 406 in the user mode. The TCP/IP module 418 identifies that the packet is to be routed through the SSTP tunnel and hands it over to the WAN framing module 420. The WAN framing module 420 may map the connection (SSTP) to a correct interface and pass it to the NDISWAN module 422. This is roughly the equivalent to PPP module 308 of FIG. 3. The NDISWAN module 422 is responsible for PPP framing and compression. Any encryption that might be done at a PPP module at this layer is turned off because it will be SSL encrypted. From this point on, the sequence of operations will be the same as the control traffic above, that is, to the RASMAN 408, SSTPDRV 414, SSTPSVC 410 and HTTPS module 416. Once the SSTP/PPP encapsulated data bytes reach the HTTPS module, the HTTPS module will send them over the TCP connection (default port 443) after doing SSL encryption. So the packet again comes to TCP/IP module 418 from the user-mode HTTPS module but the routing will determine that this traffic may go over the Ethernet interface (not shown) instead of to the WAN framing module 420 as with the original application data. The description above describes how a secure tunnel (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single link (e.g., a single SSTP session) may be established. Using the SSTP protocol, data traffic (e.g., PPP traffic), which is datagram oriented may be encapsulated over stream oriented SSL session. Therefore, the PPP traffic may traverse NATs and firewalls. SSL may enable data encryption and PPP may enable client authentication. As described above, Applicants have appreciated that network capabilities may sometimes be underutilized when a secure tunnel is used to transmit data between a client and a server, such that benefits can be achieved by employing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel. In some embodiments, the performance of the network can be evaluated (e.g., by evaluating one or more network characteristics) to evaluate the desirability of forming multiple links for a single secure tunnel. In some embodiments of the invention, the network characteristics that may be monitored and/or evaluates to determine whether additional sessions or links may be desired may comprise network latency and/or packet loss rate. However, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as any other suitable network characteristics may be used to make a decision regarding the desirability of establishing multiple sessions for a secure tunnel. The bandwidth under-utilization may depend on the Network latency and packet loss rate. The available bandwidth is typically negotiated between a client computer and an ISP, and can be measured in any suitable way. Some client computers (e.g., SSTP client 102 or 202) include components that provide functionality of measuring network latency between the client and a server. For example, SSTP module 314 shown in FIG. 3 and/or the TCP/IP protocol stack of the client computer may be used to measure latency using known techniques. However, the embodiment wherein latency is evaluated to determine the desirability of establishing multiple links is not limited to using these techniques for measuring latency, as any suitable technique may be employed. FIG. 5 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method of establishing multiple sessions for a SSTP tunnel in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The process may start at block 502 where a SSTP tunnel is established between any two computers (e.g., a client and a server) that are enabled to be connected via a secure tunnel. It should be appreciated that in the example illustrated, the secure tunnel is a VPN tunnel based on the SSTP protocol, but the invention is not limited in this respect, and can be used to establish multiple links for other types of secure tunnels based on SSTP. In the description below, the connection is described as by a tunnel between a client and server, with the client initiating the establishment of multiple links, but the invention is not limited in this respect, as the method can be employed between any two computers. The SSTP tunnel may be established in any suitable way. For example, as described above, the client may connect to the server via a TCP connection followed by a SSL handshake which establishes a HTTPS session. A state machine that manages the SSTP protocol may then by activated by a SSTP driver (e.g., SSTPDRV 424) to establish a SSTP connection. This may be followed by negotiating a PPP session over the SSTP connection which renders the SSTP tunnel ready for tunneling application traffic via the PPP protocol. It should be appreciated that any suitable application traffic using any suitable protocol may be communicated over the SSTP connection. To determine whether it is desirable to add additional links for the established SSTP tunnel, performance parameters of the TCP connection may be measured, as shown in block 504. Available bandwidth may be higher than bandwidth that a TCP connection may utilize, which may affect performance of the SSTP tunnel established over the TCP connection. As mentioned above, any suitable parameters may be measured. For example, such performance measure parameters as, for example, network connection latency (e.g., the time required for a byte to travel from one end of the connection to another) and data loss rate, may be determined by a SSTP layer (e.g., SSTP module 314) or within the TCP/IP stack (e.g., by TCP/IP module 418). In some embodiments, the additional links may also be established based on configuration settings present in the system. In one embodiment of the invention, network latency of data traffic between the client and the server higher than 100 milliseconds and/or data loss greater than 10% may indicate that the TCP connection is saturated at a throughput of about 2 Mbps, despite the fact that available bandwidth may be higher. Thus, such conditions may indicate that the performance of the connection may benefit from forming additional links. It should be appreciated that the invention is not limited in this respect, as other thresholds for latency and/or data loss may be used, and other network performance measure parameters may be evaluated, to determine that performance of the SSTP tunnel could be improved via one or more additional links. Based on the measurements of the network performance, in decision block 506, it may be determined whether the capabilities of the network connection are underutilized. If so, the process proceeds to block 508, where the client may send a request to the server to establish another session over the existing SSTP tunnel. Otherwise, if the measured network characteristics do not indicate that the network is underutilized, the process may return to block 504 where network performance may continue to be monitored. In accordance with one embodiment, it is desirable to employ some techniques for associating multiple links established for a single tunnel, so that the multiple links can be used in parallel for the tunnel, as opposed to being treated as forming separate tunnels. This can be done in any suitable way, as the invention is not limited in this respect. In one embodiment, upon sending the request to the server to establish an additional session over the SSTP tunnel in block 508, the client authenticates with the server to associate the additional session with the SSTP tunnel, as shown in block 510. This can be done in any suitable way. In one embodiment, a crypto-binding mechanism may be provided by the SSTP protocol whereby a higher-layer protocol (e.g., PPP) may provide the client authentication, which is described in detail below. The process may then proceed to block 512 where the additional session over the SSTP tunnel may be established. The client may optionally return to block 504 to continue monitoring network performance to determine whether more sessions should be established over the SSTP tunnel. In one embodiment, the use of multiple SSTP sessions in a SSTP tunnel may be transparent to applications communicating via the tunnel. Data may be distributed among the multiple sessions using any suitable technique, including a round-robin mechanism or any other. Furthermore, data may be sent based on characteristics of the applications and protocols utilizing the tunnel. In some embodiments of the invention, data is distinguished along the multiple sessions. As described above, in one embodiment, additional sessions established for a secure tunnel are associated with the tunnel. In one embodiment, an authentication mechanism based on the Fast Reconnect of the SSTP protocol may be used to perform the authentication of multiple sessions within a secure tunnel such as a SSTP tunnel, although other techniques are possible. The Fast Reconnect may demonstrate that a new SSTP session belongs to the same client that negotiated a higher protocol layer (e.g., a PPP layer). As described above, during the SSL handshake, or negotiation, performed as part of a HTTPS session establishment, the SSTP client may authenticate the SSTP server. The SSTP server may optionally authenticate the SSTP client. When the client is not authenticated with the SSTP server, there is a risk of an attacker implementing a man-in-the-middle attack whereby the attacker may establish a HTTPS connection to the SSTP server and forward data packets (e.g., PPP packets) that are received from the SSTP client for communications other than SSTP communications (e.g., wireless communications). To prevent man-in-the-middle attacks, the authentication of the SSTP client with the SSTP server and the authentication of the SSTP server with the SSTP client may be cryptographically bound. The SSTP protocol may implement such cryptographic binding by requiring the client send, as a SSTP message, a value derived from authentication parameters negotiated during an authentication provided by a higher-layer protocol (e.g., PPP authentication) over the HTTPS connection. However, the invention is not limited in this respect, as other authentication credentials may be used as part of the SSTP message. For example, in one embodiment, a cryptographic nonce may be substituted. The SSTP client may be authenticated by the SSTP server during the higher-layer protocol authentication. Using the SSTP message, the SSTP client can prove that it was authenticated with the SSTP server, and the higher-layer protocol authentication was for SSTP communications. Because the client has already been authenticated to the SSTP server during SSL negotiation as part of HTTPS connection establishment, the client can also confirm from the SSTP server either that there is no man-in-the-middle attack or that the entity between the client and server is an entity that the SSTP server may trust. This process, which is referred to herein as crypto-binding, may be used to protect the SSTP connection against man-in-the-middle attacks. The crypto-binding mechanism may be used to establish additional sessions over the SSTP tunnel, which is schematically shown in FIGS. 6A-6D. As illustrated in FIG. 6A, a server (e.g., a SSTP server) sends a connection identification by way of example only as a nonce to a client (e.g., a SSTP client) during establishment of a secure tunnel 600 (e.g., a SSTP tunnel) with a single session 602 (e.g., a SSTP session). To establish an additional session over the secure tunnel, the client may send to the server a Call Connect Request that may comprise the nonce that was previously provided by the server to the client during establishment of the secure tunnel, as shown in FIG. 6B. The server may then authenticate the additional session using the nonce and send a Call Connect Acknowledgment to the client, along with a nonce for authentication of subsequent sessions, as shown in FIG. 6C. In essence, the server may validate that the client that is requesting additional session is the same client that has previously established the secure tunnel with the server. Finally, the client may send the server a Call Connected message along with the crypto-binding to establish the identity of the client as claimed with the nonce that it sent initially and an additional session 604 is established over the secure tunnel 604, as shown in FIG. 6D. Any higher-layer data traffic may now be transmitted over the session 604 or the session 602. It should be appreciated that the particular messages described above as being sent between the client and server are shown by way of example only and any other suitable messages and attributes may be used. The methods and systems described herein can be implemented on any suitable computer system, including a single computer devices or a collection of distributed devices coupled in any suitable way. FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary computer system for implementing some embodiments. FIG. 7 illustrates computing device 700, which includes at least one processor 702 and memory 704. Depending on the configuration and type of computing device, memory 704 may be volatile (such as RAM), non-volatile (such as ROM, flash memory, etc.) or some combination of the two. Device 700 may include at least some form of computer readable media. By way of example, and not limitation, computer readable media may comprise computer storage media. For example, device 700 may also include storage (removable and/or non-removable) including, but not limited to, magnetic or optical disks or tape. Such additional storage is illustrated in FIG. 7 by removable storage 708 and non-removable storage 710. Computer storage media may include volatile and nonvolatile media, removable, and non-removable media of any type for storing information such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Memory 704, removable storage 608 and non-removable storage 710 all are examples of computer storage media. Computer storage media includes, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, digital versatile disks (DVD) or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and which can accessed by device 700. Any such computer storage media may be part of device 700. Device 700 may also contain network communications module(s) 712 that allow the device to communicate with other devices via one or more communication media. By way of example, and not limitation, communication media may include wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, RF, infrared and other wireless media. Network communication module(s) 712 may be a component that is capable of providing an interface between device 700 and the one or more communication media, and may be one or more of a wired network card, a wireless network card, a modem, an infrared transceiver, an acoustic transceiver and/or any other suitable type of network communication module. In one embodiment, the methods and systems described herein may be implemented via software code that is stored on one or more computer readable media and includes instructions that when executed (e.g., on processor 702) implement parts or all of the techniques described herein. Device 700 may also have input device(s) 714 such as a keyboard, mouse, pen, voice input device, touch input device, etc. Output device(s) 716 such as a display, speakers, printer, etc. may also be included. All these devices are well known in the art and need not be discussed at length here. It should be appreciated that the techniques described herein are not limited to executing on any particular system or group of systems. For example, embodiments may run on one device or on a combination of devices. Also, it should be appreciated that the techniques described herein are not limited to any particular architecture, network, or communication protocol. The techniques described herein are not limited in their application to the details of construction and the arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The techniques described herein are capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or of being carried out in various ways. Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing,” “involving,” and variations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items.
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9
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32
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11844106
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US20070286096A1-20071213
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Portable Networking Interface Method And Apparatus For Distributed Switching System
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ACCEPTED
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20071128
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20071213
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[]
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H04L1228
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["H04L1228"]
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7711001
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20070823
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20100504
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370
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466000
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97318.0
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MEW
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KEVIN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Alexander", "inventor_name_first": "Cedell", "inventor_city": "Durham", "inventor_state": "NC", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Larsen", "inventor_name_first": "Loren", "inventor_city": "Beaverton", "inventor_state": "OR", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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An apparatus and method to provide a portable networking interface for distributed switching systems. Two Application Program Interfaces (APIs) are defined for communication to a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL). The FDDL sits between network client applications and the switch device driver in order to provide a uniform interface to the switch device driver. Towers may be added to the FDDL to provide additional functionality specific to certain client applications.
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1-2. (canceled) 3. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 4. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the second software application communicates with the FDDL system; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 5-6. (canceled) 7. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a software application operable to execute on the CPU; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU; a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application shim operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; wherein the independent software application communicates with the independent software application shim and the independent software application shim communicates with the switch device driver; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 8-10. (canceled) 11. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a protocol means for providing a service to a network system; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) means for communicating with the protocol means; and a switch device driver means for communicating with the FDDL means and the port controller; wherein the FDDL means defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL means defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 12. A network switch comprising: a CPU; a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU; a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system; a protocol means for providing a service to a network system; a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) means for communicating with the protocol means; a switch device driver means for communicating with the FDDL means and the port controller; and a second protocol means for providing a second service to the network system, wherein the FDDL means communicates with the second protocol means; wherein the FDDL means defines an FDDL API for communication with the protocol means and the second protocol means, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver means. 13-28. (canceled) 29. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; and a workstation, wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone, and wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 30. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; a workstation; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the second software application communicates with the FDDL system; wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone; wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; and wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 31-32. (canceled) 33. A network system comprising: a network switch comprising a CPU, a memory system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU, a switch fabric system having circuitry operable to attach to the CPU a port controller having circuitry operable to attach to the switch fabric system, a software application operable to execute on the CPU, a Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) system operable to execute on the CPU, and a switch device driver operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the software application is operable to communicate with the FDDL system, the FDDL system is operable to communicate with the switch device driver, and the switch device driver is operable to communicate with the switch fabric; a backbone; a workstation, an independent software application operable to execute on the CPU; an independent software application shim operable to execute on the CPU; wherein the workstation is logically connected to the backbone, wherein the backbone is logically connected to the port controller of the network switch; and wherein the independent software application communicates with the independent software application shim and the independent software application shim communicates with the switch device driver; and a second software application operable to execute on the CPU, wherein the FDDL system defines an FDDL API for communication with the software application and the second software application, and the FDDL system defines a Switch Services API for communication with the switch device driver. 34. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>The proliferation of personal computers, digital telephones, telephony and telecommunications technology has resulted in the development of complex switches in order to efficiently communicate digital data between a number of different devices. These communication systems are generally referred to as networks. Each network operates on the basis of one or more switches which route digital data from an originating device to a destination device. To this end, communication protocols have been developed in order to standardize and streamline communications between devices and promote connectivity. As advances are made in telecommunications and connectivity technology, additional protocols are rapidly being developed in order to improve the efficiency and interconnectivity of networking systems. As these advances occur, modifications are required to the switches in order to allow the switches to appropriately deal with the new protocols and take advantage of the new efficiencies that they offer. Unfortunately, a switch can represent a large capital investment in a network system. The frequency in which new protocols are developed makes it impractical to upgrade switches with every protocol introduced to the market. Accordingly, what is needed is a system and device for improving interface portability within the switch so that switches can be quickly and easily upgraded and new network interface protocols can be written and supported on multiple switch fabrics.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention solves the problem of portability by defining two primary interfaces within the switch. The first interface is called the Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) Application Program Interface (API). The primary purpose of this interface is to allow each protocol application to distribute its database and functionality to intelligent port controllers within the switch. Such distribution facilitates hardware forwarding at the controller. Each protocol application may define a specific set of FDDL messages that are exchanged between the protocol application and the switch fabric, which passes the messages to software running at each port controller. The second interface defined by the invention is called the Switch Services API. This interface is primarily a generic way for controlling data message flow between the ports interfaces and the switch device driver. A set of specific messages is defined to allow uniform exchange of information about the hardware status of the port as well as an interface for sending and receiving data frames. The forgoing broadly outlines the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereafter, which form the basis of the claims of the invention.
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates in general to a switching system for use in a network. More particularly, the invention relates to a portable interface method and system for accessing a switch device driver from the various network services applications supported by a switch BACKGROUND INFORMATION The proliferation of personal computers, digital telephones, telephony and telecommunications technology has resulted in the development of complex switches in order to efficiently communicate digital data between a number of different devices. These communication systems are generally referred to as networks. Each network operates on the basis of one or more switches which route digital data from an originating device to a destination device. To this end, communication protocols have been developed in order to standardize and streamline communications between devices and promote connectivity. As advances are made in telecommunications and connectivity technology, additional protocols are rapidly being developed in order to improve the efficiency and interconnectivity of networking systems. As these advances occur, modifications are required to the switches in order to allow the switches to appropriately deal with the new protocols and take advantage of the new efficiencies that they offer. Unfortunately, a switch can represent a large capital investment in a network system. The frequency in which new protocols are developed makes it impractical to upgrade switches with every protocol introduced to the market. Accordingly, what is needed is a system and device for improving interface portability within the switch so that switches can be quickly and easily upgraded and new network interface protocols can be written and supported on multiple switch fabrics. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention solves the problem of portability by defining two primary interfaces within the switch. The first interface is called the Forwarding Database Distribution Library (FDDL) Application Program Interface (API). The primary purpose of this interface is to allow each protocol application to distribute its database and functionality to intelligent port controllers within the switch. Such distribution facilitates hardware forwarding at the controller. Each protocol application may define a specific set of FDDL messages that are exchanged between the protocol application and the switch fabric, which passes the messages to software running at each port controller. The second interface defined by the invention is called the Switch Services API. This interface is primarily a generic way for controlling data message flow between the ports interfaces and the switch device driver. A set of specific messages is defined to allow uniform exchange of information about the hardware status of the port as well as an interface for sending and receiving data frames. The forgoing broadly outlines the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereafter, which form the basis of the claims of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanied drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a system block diagram of a network switch, including workstations connected to the network switch; FIG. 2 is a system block diagram of a data processing system which may be used as a workstation within the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram describing the FDDL defined by the present invention and its relationship with the switch device driver and protocol drivers; FIG. 4 is a software system block diagram of a portion of a network switch embodying the present invention which describes the relationship between the FDDL, the other services provided by the switch, and the in relation to the switch device driver; FIG. 5 is a system block diagram of the software architecture within a network switch embodying the present invention; FIG. 6 is a flow chart according to ANSI/ISO Standard 5807-1985 depicting the operation of the basic primitives defined by the Switch Services API of the instant invention; and FIG. 7 is a flow chart according to ANSI/ISO Standard 5807-1985 demonstrating the operation of the FDDL API as defined by the instant invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth such as languages, operating systems, microprocessors, workstations, bus systems, networking systems, input/output (I/O) systems, etc., to provide a thorough understanding of the invention. However, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without such specific details In other instances, well-known circuits, computer equipment, network protocols, programming configurations, or wiring systems have been shown in blocked diagram form in order to not obscure the present invention in unnecessary detail. For the most part, details concerning timing considerations, specific equipment used, specific programming languages and protocols used, specific networking systems used, and the like have been omitted in as much as these details are not necessary to obtain a complete understanding of the present invention and are well within the skills of persons of ordinary skill in the art. The switch to which the present invention relates is shown with reference to FIG. 1. A network switch 100 is comprised of one or more intelligent port controllers 110, a switch fabric 112, and a central processing unit (CPU) 114. The switch 100 is connected to one or more backbones 104, which in turn are connected to one or more workstations 102. Each intelligent port controller 110 may be connected to one or more backbones 104 comprising a local area network (LAN) 106. The entire system may be referred to as a network 108. The switch fabric 112 is comprised of one or more processors that manage a shared pool of packet/cell memory. The switch fabric 112 controls the sophisticated queuing and scheduling functions of the switch 100. The intelligent port controller 110 provides connectivity between the switch fabric 112 and the physical layer devices, such as the backbones 104. The intelligent port controller 110 may be implemented with one or more bitstream processors. A typical workstation 102 is depicted with reference to FIG. 2, which illustrates the typical hardware configuration of workstation 213 in accordance with the subject invention. The workstation 213 includes a central processing unit (CPU) 210, such as a conventional microprocessor and a number of other units interconnected via a system bus 212. The workstation 213 may include a random access memory (RAM) 214, a read-only memory (ROM) 216, and an I/O adapter 218 for connecting peripheral devices, such as disk units 220 and tape drives 240 to the bus 212. The workstation 213 also include a user interface adapter 222 for connecting a keyboard 224, a mouse 226 and/or other user interface devices, such as a touch screen device (not shown) to the bus 212, a communication adapter 234 for connecting the workstation 213 to a network 242 (such as the one depicted on FIG. 1 at 108), and a display adapter 236 for connecting the bus 212 to a display device 238. The CPU 210 may include other circuitry not shown, which may include circuitry found within a microprocessor, e.g., execution unit, bus interface unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), etc. The CPU 210 may also reside on one integrated circuit (IC). The FDDL is defined with reference to FIG. 3. The FDDL is a library which defines a set of API's designed to enable protocol forwarding functions to be distributed in a manner that is simple, efficient, and deportable. The FDDL 310 is comprised of one or more towers 322, 324, 326, 328. As depicted, a tower may be provided for remote monitoring (RMON) in an RMON FDDL tower 322. Multi Protocol Over ATM (MPOA) services may be provided through an MPOA client FDDL tower 324. Bridging services may connect through a Bridge FDDL tower 326. Internet Protocol (IP) Autolearn connectivity may be provided through an Autolearn FDDL tower 328. Each of the FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328 is connected through the FDDL API 332 to its respective protocol services of the RMON application 314, the MPOA application 316, the Bridge 318, and the IP Autolearn application 320, as provided within the switch. The FDDL 310 functions to receive commands from the various protocol components 314, 316, 318, 320 into the corresponding FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328. When a command is received into a tower 322, 324, 326, 328, it is passed to the base FDDL subsystem 330 for translation and passage directly to the switch device driver 312 through the Switch Services API 334. The operation of the Switch Services API is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 4. The switch device driver 420 resides immediately below FDDL in the CPU protocol stack. As shown, there may be several users of the Switch Service API 410 which communicate with the switch device driver 420. In addition to the FDDL towers 418, other users may include an Ethernet Device Driver Shim 416 and an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Device Driver Shim 414. The Device Driver Shims 414, 416 are interface translation agents which complete the high-level of architecture of the switch. The shims translate between the existing device driver interfaces and the Switch Services API 410 of the instant invention. In this way, translation through the shims 414, 416 allows preservation of the existing device driver interfaces from the ATM and Ethernet protocols and avoids modification of those handlers for use with the switch services API 410. The bridging protocol application 412 may also communicate directly with the switch device driver 420 through the Switch Services API 410. The architecture into which the FDDL and APIs of the instant invention fit is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 5, which is a block diagram depicting the basic software architecture of a network switch embodying the instant invention. While the software depicted is depicted as running on a Power PC processor 510 and on the OS Open real time operating system 512, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the instant invention can be practiced with a number of processors running a number of different operating systems. However, since the Power PC platform is the preferred technology for products employing many of the networking technology described, it present many advantages with regard to the architectural goals of the instant invention. The Power PC box 518 is connected to the switch fabric 514 through the Switch Device Driver 516. In turn, the switch fabric 514 is connected to one or more port controllers 520. The Switch Device Driver 516 supports a Switch Services API 522 through which it can send and receive messages to the FDDL 524) as well as the ATM Device Driver Shim 526 and the Ethernet Device Driver Shim 528. The ATM Device Driver Shim 526 and the Ethernet Device Driver Shim 528 connect to their respective net handlers 530, 532 through device driver interfaces 534, 536. The MPOA client 538 may communicate to the switch device driver either through the ATM API 540 or through the FDDL API 542 as defined by the FDDL 524. The bridge services 544, including the Virtual LAN (VLAN) and IP Autolearn services may be provided through the Ethernet Net Handler 532, through the FDDL API 542 to the FDDL 524, or LAN Emulation Client (LEC) 546 may be provided to communicate through the ATM API 540 to the ATM Net Handler 530. Through the structure defined, the operating system 512 features such as Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and RMON 548, other box services 550, and U) hosting services 552, such as Telnet, Ping, and other may be provided. The operation of the Switch Services API 522 as provided by the switch device driver 516 is shown with reference to FIG. 6. Execution begins 610 without precondition. The API is initiated with a switch_registration( ) call 612 to register an interface user of the Switch Services API. The registration call includes parameters of a code point identifying the interface application that is registering with the API and pointers to up-call functions which may be called when messages or data frames associated with the application are received by the switch device driver to be passed through the API. Once the switch_registration( ) called 612 is made, the API is active 614. While the API is active, calls may be made to at least any one of four primitives, including switch_send_MSG( ) 616, switch_send_data ( ) 618, switch_get_buffer ( ) 620, and switch_free_buffer ( ) 622. The switch_send_MSG( ) primitive 616 is called to transmit a message to one or more registered interfaces. Messages may be sent to one interface, a group of interfaces, or broadcast to all interfaces. A message may be generally formatted using the Type-Length-Value (TLV) convention. The switch_send_data( ) primitive 618 is called to transmit a data frame out of one or more interfaces. When a frame is to be transmitted to more than one interface, the set of destination interfaces may be specified with a bit mask or by other means well-appreciated within the art. The switch_get_buffer( ) primitive 620 is called to allocate frame buffers. Conversely, the switch_free_buffer( ) primitive 622 is called to deallocate frame buffers. Calls to the primitives may continue as long as the API is active 624. When an interface application wishes to disable the API, it does so by calling switch_deregistration( ) 626, which deregisters the application as a user of the switch services API. Execution of the Switch Services API then ceases 628. The operation of the base FDDL subsystem is demonstrated with reference to FIG. 7. Execution begins 710 without pre-condition. The FDDL_registration( ) primitive 712 is called to register a client application as a user of the FDDL API. A call to the FDDL_registration( ) primitive 712 specifies a code point identifying the data base of the calling application (e.g. bridging, MPOA, etc.) and provides a pointer to a message-reception call-back function that can be invoked when messages related to the specified client are received by the API. After the primitive FDDL_registration( ) 712 is called, the FDDL is active 714, beginning a looping process of calls. Within the loop, the FDDL_send( ) primitive 716 may be called to initiate transmission of a message from the CPU to one or more adapters. The message may be transmitted to a single adapter or broadcast to all adapters. The FDDL_registration_status( )primitive 718 may be called query whether a particular database is currently registered with the FDDL API. When it is no longer desired for the FDDL to be active 720, the primitive_deregistration( ) 722 may be called to deregister a client application as a user of the FDDL API. Following the call to the FDDL_deregistration( ) 722, execution of the FDDL subsystem ceases 724. It will be well appreciated by those skilled in the art that each of the FDDL towers as shown on FIG. 3, including the RMON tower 322, the MPOA tower 324, the Bridge tower 326, and the IP Autolearn tower 328 may each be optimized with primitives adapted to their respective applications 314, 316, 318, 320. Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that primitives need not be written for each tower and that additional towers may be added for client applications to be added in the future. However, the base FDDL subsystem 330 and its primitives may remain unchanged in order to provide a universal interface to the switch device driver 312. The FDDL towers 322, 324, 326, 328 may each have its own registration processes that allow instances of its specific protocol client applications to register. Additionally, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the FDDL tower calls may be providing for other networking features well-known in the art, such as providing reliable delivery of messages, acknowledgment and non-acknowledgment schemes, Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) code checking, and the like. Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that the Switch Services API need not provide for such flexibility. The Switch Device Drivers 312 are hardware dependent relying on the switch fabric (FIG. 5, 514) for their definition. As hardware will not be replaced or upgraded as easily or frequently as the client applications, the Switch Services API need not provide a towering structure. As to the manner of operation and use of the instant invention, the same is made apparent from the foregoing discussion. With respect to the above description, it is to be realized that although embodiments of specific material, representations, primitives, languages, and network configurations are disclosed, those enabling embodiments are illustrative and the optimum relationship for the parts of the invention is to include variations in composition, form, function, and manner of operation, which are deemed readily apparent to one skilled in the art in view of this disclosure. All relevant relationships to those illustrated in the drawings in this specification are intended to be encompassed by the present invention. Therefore, the foregoing is considered as illustrative of the principles of the invention, and since numerous modifications will occur to those skilled to those in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to exact construction and operation shown or described, and a user my resort to all suitable modifications and equivalence, falling within the scope of the invention
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11819230
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US20080013739A1-20080117
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Method of and device for updating group key
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ACCEPTED
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20080103
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20080117
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[]
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H04L908
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["H04L908", "H04L928"]
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8401182
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20070626
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20130319
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380
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286000
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67743.0
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LANIER
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BENJAMIN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Dae Youb", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Huh", "inventor_name_first": "Mi Suk", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Jung", "inventor_name_first": "Tae-Chul", "inventor_city": "Seongnam-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Hwan Joon", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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A method and device for updating a group key are disclosed. The group key updating method comprises determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node, and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. With the disclosed method and device, it is possible to efficiently perform a group key update process.
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1. A method of updating a group key, comprising: determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; updating a node key of the start node for a key update; updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node, and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key, encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the encrypting a node key of the parent node comprises encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein updating a node key of the parent node comprises setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the one-way function includes the update node key and the updated information which are inputted. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the determining a start node for a key update comprises: when a new member joins the group, determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update; and when an existing member leaves the group, determining, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except the existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree when the binary tree is a complete binary tree. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest when the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises: when the new member joins the group, setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update; and when the existing member leaves the group, setting, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 10. The method of claim 6, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises: when the new member joins the group, setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update; and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein updating a node key of the start node for a key update comprises when the existing member leaves the group, setting, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. 12. A computer-readable recording medium having a program stored therein for executing a method of updating a group key, comprising: determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; updating a node key of the start node for a key update; updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node and then updating a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 13. A device for updating a group key, comprising: a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree; a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update; a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key; and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. 14. The device of claim 13, wherein the tree-updating section sets an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. 15. The device of claim 14, wherein the one-way function includes the update node key and the updated information which are inputted. 16. The device of claim 13, wherein the start node-determining section determines a node corresponding to a new member as the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and determines, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except an existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member when the existing member leaves the group. 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree when the binary tree is a complete binary tree. 18. The device of claim 16, wherein the node corresponding to the new member is one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest when the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. 19. The device of claim 16, wherein the start node-updating section sets a member key of a new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and sets, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to an existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group. 20. The device of claim 16, wherein the start node-updating section sets a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when the new member joins the group, and updates the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group. 21. The device of claim 20, wherein the start node-updating section sets, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node when the existing member leaves the group.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a group key-updating method and device, in which keys of members within a group are updated. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and device for updating a group key in which when a new member joins a group or an existing member leaves the group, the keys of members in the group can be effectively updated. 2. Description of the Related Art Traditionally, contents provided to members in a group are encrypted in a server so as not to allow users, except the group members, to utilize the contents. Thus, all the members in the group have an encryption key for decrypting the encrypted contents provided by the server. Updating of the encryption key of the group members is a very crucial issue. For instance, in the case a new member is joining a group, it is required that the new member have access to only contents after a point in time when the new member join the group. Therefore, when a new member joins the group, a key of existing group members is updated and the new member can share the updated new key with the existing group members. In addition, in the case an existing member is leaving the group, it is required that the leaving member be refused further access to contents. Thus, a method is needed to update a key used by the group members prior to a point in time when the leaving member has left the group. When updating a group key is desired, the update can be performed in the following two exemplary implementations. In the first exemplary implementation, a server calculates the updated key to transmit it to an associated member. The server must calculate a key for all the members requiring the updating of the group key and transmit the calculated key, which can result in an increase in the server's load. In the second exemplary implementation, a member requiring the updating of the group key calculates the key by themselves and performs a necessary key-updating process. A server then calculates the updated key for only a member who cannot perform a self-update process and transmits the calculated key to the associated member, which results in a relative decrease in the server's load. However, it is difficult for a member requiring the updating of the key to efficiently perform the self-update process. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved method and device for updating a group key, which can efficiently perform a self-update process.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Exemplary embodiments of the present invention address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide an improved method and device for updating a group key which can efficiently perform a self-update process. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an efficient method and device for transmitting the necessary keys to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Specifically, an object of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide a method of updating a group key, including determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and updating a node key corresponding to a root not of the binary tree by repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the group key updating method further includes encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key. In an exemplary embodiment, encrypting a node key of the parent node includes encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the parent node includes setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the start node for a key update includes determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when an existing member leaves the group, determining a start node for a key update where a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponds to a group member, except the leaving member, among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the leaving member. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the start node for a key update includes setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the leaving member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, when the existing member leaves the group, a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update, and an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the leaving member of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update. According to another aspect of exemplary embodiments, there is provided a device for updating a group key including a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update, a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. Other objects, advantages and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses exemplary embodiments of the invention.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(a) of Korean Patent Application No. 10-2006-0059792, filed on Jun. 29, 2006 in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a group key-updating method and device, in which keys of members within a group are updated. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and device for updating a group key in which when a new member joins a group or an existing member leaves the group, the keys of members in the group can be effectively updated. 2. Description of the Related Art Traditionally, contents provided to members in a group are encrypted in a server so as not to allow users, except the group members, to utilize the contents. Thus, all the members in the group have an encryption key for decrypting the encrypted contents provided by the server. Updating of the encryption key of the group members is a very crucial issue. For instance, in the case a new member is joining a group, it is required that the new member have access to only contents after a point in time when the new member join the group. Therefore, when a new member joins the group, a key of existing group members is updated and the new member can share the updated new key with the existing group members. In addition, in the case an existing member is leaving the group, it is required that the leaving member be refused further access to contents. Thus, a method is needed to update a key used by the group members prior to a point in time when the leaving member has left the group. When updating a group key is desired, the update can be performed in the following two exemplary implementations. In the first exemplary implementation, a server calculates the updated key to transmit it to an associated member. The server must calculate a key for all the members requiring the updating of the group key and transmit the calculated key, which can result in an increase in the server's load. In the second exemplary implementation, a member requiring the updating of the group key calculates the key by themselves and performs a necessary key-updating process. A server then calculates the updated key for only a member who cannot perform a self-update process and transmits the calculated key to the associated member, which results in a relative decrease in the server's load. However, it is difficult for a member requiring the updating of the key to efficiently perform the self-update process. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved method and device for updating a group key, which can efficiently perform a self-update process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and provide at least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide an improved method and device for updating a group key which can efficiently perform a self-update process. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an efficient method and device for transmitting the necessary keys to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Specifically, an object of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. Accordingly, an aspect of exemplary embodiments of the present invention is to provide a method of updating a group key, including determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, updating a node key of the start node for a key update, updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and updating a node key corresponding to a root not of the binary tree by repeatedly performing the updating of the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the group key updating method further includes encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key. In an exemplary embodiment, encrypting a node key of the parent node includes encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the parent node includes setting an output of a one-way function for the updated node key as the node key of the parent node. In an exemplary embodiment, the start node for a key update includes determining a node corresponding to the new member as the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when an existing member leaves the group, determining a start node for a key update where a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponds to a group member, except the leaving member, among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the leaving member. In an exemplary embodiment, updating a node key of the start node for a key update includes setting a member key of the new member as the node key of the start node for a key update when a new member joins the group, and when the existing member leaves the group, updating the node key of the start node for a key update using a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the leaving member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, when the existing member leaves the group, a node key of a descendent node, except the node corresponding to the existing member, of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update, and an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the leaving member of the ancestor node having the descendent node may be set as the node key of the start node for a key update. According to another aspect of exemplary embodiments, there is provided a device for updating a group key including a start node-determining section for determining a start node for a key update on a binary tree, a start node-updating section for updating a node key of the start node for a key update, a tree-updating section for updating a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key, and a key update controller for controlling the tree-updating section to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to a root node of the binary tree. Other objects, advantages and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses exemplary embodiments of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other exemplary features and advantages of certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of certain exemplary embodiments thereof when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to one example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where a new member joins the group shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to a result of the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to one example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 9 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 10 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating another group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure; FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating the process of updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of a device for updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Throughout the drawings, like reference numerals will be understood to refer to like elements, features and structures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS The matters exemplified in this description are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of various exemplary embodiments of the present invention discloses with reference to the accompanying figures. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications of the exemplary embodiments described herein can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the claimed invention. Also, descriptions of well-known functions and constructions are omitted for clarity and conciseness. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to one example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, each group member A, B, C, D, E, F and G corresponds to a leaf node of a binary tree, where members A, B, C, D, E, F and G may correspond to a device or a user. Each leaf node of the binary tree has an inherent encryption key. A root node encrypted key can be transmitted by the server to the other nodes. For example, in FIG. 1, in the binary tree structure, a key corresponding to nodes other than the root node is used for the purpose of updating the key. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the key corresponding to the nodes, other than the root node, is used to update a key of a parent node of a corresponding node. In another aspect of an exemplary embodiment, a key of a leaf node can be set as a member key of a corresponding member where each group member stores node keys of all the nodes on a path running from a corresponding leaf node to the root node. For example, a member, A, stores node keys of nodes 8, 4, 2 and 1, respectively, and member F stores node keys of nodes 13, 6, 3 and 1, respectively. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where a new member joins the group shown in FIG. 1. In FIG. 2, a path denoted by a solid line represents a self-update path and a path denoted by a dotted line represents an update path transmitted by a server. For example, in FIG. 2, when new member H joins the group, node 7 is split to generate node 14 and node 15. In this case, a node corresponding to member G is changed from node 7 to node 14 and node 15 corresponds to the new member H. In the case of the node split when a new member joins, it can be determined to be a node having a minimum or maximum node ID in a complete binary tree and can be determined to be a node having a minimum or maximum node ID among selected nodes with a leaf node whose depth is smallest in a incomplete binary tree. For example, in FIG. 3, when new member H joins the group, a node 15 corresponding to new member H is determined to be a start node for a key update. A node key of the start node for a key update is set as a member key of member H. The member key may be shared by the server and member H before the start of the key update. When the node key of node 15 is determined, the node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 15. Also, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 15. For example, when the node key of the node 15 is K15, an update value, nK7, of node key K7 of node 7 can be set to f(K15). In this case, f( ) is a one-way function. Additionally, in order to prevent the same key from being generated every time the node key is updated, an input value of the function f includes a node key value as well as update information (e.g. updated date, the frequency of updates and so on). For clarity, f(K) is equivalent to f(K, update information), herein. And so, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of a node 3 is also updated using the updated node key of node 7. In this case, the node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when the node key of node 7 is K7, an update value, nK3, of node key K3 of node 3 can be set to f(K7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, the node key of node 1 is also updated using the updated node key of node 3. In this case, the node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. When the node key of the node 3 is K3, an update value, nK1, of the node key K1 of node 1 can be set to f(K3). It can be seen from an example of the binary tree structure shown in FIG. 2 that a self-update process is performed repeatedly along a path running from node 15 via nodes 7 and 3 to node 1. Also, as seen in FIG. 2, since member G, that corresponds to node 14, does not know the updated node key of node 7, a server encrypts the updated node key of node 7 and transmits the encrypted node key of node 7 to the member G and the updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of node 14. Member G receives the encrypted key of node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the received node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 7. Accordingly, as seen in FIG. 2, since members E and F, that correspond to descendent nodes of a node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to the members E and F and the updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of node 6. The members E and F receive the encrypted key of node 3 from the server and can sequentially calculate the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 3. Further, since members A, B, C and D corresponding to descendent nodes of node 2 do not know the updated node key of the node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of the node 1 to the members A, B, C and D and the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. The members A, B, C and D corresponding to descendent nodes of the node 2 cannot identify the node keys of the nodes 3, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14 and 15 using the encrypted node key of the node 1 in terms of the characteristic of the one-way function. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention where member M leaves the group which causes a self-update path running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to node 1 to be set. Specifically, node 14 is set as a start node for a key update and a node key update process is performed while following parent nodes along a path running from node 14 to the root node 1. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 3. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows where an existing member M (as shown in FIG. 3) leaves the group, nodes 28 and 29 are cancelled and a node 14 becomes the node corresponding to a member N. In this case, node 14 is a start node for a key update and is set as a member key of member N. The key update process performed on a self-update path running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to root node 1 is applied similarly to the self-update process described above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. That is, the node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 14. Also, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 14. For example, when the node key of the node 14 is K14, an update value nK7 of node key K7 of node 7 can be set as f(K14), where f( ) is a one-way function. Additionally, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of node 3 is updated using the updated node key of node 7. The node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when a node key of the node 7 is K7, an update value nK3 of node key K3 of node 3 can be set as f(K7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, a node key of node 1 is updated using the updated node key of the node 3. The node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. For example, when the node key of node 3 is K3, an update value nK1 of the node key K1 of node 1 can be set as f(K3). Since members O and P corresponding to node 15 do not know the updated node key of the node 7, a server can encrypt the updated node key of the node 7 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 7 to the members O and P. The updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of the node 15. The members O and P receives the encrypted key of the node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the received node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of node 7. Additionally, since members I, J, K, and L, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to members I, J, K, and L. Accordingly, the updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of the node 6. Members I, J, K, and L receive the encrypted key of the node 3 from the server and can calculate the node key of the node 1 using the one-way function for the node key of the node 3. Further, since members A to H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A to H. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. Thus, when the number of group members is N, a data transfer size is no more than log2N−1 and a data storage size is no more than log2N through the use of a group key-updating method according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to another example of a group according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention where an existing member, I, leaves the group which causes a self-update path running from a node 3 to a node 1 to be set. Specifically, node 3 is set as a start node for a key update and a node key update process is performed while following parent nodes along a path running from node 3 to a root node. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating modification of a binary tree structure corresponding to the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5. Specifically, FIG. 6 shows where an existing member I (as shown in FIG. 5) leaves the group and node 3 (which is a parent node of a node 6 corresponding to the member I) is replaced with node 7. That is, descendent node 7 replaces it's parent node 3, where, prior to the replacement, node 3 was the parent of node 6 corresponding to the leaving member I. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a binary tree structure corresponding to a result of the case where an existing member leaves the group shown in FIG. 5. For example, referring to FIGS. 5, 6 and 7, when nodes 3 and 6 and corresponding member I are removed from the binary tree shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, then node 7 is changed to node 3, node 14 is changed into node 6, node 15 is changed into node 7, node 28 is changed into node 12, node 29 is changed into node 13, node 30 is changed into node 14 and node 31 is changed into node 15, respectively, as shown in FIG. 7. In this case, the node key of the node 3 is replaced with the node key of node 7 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 6 is replaced with the node key of node 14 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 7 is replaced with the node key of node 15 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 12 is replaced with the node key of the node 28 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 13 is replaced with the node key of node 2 prior to modification of the node, node key of node 14 is replaced with the node key of node 30 prior to modification of the node and node key of the node 15 is replaced with the node key of node 31 prior to modification of the node. When the node key of node 3 (a start node) for a key update is replaced with the node key of the node 7, node key of node 1 is updated using a node key, nK3, of the updated node 3. That is, an output of a one-way function for the node key of the updated node 3 is updated into a node key of node 1. In this case, the members A to H corresponding to descendent nodes of node 2 receive the node key of the updated node 1 from the server. In this case, the node key of the updated node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2 for transmission to node 2. Referring to FIG. 7, as described above, in a binary tree structure corresponding to a group, the size of the binary tree may vary depending on the number of members, but the depth may be fixed irrespective of the number of members. That is, the binary tree corresponding to the group is a complete binary tree whose depth is fixed and leaf nodes of the complete binary tree can be divided into a subscribed node having corresponding members and unsubscribed nodes not having corresponding members. In this case, if it is assumed that the entire number of the members is N, the server constitutes a binary tree having a depth of log2N and each member must initially store a log2N number of node keys. FIG. 8 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to one example of such a fixed binary tree structure. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, nodes 8, 9, 10, and 11 are subscribed nodes corresponding to members A, B, C and D, respectively. Nodes 12, 13, 14 and 15 are unsubscribed nodes. In this case, a new member E joins the group in the state of the unsubscribed node and is assigned to a node 15. Upon new member E joining the group, node 15 is no longer unsubscribed. Node 15 is set as a start node for a key update and the node key of node 15 is set as a member key of the member E. When the node key of node 15 is determined, a node key of node 7 is updated using the node key of node 15. In this case, the node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 15. For example, when the node key of node 15 is K15, an update value nK7 of node key K7 of node 7 can be set as f(K15). Additionally, when the node key of node 7 is updated, a node key of node 3 is updated using the updated node key of node 7. In this case, the node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. For example, when the node key of node 7 is K7, an update value, nK3, of node key K3 of node 3 can be set to f(nK7). Also, when the node key of node 3 is updated, a node key of node 1 is updated using the updated node key of node 3. In this case, the node key of node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 3. For example, when the node key of node 3 is K3, an update value, nK1, of the node key K1 of the node 1 can be set to f(nK3). Thus, it can be seen from an example of a binary tree structure shown in FIG. 8 that a self-update process is performed along a path running from node 15 via the nodes 7 and 3 to root node 1. Additionally, since a member corresponding to node 14 does not exist, the server may not encrypt the updated node key of the node 7 for transmission to the member. Since members A, B, C and D, that correspond to descendent nodes of a node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A, B, C and D. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating a group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure. Referring to FIG. 9, when an existing member M leaves the group, node 14 is set as a start node for a key update and a self-update path, running from node 14 via nodes 7 and 3 to a root node 1, is formed. Node 29 remains as a node corresponding to a member N, as is. When member M leaves the group, a node 28 becomes an unsubscribed node and node 14 as the start node for a key update is updated using a node key of node 29. A node key of node 14 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 29. A node key of node 7 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 14, a node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 7, and a node key of root node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of the node 3. An unsubscribed node is a node that does not have a corresponding member. A subscribed node is a node that has a corresponding member. Until this point, since members O and P, both corresponding to node 15 do not know the updated node key of node 7, a server can encrypt the updated node key of node 7 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 7 to members O and P. In this case, the updated node key of node 7 is encrypted with a node key of node 15. Members O and P receives the encrypted key of node 7 from the server and can sequentially calculate the node key of node 3 and the node key of node 1 using the received node key of node 7. Also, since members I, J, K, and L, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 6, do not know the updated node key of node 3, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 3 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 3 to members I, J, K, and L. The updated node key of node 3 is encrypted with a node key of node 6. Members I, J, K, and L receive the encrypted key of the node 3 from the server and can calculate the node key of node 1 using the received node key of node 3. Additionally, since members A through H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A through H. In this case, the updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. FIG. 10 is a schematic diagrammatic view illustrating another group corresponding to another example of a fixed binary tree structure. Referring to FIG. 10, when member I leaves the group, node 3 is set as the start node for a key update and an update path running from node 3 to node 1 is formed. Node 3 is set as the start node for a key update since it is a node having descendent nodes corresponding to members in the group among ancestor nodes of node 24 corresponding to the member I. When member I leaves the group, node 24 becomes an unsubscribed node, node 3 is set as the start node for a key update and node 3 is updated using a node key of node 7. The node key of node 3 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the node key of node 7. The node key of a node 1 can be set as an output of a one-way function for the updated node key of node 3. Further, since members A through H, that correspond to descendent nodes of node 2, do not know the updated node key of node 1, the server can encrypt the updated node key of node 1 and transmit the encrypted node key of node 1 to members A to H. The updated node key of node 1 is encrypted with a node key of node 2. The node keys of the nodes on a path running from node 24 to node 6 are managed while being updated by the server. Thereafter, when a corresponding node becomes a subscribed node, the server can transmit the node key of the subscribed node to a new member corresponding to the subscribed node. FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating the process of updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 11, at step S110, a start node for a key update is determined on a binary tree. Specifically, in step S110, when a new member joins the group, a node corresponding to the new member can be determined as the start node for a key update. Also, in step S110, when an existing member leaves the group, it is possible to determine, as the start node for a key update, a lowermost ancestor node having a descendent node corresponding to a group member except the existing member among ancestor nodes of a node corresponding to the existing member. In the case of a new member, the node corresponding to the new member can be one of nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose node ID is maximum among leaf nodes of the binary tree if the binary tree is a complete binary tree. Additionally, the node corresponding to the new member can be one of the nodes generated by splitting any one of a leaf node whose node ID is minimum and a leaf node whose depth is maximum among leaf nodes whose depth is the smallest if the binary tree is an incomplete binary tree. In the group key-updating method according to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, at subsequent step S120, a node key of the start node for a key update is updated. In step S120, when a new member joins the group, a member key of the new member can be set as the node key of the start node for a key update and when an existing member leaves the group, it is possible to set, as the node key of the start node for a key update, a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. When the new member joins the group, a member key of the new member is set as the node key of the start node for a key update and when the existing member leaves the group, the node key of the start node for a key update can be updated using a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In this case, if the existing member leaves the group, it is possible to set, as the node key of the start node for a key update, an output of a one-way function for a node key of a descendent node except the node corresponding to the existing member of the ancestor node having the descendent node. In step S130, a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key is updated using the updated node key and an output of a one-way function for the updated node key can be set as the node key of the parent node. In step S140, the updating of the node key of the parent node is repeatedly performed until a node key corresponding to the root node is updated. Although not shown in FIG. 11, the group key-updating method may further comprise a step of, when the parent node has a group member corresponding to a descendent node besides the node corresponding to the updated node key, encrypting a node key of the parent node in an identical method as the descendent node and transmitting the encrypted node key of the parent node to the group member. In this case, the step of encrypting the node key of the parent node may comprise encrypting the node key of the parent node with a node key of the descendent node. Additionally, the group key-updating method according to the above-described exemplary embodiment of the present invention may be recorded in computer-readable media including program instructions to implement various operations embodied by a computer. The media may also include, alone or in combination with the program instructions, data files, data structures, and the like. Examples of computer-readable media include magnetic media such as hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape, optical media such as CD ROM disks and DVD, magneto-optical media such as optical disks, and hardware devices that are specially configured to store and perform program instructions, such as read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), flash memory, and the like. The media may also be a transmission medium such as optical or metallic lines, wave guides, and the like. including a carrier wave transmitting signals specifying the program instructions, data structures, and the like. Examples of program instructions include both machine code, such as produced by a compiler, and files containing higher level code that may be executed by the computer using an interpreter. The described hardware devices may be configured to act as one or more software modules in order to perform the operations of the above-described embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of a device for updating a group key according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 12, the group key-updating device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a start node-determining section 210, a start node-updating section 220, a tree-updating section 230 and a key update controller 240. The start node-determining section 210 determines a start node for a key update on a binary tree. The start node-updating section 220 updates a node key of the start node for a key update. The tree-updating section 230 updates a node key of a parent node of a node corresponding to the updated node key using the updated node key. The key update controller 240 controls the tree-updating section 230 to sequentially perform a key update process for the binary tree so as to update a node key corresponding to the root node of the binary tree. The contents not described in the construction of the device shown in FIG. 12 have been previously described with reference to FIGS. 1 through 11, and hence will be omitted below. The group key-updating method and device of exemplary embodiments of the present invention enables a self-update process to be efficiently performed. Additionally, it is possible to efficiently provide a necessary key to members who cannot perform a self-update process. Moreover, it is possible to effectively select nodes requiring a self-update process and efficiently perform the updating of a key for the selected nodes. While the present invention has been described with reference to the particular illustrative exemplary embodiments, it is not to be restricted by the exemplary embodiments but only by the appended claims and their equivalent. It is to be appreciated that those skilled in the art can change or modify the exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention.
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H
| 70H04
| 210H04L
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9
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08
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|||
11984839
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US20080137771A1-20080612
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DSL trellis encoding
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ACCEPTED
|
20080530
|
20080612
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[]
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H04L2704
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["H04L2704"]
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8176398
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20071121
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20120508
|
714
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796000
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65140.0
|
BAKER
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STEPHEN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Taunton", "inventor_name_first": "Mark", "inventor_city": "Cambridge", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Dobson", "inventor_name_first": "Timothy Martin", "inventor_city": "Cambridge", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]
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A method is used that substantially simultaneously trellis encodes data to be modulated onto multiple tones. The embodiments of the present invention comprise the steps of: (a) using a first input operand comprising state bits for a first trellis stage; (b) using a second input operand comprising a plurality of input data bits; and (c) generating an output comprising output data bits and output state bits from a first or later trellis stage.
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1.-58. (canceled) 59. A method for trellis encoding data for subsequent modulation onto one or more pairs of tones, the method comprising: receiving a first operand including state input bits for a first trellis stage; receiving a second operand including data input bits for a plurality of trellis stages, wherein the plurality of trellis stages includes the first trellis stage and a final trellis stage; and generating a trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto the one or more pairs of tones based on the first operand and the second operand, the trellis encoded output comprises state output bits from the final trellis stage, and data output bits, wherein the data output bits include a plurality of sets of data output bits from the plurality of trellis stages, wherein the plurality of sets of data output bits from the plurality of trellis stages are generated substantially simultaneously. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein the step of generating the trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto the one or more pairs of tones further comprises: modulating the trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto two pairs of tones. 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the step of receiving the first operand further comprises: receiving a 64-bit value for the first operand. 62. The method of claim 61, wherein the step of receiving the 64-bit value for the first operand further comprises: receiving the 64-bit value including a 4-bit value for the state input bits for the first operand. 63. The method of claim 60, wherein the step of receiving the second operand further comprises: receiving a 64-bit value for the second operand. 64. The method of claim 63, wherein the step of receiving the 64-bit value for the second operand further comprises: receiving a first field of 32-bits and a second field of 32-bits for the second operand. 65. The method of claim 64, wherein the step of receiving the first field of 32-bits and the second field of 32-bits for the second operand further comprises: receiving U(0) bits for the first field and U(1) bits for the second field. 66. The method of claim 60, wherein the step of generating the trellis encoded output further comprises: generating a first 64-bit value for a first set of data output bits and a second 64-bit value for a second set of data output bits. 67. The method of claim 60, wherein the step of generating the trellis encoded output further comprises: generating state bits S(2) for the state output bits. 68. The method of claim 60, wherein the step of generating the trellis encoded output further comprises: generating data output bits V(1),W(1) for a first set of data output bits and data output bits V(2),W(2) for a second set of data output bits. 69. An instruction mechanism to trellis encode data for subsequent modulation onto one or more pairs of tones comprising: an instruction decoder configured to receive a single instruction; and an execution unit configured to trellis encode data for subsequent modulation onto the one or more pairs of tones in response to the single instruction, wherein the execution unit: receives a first operand including state input bits for a first trellis stage, receives a second operand including data input bits for a plurality of trellis stages, wherein the plurality of trellis stages includes the first trellis stage and a final trellis stage, and generates a trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto the one or more pairs of tones based on the first operand and the second operand, the trellis encoded output includes state output bits from the final trellis stage, and data output bits, wherein the data output bits include a plurality of sets of data output bits from the plurality of trellis stages, wherein the plurality of sets of data output bits from the plurality of trellis stages are generated substantially simultaneously. 70. The instruction mechanism of claim 69, wherein the execution unit generates the trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto two pairs of tones. 71. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein the first operand comprises a 64-bit value. 72. The instruction mechanism of claim 71, wherein the 64-bit value includes a 4-bit value for the state input bits for the first operand. 73. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein the second operand comprises a 64-bit value. 74. The instruction mechanism of claim 73, wherein the 64-bit value comprises a first field of 32-bits and a second field of 32-bits for the second operand. 75. The instruction mechanism of claim 74, wherein the first field of 32-bits comprises U(0) bits and the second field of 32-bits comprises U(1) bits. 76. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein a first set of data output bits comprises a first 64-bit value and a second set of data output bits comprises a second 64-bit value. 77. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein the state output bits comprises state bits S(2). 78. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein a first set of data output bits comprises data output bits V(1),W(1) and a second set of data output bits comprises data output bits V(2),W(2). 79. The instruction mechanism of claim 70, wherein the execution unit includes an encoding unit, wherein the trellis encoding unit generates the trellis encoded output for subsequent modulation onto the one or more pairs of tones.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Trellis encoding is a way of encoding data using a convolutional code prior to modulation such that the original data can be recovered at the receiver, even in the presence of a certain amount of noise on the received signal. In national and international standards for DSL (digital subscriber line) technologies such as ADSL (e.g., ITU-T Recommendation G992.1 entitled “Asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL) transceivers,” ITU-T Recommendation G992.3 entitled “Asymmetric digital subscriber line transceivers—2 (ADSL2),” and ITU-T Recommendation G992.4 entitled “Splitterless asymmetric digital subscriber line transceivers 2 (splitterless ADSL2)” which are all incorporated by reference herein in their entireties) a particular form of trellis encoding is used for mapping a set of input data bits U={u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u Z } and input state bits S={s 0 , s 1 , s 2 , s 3 } onto two sets of output data bits V={v 0 , v 1 , . . . , v x−1 }, W={w 0 , w 1 , . . . , w y−1 } and output state bits S′={s′ 0 , s′ 1 , s′ 2 , s′ 3 }. V and W are subsequently encoded using QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) onto a pair of tones in a DMT (discrete multi-tone) scheme, the two tones being encoded with respectively x-bit and y-bit QAM constellations. (Note that x+y=z+1; in other words, one more bit is produced in the V and W output data bits than were taken in as input data bits U). The process is then repeated with S′ forming the input state for the trellis encoding of the next set of input data bits U′ for the next tone-pair, yielding output data bits V′ and W′, and output state bits S″, and so on. According to the applicable standards, the equations governing the output are as follows: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? v 0 =u 3 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? v 1 =u 1 u 3 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? v n =u n+2 , for n=2 to (x−1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? w 0 =u 2 u 3 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? w 1 =s 0 u 1 u 2 u 3 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? w n =u n+x , for Tn=2 to (y−1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? s′ 0 =s 1 s 3 u 1 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? s′ 1 =s 2 u 2 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? s′ 2 =s 0 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? s′ 3 =s 1 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? The symbol represents the logical exclusive-OR operation. An alternative naming scheme used hereafter is for input U to be identified as U(0), U′ as U(1), etc., output V to be identified as V(1), V′ as V(2), etc., output W to be identified as W(1), W′ as W(2), etc., input S to be identified as S(0), output or input S′ to be identified as S(1), output or input S″ to be identified as S(2) etc. In older designs for transmission systems using trellis encoding (such as DSL modems), which are in general more hardware oriented, the trellis encoding of data, for subsequent modulation of tones for transmission, is typically performed by fixed-function logic circuits. However, such system designs are commonly hard to adapt for varying application requirements. In order to increase flexibility in modem development and application, it has become more common to use software to perform the various functions in a DMT-based transmitting device. As the various performance levels (such as data-rates) required of such devices increase, the pressure on the software to perform efficiently the individual processing tasks (such as trellis encoding), which make up the overall transmitter function, likewise increases. One reason is that performing the trellis encoding operation purely in software is typically quite complex to implement. Using conventional instructions (e.g. bit-wise shift, bit-wise and, bit-wise exclusive-OR, etc.) may take many cycles, or even tens of cycles, to perform trellis encoding for a single tone-pair. In some circumstances there may be hundreds or even thousands of tones for which the associated data bits must be encoded, per transmitted symbol, and several thousand symbols per second may need to be transmitted. The trellis encoding process can therefore represent a significant proportion of the total computational cost for a software-based DMT transmitter, especially in the case of a system where one processor handles the operations for multiple independent transmission channels (e.g., in a multi-line DSL modem in the central office). With increasing workloads (in respect of the average number of tones used in each transmission channel), it becomes necessary to improve the efficiency of trellis encoding of data in such software-based DMT transmitters. Therefore, what is needed is a system and method that significantly reduce a number of cycles needed for software to perform trellis encoding of data in accordance with a mapping scheme specified in international standards.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to the present invention, these objects are achieved by a system and method as defined in the claims. The dependent claims define advantageous and preferred embodiments of the present invention. The embodiments of the present invention provide a method, apparatus and processing instruction for trellis encoding data for subsequent modulation onto one or more tone-pairs. In general, the present invention comprises the steps of: (a) using a first input operand comprising input state bits; (b) using a second input operand comprising a plurality of input data bits; and (c) generating an output comprising trellis-encoded data bits and output state bits from a trellis encoding stage. In one embodiment, the first input operand comprises a value of at least four bits (e.g. 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits) and the second input operand comprises a value of at least 30 bits (e.g. 32 bits, or 64 bits). Four bits of the first input operand may comprise the input state bits S(0) for a trellis stage. The second input operand comprises the input data bits U(0). The output comprises 2 outputs: a state output comprising the state bits S(1) from the trellis encoding stage and a data output comprising data bits V(1) and W(1). In this embodiment, the present invention performs the trellis encoding for one pair of tones. In another embodiment, the first and second input operands each comprise a 64-bit value. Four bits of the 64-bits of the first input operand may comprise the input state bits S(0) for a first trellis stage. The second input operand comprises a first and second field of 32-bits each, and the first field comprises the input data bits U(0) for a first trellis stage, and the second field comprises the input data bits U(1) for a second trellis stage. The output comprises two 64-bit outputs: a state output comprising the state bits S(2) from a second trellis stage and a data output comprising data bits V(1) and W(1) from a first trellis stage, and data bits V(2) and W(2) from a second trellis stage. In this embodiment, the present invention performs the trellis encoding substantially simultaneously for two pairs of tones (i.e. four tones). Further embodiments, features, and advantages of the present inventions, as well as the structure and operation of the various embodiments of the present invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings.
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/949,517, filed Sep. 27, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. (SKGF REF No. 1875.5160001), which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No. 60/505,720, filed on Sep. 25, 2003, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to Digital Subscriber Line (“DSL”) systems, trellis encoding, and the design of instructions for processors. More specifically, the present invention relates to a system, method and processor instruction for DSL trellis encoding. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Trellis encoding is a way of encoding data using a convolutional code prior to modulation such that the original data can be recovered at the receiver, even in the presence of a certain amount of noise on the received signal. In national and international standards for DSL (digital subscriber line) technologies such as ADSL (e.g., ITU-T Recommendation G992.1 entitled “Asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL) transceivers,” ITU-T Recommendation G992.3 entitled “Asymmetric digital subscriber line transceivers—2 (ADSL2),” and ITU-T Recommendation G992.4 entitled “Splitterless asymmetric digital subscriber line transceivers 2 (splitterless ADSL2)” which are all incorporated by reference herein in their entireties) a particular form of trellis encoding is used for mapping a set of input data bits U={u1, u2, . . . , uZ} and input state bits S={s0, s1, s2, s3} onto two sets of output data bits V={v0, v1, . . . , vx−1}, W={w0, w1, . . . , wy−1} and output state bits S′={s′0, s′1, s′2, s′3}. V and W are subsequently encoded using QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) onto a pair of tones in a DMT (discrete multi-tone) scheme, the two tones being encoded with respectively x-bit and y-bit QAM constellations. (Note that x+y=z+1; in other words, one more bit is produced in the V and W output data bits than were taken in as input data bits U). The process is then repeated with S′ forming the input state for the trellis encoding of the next set of input data bits U′ for the next tone-pair, yielding output data bits V′ and W′, and output state bits S″, and so on. According to the applicable standards, the equations governing the output are as follows: v0=u3 v1=u1u3 vn=un+2, for n=2 to (x−1) w0=u2u3 w1=s0u1u2u3 wn=un+x, for Tn=2 to (y−1) s′0=s1s3u1 s′1=s2u2 s′2=s0 s′3=s1 The symbol represents the logical exclusive-OR operation. An alternative naming scheme used hereafter is for input U to be identified as U(0), U′ as U(1), etc., output V to be identified as V(1), V′ as V(2), etc., output W to be identified as W(1), W′ as W(2), etc., input S to be identified as S(0), output or input S′ to be identified as S(1), output or input S″ to be identified as S(2) etc. In older designs for transmission systems using trellis encoding (such as DSL modems), which are in general more hardware oriented, the trellis encoding of data, for subsequent modulation of tones for transmission, is typically performed by fixed-function logic circuits. However, such system designs are commonly hard to adapt for varying application requirements. In order to increase flexibility in modem development and application, it has become more common to use software to perform the various functions in a DMT-based transmitting device. As the various performance levels (such as data-rates) required of such devices increase, the pressure on the software to perform efficiently the individual processing tasks (such as trellis encoding), which make up the overall transmitter function, likewise increases. One reason is that performing the trellis encoding operation purely in software is typically quite complex to implement. Using conventional instructions (e.g. bit-wise shift, bit-wise and, bit-wise exclusive-OR, etc.) may take many cycles, or even tens of cycles, to perform trellis encoding for a single tone-pair. In some circumstances there may be hundreds or even thousands of tones for which the associated data bits must be encoded, per transmitted symbol, and several thousand symbols per second may need to be transmitted. The trellis encoding process can therefore represent a significant proportion of the total computational cost for a software-based DMT transmitter, especially in the case of a system where one processor handles the operations for multiple independent transmission channels (e.g., in a multi-line DSL modem in the central office). With increasing workloads (in respect of the average number of tones used in each transmission channel), it becomes necessary to improve the efficiency of trellis encoding of data in such software-based DMT transmitters. Therefore, what is needed is a system and method that significantly reduce a number of cycles needed for software to perform trellis encoding of data in accordance with a mapping scheme specified in international standards. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the present invention, these objects are achieved by a system and method as defined in the claims. The dependent claims define advantageous and preferred embodiments of the present invention. The embodiments of the present invention provide a method, apparatus and processing instruction for trellis encoding data for subsequent modulation onto one or more tone-pairs. In general, the present invention comprises the steps of: (a) using a first input operand comprising input state bits; (b) using a second input operand comprising a plurality of input data bits; and (c) generating an output comprising trellis-encoded data bits and output state bits from a trellis encoding stage. In one embodiment, the first input operand comprises a value of at least four bits (e.g. 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits) and the second input operand comprises a value of at least 30 bits (e.g. 32 bits, or 64 bits). Four bits of the first input operand may comprise the input state bits S(0) for a trellis stage. The second input operand comprises the input data bits U(0). The output comprises 2 outputs: a state output comprising the state bits S(1) from the trellis encoding stage and a data output comprising data bits V(1) and W(1). In this embodiment, the present invention performs the trellis encoding for one pair of tones. In another embodiment, the first and second input operands each comprise a 64-bit value. Four bits of the 64-bits of the first input operand may comprise the input state bits S(0) for a first trellis stage. The second input operand comprises a first and second field of 32-bits each, and the first field comprises the input data bits U(0) for a first trellis stage, and the second field comprises the input data bits U(1) for a second trellis stage. The output comprises two 64-bit outputs: a state output comprising the state bits S(2) from a second trellis stage and a data output comprising data bits V(1) and W(1) from a first trellis stage, and data bits V(2) and W(2) from a second trellis stage. In this embodiment, the present invention performs the trellis encoding substantially simultaneously for two pairs of tones (i.e. four tones). Further embodiments, features, and advantages of the present inventions, as well as the structure and operation of the various embodiments of the present invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a part of the specification, illustrate the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to make and use the invention. FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a communications system in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of a processor in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3A illustrates an instruction format for a three-operand instruction supported by the processor in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3B illustrates an instruction format for trellis encoding in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention will now be described in detail with reference to a few preferred embodiments thereof as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present invention may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known processes and steps have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. Embodiments of the present invention provide an instruction or an instruction mechanism (“the instruction mechanism”) that significantly reduces a number of cycles needed to perform to perform trellis encoding of data by a processor. In one embodiment, the trellis encoding of data is done in accordance with the mapping scheme specified in international standards for DSL. It is to be appreciated this present invention can be used in other applications of DMT transmission where the same mapping scheme is used. A simple embodiment of the invention can implement the trellis encoding process of data for modulation onto one pair of tones. However, one skilled in the art will appreciate that the present invention is not restricted to this number of tones but may be used to trellis encode data to be modulated onto any number of tones or tone-pairs. For example, through the application of SIMD techniques and the combination of multiple instances of the basic trellis encoding equations (i.e. multiple stages of trellis encoding) described in more detail below, the instruction mechanism can directly implement the trellis encoding process substantially simultaneously for two or more encoding stages. For the case of encoding data for two pairs of tones, the trellis-encoding stages can be represented by: Stage 1: (U(0), S(0))->(V(1), W(1), S(1)) (U(0) is z bits long, V(1) is x bits, W(1) is y bits) Stage 2: (U(1), S(1))->(V(2), W(2), S(2)) (U(1) is z′ bits long, V(2) is x′ bits, W(2) is y′ bits) As used herein, the notation S(0) represents the state input bits for a first trellis stage and S(N) represents the state output of the Nth stage for an N-tone-pair version. Thus, for example, S(1) represents the state output bits from a first trellis stage, and S(2) represents the state output bits from a second trellis stage. For the input data bits, U, the notation U(0) represents the data input bits for a first trellis stage and the notation U(1) represents the data input bits for a second trellis stage. The notation V(N) and W(N) represent the data output bits of the Nth stage for an N-tone-pair version. Thus, for example, V(1) and V(2) represent the data output bits from a first and second trellis stage respectively, and W(1) and W(2) represent the data output bits from a first and second trellis stage respectively. In general, the present invention provides a method, apparatus and processing instruction for substantially simultaneously trellis encoding data for subsequent modulation onto a plurality of tones by: (a) using a first input operand comprising input state bits for a first trellis stage; (b) using a second input operand comprising a plurality of input data bits; and (c) generating an output comprising (i) output data bits, and (ii) output state bits from a first or later trellis stage. In one embodiment, the trellis encoding instruction mechanism takes as one input a 64-bit value comprising the input state bits S(0) for the first trellis stage, and as a second input a 64-bit value comprising two 32-bit fields wherein each field contains the U bits to be encoded for a respective trellis stage (i.e. a first field contains U(0) bits for the first trellis stage and the second field contains U(1) bits for the second trellis stage), and produces two outputs. The first output value is a 64-bit value comprising the four output state bits S(2) from the second trellis stage, along with 60 other bits which are unused. The second output value is also 64-bits comprising the V(1) and W(1) outputs from the first trellis stage, and the V(2) and W(2) outputs from the second stage, respectively. While specific configurations and arrangements are discussed, it should be understood that this is done for illustrative purposes only. A person skilled in the pertinent art will recognize that other configurations and arrangements can be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. It will be apparent to a person skilled in the pertinent art that this invention can also be employed in a variety of other applications. Embodiments of the invention are discussed below with references to FIGS. 1 to 3. However, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the detailed description given herein with respect to these figures is for explanatory purposes as the invention extends beyond these limited embodiments. Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a block diagram of a communications system 100 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. System 100 provides traditional voice telephone service (plain old telephone service—POTS) along with high speed Internet access between a customer premise 102 and a central office 104 via a subscriber line 106. At the customer premise end 102, various customer premise devices may be coupled to the subscriber line 106, such as telephones 110a, 110b, a fax machine 112, a DSL CPE (Customer Premise Equipment) modem 114 and the like. A personal computer 116 may be connected via DSL CPE modem 114. At the central office end 104, various central office equipment may be coupled to the subscriber line 106, such as a DSL CO (Central Office) modem 120 and a POTS switch 122. Modem 120 may be further coupled to a router or ISP 124 which allows access to the Internet 126. POTS switch 122 may be further coupled to a PSTN 128. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, system 100 provides for data to be sent in each direction as a data stream between the central office 104 and the customer premise 102 via subscriber line 106. As data is sent from the central office 104 to the customer premise 102, the DSL CO modem 120 at the central office 104 can trellis encode the data in accordance with the principles of the present invention before modulating and transmitting the data via subscriber line 106. Similarly, when data is sent from the customer premise 102 to the central office 104, the DSL CPE modem 114 at the customer premise 102 can trellis encode the data in accordance with the principles of the present invention before modulating and transmitting the data via subscriber line 106. In a preferred embodiment, DSL CO modem 120 incorporates a BCM6411 or BCM6510 device, produced by Broadcom Corporation of Irvine, Calif., to implement its various functions. Referring now to FIG. 2, there is shown a schematic block diagram of the core of a modem processor 200 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. In a preferred embodiment, processor 200 is the Broadcom FirePath processor used in the BCM6411 and BCM6510 devices. The processor 200 is a 64 bit long instruction word (LIW) machine consisting of two execution units 206a, 206b. Each unit 206a, 206b is capable of 64 bit execution on multiple data units, (for example, four 16 bit data units at once), each controlled by half of the 64 bit instruction. The execution units, 206a, 206b, may include single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) units. SIMD stands for “Single Instruction Multiple Data” and describes a style of digital processor design in which a single instruction can be issued to control the processing of multiple data values in parallel (all being processed in the same manner). SIMD operations can be implemented in a digital processor, such as Broadcom's FirePath digital processor design, by data processing units which receive multiple input values, each 64 bits wide but capable of being logically subdivided into and treated as multiple smaller values e.g. 8×8-bit values, 4×16-bit values, or 2×32-bit values. To illustrate SIMD working as used in FirePath, consider the FirePath instruction: ADDH c, a, b The instruction mnemonic ADDH is an abbreviation for “Add Half-words.” The instruction “ADDH c, a, b” takes as input two 64-bit operands from registers a and b, and writes its result back to register c. ADDH performs four 16-bit (“half-word”) additions: each 16-bit value in a is added to the corresponding 16-bit value within b to produce 4×16-bit results in the 64-bit output value c. Thus, this SIMD method allows for a great increase in computational power compared with earlier types of processors where an instruction can only operate on a single set of input data values (e.g. one 16-bit operand from a, one 16-bit operand from b giving one 16-bit result in c). For situations where the same operation is to be performed repeatedly across an array of values, which is common in digital signal processing applications, it allows in this instance an increase in speed by a factor of four of the basic processing rate, since four add operations can be performed at once rather than only one. Processor 200 also includes an instruction cache 202 to hold instructions for rapid access, and an instruction decoder 204 for decoding the instruction received from the instruction cache 202. Processor 200 further includes a set of MAC Registers 218a, 218b, that are used to improve the efficiency of multiply-and-accumulate (MAC) operations common in digital signal processing, sixty four (or more) general purpose registers 220 which are preferably 64 bits wide and shared by execution units 206a, 206b, and a dual ported data cache or RAM 222 that holds data needed in the processing performed by the processor. Execution units 206a, 206b further comprise multiplier accumulator units 208a, 208b, integer units 210a, 210b, trellis encoding units 212a, 212b, Galois Field units 214a, 214b, and load/store units 216a, 216b. Multiplier accumulator units 208a, 208b perform the process of multiplication and addition of products (MAC) commonly used in many digital signal processing algorithms such as may be used in a DSL modem. Integer units 210a, 210b, perform many common operations on integer values used in general computation and signal processing. Galois Field units 214a, 214b perform special operations using Galois field arithmetic, such as may be executed in the implementation of the well-known Reed-Solomon error protection coding scheme. Load/store units 216a, 216b perform accesses to the data cache or RAM, either to load data values from it into general purpose registers 220 or store values to it from general purpose registers 220. They also provide access to data for transfer to and from peripheral interfaces outside the core of processor 200, such as an external data interface for ATM cell data. Trellis encoding units 212a, 212b directly implement the trellis encoding process for the processor 200. These units may be instantiated separately within the processor 200 or may be integrated within another unit such as the integer unit 210. In one embodiment, each trellis encoding unit 212a, 212b receives a first input operand comprising the input state bits S(0) for a first trellis stage, a second input operand comprising the input data U bits (i.e. input data bits U(0) for a first trellis stage and input data U(1) bits for a second trellis stage), and generates an output comprising output state bits S(1) and data output bits V(1), W(1), V(2), W(2). Referring now to FIG. 3A, there is shown an example of an instruction format for a three-operand instruction supported by the processor 200. In one embodiment, the instruction format includes 14 bits of opcode and control information, and three six-bit operand specifiers. As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, exact details such as the size of the instruction in bits, and how the various parts of the instruction are laid out and ordered within the instruction format, are not themselves critical to the principles of present invention: the parts could be in any order as might be convenient for the implementation of the instruction decoder 204 of the processor 200 (including the possibility that any part of the instruction such as the opcode and control information may not be in a single continuous sequence of bits such as is shown in FIG. 3). The operand specifiers are references to registers in the set of general purpose registers 220 of processor 200. The first of the operands is a reference to a destination register for storing the results of the instruction. The second operand is a reference to a first source register for the instruction, and the third operand is a reference to a second source register for the instruction. Referring now to FIG. 3B, there is shown an example of a possible instruction format for an instruction to perform trellis encoding in accordance with mapping schemes specified in international or national DSL standards supported by processor 200 in accordance to the present invention. The mnemonic for the opcode is shown as “DSLTE”, where DSLTE stands for DSL Trellis Encode. The actual mnemonic used is incidental; for example in another embodiment, an alternative mnemonic for the same instruction might be “ADSLTE”, since the trellis encoding scheme discussed above was first specified for ADSL modems. Again it should be observed that exact details of how this instruction format is implemented—the size, order and layout of the various parts of the instruction, exact codes used to represent the DSLTE opcode, etc.—are not critical to the principles of the present invention. The DSLTE instruction uses the three-operand instruction format shown in FIG. 3A, and in one embodiment, is defined to take three six-bit operand specifiers. The first of the operands is a reference to a pair of 64-bit destination registers for an output “stateout/dataout” where the results of the DSLTE instruction are stored. The second operand is a reference to a first source register for a first input “statein” from which state input bits are read, and the third operand is a reference to a source register for the second input “datain” from which input data bits are read. One skilled in the art will realize that the present invention is not limited to any specific register or location for those registers but that the instruction of the present invention may refer to an arbitrary register in the general purpose registers 220. Thus, by means of this generality of specification, the present invention advantageously achieves great flexibility in the use of the invention. For example, the present invention enables the original data, which is to be trellis encoded, to be obtained from any location chosen by the implementor (e.g. by first loading that data from the memory 222 into any convenient register, or it may already be in a register as a result of a previous processing operation). Likewise, the resulting trellis encoded data may be placed anywhere convenient for further processing such as in some general purpose register 220 for immediate further operations, or the resulting trellis encoded data may be placed back in memory 222 for later use. Thus, the flexibility of the present invention is in sharp contrast to conventional (hardware) implementations of the trellis encoding function, where the data flow is fixed in an arrangement dictated by the physical movement of data through the hardware, and cannot be adapted or modified to suit different modes of use. Similarly, the arrangement and use of separate ‘state’ data values is completely unconstrained, but may be arranged according to preference and passed in and out for each invocation of the instruction. Thus, the flexibility of the present invention is in sharp contrast to conventional (hardware) implementations of the trellis encoding function, where the data flow is fixed in an arrangement dictated by the physical movement of data through the hardware, and cannot be adapted or modified to suit different modes of use. For example, typically in such hardware contexts the ‘state’ (successive values of S) is held internally within the trellis encoding hardware, rather than being passed in as and when trellis encoding is required. This means that re-using a hardware implementation to trellis encode multiple distinct data streams at the same time is either impossible, or certainly more complex to implement, since some arrangement must be made to allow the individual states for the different streams to be swapped in and out. In one embodiment, the trellis encoding instruction is used in the software on a processor chip or chip-set implementing a central-office modem end of a DSL link (e.g. ADSL or VDSL). However, one skilled in the art will realize that the present invention is not limited to this implementation, but may be equally used in other contexts where data must be trellis encoded in a substantially similar way, such as in a DSL CPE modem at the customer premise, or in systems not implementing DSL. In one embodiment, the DSLTE instruction takes as one input a 64-bit value comprising the input state bits S(0) for the first trellis stage. In one embodiment of the first input, only the least significant four bits are used to represent the input state bits. However, one skilled in the art will realize that the principles of the present invention are not linked to this arrangement but that the input state bits may be organized in other ways. The second input operand is also 64 bits in size and comprises the U bits to be encoded. In one embodiment, the second input operand comprises two word fields, where a word is a 32-bit quantity. One word (e.g. the lower (least-significant) word) may contain the U bits for a first trellis stage (U(0)), and the other word (e.g. the upper (most-significant) word) may contain the U bits for a second trellis stage (U(1)). The U bits in each field may be between 3 and 31 bits in length. In another embodiment, simplification of the implementation of this instruction mechanism can be achieved through the use of U bits that are not in a contiguous subset of bits within each respective word field, but instead are each partitioned into two contiguous subsets which are presented aligned at the least-significant (right-hand) end of each of the two 16-bit (“half-word”) fields which make up the word field. For example, the lower half-word of each word field can contain bits {u1, u2, . . . , ux+1} of the respective U bits (U(0) or U(1)) and the upper half-word can contain bits {ux+2, ux+3, . . . , uz} of the respective U bits. By splitting each of the U(0) and U(1) inputs in this way, the instruction mechanism does not need to take account of the values of x, y, x′, y′ (the lengths of the respective sections of U(0) and U(1)). In this embodiment, the U bits in each word field may be between 3 and 30 bits in total, with up to 16 U bits in the lower half-word and up to 14 U bits in the upper half-word. As with the arrangement of data in the first input operand, one skilled in the art will realize that the arrangement of the U bits is not limited to this description, but may be organized in other ways as well. The output of the instruction comprises two outputs: a first output value comprising the output state bits S(2) from the second trellis stage, and a second output value containing V(1), W(1), V(2) and W(2). In one embodiment, the first output value comprises 64-bits, of which only the bottom four bits contain the output state bits. In an embodiment, the second output value comprises 64-bits, organized as four half-words (16-bit quantities), containing V(1), W(1), V(2), W(2) respectively with each field aligned to the bottom (least-significant end) of its respective half-word. Again, as with the first and second input operands, one skilled in the art will realize that the outputs of the present invention are not limited to the arrangement described above, but may be organized in other ways as well. In operation, the instruction mechanism is implemented in a processor, such that the instruction mechanism performs a multi-stage (such as 2-stage) trellis encoding process for data to be modulated onto a plurality of tones (such as 4 tones) in a single operation whose execution is initiated and can also be completed during one cycle. In contrast, conventionally a processor required the execution of at least 10 operations, over multiple cycles, in order to trellis-encode 4 tones. Therefore, the instruction mechanism of the present invention significantly increases the efficiency of trellis encoding of data for subsequent modulation and transmission. The core operation performed by the DSLTE instruction mechanism for 64-bit first and second input operands as discussed above is described by the following abstract logic description: stateout.0=statein.1statein.2datain.1datain.32 stateout.1=statein.0datain.33 stateout.2=statein.1statein.3datain.0 stateout.3=statein.2datain.1 stateout.<63..4>=ZEROS(60) dataout.0=datain.2 dataout.1=datain.0datain.2 dataout.<14..2>=datain.<15..3> dataout.15=0 dataout.16=datain.1datain.2 dataout.17=statein.0datain.0datain.1datain.2 dataout.<31..18>=datain.<29..16> dataout.32=datain.34 dataout.33=datain.32datain.34 dataout.<46..34>=datain.<47..35> dataout.47=0 dataout.48=datain.33datain.34 dataout.49=statein.1statein.3datain.0datain.32datain.33datain.34 dataout.<63..50>=datain.<61..48> In the above abstract logic description: the inputs are statein and datain, in which statein.0 holds S(0)0, statein.1 holds S(0)1, statein.2 holds S(0)2, statein.3 holds S(0)3, datain.<31..0> holds U(0) and datain.<63..32> holds U(1); the outputs are stateout and dataout, in which stateout.0 receives S(2)0, stateout.1 receives S(2)1, stateout.2 receives S(2)2, stateout.3 receives S(2)3, dataout.<15..0> receives V(1), dataout.<31..16> receives W(1), dataout.<47..32> receives V(2) and dataout.<63..48> receives W(2). In the above description the following definitions apply: val.n (where val is an identifier for a linear bit sequence of one or more bits, such as statein, dataout, etc., and n is a constant such as 5) means bit n of value val; bit 0 is the least significant bit, and bit 1 is the next more significant bit, etc. ZEROS(s) means the linear bit sequence of length s in which all bits are 0. val.<m..n> (where val is an identifier for a linear bit sequence and m and n are constants or constant expressions and m≧n) means the linear bit sequence SEQ(val.m, val.(m−1), . . . val.n). SEQ(a,b, . . . z) means the linear bit sequence resulting from the concatenation of the listed bit values a, b, . . . z, where bit a becomes the most significant bit, b the next most significant bit, etc, and z the least significant bit of the resulting sequence. The length of the sequence is equal to the number of bit values in the list. The above abstract logic description is only one of many possible ways to define logic circuitry to achieve the desired function. The logical combination of the various input bits to produce the output bits can be defined in other ways, for example by sharing the calculation of common sub-expressions of the above logic equations such as “statein.1statein.3datain.0” which appears both as the equation for stateout.2 and as part of the equation for dataout.49. Therefore the above abstract logic description is given by way of example only, and other descriptions can be used as well. One way in which the current invention may be implemented in the context of a semiconductor chip is by use of logic synthesis tools (such as the software program ‘BuildGates’ by Cadence Design Systems, Inc.) to create a logic circuit implementing the core function of the DSLTE instruction as defined above. Such tools take as input a high-level definition in a formal definition language such as Verilog or VHDL; such languages have a general character comparable to the above abstract logic description, though differing in detail. A skilled artisan can readily use the above abstract logic description to create such a high-level definition and thereby create a logic circuit using such tools. While the invention has been described with reference to certain embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from its scope. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.
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27
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04
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11631098
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US20070234038A1-20071004
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Method for Realizing the Synchronous Authentication Among the Different Authentication Control Devices
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ACCEPTED
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20070919
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20071004
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[]
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H04L900
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["H04L900"]
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8336082
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20070129
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20121218
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726
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003000
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57485.0
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ANDERSON
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MICHAEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Jin", "inventor_name_first": "Tao", "inventor_city": "Guangdong Province", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}]
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A method for realizing the synchronous authentication among the different authentication control devices is provided. The user accesses the network and initiates the authentication by the slave authentication control device. Then the master authentication control device obtains the authentication information of the user from the slave authentication control device and transmits it to the master authentication server of the master authentication control device. Finally, the master authentication server performs the authentication process to the user according to the authentication information of the user. Therefore the accessing user can obtain the network authority of a plurality of service providers with only one logging on in the network in which a plurality of service providers are interconnected. The present invention facilitates the access to the network for the user and can assure that each service provider can control and manage the accessing user efficiently and thereby protects the benefit of the service providers.
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1. A method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, comprising: a user accessing a network and initiating an authentication via a slave authentication control device; a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device; the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the user's authentication information. 2. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 1, wherein the network accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device accesses an external network via the network accessed under the control of the master authentication control device. 3. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 1, wherein the step of a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device comprises: the master authentication control device actively detecting and acquiring a message bearing the authentication information sent by the slave authentication control device, and forwarding the message to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. 4. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 1, wherein the step of a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device comprises: the slave authentication control device actively sending the user's authentication information to the master authentication control device, and the master authentication control forwarding the authentication information to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. 5. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 1, wherein the authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the master and slave authentication control devices is stored in the master authentication server. 6. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 5, wherein the method further comprises: storing the authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device in a slave authentication server. 7. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, according to claim 1, wherein the step of the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the user's authentication information comprises: after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing the following step, or else not processing it; sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. 8. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 1, wherein the method further comprises: the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. 9. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 8, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 10. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 8, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 11. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 2, wherein the step of a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device comprises: the master authentication control device actively detecting and acquiring a message bearing the authentication information sent by the slave authentication control device, and forwarding the message to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. 12. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 2, wherein the step of a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device comprises: the slave authentication control device actively sending the user's authentication information to the master authentication control device, and the master authentication control device forwarding the authentication information to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. 13. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, according to claim 2, wherein the step of the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the user's authentication information comprises: after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing the following step, or else not processing it; sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. 14. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 2, wherein the method further comprises: the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. 15. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 14, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 16. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 14, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 17. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, according to claim 5, wherein the step of the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the user's authentication information comprises: after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing the following step, or else not processing it; sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. 18. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 5, wherein the method further comprises: the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. 19. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 18, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 20. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 18, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 21. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, according to claim 6, wherein the step of the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the user's authentication information comprises: after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing the following step, or else not processing it; sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. 22. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 6, wherein the method further comprises: the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. 23. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 22, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. 24. The method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices according to claim 22, wherein the step of the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information further comprises: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There are a lot of different service providers such as operators, ISP (Internet Service Provider) and ICP (Internet Content Provider) in current communication networks, and each of the service providers can provide various services for the access users independently or cooperatively, and perform the authentication and accounting processing independently or cooperatively. When they cooperate with each other, there are various corresponding cooperating modes, wherein the relatively typical cooperating mode is to implement the operation and the cooperation via exchanging the authentication and accounting information of the users among the AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting) systems. The network architecture of the AAA system is shown in FIG. 1 . When a user accesses the network via an access device, an authentication control device is responsible for carrying the identity information of the access user, and initiating the access and authentication processing for the access user toward an AAA server. There are a lot of generally adopted measures for the user authentication, such as PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) authentication, WEB authentication and 802.1x authentication etc. The network architecture of a cooperating mode currently adopted among different service providers is shown in FIG.2 , and taking the PPPoE access authentication as example, the detailed authentication processing flow for the access user in the network shown in FIG. 2 is shown in FIG.3 , including the following steps: Step 31 : a user terminal sends a PADI message, i.e. a PPPoE Active Discovery Initiation message, to an authentication control device (i.e. PPPoE server) to start a PPPoE access; Step 32 : the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends a PADO message, i.e. a PPPoE Active Discovery Offer message, to the user terminal; Step 33 : the user terminal initiates a PADR request (a PPPoE Active Discovery Request message) to the authentication control device (PPPoE server) according to the PADO message responded by the authentication control device; Step 34 : the authentication control device (PPPoE server) generates a session id (session identifier), and sends it to the user terminal via PADS (PPPoE Active Discovery Session message); Step 35 : the user terminal and the authentication control device (PPPoE server) perform a PPP LCP (Link Control protocol) negotiation to establish link layer communication and synchronously negotiate for using a CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol) authentication mode; Step 36 : the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends and provides a Challenge (challenge code) of 128 bits to the authentication user terminal via a Challenge message; Step 37 : after receiving the Challenge message, the user terminal makes an MD5 algorithm encryption for a password and the Challenge message and then sends the encrypted Challenge-Password and challenge message in a Response message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server); Step 38 : the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends the encrypted Challenge message and Challenge-Password and the username to a RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial in User Service) user authentication server of service provider A for authentication; Step 39 : If the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A recognizes that it is a user of service provider B according to the username, forward the authentication message to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B for real authentication; That is, the authentication server of service provider A sends an Access-Request message to the authentication server of service provider B; Step 310 : the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether the user is legal according to the user information, and then responds with an authentication Success/Failure message to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A; That is, the authentication server of service provider B sends an Access-Accept/Access-Reject message to the authentication server of the service provider A; Step 311 : the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A forwards the authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server); if succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 312 : the authentication control device (PPPoE server) returns an authentication result (i.e. Success/Failure) to the user terminal; if the authentication is successful, continue to execute step 313 , or else the flow is ended here; Step 313 : the user terminal conducts an NCP (Network Control Protocol) negotiation such as IPCP (IP Control Protocol) protocol etc, and obtains, via the authentication control device (PPPoE server), parameters such as the planning IP address; Step 314 : if the authentication is successful, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) initiates an Accounting-Start request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; The authentication control device can send accounting/start/stop message to service provider A, that is, the Accounting-Response/Start/Stop message; Step 315 : if the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A discovers that the user is a roaming user whose service provider is service provider B, forward the accounting message to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B for real accounting; Step 316 : the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B responds with an Accounting-Accept message to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; and Step 317 : the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A forwards the Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server). Here the access user passes the authentication, and obtains the legal authority, and can launch its network service normally. When the user wants to terminate the network service, it can cut off the network connection via PPPoE; specifically, it can send an Accounting-Stop message in the message format transmitted in step 314 to step 317 , so as to implement the Accounting-Stop processing. Via the above processing, the mutual communication of the authentication and accounting information is implemented between service provider A and service provider B. However, because the core devices for authentication and accounting (i.e. the authentication control device) are in the network of service provider A and meanwhile the AAA information is forwarded from the AAA server of service provider A to the AAA server of service provider B, actually the control right on the users is completely held by service provider A. Therefore, if service provider A modifies the parameters of the authentication control device and the AAA server, there is a great possibility that service provider B will suffer losses. To avoid occurrence of the case that the controlled service provider suffers possible losses due to the inequitable status among different service providers, now each service provider needs to set and apply its own authentication control device. The corresponding network architecture is shown in FIG.4 . Still taking the PPPoE access authentication mode as example, here gives the description of the authentication processing flow for the access user in FIG. 4 with reference to FIG.5 , and the corresponding processing flow includes: The processing procedure from Step 51 to Step 58 is the same as that from step 31 to step 38 shown in FIG. 3 , and therefore detailed description is omitted; Step 59 : the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then executes step 510 by responding with the authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device; If succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user, and executes step 511 ; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 511 : the user terminal conducts an NCP (such as IPCP) negotiation, and obtains, via the authentication control device (PPPoE server), parameters such as the planning IP address; Step 512 : if the authentication is successful, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) initiates an Accounting-Start request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; Step 513 : the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A responds with an Account-Accept message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server). Here, the access user passes the authentication, and obtains the legal authority, and can launch its network service normally. However, because the user does not get the authorization of service provider B, it can only visit the network of service provider A. Thus, when the user wants to visit service provider B and external networks, the user needs to be re-authenticated by service provider B. That is, the user terminal initiates a secondary authentication request for the authentication control device of service provider B, and generally the WEB authentication mode is adopted currently. The detailed authentication processing procedure is also shown in FIG. 5 , and includes: Step 514 : the authentication control device of service provider B sends the user information to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B for authentication; Step 515 : the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then execute step 516 , that is, responding with the Authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device of service provider B; If succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform the various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 517 : the authentication control device of service provider B returns the authentication result to the user terminal, and if the authentication is successful, continue to execute step 518 ; Step 518 : the authentication control device of service provider B initiates an Accounting-Start request for the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B; Step 519 : the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B responds with an Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device of service provider B; Here, the access user has passed the authentication, and obtained the legal authority of the network of service provider B/the external network, and can launch its network service normally. That is, if the user passes the authentication twice, it can visit service provider A, service provider B and the external network. In this solution, if there are multiple service providers, the user needs to be authenticated for many times to obtain the authority layer by layer. That is, the user is required to login for each service provider, which makes the user's operation procedure complicated. Furthermore, each service provider maintains its operation information individually, thus making the operation cost of the service provider increased greatly.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention provide a method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, which simplifies the login and authentication procedure when the user accesses the network, and guarantees the reliable control and management of the access user by each service provider. The embodiments of the present invention are implemented by the following technical solution A method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices in an embodiment of the present invention, includes: A. a user accessing a network, and initiating an authentication via a slave authentication control device; B. a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device; C. the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to its authentication information. The network accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device accesses an external network via the network accessed under the control of the master authentication control device. Said step B includes: The master authentication control device actively detecting and acquiring a message bearing the authentication information sent by the slave authentication control device, and forwarding the message to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. Said step B includes: The slave authentication device actively sending the user's authentication information to the master authentication control device, and the master authentication control device forwarding the authentication information to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging them. The authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the master and slave authentication control devices is stored in the master authentication server. The method for implementing the synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices further includes: storing the authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device in a slave authentication server. Said step C includes: C1. after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing step C2, or else not processing it; C2. sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. The method for implementing the synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices also includes: D. the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. Said step D also includes: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. Said step D also includes: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. It can be seen from the technical solution provided by the embodiments of the present invention described above that in the network where multiple service providers are connected with each other according to the embodiment of the present invention, the access user can obtain the network authority of multiple service providers by logining only once, which brings great convenience for the user to access the network. Furthermore, the embodiments of the present invention can guarantee that each service provider controls and manages the access user effectively, so as to protect the interest of the service provider effectively. In addition, the embodiments of the present invention also bring the result that each service provider needs to configure the system only once when it is installed, without the necessity of providing additional maintenance for the authentication control device and the AAA server etc. As for an individual user, all the service providers need to be maintained only once, that is, the user information needs to undergo establishment, modification, deletion and various maintenance operation only once, which is not the same as the solution provided by the prior art that each service provider needs to be maintained once respectively.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of network authentication technology, particularly to a method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are a lot of different service providers such as operators, ISP (Internet Service Provider) and ICP (Internet Content Provider) in current communication networks, and each of the service providers can provide various services for the access users independently or cooperatively, and perform the authentication and accounting processing independently or cooperatively. When they cooperate with each other, there are various corresponding cooperating modes, wherein the relatively typical cooperating mode is to implement the operation and the cooperation via exchanging the authentication and accounting information of the users among the AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting) systems. The network architecture of the AAA system is shown in FIG. 1. When a user accesses the network via an access device, an authentication control device is responsible for carrying the identity information of the access user, and initiating the access and authentication processing for the access user toward an AAA server. There are a lot of generally adopted measures for the user authentication, such as PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) authentication, WEB authentication and 802.1x authentication etc. The network architecture of a cooperating mode currently adopted among different service providers is shown in FIG.2, and taking the PPPoE access authentication as example, the detailed authentication processing flow for the access user in the network shown in FIG.2 is shown in FIG.3, including the following steps: Step 31: a user terminal sends a PADI message, i.e. a PPPoE Active Discovery Initiation message, to an authentication control device (i.e. PPPoE server) to start a PPPoE access; Step 32: the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends a PADO message, i.e. a PPPoE Active Discovery Offer message, to the user terminal; Step 33: the user terminal initiates a PADR request (a PPPoE Active Discovery Request message) to the authentication control device (PPPoE server) according to the PADO message responded by the authentication control device; Step 34: the authentication control device (PPPoE server) generates a session id (session identifier), and sends it to the user terminal via PADS (PPPoE Active Discovery Session message); Step 35: the user terminal and the authentication control device (PPPoE server) perform a PPP LCP (Link Control protocol) negotiation to establish link layer communication and synchronously negotiate for using a CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol) authentication mode; Step 36: the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends and provides a Challenge (challenge code) of 128 bits to the authentication user terminal via a Challenge message; Step 37: after receiving the Challenge message, the user terminal makes an MD5 algorithm encryption for a password and the Challenge message and then sends the encrypted Challenge-Password and challenge message in a Response message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server); Step 38: the authentication control device (PPPoE server) sends the encrypted Challenge message and Challenge-Password and the username to a RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial in User Service) user authentication server of service provider A for authentication; Step 39: If the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A recognizes that it is a user of service provider B according to the username, forward the authentication message to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B for real authentication; That is, the authentication server of service provider A sends an Access-Request message to the authentication server of service provider B; Step 310: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether the user is legal according to the user information, and then responds with an authentication Success/Failure message to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A; That is, the authentication server of service provider B sends an Access-Accept/Access-Reject message to the authentication server of the service provider A; Step 311: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A forwards the authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server); if succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 312: the authentication control device (PPPoE server) returns an authentication result (i.e. Success/Failure) to the user terminal; if the authentication is successful, continue to execute step 313, or else the flow is ended here; Step 313: the user terminal conducts an NCP (Network Control Protocol) negotiation such as IPCP (IP Control Protocol) protocol etc, and obtains, via the authentication control device (PPPoE server), parameters such as the planning IP address; Step 314: if the authentication is successful, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) initiates an Accounting-Start request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; The authentication control device can send accounting/start/stop message to service provider A, that is, the Accounting-Response/Start/Stop message; Step 315: if the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A discovers that the user is a roaming user whose service provider is service provider B, forward the accounting message to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B for real accounting; Step 316: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B responds with an Accounting-Accept message to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; and Step 317: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A forwards the Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server). Here the access user passes the authentication, and obtains the legal authority, and can launch its network service normally. When the user wants to terminate the network service, it can cut off the network connection via PPPoE; specifically, it can send an Accounting-Stop message in the message format transmitted in step 314 to step 317, so as to implement the Accounting-Stop processing. Via the above processing, the mutual communication of the authentication and accounting information is implemented between service provider A and service provider B. However, because the core devices for authentication and accounting (i.e. the authentication control device) are in the network of service provider A and meanwhile the AAA information is forwarded from the AAA server of service provider A to the AAA server of service provider B, actually the control right on the users is completely held by service provider A. Therefore, if service provider A modifies the parameters of the authentication control device and the AAA server, there is a great possibility that service provider B will suffer losses. To avoid occurrence of the case that the controlled service provider suffers possible losses due to the inequitable status among different service providers, now each service provider needs to set and apply its own authentication control device. The corresponding network architecture is shown in FIG.4. Still taking the PPPoE access authentication mode as example, here gives the description of the authentication processing flow for the access user in FIG.4 with reference to FIG.5, and the corresponding processing flow includes: The processing procedure from Step 51 to Step 58 is the same as that from step 31 to step 38 shown in FIG. 3, and therefore detailed description is omitted; Step 59: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then executes step 510 by responding with the authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device; If succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user, and executes step 511; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 511: the user terminal conducts an NCP (such as IPCP) negotiation, and obtains, via the authentication control device (PPPoE server), parameters such as the planning IP address; Step 512: if the authentication is successful, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) initiates an Accounting-Start request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; Step 513: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A responds with an Account-Accept message to the authentication control device (PPPoE server). Here, the access user passes the authentication, and obtains the legal authority, and can launch its network service normally. However, because the user does not get the authorization of service provider B, it can only visit the network of service provider A. Thus, when the user wants to visit service provider B and external networks, the user needs to be re-authenticated by service provider B. That is, the user terminal initiates a secondary authentication request for the authentication control device of service provider B, and generally the WEB authentication mode is adopted currently. The detailed authentication processing procedure is also shown in FIG. 5, and includes: Step 514: the authentication control device of service provider B sends the user information to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B for authentication; Step 515: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then execute step 516, that is, responding with the Authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device of service provider B; If succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; after obtaining the user authorization, the authentication control device (PPPoE server) can perform the various control and management on the user network; if fails, the flow is ended here. Step 517: the authentication control device of service provider B returns the authentication result to the user terminal, and if the authentication is successful, continue to execute step 518; Step 518: the authentication control device of service provider B initiates an Accounting-Start request for the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B; Step 519: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B responds with an Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device of service provider B; Here, the access user has passed the authentication, and obtained the legal authority of the network of service provider B/the external network, and can launch its network service normally. That is, if the user passes the authentication twice, it can visit service provider A, service provider B and the external network. In this solution, if there are multiple service providers, the user needs to be authenticated for many times to obtain the authority layer by layer. That is, the user is required to login for each service provider, which makes the user's operation procedure complicated. Furthermore, each service provider maintains its operation information individually, thus making the operation cost of the service provider increased greatly. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention provide a method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices, which simplifies the login and authentication procedure when the user accesses the network, and guarantees the reliable control and management of the access user by each service provider. The embodiments of the present invention are implemented by the following technical solution A method for implementing synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices in an embodiment of the present invention, includes: A. a user accessing a network, and initiating an authentication via a slave authentication control device; B. a master authentication control device acquiring the user's authentication information from the slave authentication control device, and sending the user's authentication information to a master authentication server of the master authentication control device; C. the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to its authentication information. The network accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device accesses an external network via the network accessed under the control of the master authentication control device. Said step B includes: The master authentication control device actively detecting and acquiring a message bearing the authentication information sent by the slave authentication control device, and forwarding the message to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging it. Said step B includes: The slave authentication device actively sending the user's authentication information to the master authentication control device, and the master authentication control device forwarding the authentication information to the master authentication server directly or after repackaging them. The authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the master and slave authentication control devices is stored in the master authentication server. The method for implementing the synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices further includes: storing the authentication information of the user accessed under the control of the slave authentication control device in a slave authentication server. Said step C includes: C1. after receiving the user's authentication information, the master authentication server performing authentication processing of the user and determining whether the user's authentication information is stored in the slave authentication server; if yes, executing step C2, or else not processing it; C2. sending the user's authentication information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing authentication processing of the user according to the authentication information. The method for implementing the synchronous authentication among different authentication control devices also includes: D. the master authentication server acquiring accounting information from the master authentication control device, and performing the accounting to the access user according to the accounting information. Said step D also includes: the slave authentication control device sending the accounting information to the master authentication server via the master authentication control device, and the master authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. Said step D also includes: the master authentication server sending the accounting information to the slave authentication server, and the slave authentication server performing the accounting according to the accounting information. It can be seen from the technical solution provided by the embodiments of the present invention described above that in the network where multiple service providers are connected with each other according to the embodiment of the present invention, the access user can obtain the network authority of multiple service providers by logining only once, which brings great convenience for the user to access the network. Furthermore, the embodiments of the present invention can guarantee that each service provider controls and manages the access user effectively, so as to protect the interest of the service provider effectively. In addition, the embodiments of the present invention also bring the result that each service provider needs to configure the system only once when it is installed, without the necessity of providing additional maintenance for the authentication control device and the AAA server etc. As for an individual user, all the service providers need to be maintained only once, that is, the user information needs to undergo establishment, modification, deletion and various maintenance operation only once, which is not the same as the solution provided by the prior art that each service provider needs to be maintained once respectively. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating the conventional network architecture of the network with the AAA server; FIG. 2 is a conventional network architecture diagram I illustrating that a user initiates the authentication to multiple service providers in the prior art; FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating the authentication processing performed by the network shown in FIG.2; FIG. 4 is a conventional network architecture diagram II illustrating that a user initiates the authentication to multiple service providers in the prior art; FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating the authentication processing performed by the network shown in FIG.4; FIG. 6 is a network architecture diagram illustrating that a user initiates the authentication to multiple service providers in an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a flow chart illustrating the authentication processing performed by the network shown in FIG.6. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS The embodiments of the present invention show that when a user of those service providers which cooperate with each other accesses the network, an authentication processing procedure is initiated to the authentication control device of each service provider at the same time based on the identifier information of the access user. Accordingly, the user of different service providers which are in cooperation with each other in the network can finish, at one time, the access and authentication processing procedures of different service providers, thus guaranteeing the operating interest of each service provider adequately. In the method of the embodiments of the present invention, each service provider has their respective independent authentication control device, as shown in FIG. 6, and all the authentication control devices can configure their own AAA servers correspondingly. In the embodiments of the present invention, an authentication control device in the network connected directly to the external network is called master authentication control device, such as the authentication control device of service provider B in FIG. 6; an authentication control device in other networks connected to the external network via the network connected directly to the external network is called slave authentication control device, such as the authentication control device of service provider A in FIG. 6. In the embodiments of the present invention, all authentication information of the users who have gained access to each master or slave authentication control device is stored in the master authentication server to which the master authentication control device corresponds, and the master authentication server is, for example, the AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting) server and the corresponding RDIUS user authentication server of service provider B in FIG. 6; alternatively, the authentication information may be stored in the slave authentication server to which each slave authentication control device corresponds, and the slave authentication server is, for example, the AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting) server and the corresponding RDIUS user authentication server of service provider A in FIG. 6. Taking the network architecture shown in FIG. 6 as example, the embodiment of the method of the present invention is shown in detail in FIG. 7, including the following steps: Step 71: a user terminal sends a PADI message to an authentication control device (i.e. PPPoE server) of service provider A to start a PPPoE access; Step 72: after receiving the PADI message, the authentication control device sends a PADO message to the user terminal; Step 73: the user terminal sends a PADR request to the authentication control device according to the PADO message responded by the authentication control device; Step 74: the authentication control device generates a session id (session identifier), and sends it to the user terminal via a PADS message; Step 75: the user terminal and the authentication control device perform a PPP LCP (Link Control protocol) negotiation to establish link layer communication and synchronously negotiate for using the CHAP authentication mode; Step 76: the authentication control device sends and provides a Challenge of 128 bit to the authentication user terminal via a Challenge message; Step 77: after receiving the Challenge message, the user terminal makes an MD5 algorithm encryption for a password and the Challenge message and then sends the encrypted Challenge-Password and Challenge message in a Response message to the authentication control device of service provider A; The processing procedure for the user access from step 71 to step 76 is completely the same as the corresponding processing procedure in the prior art. Step 78: after receiving the authentication information, the authentication control device of service provider A sends the user identity information (i.e. the authentication information) such as a Challenge, a Challenge-Password and the username to the authentication control device of service provider B, i.e. the master authentication control device; Step 79: the authentication control device of service provider B sends the user identity information to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B for authentication; the RADIUS user authentication server and the corresponding AAA server of service provider B are called master authentication server; If the user identity information is stored in the AAA server of service provider B, the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether the user is legal according to the user identity information, and execute step 712; if the user identity information is stored in the AAA server of service provider A, execute step 710. Step 710: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B forwards the user information to the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A; Step 711: the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then responds with an authentication Success/Failure message; If succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the user's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; Step 712: return the authentication Success/Failure message to the authentication control device of service provider B; If skip from step 79 to this step, the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B determines whether or not the user is legal according to the user information, and then responds with the authentication Success/Failure message; if succeeds, carry the negotiation parameter and the use's relevant service attribute to authorize the user; If skip from step 711 to this step, the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider B forwards the message sent from the RADIUS user authentication server of service provider A to the authentication control device of service provider B; if the RADIUS server of service provider B contains the user information, authenticate directly and return the result; Step 713: after receiving the authentication Success/Failure message, if the user authorization is obtained successfully, the authentication control device of service provider B performs various control and management on the network of service provider B, and synchronously forwards the message to the authentication control device of service provider A; for example, if the authentication is successful and the authorization is obtained, the authentication control device of service provider B can manage the user and the traffic which enter the network of service provider B; however, if the authentication fails, the user can not enter the network of service provider B via the authentication control device of service provider B; Step 714: after receiving the message, if the user authorization is obtained successfully, the authentication control device of service provider A performs various control and management on the network of service provider A, and synchronously, the authentication control device of service provider A returns the authentication result to the user terminal; After the user terminal receives the message, if the authentication fails, the flow is ended here, or else continue to execute step 715. Step 715: the user terminal conducts an NCP (such as IPCP) negotiation, and obtains, via the authentication control device of service provider A, the parameters such as the planning IP address etc. Step 716: if the NCP negotiation is successful, the authentication control device of service provider A initiates an Accounting-Start request to the authentication control device of service provider B, that is, sending the accounting information to the authentication control device; Step 717: the authentication control device of service provider B forwards the request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B; If service provider A needs no accounting information, execute step 720 directly, or else execute step 718; 95 Step 718: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B forwards the request to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A; Step 719: the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider A responds with an Accounting-Accept message to the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B; Step 720: if skip from step 717 to this step, the RADIUS user accounting server of service provider B responds with the Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device of service provider B; and If skip from step 719 to step 720, forward the received Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device of service provider B. Step 721: the authentication control device of service provider B forwards the Accounting-Accept message to the authentication control device of service provider A; Here, the access user passes the authentication, and obtains the legal access authority of service provider A, service provider B and the external network, and can launch its network service normally. In the embodiments of the present invention, when the user wants to terminate the network service, it can cut off the network connection also via PPPoE server (the authentication control device), that is, sending the corresponding Accounting-Stop message according to the message format transmitted from step 716 to step 721, so as to stop the corresponding accounting procedure. In the accounting procedure, the embodiments of the present invention also can adopt the accounting processing mode that the authentication control device of service provider A does not provide the accounting information and the accounting information is provided only by the authentication control device of service provider B. That is, step 716 and step 721 are omitted in FIG. 7. If the accounting is performed by only service provider B and service provider A trusts this, the accounting needs to be performed only once; only in the distrust case, the accounting needs to be performed by both service providers A and B, and then to be checked. The embodiments of the present invention are applicable not only to PPPoE, but also to all the other authentication modes. Besides the RADIUS, the AAA protocol may include DIAMETER (a new AAA protocol) and TACACS (Terminal Access Controller Access Control System, an AAA protocol) etc. Because the authentication control device of service provider B is required to synchronize the authentication and accounting information with that of the authentication control device of service provider A, the authentication control device of service provider B must acquire the authentication information of the authentication control device of service provider A. Currently, there are mainly two adoptable acquisition modes: one is the mode of detecting the data message which bears the authentication information, and another is the mode of setting the master authentication control device as a proxy server of the slave authentication control device. The following gives the explanation of these two modes: (1) The mode of detecting the data message: in this mode, it is required that the authentication request message (such as RADIUS request message) initiated by the authentication control device of service provider A must be transmitted through the authentication control device of service provider B; in this way, the authentication control device of service provider B can detect all the data message; practically, it also can be configured to detect the specified message or the message of the specified AAA server; generally, the detected message is stored at first, and then forwarded; on the other hand, it also can be repackaged and then forwarded as required; (2) The mode of setting the master authentication control device as a proxy server: the authentication control device of service provider A takes the authentication control device of service provider B as a RADIUS Server, and all the messages are sent directly to the RADIUS port of the authentication control device of service provider B; the authentication control device of service provider B functions as a standard RADIUS Proxy to receive, modify, and send the authentication message; generally the RADIUS proxy needs to repackage the message and then forward the repackaged message, but the RADIUS proxy also can store the received message and forward the stored message directly. Because the authentication control device of service provider B and the authentication control device of service provider A have synchronized the authentication and accounting information and all the user authentication and authorization information are stored in all the authentication control devices, the embodiments of the present invention enable the user to obtain the legal network authority of multiple service providers by inputting the username and the password only once. In the practical applications, the embodiments of the present invention can be extended to the interconnections among multiple service providers, so as to realize the synchronous authentication among multiple authentication control devices. The above is just the preferred embodiments of the present invention, and the scope of the present invention is not limited thereto. Those skilled in the art shall appreciate that various changes or variations can be made within the scope of the present invention. Thus, the scope of the present invention should be defined by the claims.
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11725019
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US20110122971A1-20110526
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Method for transmitting/receiving feedback information in a multi-antenna system supporting multiple users, and feedback system supporting the same
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ACCEPTED
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20110511
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20110526
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[]
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H04L2700
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["H04L2700"]
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8315346
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20070316
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20121120
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375
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316000
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73441.0
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STEVENS
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BRIAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Ho-Jin", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Sung-Jin", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Li", "inventor_name_first": "Jianjun", "inventor_city": "Yongin-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zhou", "inventor_name_first": "Yong-Xing", "inventor_city": "Yongin-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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A method for transmitting/receiving feedback information in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, and a feedback system supporting the same. Multiple feedback protocol scenarios are predefined on the basis of communication environments affecting feedback information configurations. The feedback information is transmitted in a feedback protocol scenario determined by a communication environment. The feedback information is constructed with information required by the communication environment.
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1. A method for transmitting feedback information in a receiver of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, comprising: selecting from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment; generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol; and providing a transmitter with the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein generating the feedback information comprises generating the feedback information from channel quality information based on all beamforming vectors within a codebook for precoding when the feedback protocol scenario is not considered. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein generating the feedback information comprises: selecting from a codebook at least one precoding matrix achievable at a highest data rate for precoding when the feedback protocol scenario is not considered; and generating the feedback information from information related to the at least one precoding matrix and channel quality information based on beamforming vectors of the at least one precoding matrix. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein generating the feedback information comprises: selecting one beamforming vector from the at least one precoding matrix; and generating the feedback information from channel quality information based on the one beamforming vector. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is divided into a multi-user mode and a single-user mode according to the number of users. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario is in the multi-user mode, a size of the generated feedback information is defined by an index of a precoding matrix and channel quality information values based on the precoding matrix. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario is in the single-user mode, a size of the generated feedback information is defined by an index of a precoding matrix, a rank selection value, an index of a precoding vector of the precoding matrix, and a channel quality information value based on the precoding vector. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is divided into a slow feedback mode and a fast feedback mode according to a feedback information rate. 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising determining the communication environment by taking into consideration a multi-user mode and a single-user mode according to the number of users in the feedback protocol scenario of the fast feedback mode. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein a size of the generated feedback information is defined by a rank selection index and a codebook index. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario is in the fast feedback mode, a size of the generated feedback information is defined by an index of a precoding matrix and at least one channel quality information value based on the precoding matrix. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is determined by a feedback information period. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario is in a long-term feedback mode, a size of the generated feedback information is defined by an identifier for selecting a single-user mode, a rank selection value and a codebook selection value. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario is in a short-term feedback mode, a size of the generated feedback information is defined by an index of a precoding matrix and at least one precoding vector index of the precoding matrix. 15. The method of claim 12, wherein when the feedback protocol scenario has a short-term feedback in a multi-user mode, a size of the feedback information is defined by an index of a precoding matrix and channel quality information values based on the precoding matrix. 16. A method for receiving feedback information in a transmitter of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, comprising: selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment using feedback information received from a receiver; and allocating transmission parameters mapped to the selected feedback protocol scenario. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, rank, and modulation and coding scheme (MCS). 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the transmission parameters are allocated on a basis of at least one feedback protocol scenario determined by a communication environment of the receiver. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is determined by at least one of an amount of the feedback information, a number of receivers, and a period in which the feedback information is transmitted. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the received feedback information includes channel quality information based on all beamforming vectors within each codebook for precoding when the feedback protocol scenario is not considered. 21. The method of claim 16, wherein the received feedback information is generated from information related to a precoding matrix and channel quality information based on beamforming vectors of the precoding matrix after one precoding matrix achievable at a highest sum data rate is selected from a codebook for precoding when the feedback protocol scenario is not considered. 22. The method of claim 16, wherein the received feedback information is generated from channel quality information based on one beamforming vector after the one beamforming vector is selected from a precoding matrix. 23. The method of claim 16, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is at least one of a scenario based on the number of users, a scenario based on a rate at which the feedback information is transmitted, and a scenario based on a period in which the feedback information is transmitted. 24. A feedback system for use in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, comprising: a receiver for selecting from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment, generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol, and transmitting the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario; and a transmitter for selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment using the feedback information received from the receiver and allocating transmission parameters mapped to the selected feedback protocol scenario. 25. The feedback system of claim 24, wherein the transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, rank, and modulation and coding scheme (MCS). 26. The feedback system of claim 24, wherein the transmission parameters are allocated on a basis of at least one feedback protocol scenario determined by a communication environment of the receiver. 27. The feedback system of claim 26, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is determined by at least one of an amount of the feedback information, the number of receivers, and a period in which the feedback information is transmitted. 28. The feedback system of claim 24, wherein the feedback protocol scenario is at least one of a scenario based on the number of users, a scenario based on a rate at which the feedback information is transmitted, and a scenario based on a period in which the feedback information is transmitted. 29. A receiver for use in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, comprising: a channel estimator for estimating a channel from a received signal and acquiring channel quality information from the estimated channel; and a feedback information generator for generating feedback information using the acquired channel quality information and one of a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios. 30. The receiver of claim 29, wherein the channel estimator measures channel quality information values based on at least one of a precoding matrix and a precoding vector using the estimated channel. 31. The receiver of claim 29, wherein the acquired channel quality information is based on data streams corresponding to column vectors of each precoding matrix. 32. The receiver of claim 29, wherein the feedback information generator sends the generated feedback information to a transmitter. 33. A transmitter for use in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, comprising: a feedback information processor for selecting using feedback information received from a plurality of receivers a unitary matrix for precoding in at least one receiver; and a signal transmitter for precoding data streams to be transmitted using the selected unitary matrix and transmitting the precoded data streams to the at least one receiver. 34. The transmitter of claim 33, wherein the feedback information processor comprises: a feedback information controller for receiving the feedback information from all the receivers and controlling an operation for transmitting the data streams using the received feedback information; and a precoder allocator for generating control information for precoding the data streams. 35. The transmitter of claim 33, wherein the signal transmitter comprises: a selector for selecting a number of receivers for receiving the streams and outputting the data streams mapped to selected receivers; modulation and coding scheme (MCS) units for encoding the output data streams at optimal coding rates and modulating the encoded data streams in optimal modulation schemes; precoders for precoding the modulated data streams; and inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) and cyclic prefix (CP) units for transforming the precoded data streams according to IFFT processes and inserting CPs into the transformed data streams. 36. The transmitter of claim 35, wherein the selector selects a single receiver in a single-user mode and selects at least two receivers in a multi-user mode, under control of a feedback information controller. 37. The transmitter of claim 35, wherein the selector allocates the streams to be transmitted and transmission subchannels, and selects an MCS level, a precoder and a rank for a stream transmission.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and more particularly to a method for transmitting/receiving feedback information in a multi-antenna system supporting multiple users, and a feedback system supporting the same. 2. Description of the Related Art In wireless channel environments, as opposed to wired channel environments, reliability may be low due to multipath interference, shadowing, propagation attenuation, time variant noise, interference, and the like. There is a problem in that a data transmission rate may not increase due to the low reliability in mobile communication environments. To overcome these problems, a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system has been proposed. The MIMO system is a representative example of a multi-antenna system. The multi-antenna system supports a single-user mode and a multi-user mode. In the single-user mode, data is transmitted to the same user via multiple transmit antennas. In the multi-user mode, data is transmitted to multiple users via multiple transmit antennas. The multi-antenna system is divided into a closed-loop scheme in which resource allocation depends on feedback information, and an open-loop scheme independent of the feedback information. To transmit the feedback information in the multi-antenna system using the closed-loop scheme, a full feedback scheme and a single feedback scheme are present. When precoding is used, the full feedback scheme is a scheme in which each user feeds back information regarding all transmission rates mapped to all column vectors within a codebook. The full feedback scheme has superior performance in terms of resource allocation, but is disadvantageous since there is a large amount of feedback information. When the feedback information to be generated increases, not only system complexity may increase, but also an amount of resources required to transmit the feedback information may increase. When precoding is used, the single feedback scheme is that in which each user feeds back only index information of a column vector having a highest transmission rate. The single feedback scheme may reduce an amount of feedback information. However, it is difficult to expect optimal resource allocation in the single feedback scheme. In the multi-antenna system using the closed-loop scheme as described above, an important problem is to provide a scheme for efficiently allocating resources on the basis of minimum feedback information. In particular, it is urgent to provide a scheme for transmitting optimal feedback information while taking into consideration an operating mode, a feedback scheme, and the like, in the multi-antenna system.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An aspect of the present invention is to address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and to provide at, least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for receiving feedback information when the feedback information mapped to an operating mode is transmitted in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. A further aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for receiving feedback information when the feedback information mapped to a feedback scheme is transmitted in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. A still further aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for generating transmission parameters based on feedback information while taking into consideration an operating mode, a feedback scheme, and the like, and transmitting data based on the transmission parameters in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. In accordance with an aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a method for transmitting feedback information in a receiver of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios; generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol; and providing a transmitter with the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario. In accordance with another aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a method for receiving feedback information in a transmitter of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios; and receiving feedback information from a receiver using the selected feedback protocol. In accordance with a further aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a feedback system for use in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including a receiver for selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios, generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol, and transmitting the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario; and a transmitter for selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment using the feedback information received from the receiver and allocating transmission parameters mapped to the selected feedback protocol scenario.
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PRIORITY This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(a) of an application filed in the United States Patent and Trademark Office on Mar. 16, 2006 and assigned Ser. No. 60/782,626 and an application filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Oct. 24, 2006 and assigned Serial No. 2006-103696, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and more particularly to a method for transmitting/receiving feedback information in a multi-antenna system supporting multiple users, and a feedback system supporting the same. 2. Description of the Related Art In wireless channel environments, as opposed to wired channel environments, reliability may be low due to multipath interference, shadowing, propagation attenuation, time variant noise, interference, and the like. There is a problem in that a data transmission rate may not increase due to the low reliability in mobile communication environments. To overcome these problems, a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system has been proposed. The MIMO system is a representative example of a multi-antenna system. The multi-antenna system supports a single-user mode and a multi-user mode. In the single-user mode, data is transmitted to the same user via multiple transmit antennas. In the multi-user mode, data is transmitted to multiple users via multiple transmit antennas. The multi-antenna system is divided into a closed-loop scheme in which resource allocation depends on feedback information, and an open-loop scheme independent of the feedback information. To transmit the feedback information in the multi-antenna system using the closed-loop scheme, a full feedback scheme and a single feedback scheme are present. When precoding is used, the full feedback scheme is a scheme in which each user feeds back information regarding all transmission rates mapped to all column vectors within a codebook. The full feedback scheme has superior performance in terms of resource allocation, but is disadvantageous since there is a large amount of feedback information. When the feedback information to be generated increases, not only system complexity may increase, but also an amount of resources required to transmit the feedback information may increase. When precoding is used, the single feedback scheme is that in which each user feeds back only index information of a column vector having a highest transmission rate. The single feedback scheme may reduce an amount of feedback information. However, it is difficult to expect optimal resource allocation in the single feedback scheme. In the multi-antenna system using the closed-loop scheme as described above, an important problem is to provide a scheme for efficiently allocating resources on the basis of minimum feedback information. In particular, it is urgent to provide a scheme for transmitting optimal feedback information while taking into consideration an operating mode, a feedback scheme, and the like, in the multi-antenna system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An aspect of the present invention is to address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and to provide at, least the advantages described below. Accordingly, an aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for receiving feedback information when the feedback information mapped to an operating mode is transmitted in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. A further aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for receiving feedback information when the feedback information mapped to a feedback scheme is transmitted in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. A still further aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for generating transmission parameters based on feedback information while taking into consideration an operating mode, a feedback scheme, and the like, and transmitting data based on the transmission parameters in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme, and a feedback system supporting the same. In accordance with an aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a method for transmitting feedback information in a receiver of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios; generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol; and providing a transmitter with the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario. In accordance with another aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a method for receiving feedback information in a transmitter of a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios; and receiving feedback information from a receiver using the selected feedback protocol. In accordance with a further aspect of the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a feedback system for use in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users, including a receiver for selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment from a plurality of feedback protocol scenarios, generating feedback information mapped to the selected feedback protocol, and transmitting the generated feedback information using the selected feedback protocol scenario; and a transmitter for selecting a feedback protocol scenario based on a communication environment using the feedback information received from the receiver and allocating transmission parameters mapped to the selected feedback protocol scenario. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a structure of a transmitter in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a process flowchart illustrating first to third feedback scenarios in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a process flowchart illustrating a fourth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a process flowchart illustrating a fifth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a process flowchart illustrating a sixth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a process flowchart illustrating a seventh feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a process flowchart illustrating an eighth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail herein below with reference to the accompanying drawings. The matters defined in the description such as a detailed construction and elements are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of exemplary embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications of the embodiments described herein can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Also, descriptions of well-known functions and constructions are omitted for clarity and conciseness. A scheme for generating feedback information through various feedback scenarios in a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described. Moreover, a scheme for generating transmission parameters based on received scenario-by-scenario feedback information in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described. First, parameters used in the exemplary embodiments of the present invention are defined as follows. Mi: Number of transmit antennas L: Number of codebooks in one code set N: Number of precoding matrices in one codebook M: Number of precoding vectors in a given precoding matrix Q: Number of bits for channel quality information (CQI) Hereinafter, exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the above-defined parameters and the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a multi-antenna system using a closed-loop scheme supporting multiple users in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Specifically, FIG. 1 illustrates an example of the multi-antenna system constructed with one transmitter 110 and multiple receivers 120-1 to 120-N. It can be assumed that the transmitter 110 is a Node B and the multiple receivers 120-1 to 120-N are user equipments (UEs). An operation based on one receiver 120-1 will be described below. Of course, the operation can be equally applied to the other receivers. Referring to FIG. 1, a channel estimator 122-1 of the receiver 120-1 estimates a channel using a signal received via at least one receive antenna. When the channel is estimated, the channel estimator 122-1 acquires CQI from the estimated channel. The acquired CQI is mapped to data streams of column vectors of each precoding matrix. The CQI can be expressed by CQI values. That is, the channel estimator 122-1 measures CQI values based on precoding matrices or precoding vectors through the channel estimation. A feedback information generator 124-1 of the receiver 120-1 generates feedback information based on the measured CQI values in at least one feedback protocol scenario. The generated feedback information can be constructed with optimal information in a target feedback protocol scenario. The feedback protocol scenarios to be considered in the feedback information generator 124-1 will be described in detail below. To generate the feedback information, a codebook is predefined between the transmitter and the receiver in the multi-antenna system. As proposed in exemplary embodiments of the present invention, all the receivers 120-1 to 120-N generate feedback information and send the generated feedback information to the transmitter 110. A feedback information processor 114 of the transmitter 110 receives feedback information from all the receivers 120-1 to 120-N. The feedback information processor 114 selects at least one user (or receiver) and at least one unitary matrix for precoding using the received feedback information. The unitary matrix for precoding is selected by the feedback information from each receiver. The feedback information processor 114 provides a signal transmitter 112 with information regarding at least one selected receiver and at least one selected unitary matrix. The signal transmitter 112 transmits to at least one selected receiver data streams via multiple transmit antennas after precoding the data streams to be transmitted on the basis of at least one selected unitary matrix. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a structure of the transmitter in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 2, a feedback information controller 210 receives feedback information from multiple receivers and controls an overall operation for transmitting data streams using the received feedback information. The feedback information processor 114 of FIG. 1 can be constructed with the feedback information controller 210 and a precoder allocator 240. Under control of the feedback information controller 210, a selector 220 selects a single user in spatial division multiplexing (SDM) in a single-user-multiple input multiple output (SU-MIMO) mode and selects at least two users in spatial division multiple access (SDMA) in a multi-user-MIMO (MU-MIMO) mode. That is, the selector 220 selects whether to transmit streams to single or multiple receivers. Under the control of the feedback information controller 210, the selector 220 allocates data streams to be transmitted and subchannels on which the data streams are transmitted. Moreover, the selector 220 determines a modulation and coding scheme (MCS) level for a data transmission, a precoder and a rank. The selector 220 outputs the data streams to be transmitted to the selected receiver(s) and provides the precoder allocator 240 with information regarding the precoder and the rank. The precoder allocator 240 generates control information required for precoding the data streams to be transmitted and outputs the control information to precoders 250. MCS units 230 encode the data streams at optimal coding rates and modulate the encoded data (bit) streams in optimal modulation schemes. For this, the feedback information controller 210 controls the MCS units 230. The MCS units 230 are constructed with multiple MCSs on a data stream-by-data stream basis. The precoders 250 use predefined codebooks for precoding. To design the codebooks to be used for the precoders 250, various schemes have been proposed. Typically, a fast Fourier transform (FFT) precoder, a Givens precoder and a Grassmannian precoder are provided. Since the codebook design schemes are well known, a description is omitted. The precoders 250 precode the data streams output from the MCS units 250 using the designed codebooks. Precoding matrices based on the codebooks are selected by the control information provided from the precoder allocator 240. Inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) and cyclic prefix (CP) units 260 and 270 transform modulated symbol streams output through precoding according to IFFT processes and insert CPs into the transformed streams. The streams are transmitted via at least one transmit antenna. FIG. 3 is a process flowchart illustrating first to third feedback scenarios in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In the first feedback scenario, receivers provide a transmitter with precoding matrices. The precoding matrices provided to the transmitter include all measured CQI values based on beamforming vectors constructing each precoding matrix. In this case, the size of the feedback information is defined by (Q×M×N). CQI values for all the precoding matrices are fed back. Thus, the first feedback scenario has the highest overhead among all possible scenarios. In the second feedback scenario, a receiver selects one of precoding matrices constructing a codebook and provides CQI values based on the selected precoding matrix as the feedback information. In this case, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+QM), where ┌n┐ indicates the smallest integer greater than or equal to n. The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐ and CQI values based on the selected precoding matrix defined by QM. Thus, the second feedback scenario has less overhead than the first feedback scenario. In the third feedback scenario, a receiver provides a single beamforming vector of a precoding matrix selected from a given codebook and a CQI value based on the single beamforming vector as the feedback information. In this case, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+┌log2(M)┐+Q). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, a precoding vector index of the selected precoding matrix defined by ┌log2(M)┐, and a CQI value based on the selected precoding vector defined by Q. The third feedback scenario has less overhead than the second feedback scenario. As illustrated in FIG. 3, the receiver measures a channel response through channel estimation (step 310). The receiver selects a precoding matrix and/or a beamforming vector(s) on the basis of a given codebook (step 312). The receiver computes CQI values based on the precoding matrix and/or the beamforming vector(s) selected in step 312 (step 314). The receiver generates feedback information including the computed CQI values and indices of the selected precoding matrix and/or the selected beamforming vector(s). The generated feedback information is sent to the transmitter. Upon receiving the feedback information, the transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the received feedback information (step 316). The transmission parameters include those related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank, and MCS. FIG. 4 is a process flowchart illustrating a fourth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In the fourth feedback scenario, a receiver selects at least one operating mode between MU-MIMO mode supporting multiple users and SU-MIMO mode supporting a single user, on the basis of the number of users. The operating mode is selected on the basis of a temporarily stored active user set in a cell. The selected operating mode can be indicated by L2 signaling. The receiver can generate different feedback information between the operating modes. When the operating mode is set to the SU-MIMO mode, the size of the feedback information is defined by ( ⌈ log 2 ( N ) ⌉ + ⌈ log 2 ( M ) ⌉ + ⌈ log 2 ( M t M ) ⌉ + QM ) . The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, a rank selection value defined by ┌log2(M)┐, a precoding vector index of a selected precoding matrix defined by ⌈ log 2 ( M i M ) ⌉ , and a CQI value(s) based on a selected precoding vector(s) defined by QM · log 2 ( M t M ) is a combination function M t ! M ! ( M t - M ) ! . As described above, the rank is selected on the basis of beamforming vectors. The number of CQI values depends on the rank. In addition, when the operating mode is set to the MU-MIMO mode, the above-described first to third feedback scenarios can be applied. Assuming that the second feedback scenario is applied, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+QM). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐ and CQI values based on a selected precoding matrix defined by QM. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the receiver determines whether the operating mode to be supported is the SU-MIMO or MU-MIMO mode (step 410). The operating mode can be identified by L2 signaling. If the SU-MEMO mode is supported, the receiver generates feedback information (step 412). The generated feedback information is constructed with precoding matrix index, a beamforming vector index, a rank selection value, and CQI values. Otherwise, if the MU-MIMO mode is supported, the receiver generates feedback information based on a precoding matrix index and CQI values (step 414). The receiver transmits to the transmitter the feedback information generated in step 412 or 414. The transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the feedback information received from the receiver (step 416). The transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank and MCS. FIG. 5 is a process flowchart illustrating a fifth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The fifth feedback scenario is used in only the SU-MIMO mode. A receiver selects one of slow feedback signaling and fast feedback signaling. The receiver generates feedback information using a rank selection index and a codebook index in the slow feedback signaling and generates feedback information using only a precoding matrix in the fast feedback signalling. In the slow feedback signaling, the generated feedback information has the size of (┌log2(ML)┐+┌log2(L)┐). The feedback information includes a rank selection index defined by ┌log2(ML)┐ and a codebook index defined by ┌log2(L)┐. In the fast feedback signaling, the generated feedback information has the size of (┌log2(N)┐+QML). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐ and a CQI value(s) based on a selected precoding matrix defined by QML, that is, (Q×1) to (Q×M). As illustrated in FIG. 5, the receiver selects one of a slow feedback and a fast feedback on the basis of a feedback information rate. If the slow feedback mode is selected, the receiver generates feedback information with a rank selection index and a codebook index and sends the generated feedback information to the transmitter (step 510). Otherwise, if the fast feedback mode is selected, the receiver generates feedback information with a precoding matrix index and a CQI value(s). The generated feedback information is sent to the transmitter (step 512). When receiving the feedback information generated in step 510 or 512, the transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the received feedback information (step 514). The allocated transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank and MCS. FIG. 6 is a process flowchart illustrating a sixth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The sixth feedback scenario can be applied when the SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO modes are dynamically selected. A receiver generates the feedback information using the best beamforming vector for the SU-MIMO mode and generates the feedback information using a rank and beamforming vectors for the MU-MIMO mode. The size of the generated feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+┌log2(M)┐+Q+┌log2(M)┐+Q) to (┌log2(N)┐+┌log2(M)┐+Q+┌log2(M)┐+QM). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, a precoding vector index of a selected precoding matrix defined by ┌log2(M)┐, a CQI value based on a selected precoding vector defined by Q, a rank selection index defined by ┌log2(M)┐, and a CQI value(s) based on a selected rank defined by QM, that is, (Q×1) to (Q×M). Referring to FIG. 6, the receiver measures a channel response through channel estimation (step 610). Using the measured channel response, the receiver generates feedback information based on a precoding matrix, a beamforming vector and CQI in an SDMA scheme (for selecting at least two users in MU-MIMO mode) and generates feedback information based on a rank and CQI in an SDM scheme (for selecting a single user in SU-MIMO mode) (step 612). The receiver sends the generated feedback information to a transmitter. Upon receiving the feedback information generated in step 612, the transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the received feedback information (step 614). The allocated transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank and MCS. FIG. 7 is a process flowchart illustrating a seventh feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The seventh feedback scenario is determined by a period of feedback information. That is, a receiver supports two control-signaling schemes of a long-term feedback and a short-term feedback. In the long-term feedback, the receiver can selectively support the SU-MIMO mode and the MU-MIMO mode. The SU-MIMO or MU-MIMO mode can be selected on the basis of a scheduled user set. In addition, the codebook selection and rank size are chosen in a period equal to a mode-switching period. In the short-term feedback, the receiver generates feedback information using allocated CQI values and rank-based precoding vectors in the SU-MIMO made and generates feedback information using the precoding matrix and the CQI values in the MU-MIMO mode. If the long-term feedback is performed, the size of the feedback information is defined by (1+┌log2(M)┐+┌log2(L)┐). The feedback information includes a 1-bit identifier for SU/MU-MIMO mode selection, a rank selection value defined by ┌log2(M)┐, and a codebook selection value defined by ┌log2(L)┐. When the receiver supports the SU-MIMO mode in the short-term feedback, the size of the feedback information is defined by ( ⌈ log 2 ( N ) ⌉ + ⌈ log 2 ( M t M L ) ⌉ + QM L ) . The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, at least one precoding vector index of a selected precoding matrix defined by ⌈ log 2 ( M t M L ) ⌉ , and a CQI value(s) based on a selected precoding vector(s) defined by QML. On the other hand, when the receiver supports the MU-MIMO mode in the short-term feedback, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+QML). That is, the feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐ and CQI values based on a selected precoding matrix defined by QML. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the receiver determines a feedback information period (step 710). When deciding to send feedback information in the long term, the receiver generates the feedback information mapped to the long term (step 712). At this time, the generated feedback information includes an operating mode selection bit, a rank selection value and a codebook selection value. However, when deciding to send feedback information in the short term in step 710, the receiver determines whether the operating mode to be supported is the SU-MIMO or the MU-MIMO mode (step 714). The operating mode can be indicated by L2 signaling. When deciding to support the SU-MIMO mode in step 714, the receiver generates the feedback information (step 716). At this time, the generated feedback information is constructed with a precoding matrix index, a beamforming vector index and a CQI value(s). The receiver sends the feedback information to the transmitter. When deciding to support the MU-MIMO mode, the receiver generates feedback information with a precoding matrix index and CQI values. Then, the receiver sends the generated feedback information to the transmitter (step 718). When receiving the feedback information generated in step 712, 716 or 718, the transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the received feedback information (step 720). The transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank and MCS. FIG. 8 is a process flowchart illustrating an eighth feedback scenario in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The eighth feedback scenario defines a feedback protocol taking into consideration the complexity of a receiver. This feedback protocol is divided into two modes. The two modes are a successive interference cancellation (SIC) mode and a non-SIC mode. When the feedback protocol is in the SIC mode, the receiver generates feedback information including a precoding matrix index, a precoding vector index and CQI values. When the feedback protocol is in the non-SIC mode, the receiver generates feedback information by adding a rank selection index to the feedback information generated in the SIC mode. When the receiver supports the SIC mode, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+┌log2(M)┐+Q+QML). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, a precoding vector index of a selected precoding matrix defined by ┌log2(M)┐, a CQI value based on a selected precoding vector defined by Q, and CQI values based on a selected rank defined by QML. When the receiver supports the non-SIC mode, the size of the feedback information is defined by (┌log2(N)┐+┌log2(M)┐+Q+┌log2(M)┐+QML). The feedback information includes a precoding matrix index defined by ┌log2(N)┐, a precoding vector index of a selected precoding matrix defined by ┌log2(M)┐, a CQI value based on a selected precoding vector defined by Q, a rank selection index (from a stream 1 to a stream M) defined by ┌log2(M)┐, and a CQI value(s) based on a selected rank defined by QML. As illustrated in FIG. 8, the receiver determines whether a feedback is performed in the SIC or the non-SIC mode (step 810). When determining that the feedback is performed in the SIC mode, the receiver generates feedback information including a precoding matrix index, a beamforming vector index, a CQI value for SDMA, and a CQI value for SDM (step 812). The receiver sends the generated feedback information to the transmitter. When determining that the feedback is performed in the non-SIC mode, the receiver generates feedback information including a precoding matrix index, a CQI value for SDMA, a rank selection index, and CQI values for SDM (step 814). The generated feedback information is sent to the transmitter. When receiving the feedback information generated in step 812 or 814, the transmitter allocates transmission parameters using the received feedback information (step 816). The transmission parameters include at least one parameter related to a user, stream, subchannel, precoder, rank and MCS. As described above, the present invention can provide a unique feedback protocol for generating optimal feedback information while taking into consideration an operating mode, a feedback scheme, and the like, in a multi-antenna system. Moreover, the present invention can efficiently allocate resources on the basis of minimum feedback information in the multi-antenna system, thereby improving system performance. While the invention has been shown and described with reference to certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.
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11710873
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US20070226489A1-20070927
|
Certificate based digital rights management
|
ACCEPTED
|
20070912
|
20070927
|
[]
|
H04L900
|
["H04L900"]
|
7930764
|
20070226
|
20110419
|
726
|
029000
|
72771.0
|
POWERS
|
WILLIAM
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Hug", "inventor_name_first": "Joshua", "inventor_city": "Seattle", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Fu", "inventor_name_first": "Xiaodong", "inventor_city": "Herndon", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a digital certificate is used to link an arbitrary provisioned right with an associated arbitrary digital action to be performed by a client device on or with respect to a protected digital content object. In one embodiment, the certificate is associated with one or more secure components, which are utilized by the client device in association with performance of the digital action.
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1. In a client device equipped with a digital rights management system (DRM), a method comprising: receiving a digital certificate associating an arbitrary digital action with a selected one or more of a plurality of secure components to facilitate performance of the digital action on protected content by the client; verifying whether the digital certificate is authentic; determining whether the client is authorized to perform the digital action; and performing the digital action via execution of the one or more secure components if the digital certificate is authentic and the client is authorized to perform the requested action; 2-42. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Electronic content can include a wide variety of audio and/or video presentations, such as music, dialogue, still pictures, movies, and the like. With the proliferation of portable playback devices capable of storing and rendering near-identical copies of original audio and/or video content, coupled with the distribution capabilities of the Internet, digital rights enforcement of audio and/or video content has become an increasingly important issue for digital content providers. Rights enforcement typically defines how digital content can be used on a given client device. For example, rights information associated with a piece of digital content may permit rendering of the content by the device, while at the same time preventing copying or distribution of the content. The management and enforcement of digital rights is typically referred to as digital rights management or “DRM”. Although DRM systems (referred to as DRMs) often focus on content security and encryption, DRM may also involve the description, protection, and tracking of rights usage as well as management of relationships between rights holders. DRMs typically utilize a rights expression language (REL) for specifying content rights, types of users qualified to obtain those rights, and the actions necessary to enable content rights transactions. Typically, the rights embodied within a particular DRM system are static and are tied to well-defined actions that may be taken with respect to the content. However, at the time of release it is not always possible for a DRM or other rights management application or service to foresee all actions that may be desired or otherwise necessary in the future. Accordingly, in order for current day DRMs to recognize such newly defined actions, a new DRM release is typically required. such a release is not always feasible from a cost and/or time perspective, nor is it desirable from a user perspective.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of exemplary embodiments, but not limitations, illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like references denote similar elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a system view of the present invention, in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 2 illustrates an example rights object formed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 3A and 3B each represent an example digital certificate formed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating an example system level operational flow, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating an example operational flow for one embodiment of a client device such as client device 100 ; FIG. 6 illustrates one embodiment of a generic hardware system; FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of a machine-readable medium to store executable instructions for embodiments of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention relate to the field of digital rights management. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronic content can include a wide variety of audio and/or video presentations, such as music, dialogue, still pictures, movies, and the like. With the proliferation of portable playback devices capable of storing and rendering near-identical copies of original audio and/or video content, coupled with the distribution capabilities of the Internet, digital rights enforcement of audio and/or video content has become an increasingly important issue for digital content providers. Rights enforcement typically defines how digital content can be used on a given client device. For example, rights information associated with a piece of digital content may permit rendering of the content by the device, while at the same time preventing copying or distribution of the content. The management and enforcement of digital rights is typically referred to as digital rights management or “DRM”. Although DRM systems (referred to as DRMs) often focus on content security and encryption, DRM may also involve the description, protection, and tracking of rights usage as well as management of relationships between rights holders. DRMs typically utilize a rights expression language (REL) for specifying content rights, types of users qualified to obtain those rights, and the actions necessary to enable content rights transactions. Typically, the rights embodied within a particular DRM system are static and are tied to well-defined actions that may be taken with respect to the content. However, at the time of release it is not always possible for a DRM or other rights management application or service to foresee all actions that may be desired or otherwise necessary in the future. Accordingly, in order for current day DRMs to recognize such newly defined actions, a new DRM release is typically required. such a release is not always feasible from a cost and/or time perspective, nor is it desirable from a user perspective. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of exemplary embodiments, but not limitations, illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like references denote similar elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a system view of the present invention, in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 2 illustrates an example rights object formed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 3A and 3B each represent an example digital certificate formed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating an example system level operational flow, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating an example operational flow for one embodiment of a client device such as client device 100; FIG. 6 illustrates one embodiment of a generic hardware system; FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of a machine-readable medium to store executable instructions for embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION In the description to follow, various aspects of the present invention will be described, and specific configurations will be set forth. However, the present invention may be practiced with only some or all aspects, and/or without some of these specific details. In other instances, well-known features are omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the present invention. The description will be presented in terms of operations performed by a processor based device consistent with the manner commonly employed by those skilled in the art to convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. As is well understood by those skilled in the art, the quantities take the form of electrical, magnetic, or optical signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, and otherwise manipulated through mechanical, electrical and/or optical components of the processor based device. Various operations will be described as multiple discrete steps in turn, in a manner that is most helpful in understanding the present invention, however, the order of description should not be construed as to imply that these operations are necessarily order dependent. In particular, these operations need not be performed in the order of presentation. The description repeatedly uses the phrase “in one embodiment”, which ordinarily does not refer to the same embodiment, although it may. The terms “comprising”, “including”, “having”, and the like, as used in the present application, are synonymous. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, digital certificates are used to link arbitrary provisioned rights with an associated arbitrary digital action to be performed on secure content object(s) by a client device equipped with a digital rights management (DRM) agent. In one embodiment, client devices consume content objects in accordance with one or more rights objects, and by way of one or more secure components as may be identified by a digital certificate associated with an action to be performed. The term “client device” (or merely “client”) is intended to represent a broad range of digital systems, including devices such as wireless mobile phones, palm sized personal digital assistants, and other general purpose or dedicated portable player devices, notebook computers, desktop computers, set-top boxes, game consoles, and so forth. FIG. 1 illustrates an example client device 100 equipped with digital rights management (DRM) agent 102 to facilitate consumption of secure content objects by e.g. consumption engine 112. Usage of the term “content object” is intended to broadly refer to a digital resource such as, but not limited to an audio and/or video clip (including motion video and still images), a data file or stream, a ringing tone, a screen saver, a Java applet or any other digital resource, whether alone or combined. Moreover, secure content objects may represent content objects existing in an encrypted form or in a plaintext form delivered inside a secure DRM message. The term “consumption” as used herein is intended to broadly refer to one or more actions that are performed on or in association with a given content object. For example, consumption may involve the rendering or playback of a particular content object, the access and/or retrieval of content object (whether from memory or a storage device), transcoding of the content object, transferring or “burning” the content object to a CD-ROM or similar large capacity removable storage media (including CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM . . . etc.), downloading the content object to a portable player device, and so forth. In one embodiment, consumption engine 112 may provide various functionalities such as content rendering and content transfer effected by the execution of one or more secure components 110. In one embodiment, consumption engine 112 may represent a digital content player core such as RealOne player available from RealNetworks, Inc. of Seattle Wash. In accordance with the teachings of the present invention, consumption engine 112 may be supplemented with additional functionality in the form of arbitrary digital actions enabled for operation after initial distribution/installation of consumption engine 112 and/or DRM 102. In one embodiment, DRM agent 102 facilitates performance of indicated actions including, but not limited to the transfer of secure content to one or multiple playback devices, the transfer of content and/or device keys to playback devices, the conversion of a content object into another DRM format, file format, or CODEC format (e.g. transcode), the burning of a content object onto a non-volatile memory device such as a CD-ROM, and so forth. Indications of such actions to be performed may be user-initiated or device-initiated (e.g. via one or more software/hardware components), and may constitute a received data packet, an interrupt, input from a user input device, and so forth. In one embodiment, DRM agent 102 may receive an indication in the form of an action identifier, such as an action name or action type, identifying the action to be performed. Upon receiving the indication of the action to be performed, DRM agent 102 may identify (e.g. based upon the action identifier) a digital certificate 108 corresponding to the action to be performed. In one embodiment, digital certificate 108 identifies a selected one or more secure components 110 to facilitate performance of the action identified by the certificate. In one embodiment, each secure component is associated with a unique identifier which is used by digital certificate 108 to identify the appropriate ones of secure components 110 to perform an indicated action. In one embodiment, digital certificate 108 identifies an order with which secure components 110 are to be executed in connection with performance of the indicated action. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, DRM agent 102 may be implemented in tamper resistant code on the client device. Building from this root point of trust, it is possible for the client device to validate (e.g. via digital signatures) the various secure components (e.g. as identified by the digital certificate) that provide elemental functions associated with the desired action. Secure components 110 may be designed to operate autonomously to perform particular elemental functions, or to operate in conjunction with other components to perform compound or multi-part functions. For example, a selected one of secure components 110 may simply operate to write a content object such as a digital audio track out to a data file using a particular file format. Alternatively, multiple ones of secure components 110 may operate together as part of a combined filter chain used to transcode a particular content object from one manifestation (as e.g. defined by a file format, CODEC, CODEC bitrate, interleaving method, sampling rate, color format, and DRM type), to another. The term “component”, is intended to broadly refer to logic embodied in hardware or firmware, or to a collection of software instructions, possibly having entry and exit points, written in a programming language, such as, for example, C++. A software component may be compiled and linked into an executable program, or installed in a dynamic link library, or may be written in an interpretive language. It will be appreciated that software components may be callable from other components or from themselves, and/or may be invoked in response to detected events or interrupts. Software instructions may be embedded in firmware, such as an EPROM. It will be further appreciated that hardware components may be comprised of connected logic units, such as gates and flip-flops, and/or may be comprised of programmable units, such as programmable gate arrays or processors. In one embodiment, the components described herein are implemented as software components, but may nonetheless be represented in hardware or firmware in other embodiments. A secure component generally is a component that has had all code paths carefully examined to ensure that it behaves appropriately and has been signed to prevent further modification of those inspected secure code paths. In one embodiment, secure components are signed via a digital signature. The DRM, which is termed the root of trust, has been made highly resistant to tampering by non-trusted parties through e.g., the use of obfuscation, code encryption using symmetric or asymmetric encryption techniques, anti static analysis, anti-dynamic analysis, etc. Each of rights objects 106 of FIG. 1 are intended to represent an instance of rights that define or otherwise represent consumption rules stated in terms of a rights expression language for a particular content object or class of content objects. Rights refer to permissions and constraints that define under which circumstances access may be granted to DRM content. In one embodiment, rights objects are expressed in terms of a rights expression language (REL), such as REL 104, corresponding to a particular DRM implementation. In one embodiment, rights objects may represent one or more digital licenses, however other rights instantiations are possible. In one embodiment, rights objects are provided in encrypted form by rights issuers, where a rights issuer may represent an entity such as a content producer, or a device such as a license server operated by such an entity. In one embodiment, before a given action is performed, a determination may be made by client device 100 as to whether the client device is authorized to perform the action based upon the existence or non-existence of a rights object authorizing performance of such action. In one embodiment, client device 100 may request an appropriate rights object from a rights issuer if necessary to facilitate performance of the action. Similarly, client device 100 may obtain one or more additional secure components to perform an action as may be determined by digital certificate 108 associated with the action. In one embodiment, the secure components may be obtained/received from the provider of the content object (e.g. content provider) or from a third party. FIG. 2 illustrates an example rights object formed in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Rights object 200 may be implemented using elements of a rights expression language whether e.g. the rights expression language is text-based, binary-based, or XML-based as shown in FIG. 2. In the illustrated example, rights object 200 includes rights related information 210 granted to client device 100, as well as content-specific information 220. Rights related information 210 may identify a single right or a range of rights to be bestowed upon client device 110. For example, rights related information 210 may identify content actions to be granted to client device 100, such as “playback” or “burnToCD” including limitations placed thereon,. Content-specific information 220 on the other hand may include a content encryption key to facilitate consumption of a particular content object by client device 100. FIG. 3A illustrates a device certificate in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, device certificate 300 may be used by DRM agent 102 to authorize transfer of a content object or one or more keys to a device identified or otherwise characterized by device certificate 300. In the illustrated embodiment, device certificate 300 may include such information as the name of a device to which the content object is to be transferred, the model of the device, the serial number of the device, and the type of device. However, other device-specific attributes may be identified. In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, device certificates, such as device certificate 300, may be provided to a client device equipped with a DRM agent to facilitate transfer of protected content objects to one or more devices. Moreover, validation of Certificate 300 by the DRM may be tied to an expression of rights within the rights expression language. As new digital devices are introduced to market, a client device equipped with the teachings of the present invention may download or otherwise obtain a new digital certificate corresponding to the new digital device in order to be authorized to transfer protected content to the new digital device. For example, a digital home entertainment system/network may contain numerous digital devices equipped with DRM agents to facilitate consumption of protected content objects. Unfortunately, current day DRM systems are not capable of dynamically recognizing newly released digital devices nor are they capable of securely transferring protected content to the new digital devices without requiring a DRM upgrade. A client device equipped with a DRM and consumption engine incorporating teachings of the present invention however, may be dynamically provisioned with a digital device certificate, such as device certificate 300, to facilitate recognition of, and secure transfer to one or more new devices. FIG. 3B illustrates an action certificate in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment, action certificate 350 identifies an action 352 (e.g. via an action name or action type) and three secure components 354(a-c) to be used e.g. by client device 100 in association with performance of the action 352. In one embodiment, each of secure components 352a, 352b, and 352c may be processed in a designated order such as their order of appearance within certificate 350. In accordance with the illustrated embodiment, action certificate 350 may further include digital signature section 356 to facilitate detection of unauthorized tampering of the certificate. In one embodiment, digital signatures of certificates are signed by a trusted third-party using a root encryption key belonging to a content provider source of the protected content. As such, a client device may validate the authenticity of the certificate by verifying that the digital signature associated with action certificate is correct upon receipt by the client device. The client device may further verify that the secure components identified by the action certificate are present and the digital signature associated with each of the identified secure components is valid. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating an example system level operational flow, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. At block 402, a rights issuer generates a rights object corresponding to a newly provisioned right and provides the rights object to a client device at block 404. At block 406, a software provider generates a digital certificate that is associated with an arbitrary digital action and that identifies selected secure components, which when executed operate to perform the indicated action. It should be noted that individually none of the secure components indicated by the digital certificate need be aware of such a digital action. The digital certificate is then provided to the client device at block 408. At block 410, an indication of an action to be performed is received. The indication may be embodied by an identifier received by the client device. At block 412, a determination is made as to whether the digital certificate is authentic. In one embodiment, the digital certificate is determined to be authentic if a digital signature embedded within the digital certificate is determined to be valid. If the certificate is determined to be authentic, a further determination is then made at block 414 as to whether the client is authorized to perform the indicated action. In one embodiment, the client is deemed authorized to perform the indicated action if the client device possesses a rights object associated with the digital action. If the client device is in fact authorized to perform the digital action, the client device proceeds to perform the digital action at block 416 via execution of the secure components identified in the corresponding digital certificate. However, if it is determined that the certificate is not authentic at block 412, or it is determined that the client is not authorized to perform the indicated action at block 414, the client device declines to perform the action at block 418. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating an example operational flow for one embodiment of a client device such as client device 100. In the illustrated embodiment, the process begins at block 502 with the client device receiving an indication of an action to be performed. At block 504, a determination is made as to whether the client device contains a digital certificate associated with the received identifier. If not, the client device may attempt to obtain the appropriate certificate from e.g. a content provider or third party trustee at block 506. If the client device was not successful in obtaining the appropriate certificate at block 508, the client device may then decline to perform the action at block 510. However, if the client device was not successful in obtaining the appropriate certificate at block 508, or if the client device already possessed the appropriate certificate at block 504, the client device makes a determination as to whether the certificate is authentic at block 512. In one embodiment, such a determination may be made by the client device validating the digital signature of the certificate. If the certificate is deemed authentic, the client device identifies an action to be performed e.g. based upon the received identifier at block 514. At block 516, the client device determines whether it is authorized to perform the identified action. In one embodiment, the client device may be deemed authorized to perform the action based upon the existence of a rights object granting such rights to the client device in coordination with the DRM. IF the client device determines that it is not authorized to perform the identified action, the client device may then attempt to obtain an appropriate rights object from e.g. a rights issuer at block 518. If the client device is not able to successfully obtain the appropriate right object needed to perform the indicated action at block 520, the client device may then decline to perform the action at block 522. However, if the client device is able to successfully obtain the appropriate right object needed to perform the indicated action at block 520, or the client device was originally authorized to perform the indicated action at block 516, the client device may then identify secure components associated with the action as e.g. indicated by the digital certificate at block 524. At block 526, a determination is made as to whether the client device possesses the identified components. If not, the client device may then attempt to retrieve secure components missing from the client device at block 528. If the client device is not successful in obtaining the missing secure components at block 530, the client device may still decline performance of the action at block 532. However, if the client device is successful in obtaining the missing secure components at block 530, or if the client device originally possessed the secure components identified by the digital certificate at block 526, the client device may proceed to perform the requested action via execution or processing of the secure components identified in the digital certificate at block 534. FIG. 6 illustrates one embodiment of a generic hardware system suitable for use as client device 100 incorporated with the teachings of the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the hardware system includes processor 610 coupled to high speed bus 605, which is coupled to input/output (I/O) bus 615 through bus bridge 630. Temporary memory 620 is coupled to bus 605, while permanent memory 640 and I/O device(s) 650 are coupled to bus 615. I/O device(s) 650 may include a display device, a keyboard, one or more external network interfaces, etc. Certain embodiments may include additional components, may not require all of the above components, or may combine one or more components. For instance, temporary memory 620 may be on-chip with processor 610. Alternately, permanent memory 640 may be eliminated and temporary memory 620 may be replaced with an electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), wherein software routines are executed in place from the EEPROM. Some implementations may employ a single bus, to which all of the components are coupled, or one or more additional buses and bus bridges to which various additional components can be coupled. Similarly, a variety of alternate internal networks could be used including, for instance, an internal network based on a high speed system bus with a memory controller hub and an I/O controller hub. Additional components may include additional processors, a CD ROM drive, additional memories, and other peripheral components known in the art. In one embodiment, the hardware system of FIG. 6 operating as client device 100 may be coupled to a local area network (LAN), an internet protocol (IP) network, etc. For example, client device 100 may be communicatively coupled to a rights issuer and/or content provider via a shared network. In one embodiment, the present invention as described above may be implemented as software routines executed by one or more execution units within a computing device. For a given computing device, the software routines can be stored on a storage device, such as permanent memory 640. Alternately, as shown in FIG. 7, the software routines can be machine executable instructions 710 stored using any machine readable storage medium 720, such as a diskette, CD-ROM, magnetic tape, digital video or versatile disk (DVD), laser disk, ROM, Flash memory, etc. The series of instructions need not be stored locally, and could be received from a remote storage device, such as a server on a network, a CD ROM device, a floppy disk, etc., through, for instance, I/O device(s) 650 of FIG. 6. From whatever source, the instructions may be copied from the storage device into temporary memory 620 and then accessed and executed by processor 610. In one implementation, these software routines may be written in the C programming language. It is to be appreciated, however, that these routines may be implemented in any of a wide variety of programming languages. In alternate embodiments, the present invention as described above may be implemented in discrete hardware or firmware. For example, one or more application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) could be programmed with one or more of the above-described functions of the present invention: In another example, one or more functions of the present invention could be implemented in one or more ASICs on additional circuit boards and the circuit boards could be inserted into the computer(s) described above. In another example, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) or static programmable gate arrays (SPGA) could be used to implement one or more functions of the present invention. In yet another example, a combination of hardware and software could be used to implement one or more functions of the present invention. While embodiments of the present invention have been described in terms of the foregoing embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention is not limited to the embodiments described. Other embodiments can be practiced with modification and alteration within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. Thus, the description is to be regarded as illustrative instead of restrictive.
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H
| 70H04
| 210H04L
|
9
|
00
|
|||
11781098
|
US20080025295A1-20080131
|
VOICE OVER DATA TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
|
ACCEPTED
|
20080116
|
20080131
|
[]
|
H04L1266
|
["H04L1266"]
|
8089958
|
20070720
|
20120103
|
370
|
356000
|
72444.0
|
HARPER
|
KEVIN
|
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The present invention describes a system and method for communicating voice and data over a packet-switched network that is adapted to coexist and communicate with a legacy PSTN. The system permits packet switching of voice calls and data calls through a data network from and to any of a LEC, a customer facility or a direct IP connection on the data network. The system includes soft switch sites, gateway sites, a data network, a provisioning component, a network event component and a network management component. The system interfaces with customer facilities (e.g., a PBX), carrier facilities (e.g., a LEC) and legacy signaling networks (e.g., SS7) to handle calls between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. The soft switch sites provide the core call processing for the voice network architecture. The soft switch sites manage the gateway sites in a preferred embodiment, using a protocol such as the Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) protocol to request the set-up and tear-down of calls. The gateway sites originate and terminate calls between calling parties and called parties through the data network. The gateway sites include network access devices to provide access to network resources. The data network connects one or more of the soft switch sites to one or more of the gateway sites. The provisioning and network event component collects call events recorded at the soft switch sites. The network management component includes a network operations center (NOC) for centralized network management.
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1. A method for servicing telecommunications calls over a packet-switched network, the method comprising: receiving a signaling message associated with a telecommunications call between a calling party and a called party, wherein the signaling message comprises a trunk ID identifying a trunk group assigned to a telecommunications carrier to which the calling party has subscribed for the provision of telecommunication services; querying a configuration database using the trunk ID to identify call processing logic for use in communicating telecommunications calls received from the telecommunications carrier across the packet-switched network in accordance with specific options associated with the trunk group; and implementing the call processing logic such that the telecommunications call is provisioned across the packet-switched network based at least in part on the specific options. 2. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the implementing act comprises: selecting an egress port on the packet-switched network based at least in part on the specific options, wherein media embodied in the telecommunications call is routed across the packet-switched network to the egress port 3. A method as recited in claim 2, wherein the specific options comprise a list of allowed international destinations, the implementing act comprising: determining whether the called party resides in an allowed international destination and, if so, wherein the act of selecting act an egress port comprises selecting an egress port operable to terminate the telecommunications call in the international destination. 4. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the implementing act comprises: controlling, based at least in part on the specific options, an ingress port receiving media embodied in the telecommunications call from the third party network. 5. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the specific options comprise class of service restrictions. 6. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the call processing logic is based at least in part on configuration information of the packet-switched network stored in the configuration database, and wherein the configuration information includes network topology information of the packet-switched network. 7. A method as recited in claim 1, further comprising querying the configuration database using an automatic number identification (ANI) of the calling party to identify additional call processing logic to apply to the telecommunications call, the additional call processing representing at least one class of service restriction to apply to the telecommunications call. 8. A system for servicing telecommunications calls over a packet-switched network, the system comprising: a soft switch operable to receive a signaling message associated with a telecommunications call between a calling party and a called party, wherein the signaling message comprises a trunk ID identifying a trunk group assigned to a telecommunications carrier to which the calling party has subscribed for the provision of telecommunication services; a configuration server communicably coupled to the soft switch, wherein the configuration server is operable to receive a query comprising the trunk ID from the soft switch and identify call processing logic for use in communicating telecommunications calls received from the telecommunications carrier across the packet-switched network in accordance with specific options associated with the trunk group; and wherein the soft switch is operable to receive the call processing logic from the configuration server and implement the call processing logic to thereby control provisioning of the telecommunications call across the packet-switched network based at least in part on the specific options. 9. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the softswitch is further operable to select an egress port between which the telecommunications call is routed across the packet-switched network based, at least in part, on the specific options. 10. A system as recited in claim 9, wherein the specific options comprise a list of allowed international destinations and the softswitch is operable to determine whether the called party resides in an allowed international destination and, if so, select an egress port operable to terminate the telecommunications call in the international destination. 11. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the configuration server and the softswitch are communicatively coupled via the packet-switched network. 12. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the call processing logic is based at least in part on configuration information including network topology of the packet-switched network stored in the configuration database. 13. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the call processing logic initializes connections between components for the telecommunications call and provides call processing during the telecommunications call. 14. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the packet-switched network comprises an Internet Protocol (IP) network. 15. A system as recited in claim 8, wherein the telecommunications call comprises voice media. 16. A computer program product comprising computer-readable medium on which is stored control logic that, when executed by a computer, causes the computer to perform operations comprising: receiving a signaling message associated with a telecommunications call between a calling party and a called party, wherein the signaling message comprises a trunk ID identifying a trunk group assigned to a telecommunications carrier to which the calling party has subscribed for the provision of telecommunication services; querying a configuration database using the trunk ID to identify call processing logic for use in communicating telecommunications calls received from the telecommunications carrier across the packet-switched network in accordance with specific options associated with the trunk group; and implementing the call processing logic such that the telecommunications call is provisioned across the packet-switched network based at least in part on the specific options. 17. A computer program product as recited in claim 16, wherein the implementing operation comprises: selecting an egress port on the packet-switched network based at least in part on the specific options, wherein media embodied in the telecommunications call is routed across the packet-switched network to the egress port. 18. A computer program product as recited in claim 17, wherein the specific options comprise a list of allowed international destinations, the implementing operation comprising: determining whether the called party resides in an allowed international destination and, if so, wherein the act of selecting act an egress port comprises selecting an egress port operable to terminate the telecommunications call in the international destination. 19. A computer program product as recited in claim 16, wherein the implementing operation comprises: controlling, based at least in part on the specific options, an ingress port receiving media embodied in the telecommunications call from the third party network. 20. A computer program product as recited in claim 19, wherein the controlling operation is accomplished via the packet-switched network.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to telecommunications networks and, more particularly, to a system and method for providing transmission for voice and data traffic over a data network, including the signaling, routing and manipulation of such traffic. 2. Related Art The present invention relates to telecommunications, and in particular to voice and data communication operating over a data network. The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is a collection of different telephone networks owned by different companies which have for many years provided telephone communication between users of the network. Different parts of the PSTN network use different transmission media and compression techniques. Most long distance calls are digitally coded and transmitted along a transmission line such as a T1 line or fiber optic cable, using circuit switching technology to transmit the calls. Such calls are time division multiplexed (TDM) into separate channels, which allow many calls to pass over the lines without interacting. The channels are directed independently through multiple circuit switches from an originating switch to a destination switch. Using conventional circuit switched communications, a channel on each of the T1 lines along which a call is transmitted is dedicated for the duration of the call, whether or not any information is actually being transmitted over the channel. The set of channels being used by the call is referred to as a “circuit.” Telecommunications networks were originally designed to connect one device, such as a telephone, to another device, such as a telephone, using switching services. As previously mentioned, circuit-switched networks provide a dedicated, fixed amount of capacity (a “circuit”) between the two devices for the entire duration of a transmission session. Originally, this was accomplished manually. A human operator would physically patch a wire between two sockets to form a direct connection from the calling party to the called party. More recently, a circuit is set up between an originating switch and a destination switch using a process known as signaling. Signaling sets up, monitors, and releases connections in a circuit-switched system. Various signaling methods have been devised. Telephone systems formerly used in-band signaling to set up and tear down calls. Signals of an in-band signaling system are passed through the same channels as the information being transmitted. Early electromechanical switches used analog or multi-frequency (MF) in-band signaling. Thereafter, conventional residential telephones used in-band dual-tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signaling to connect to an end office switch. Here, the same wires (and frequencies on the wires) were used to dial a number (using pulses or tones), as are used to transmit voice information. However, in-band signaling permitted unscrupulous callers to use a device such as a whistle to mimic signaling sounds to commit fraud (e.g., to prematurely discontinue billing by an interexchange carrier (IXC), also known as a long distance telephone company). More recently, to prevent such fraud, out-of-band signaling systems were introduced. Out-of-band signaling uses a signaling network that is separate from the circuit switched network used for carrying the actual call information. For example, integrated services digital network (ISDN) uses a separate channel, a data (D) channel, to pass signaling information out-of-band. Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS) is another network architecture for out-of-band signaling. A popular version of CCIS signaling is Signaling System 7 (SS7). SS7 is an internationally recognized system optimized for use in digital telecommunications networks. SS7 out-of-band signaling provided additional benefits beyond fraud prevention. For example, out-of-band signaling eased quick adoption of advanced features (e.g., caller id) by permitting modifications to the separate signaling network. In addition, the SS7 network enabled long distance “Equal Access” (i.e., 1+ dialing for access to any long distance carrier) as required under the terms of the modified final judgment (MFJ) requiring divestiture of the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) from their parent company, AT&T. An SS7 network is a packet-switched signaling network formed from a variety of components, including Service Switching Points (SSPs), Signaling Transfer Points (STPs) and Service Control Points (SCPs). An SSP is a telephone switch which is directly connected to an SS7 network. All calls must originate in or be routed through an SSP. Calls are passed through connections between SSPs. An SCP is a special application computer which maintains information in a database required by users of the network. SCP databases may include, for example, a credit card database for verifying charge information or an “800” database for processing number translations for toll-free calls. STPs pass or route signals between SSPs, other STPs, and SCPs. An STP is a special application packet switch which operates to pass signaling information. The components in the SS7 network are connected together by links. Links between SSPs and STPs can be, for example, A, B, C, D, E or F links. Typically, redundant links are also used for connecting an SSP to its adjacent STPs. Customer premises equipment (CPE), such as a telephone, are connected to an SSP or an end office (EO) switch. To initiate a call in an SS7 telecommunications network, a calling party using a telephone connected to an originating EO switch, dials a telephone number of a called party. The telephone number is passed from the telephone to the SSP at the originating EO (referred to as the “ingress EO”) of the calling party's local exchange carrier (LEC). A LEC is commonly referred to as a local telephone company. First, the SSP will process triggers and internal route rules based on satisfaction of certain criteria. Second, the SSP will initiate further signaling messages to another EO or access tandem (AT), if necessary. The signaling information can be passed from the SSP to STPs, which route the signals between the ingress EO and the terminating end office, or egress EO. The egress EO has a port designated by the telephone number of the called party. The call is set up as a direct connection between the EOs through tandem switches if no direct trunking exists or if direct trunking is full. If the call is a long distance call, i.e., between a calling party and a called party located in different local access transport areas (LATAs), then the call is connected through an inter exchange carrier (IXC) switch of any of a number of long distance telephone companies. Such a long distance call is commonly referred to as an inter-LATA call. LECs and IXCs are collectively referred to as the previously mentioned public switched telephone network (PSTN). Emergence of competitive LECs (CLECs) was facilitated by passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which authorized competition in the local phone service market. Traditional LECs or RBOCs are now also known as incumbent LECs (ILECs). Thus, CLECs compete with ILECs in providing local exchange services. This competition, however, has still not provided the bandwidth necessary to handle the large volume of voice and data communications. This is due to the limitations of circuit switching technology which limits the bandwidth of the equipment being used by the LECs, and to the high costs of adding additional equipment. Since circuit switching dedicates a channel to a call for the duration of the call, a large amount of switching bandwidth is required to handle the high volume of voice calls. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that the LECs must also handle data communications over the same equipment that handle voice communications. If the PSTN were converted to a packet-switched network, many of the congestion and limited bandwidth problems would be solved. However, the LECs and IXCs have invested large amounts of capital in building, upgrading and maintaining their circuit switched networks (known as “legacy” networks) and are unable or unwilling to jettison their legacy networks in favor of the newer, more powerful technology of packet switching. Accordingly, a party wanting to build a packet-switched network to provide voice and data communications for customers must build a network that, not only provides the desired functionality, but also is fully compatible with the SS7 and other, e.g., ISDN and MF, switching networks of the legacy systems. Currently, internets, intranets, and similar public or private data networks that interconnect computers generally use packet switching technology. Packet switching provides for more efficient use of a communication channel as compared to circuit switching. With packet switching, many different calls (e.g., voice, data, video, fax, Internet, etc.) can share a communication channel rather than the channel being dedicated to a single call. For example, during a voice call, digitized voice information might be transferred between the callers only 50% of the time, with the other 50% being silence. For a data call, information might be transferred between two computers 10% of the time. With a circuit switched connection, the voice call would tie-up a communications channel that may have 50% of its bandwidth being unused. Similarly, with the data call, 90% of the channel's bandwidth may go unused. In contrast, a packet-switched connection would permit the voice call, the data call and possibly other call information to all be sent over the same channel. Packet switching breaks a media stream into pieces known as, for example, packets, cells or frames. Each packet is then encoded with address information for delivery to the proper destination and is sent through the network. The packets are received at the destination and the media stream is reassembled into its original form for delivery to the recipient. This process is made possible using an important family of communications protocols, commonly called the Internet Protocol (IP). In a packet-switched network, there is no single, unbroken physical connection between sender and receiver. The packets from many different calls share network bandwidth with other transmissions. The packets are sent over many different routes at the same time toward the destination, and then are reassembled at the receiving end. The result is much more efficient use of a telecommunications network than could be achieved with circuit-switching. Recognizing the inherent efficiency of packet-switched data networks such as the Internet, attention has focused on the transmission of voice information over packet-switched networks. However, such systems are not compatible with the legacy PSTN and therefore are not convenient to use. One approach that implements voice communications over an IP network requires that a person dial a special access number to access an IP network. Once the IP network is accessed, the destination or called number can be dialed. This type of call is known as a gateway-type access call. Another approach involves a user having a telephone that is dedicated to an IP network. This approach is inflexible since calls can only be made over the IP network without direct access to the PSTN. What is needed is a system and method for implementing packet-switched communications for both voice calls and data calls that do not require special access numbers or dedicated phones and permit full integration with the legacy PSTN.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is a system and method for communicating both voice and data over a packet-switched network that is adapted to coexist and communicate with a PSTN. The system permits efficient packet switching of voice calls and data calls from a PSTN carrier such as, for example, a LEC, IXC, a customer facility or a direct IP connection on the data network to any other LEC, IXC, customer facility or direct IP connection. For calls from a PSTN carrier, e.g., LEC or IXC, the invention receives signaling from the legacy SS7 signaling network or the ISDN D-channel or from inband signaling trunks. For calls from a customer facility, data channel signaling or inband signaling is received. For calls from a direct IP connection on the data network, signaling messages can travel over the data network. On the call destination side, similar signaling schemes are used depending on whether the called party is on a PSTN carrier, a customer facility or a direct IP connection to the data network. The system includes soft switch sites, gateway sites, a data network, a provisioning component a network event component and a network management component. The system of the invention interfaces with customer facilities (e.g., a PBX), carrier facilities (e.g., a PSTN carrier, a LEC (e.g., LECs and CLECs), an independent telephone company (ITC), an IXC, an intelligent peripheral or an enhanced service provider (ESP)) and legacy signaling networks (e.g., SS7) to handle calls between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. The soft switch sites provide the core call processing for the voice network architecture. Each soft switch site can process multiple types of calls including calls originating from or terminating at off-network customer facilities as well as calls originating from or terminating at on-network customer facilities. Each soft switch site receives signaling messages from and sends signaling messages to the signaling network. The signaling messages can include, for example, SS7, integrated services digital network (ISDN) primary rate interface (PRI) and in-band signaling messages. Each soft switch site processes these signaling messages for the purpose of establishing new calls through the data network and tearing down existing calls and in-progress call control functions. Signaling messages can be transmitted between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. Signaling messages for a call which either originates off-network or terminates off-network can be carried over the out-of-band signaling network of the PSTN via the soft switch sites. Signaling messages for a call which both originates on-network and terminates on-network can be carried over the data network rather than through the signaling network. The gateway sites originate and terminate calls between calling parties and called parties through the data network. The soft switch sites control or manage the gateway sites. In a preferred embodiment, the soft switch sites use a protocol such as, for example, the Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) protocol, to manage network access devices in the gateway sites to request the set-up and tear-down of calls. However, other protocols could be used, including, for example, network access server messaging interface (NMI) and the ITU media gateway control protocol (MGCP). The gateway sites can also include network access devices to provide access to network resources (i.e., the communication channels or circuits that provide the bandwidth of the data network). The network access devices can be referred to generally as access servers or media gateways. Exemplary access servers or media gateways are trunking gateways (TGs), access gateways (AGs) and network access servers (NASs). The gateway sites provide for transmission of both voice and data traffic through the data network. The gateway sites also provide connectivity to other telecommunications carriers via trunk interfaces to carrier facilities for the handling of voice calls. The trunk interfaces can also be used for the termination of dial-up modem data calls. The gateway sites can also provide connectivity via private lines and dedicated access lines (DALs), such as T1 or ISDN PRI facilities, to customer facilities. The data network connects one or more of the soft switch sites to one or more of the gateway sites. The data network routes data packets through routing devices (e.g., routers) to destination sites (e.g., gateway sites and soft switch sites) on the data network. For example, the data network routes internet protocol (IP) packets for transmission of voice and data traffic from a first gateway site to a second gateway site. The data network represents any art-recognized data network including the global Internet, a private intranet or internet a frame relay network, and an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. The network event component collects call events recorded at the soft switch sites. Call event records can be used, for example, for fraud detection and prevention, and billing. The provisioning event component receives provisioning requests from upstream operational support services. (OSS) systems such as, for example, for order-entry, customer service and customer profile changes. The provisioning component distributes provisioning data to appropriate network elements and maintains data synchronization, consistency, and integrity across multiple soft switch sites. The network management component includes a network operations center (NOC) for centralized network management. Each network element (NE) (e.g., soft switch sites, gateway sites, provisioning, and network event components, etc.) generates simple network management protocol (SNMP) events or alerts. The NOC uses the events generated by each network element to determine the health of the network and to perform other network management functions. In a preferred embodiment, the invention operates as follows to process, for example, a long distance call (also known as a 1+ call). First, a soft switch site receives an incoming call signaling message from the signaling network. The soft switch site determines the type of call by performing initial digit analysis on the dialed number. Based upon the information in the signaling message, the soft switch site analyzes the initial digit of the dialed number of the call and determines that it is a 1+ call. The soft switch site then queries a customer profile database to retrieve the originating trigger plan associated with the calling customer. The query can be made using, for example, the calling party number provided in the signaling message from the signaling network. This look-up in the customer profile database returns subscription information. For example, the customer profile may indicate that the calling party has subscribed to an account code verification feature that requires entry of an account code before completion of the call. In this case, the soft switch site will instruct the gateway site to collect the account code digits entered by the calling party. Assuming that the gateway site collects the correct number of digits, the soft switch site can use the customer profile to determine how to process the received digits. For account code verification, the soft switch site verifies the validity of the received digits. Verification can result in the need to enforce a restriction, such as a class of service (COS) restriction (COSR). In this example, the soft switch site can verify that the account code is valid, but that it requires that an intrastate COSR should be enforced. This means that the call is required to be an intrastate call to be valid. The class of service restriction logic can be performed within the soft switch site using, for example, pre-loaded local access and transport areas (LATAs) and state tables. The soft switch would then allow the call to proceed if the class of service requested matches the authorized class of service. For example, if the LATA and state tables show that the LATA of the originating party and the LATA of the terminating party are in the same state, then the call can be allowed to proceed. The soft switch site then completes customer service processing and prepares to terminate the call. At this point, the soft switch site has finished executing all customer service logic and has a 10-digit dialed number that must be terminated. To accomplish the termination, the soft switch site determines the terminating gateway. The dialed number (i.e., the number of the called party dialed by the calling party) is used to select a termination on the data network. This termination may be selected based on various performance, availability or cost criteria. The soft switch site then communicates with a second soft switch site associated with the called party to request that the second soft switch site allocate a terminating circuit or trunk group in a gateway site associated with the called party. One of the two soft switch sites can then indicate to the other the connections that the second soft switch site must make to connect the call. The two soft switch sites then instruct the two gateway sites to make the appropriate connections to set up the call. The soft switch sites send messages to the gateway sites through the data network using, for example, IPDC protocol commands. Alternately, a single soft switch can set up both the origination and termination. The present invention provides a number of important features and advantages. First, the invention uses application logic to identify and direct incoming data calls straight to a terminating device. This permits data calls to completely bypass the egress end office switch of a LEC. This results in significant cost savings for an entity such as an internet service provider (ISP), ILEC, or CLEC. This decrease in cost results partially from bypass of the egress ILEC end office switch for data traffic. A further advantage for ISPs is that they are provided data in the digital form used by data networks (e.g., IP data packets), rather than the digital signals conventionally used by switched voice networks (e.g., PPP signals). Consequently, the ISPs need not perform costly modem conversion processes that would otherwise be necessary. The elimination of many telecommunications processes frees up the functions that ISPs, themselves, would have to perform to provide Internet access. Another advantage of the present invention is that voice traffic can be transmitted transparently over a packet-switched data network to a destination on the PSTN. Yet another advantage of the invention is that a very large number of modem calls can be passed over a single channel of the data network, including calls carrying media such as voice, bursty data, fax, audio, video, or any other data formats. Further features and advantages of the invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying figures.
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This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/366,061, entitled “Voice Over Data Telecommunications Network Architecture,” filed Feb. 12, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/197,203 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,614,781), entitled “Voice Over Data Telecommunications Network Architecture,” filed Nov. 20, 1998. This application of common assignee contains a related disclosure to U.S. Pat. No. 6,442,169, entitled “System and Method for Bypassing Data From Egress Facilities.” Both U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/197,203 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,442,169 are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In addition, this application is related to applications identified by attorney docket number 519-007-CP2 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______) and 519-007-CP4 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______), having common title and assignee, and filed on even date herewith. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to telecommunications networks and, more particularly, to a system and method for providing transmission for voice and data traffic over a data network, including the signaling, routing and manipulation of such traffic. 2. Related Art The present invention relates to telecommunications, and in particular to voice and data communication operating over a data network. The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is a collection of different telephone networks owned by different companies which have for many years provided telephone communication between users of the network. Different parts of the PSTN network use different transmission media and compression techniques. Most long distance calls are digitally coded and transmitted along a transmission line such as a T1 line or fiber optic cable, using circuit switching technology to transmit the calls. Such calls are time division multiplexed (TDM) into separate channels, which allow many calls to pass over the lines without interacting. The channels are directed independently through multiple circuit switches from an originating switch to a destination switch. Using conventional circuit switched communications, a channel on each of the T1 lines along which a call is transmitted is dedicated for the duration of the call, whether or not any information is actually being transmitted over the channel. The set of channels being used by the call is referred to as a “circuit.” Telecommunications networks were originally designed to connect one device, such as a telephone, to another device, such as a telephone, using switching services. As previously mentioned, circuit-switched networks provide a dedicated, fixed amount of capacity (a “circuit”) between the two devices for the entire duration of a transmission session. Originally, this was accomplished manually. A human operator would physically patch a wire between two sockets to form a direct connection from the calling party to the called party. More recently, a circuit is set up between an originating switch and a destination switch using a process known as signaling. Signaling sets up, monitors, and releases connections in a circuit-switched system. Various signaling methods have been devised. Telephone systems formerly used in-band signaling to set up and tear down calls. Signals of an in-band signaling system are passed through the same channels as the information being transmitted. Early electromechanical switches used analog or multi-frequency (MF) in-band signaling. Thereafter, conventional residential telephones used in-band dual-tone multiple frequency (DTMF) signaling to connect to an end office switch. Here, the same wires (and frequencies on the wires) were used to dial a number (using pulses or tones), as are used to transmit voice information. However, in-band signaling permitted unscrupulous callers to use a device such as a whistle to mimic signaling sounds to commit fraud (e.g., to prematurely discontinue billing by an interexchange carrier (IXC), also known as a long distance telephone company). More recently, to prevent such fraud, out-of-band signaling systems were introduced. Out-of-band signaling uses a signaling network that is separate from the circuit switched network used for carrying the actual call information. For example, integrated services digital network (ISDN) uses a separate channel, a data (D) channel, to pass signaling information out-of-band. Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS) is another network architecture for out-of-band signaling. A popular version of CCIS signaling is Signaling System 7 (SS7). SS7 is an internationally recognized system optimized for use in digital telecommunications networks. SS7 out-of-band signaling provided additional benefits beyond fraud prevention. For example, out-of-band signaling eased quick adoption of advanced features (e.g., caller id) by permitting modifications to the separate signaling network. In addition, the SS7 network enabled long distance “Equal Access” (i.e., 1+ dialing for access to any long distance carrier) as required under the terms of the modified final judgment (MFJ) requiring divestiture of the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) from their parent company, AT&T. An SS7 network is a packet-switched signaling network formed from a variety of components, including Service Switching Points (SSPs), Signaling Transfer Points (STPs) and Service Control Points (SCPs). An SSP is a telephone switch which is directly connected to an SS7 network. All calls must originate in or be routed through an SSP. Calls are passed through connections between SSPs. An SCP is a special application computer which maintains information in a database required by users of the network. SCP databases may include, for example, a credit card database for verifying charge information or an “800” database for processing number translations for toll-free calls. STPs pass or route signals between SSPs, other STPs, and SCPs. An STP is a special application packet switch which operates to pass signaling information. The components in the SS7 network are connected together by links. Links between SSPs and STPs can be, for example, A, B, C, D, E or F links. Typically, redundant links are also used for connecting an SSP to its adjacent STPs. Customer premises equipment (CPE), such as a telephone, are connected to an SSP or an end office (EO) switch. To initiate a call in an SS7 telecommunications network, a calling party using a telephone connected to an originating EO switch, dials a telephone number of a called party. The telephone number is passed from the telephone to the SSP at the originating EO (referred to as the “ingress EO”) of the calling party's local exchange carrier (LEC). A LEC is commonly referred to as a local telephone company. First, the SSP will process triggers and internal route rules based on satisfaction of certain criteria. Second, the SSP will initiate further signaling messages to another EO or access tandem (AT), if necessary. The signaling information can be passed from the SSP to STPs, which route the signals between the ingress EO and the terminating end office, or egress EO. The egress EO has a port designated by the telephone number of the called party. The call is set up as a direct connection between the EOs through tandem switches if no direct trunking exists or if direct trunking is full. If the call is a long distance call, i.e., between a calling party and a called party located in different local access transport areas (LATAs), then the call is connected through an inter exchange carrier (IXC) switch of any of a number of long distance telephone companies. Such a long distance call is commonly referred to as an inter-LATA call. LECs and IXCs are collectively referred to as the previously mentioned public switched telephone network (PSTN). Emergence of competitive LECs (CLECs) was facilitated by passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which authorized competition in the local phone service market. Traditional LECs or RBOCs are now also known as incumbent LECs (ILECs). Thus, CLECs compete with ILECs in providing local exchange services. This competition, however, has still not provided the bandwidth necessary to handle the large volume of voice and data communications. This is due to the limitations of circuit switching technology which limits the bandwidth of the equipment being used by the LECs, and to the high costs of adding additional equipment. Since circuit switching dedicates a channel to a call for the duration of the call, a large amount of switching bandwidth is required to handle the high volume of voice calls. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that the LECs must also handle data communications over the same equipment that handle voice communications. If the PSTN were converted to a packet-switched network, many of the congestion and limited bandwidth problems would be solved. However, the LECs and IXCs have invested large amounts of capital in building, upgrading and maintaining their circuit switched networks (known as “legacy” networks) and are unable or unwilling to jettison their legacy networks in favor of the newer, more powerful technology of packet switching. Accordingly, a party wanting to build a packet-switched network to provide voice and data communications for customers must build a network that, not only provides the desired functionality, but also is fully compatible with the SS7 and other, e.g., ISDN and MF, switching networks of the legacy systems. Currently, internets, intranets, and similar public or private data networks that interconnect computers generally use packet switching technology. Packet switching provides for more efficient use of a communication channel as compared to circuit switching. With packet switching, many different calls (e.g., voice, data, video, fax, Internet, etc.) can share a communication channel rather than the channel being dedicated to a single call. For example, during a voice call, digitized voice information might be transferred between the callers only 50% of the time, with the other 50% being silence. For a data call, information might be transferred between two computers 10% of the time. With a circuit switched connection, the voice call would tie-up a communications channel that may have 50% of its bandwidth being unused. Similarly, with the data call, 90% of the channel's bandwidth may go unused. In contrast, a packet-switched connection would permit the voice call, the data call and possibly other call information to all be sent over the same channel. Packet switching breaks a media stream into pieces known as, for example, packets, cells or frames. Each packet is then encoded with address information for delivery to the proper destination and is sent through the network. The packets are received at the destination and the media stream is reassembled into its original form for delivery to the recipient. This process is made possible using an important family of communications protocols, commonly called the Internet Protocol (IP). In a packet-switched network, there is no single, unbroken physical connection between sender and receiver. The packets from many different calls share network bandwidth with other transmissions. The packets are sent over many different routes at the same time toward the destination, and then are reassembled at the receiving end. The result is much more efficient use of a telecommunications network than could be achieved with circuit-switching. Recognizing the inherent efficiency of packet-switched data networks such as the Internet, attention has focused on the transmission of voice information over packet-switched networks. However, such systems are not compatible with the legacy PSTN and therefore are not convenient to use. One approach that implements voice communications over an IP network requires that a person dial a special access number to access an IP network. Once the IP network is accessed, the destination or called number can be dialed. This type of call is known as a gateway-type access call. Another approach involves a user having a telephone that is dedicated to an IP network. This approach is inflexible since calls can only be made over the IP network without direct access to the PSTN. What is needed is a system and method for implementing packet-switched communications for both voice calls and data calls that do not require special access numbers or dedicated phones and permit full integration with the legacy PSTN. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a system and method for communicating both voice and data over a packet-switched network that is adapted to coexist and communicate with a PSTN. The system permits efficient packet switching of voice calls and data calls from a PSTN carrier such as, for example, a LEC, IXC, a customer facility or a direct IP connection on the data network to any other LEC, IXC, customer facility or direct IP connection. For calls from a PSTN carrier, e.g., LEC or IXC, the invention receives signaling from the legacy SS7 signaling network or the ISDN D-channel or from inband signaling trunks. For calls from a customer facility, data channel signaling or inband signaling is received. For calls from a direct IP connection on the data network, signaling messages can travel over the data network. On the call destination side, similar signaling schemes are used depending on whether the called party is on a PSTN carrier, a customer facility or a direct IP connection to the data network. The system includes soft switch sites, gateway sites, a data network, a provisioning component a network event component and a network management component. The system of the invention interfaces with customer facilities (e.g., a PBX), carrier facilities (e.g., a PSTN carrier, a LEC (e.g., LECs and CLECs), an independent telephone company (ITC), an IXC, an intelligent peripheral or an enhanced service provider (ESP)) and legacy signaling networks (e.g., SS7) to handle calls between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. The soft switch sites provide the core call processing for the voice network architecture. Each soft switch site can process multiple types of calls including calls originating from or terminating at off-network customer facilities as well as calls originating from or terminating at on-network customer facilities. Each soft switch site receives signaling messages from and sends signaling messages to the signaling network. The signaling messages can include, for example, SS7, integrated services digital network (ISDN) primary rate interface (PRI) and in-band signaling messages. Each soft switch site processes these signaling messages for the purpose of establishing new calls through the data network and tearing down existing calls and in-progress call control functions. Signaling messages can be transmitted between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. Signaling messages for a call which either originates off-network or terminates off-network can be carried over the out-of-band signaling network of the PSTN via the soft switch sites. Signaling messages for a call which both originates on-network and terminates on-network can be carried over the data network rather than through the signaling network. The gateway sites originate and terminate calls between calling parties and called parties through the data network. The soft switch sites control or manage the gateway sites. In a preferred embodiment, the soft switch sites use a protocol such as, for example, the Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) protocol, to manage network access devices in the gateway sites to request the set-up and tear-down of calls. However, other protocols could be used, including, for example, network access server messaging interface (NMI) and the ITU media gateway control protocol (MGCP). The gateway sites can also include network access devices to provide access to network resources (i.e., the communication channels or circuits that provide the bandwidth of the data network). The network access devices can be referred to generally as access servers or media gateways. Exemplary access servers or media gateways are trunking gateways (TGs), access gateways (AGs) and network access servers (NASs). The gateway sites provide for transmission of both voice and data traffic through the data network. The gateway sites also provide connectivity to other telecommunications carriers via trunk interfaces to carrier facilities for the handling of voice calls. The trunk interfaces can also be used for the termination of dial-up modem data calls. The gateway sites can also provide connectivity via private lines and dedicated access lines (DALs), such as T1 or ISDN PRI facilities, to customer facilities. The data network connects one or more of the soft switch sites to one or more of the gateway sites. The data network routes data packets through routing devices (e.g., routers) to destination sites (e.g., gateway sites and soft switch sites) on the data network. For example, the data network routes internet protocol (IP) packets for transmission of voice and data traffic from a first gateway site to a second gateway site. The data network represents any art-recognized data network including the global Internet, a private intranet or internet a frame relay network, and an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. The network event component collects call events recorded at the soft switch sites. Call event records can be used, for example, for fraud detection and prevention, and billing. The provisioning event component receives provisioning requests from upstream operational support services. (OSS) systems such as, for example, for order-entry, customer service and customer profile changes. The provisioning component distributes provisioning data to appropriate network elements and maintains data synchronization, consistency, and integrity across multiple soft switch sites. The network management component includes a network operations center (NOC) for centralized network management. Each network element (NE) (e.g., soft switch sites, gateway sites, provisioning, and network event components, etc.) generates simple network management protocol (SNMP) events or alerts. The NOC uses the events generated by each network element to determine the health of the network and to perform other network management functions. In a preferred embodiment, the invention operates as follows to process, for example, a long distance call (also known as a 1+ call). First, a soft switch site receives an incoming call signaling message from the signaling network. The soft switch site determines the type of call by performing initial digit analysis on the dialed number. Based upon the information in the signaling message, the soft switch site analyzes the initial digit of the dialed number of the call and determines that it is a 1+ call. The soft switch site then queries a customer profile database to retrieve the originating trigger plan associated with the calling customer. The query can be made using, for example, the calling party number provided in the signaling message from the signaling network. This look-up in the customer profile database returns subscription information. For example, the customer profile may indicate that the calling party has subscribed to an account code verification feature that requires entry of an account code before completion of the call. In this case, the soft switch site will instruct the gateway site to collect the account code digits entered by the calling party. Assuming that the gateway site collects the correct number of digits, the soft switch site can use the customer profile to determine how to process the received digits. For account code verification, the soft switch site verifies the validity of the received digits. Verification can result in the need to enforce a restriction, such as a class of service (COS) restriction (COSR). In this example, the soft switch site can verify that the account code is valid, but that it requires that an intrastate COSR should be enforced. This means that the call is required to be an intrastate call to be valid. The class of service restriction logic can be performed within the soft switch site using, for example, pre-loaded local access and transport areas (LATAs) and state tables. The soft switch would then allow the call to proceed if the class of service requested matches the authorized class of service. For example, if the LATA and state tables show that the LATA of the originating party and the LATA of the terminating party are in the same state, then the call can be allowed to proceed. The soft switch site then completes customer service processing and prepares to terminate the call. At this point, the soft switch site has finished executing all customer service logic and has a 10-digit dialed number that must be terminated. To accomplish the termination, the soft switch site determines the terminating gateway. The dialed number (i.e., the number of the called party dialed by the calling party) is used to select a termination on the data network. This termination may be selected based on various performance, availability or cost criteria. The soft switch site then communicates with a second soft switch site associated with the called party to request that the second soft switch site allocate a terminating circuit or trunk group in a gateway site associated with the called party. One of the two soft switch sites can then indicate to the other the connections that the second soft switch site must make to connect the call. The two soft switch sites then instruct the two gateway sites to make the appropriate connections to set up the call. The soft switch sites send messages to the gateway sites through the data network using, for example, IPDC protocol commands. Alternately, a single soft switch can set up both the origination and termination. The present invention provides a number of important features and advantages. First, the invention uses application logic to identify and direct incoming data calls straight to a terminating device. This permits data calls to completely bypass the egress end office switch of a LEC. This results in significant cost savings for an entity such as an internet service provider (ISP), ILEC, or CLEC. This decrease in cost results partially from bypass of the egress ILEC end office switch for data traffic. A further advantage for ISPs is that they are provided data in the digital form used by data networks (e.g., IP data packets), rather than the digital signals conventionally used by switched voice networks (e.g., PPP signals). Consequently, the ISPs need not perform costly modem conversion processes that would otherwise be necessary. The elimination of many telecommunications processes frees up the functions that ISPs, themselves, would have to perform to provide Internet access. Another advantage of the present invention is that voice traffic can be transmitted transparently over a packet-switched data network to a destination on the PSTN. Yet another advantage of the invention is that a very large number of modem calls can be passed over a single channel of the data network, including calls carrying media such as voice, bursty data, fax, audio, video, or any other data formats. Further features and advantages of the invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying figures, wherein: FIG. 1 is a high level view of the Telecommunications Network of the present invention; FIG. 2A is an intermediate level view of the Telecommunications Network of the present invention; FIG. 2B is an intermediate level operational call flow of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a specific example embodiment of the telecommunications network including three geographically diverse soft switch sites and multiple geographically diverse or collocated gateway sites; FIG. 4A depicts a block diagram illustrating the interfaces between a soft switch and the remaining components of a telecommunications network; FIG. 4B provides a Soft Switch Object Oriented Programming (OOP) Class Definition; FIG. 4C provides a Call OOP Class Definition; FIG. 4D provides a Signaling Messages OOP Class Definition; FIG. 4E provides an IPDC Messages OOP Class Definition; FIG. 4F depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including the starting of a soft switch command and control functions by a network operations center; FIG. 4G depicts a block diagram of soft switch command and control startup by a network operations center sequencing diagram; FIG. 4H depicts a block diagram of soft switch command and control registration with configuration server sequencing diagram; FIG. 4I depicts a block diagram of soft switch accepting configuration information from configuration server sequencing diagram; FIG. 5A depicts a detailed block diagram of an exemplary soft switch site including two SS7 Gateways communicating with a plurality of soft switches which are in turn communicating with a plurality of Gateway sites; FIG. 5B provides a Gateway Messages OOP Class Definition; FIG. 5C depicts ablock diagram of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with SS7 gateways; FIG. 5D depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including an access server signaling a soft switch to register with SS7 gateways; FIG. 5E depicts a block diagram of a soft switch registering with SS7 gateways sequencing diagram; FIG. 6A depicts an Off-Switch Call Processing Abstraction Layer for interfacing with a plurality of on-network and off-network SCPs; FIG. 6B depicts an Intelligent Network Component (INC) Architecture; FIG. 6C depicts an INC architecture including On-net Services Control Points (SCPs); FIG. 6D depicts an INC architecture including On-net and Off-net SCPs and customer Automatic Call Distributors (ACDs); FIG. 7A provides a Configuration Server OOP Class Definition; FIG. 7B depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with configuration server; FIG. 8A depicts Route Server Support for a Soft Switch Site including a plurality of collocated or geographically diverse route servers, soft switches, and Trunking Gateway and Access gateway sites; FIG. 8B provides a Route Server OOP Class Definition; FIG. 8C provides a Route Objects OOP Class Definition; FIG. 8D provides a Pools OOP Class Definition; FIG. 8E provides a Circuit Objects OOP Class Definition; FIG. 8F depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with route server (RS); FIG. 9 depicts a block diagram of an exemplary Regional Network Event Collection Point Architecture (RNECP) including a master data center having a plurality of master network event database servers; FIG. 10A depicts a detailed block diagram of an exemplary gateway site; FIG. 10B depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with access servers; FIG. 11A depicts a detailed block diagram of an exemplary Trunking Gateway High-Level Functional Architecture; FIG. 11B depicts a detailed flow diagram overviewing a Gateway Common Media Processing Component on the Ingress side of a trunking gateway; FIG. 11C depicts a detailed flow diagram overviewing a Gateway Common Media Processing Component on the Egress side of a trunking gateway; FIG. 12 depicts a detailed block diagram of an exemplary Access Gateway High-Level Functional Architecture; FIG. 13 depicts a detailed block diagram of an exemplary Network Access Server High-Level functional architecture; FIG. 14 depicts an exemplary digital cross connect system (DACS); FIG. 15 depicts an exemplary Announcement Server Component Interface Design; FIG. 16A depicts an exemplary data network interconnecting a plurality of gateway sites and a soft switch site; FIG. 16B depicts a exemplary logical view of an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network; FIG. 17A depicts an exemplary signaling network including a plurality of signal transfer points (STPs) and SS7 gateways; FIG. 17B depicts another exemplary embodiment showing connectivity to an SS7 signaling network; FIG. 17C depicts a block diagram of an SS7 signaling network architecture; FIG. 18 depicts a block diagram of the provisioning and network event components; FIG. 19A depicts a block diagram of a data distributor in communication with a plurality of voice network elements; FIG. 19B depicts a more detailed description of a data distributor architecture including voice network elements and upstream operational support services applications; FIG. 19C depicts an exemplary embodiment of a data distributor and voice network elements; FIG. 19D depicts a block diagram of provisioning interfaces into the SCPs from the data distributor; FIG. 19E illustrates a data distributor including BEA M3, a CORBA-compliant interface server 1936 with an imbedded TUXEDO layer; FIG. 19F depicts a detailed example embodiment block diagram of the BEA M3 data distributor of the provisioning element; FIG. 19G depicts a block diagram illustrating a high level conceptual diagram of the BEA M3 CORBA-compliant interface; FIG. 19H depicts a block diagram illustrating additional components of the high level conceptual diagram of the BEA M3 CORBA-compliant interface; FIG. 19I depicts a block diagram illustrating a data distributor sending data to configuration server sequencing diagram; FIG. 20 depicts a block diagram of a Master Network Event Database (MNEDB) interfacing to a plurality of database query applications; FIG. 21A depicts an exemplary network management architecture; FIG. 21B depicts an outage recovery scenario illustrating the occurrence of a fiber cut, latency or packet loss failure in the Data Network; FIG. 21C depicts an outage recovery scenario including a complete-gateway site outage; FIG. 21D further depicts an outage recovery scenario including a complete-gateway site outage; FIG. 21E depicts an outage recovery scenario including a complete soft switch site outage; FIG. 21F further depicts an outage recovery scenario including a complete soft switch site outage; FIG. 21G depicts a block diagram of interprocess communication including a NOC communicating with a soft switch; FIG. 22A depicts a high-level operational call flow; FIG. 22B depicts a more detailed call flow; FIG. 22C depicts an even more detailed call flow; FIG. 23A depicts an exemplary voice call originating and terminating via SS7 signaling on a Trunking Gateway; FIG. 23B depicts an exemplary data call originating on a SS7 trunk on a trunking gateway (TG); FIG. 23C depicts an exemplary voice call originating on a SS7 trunk on a trunking gateway and terminating via access server signaling on an access gateway (AG); FIG. 23D depicts an exemplary voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a trunking gateway and terminating on an announcement server (ANS); FIG. 24A depicts an exemplary voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a network access server and terminating on a trunking gateway; FIG. 24B Data Call originating on an SS7 trunk and terminating on a NAS; FIG. 24C depicts an exemplary voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a NAS and terminating via access server signaling on an AG; FIG. 24D depicts an exemplary data call on a NAS with callback outbound reorigination; FIG. 25A depicts an exemplary voice call originating on access server trunks on an AG and terminating on access server trunks on an AG; FIG. 25B depicts an exemplary data call on an AG; FIG. 25C depicts an exemplary voice call originating on access server trunks on an AG and terminating on SS7 signaled trunks on a TG; FIG. 25D depicts an exemplary outbound data call from a NAS via access server signaling to an AG; FIG. 26A depicts a more detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary voice call received over a TG; FIG. 26B depicts a more detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary voice call received over a NAS; FIG. 26C depicts a more detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary data call over a NAS; FIGS. 27-57 depict detailed sequence diagrams demonstrating component intercommunication during a voice call received on a NAS or TG or a data call received on a NAS; FIG. 27 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch accepting a signaling message from an SS7 gateway sequencing diagram; FIG. 28 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch getting a call context message from an IAM signaling message sequencing diagram; FIG. 29A depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM signaling message including sending a request to a route server sequencing diagram; FIG. 29B depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch starting processing of a route request sequencing diagram; FIG. 30 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server determining a domestic route sequencing diagram; FIG. 31 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server checking availability of potential terminations sequencing diagram; FIG. 32 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server getting an originating route node sequencing diagram; FIG. 33A depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server calculating a domestic route for a voice call sequencing diagram; FIG. 33B depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server calculating a domestic route for a voice call sequencing diagram; FIG. 34 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch getting a call context from a route response from a route server sequencing diagram; FIG. 35 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM message including sending an IAM to a terminating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 36 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including sending an ACM to an originating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 37 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including the setup of access devices sequencing diagram; FIG. 38 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an example of how a soft switch can process an ACM sending an RTP connection message to the originating access server sequencing diagram; FIG. 39 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ANM message sending the ANM to the originating SS7 gateway sequencing diagram; FIG. 40 depicts a block diagram of a call teardown flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message with the terminating end initiating tear down sequencing diagram; FIG. 41 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message tearing down all nodes sequencing diagram; FIG. 42 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RLC message with the terminating end initiating teardown sequencing diagram; FIG. 43 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch sending an unallocate message to route server for call teardown sequencing diagram; FIG. 44 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch unallocating route nodes sequencing diagram; FIG. 45 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing call teardown and deleting call context sequencing diagram; FIG. 46 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server calculating a domestic route sequencing diagram for a voice call on a NAS; FIG. 47 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch getting call context from route response sequencing diagram; FIG. 48 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM sending the IAM to the terminating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 49 depicting a block diagram of a call flow showing calculation of a domestic route for a data call sequencing diagram; FIG. 50 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch getting call context from route response sequencing diagram; FIG. 51 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM connnecting the data call sequencing diagram; soft switch receiving and acknowledging receipt of a signaling message from an SS7 GW sequencing diagram; FIG. 52 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including sending an ACM to an originating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 53 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ANM message including sending an ANM to an originating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 54 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RCR message sequencing diagram; FIG. 55 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RLC message sequencing diagram; FIG. 56 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message sending an ACM to the originating network sequencing diagram; FIG. 57 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM setting up access servers; FIG. 58A depicts a block diagram of the H.323 architecture for a network-based communications system defining four major components, including, terminals, gateways, gatekeepers, and multipoint control units; FIG. 58B depicts an exemplary H.323 terminal; FIG. 59 shows an example H.323/PSTN Gateway; FIG. 60 depicts an example collection of all terminals, gateways, and multipoint control units which can be managed by a single gatekeeper, collectively known as an H.323 Zone; FIG. 61 depicts an exemplary MCU of the H.323 architecture; FIG. 62 depicts a block diagram showing a soft switch in communication with an access server; FIG. 63 depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Inbound Call Handling state diagram; FIG. 64A depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Exception Handling state diagram; FIG. 64B further depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Exception Handling state diagram; FIG. 65 depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Release Request Handling state diagram; FIG. 66 depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side TDM Connection Handling state diagram; FIG. 67A depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Continuity Test Handling state diagram; FIG. 67B further depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Continuity Test Handling state diagram; FIG. 68A depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Outbound Call Handling Initiated by Access Server state diagram; FIG. 68B further depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Side Outbound Call Handling Initiated by Access Server state diagram; FIG. 69 depicts a flowchart of an Access Server Outbound Call Handling Initiated by Soft Switch state diagram; FIG. 70A depicts an exemplary diagram of an OOP Class Definition; and FIG. 70B depicts an exemplary computer system of the present invention. In the figures, like reference numbers generally indicate identical, functionally similar, and/or structurally similar elements. The figure in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the reference number. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Table of Contents I. High level description A. Structural description 1. Soft Switch Sites 2. Gateway Sites 3. Data Network 4. Signaling Network 5. Network Event Component 6. Provisioning Component 7. Network Management Component B. Operational description II. Intermediate Level Description A. Structural Description 1. Soft Switch Site a. Soft Switch b. SS7 Gateway c. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) d. Services Control Points (SCPs) e. Configuration Server (CS) or Configuration Database (CDB) f. Route Server g. Regional Network Event Collection Point (RNECP) 2. Gateway Site a. Trunking Gateway (TG) b. Access Gateway (AG) c. Network Access Server (NAS) d. Digital Cross-Connect System (DACS) e. Announcement Server (ANS) 3. Data Network a. Routers b. Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) c. Network Protocols 4. Signaling Network a. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) b. Service Switching Points (SSPs) c. Services Control Points (SCPs) 5. Provisioning Component and Network Event Component a. Data Distributor 6. Provisioning Component and Network Event Component a. Master Network Event Database 7. Network management component B. Operational Description III. Specific Implementation Example Embodiments A. Structural description 1. Soft Switch Site a. Soft Switch (1) Soft Switch Interfaces b. SS7 Gateway (1) SS7 Gateway Example Embodiment (2) SS7 Gateway-to-Soft Switch Interface c. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) (1) STP Example Embodiment (a) Global Title Translation (b) Gateway Screening Software (c) Local Number Portability (LNP) (d) STP to LAN Interface (e) ANSI to ITU Gateway d. Services Control Points (SCPs) (1) Additional Services Calls (2) Project Account Codes (3) Basic Toll-Free e. Configuration Server (CS) or Configuration Database (CDB) f. Route Server (1) Route Server Routing Logic (2) Route Server Circuit Management g. Regional Network Event Collection Point (RNECP) (1) Example Mandatory Event Blocks EBs (2) Augmenting Event Blocks EBs h. Software Object Oriented Programming (OOPs) Class Definitions (1) Introduction to Object Oriented Programming (OOP) (2) Software Objects in an OOP Environment (3) Class Definitions (a) Soft Switch Class (b) Call Context Class (c) Signaling Message Class (d) SS7 Gateway Class (e) IPDC Message Class (f) Call Event Identifier Class (g) Configuration Proxy Class (h) Route Server Class (i) Route Objects Class (j) Pool Class (k) Circuit Pool Class 2. Gateway Site a. Trunking Gateway (TG) (1) Trunking Gateway Interfaces b. Access Gateway (AG) (1) Access Gateway Interfaces c. Network Access Server (NAS) (1) Network Access Server Interfaces d. Digital Cross-Connect System (DACS) e. Announcement Server (ANS) 3. Data Network a. Routers b. Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) c. Network Protocols (1) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) (2) Internet Protocol (IP)v4 and IPv6 (3) Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) (4) Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) (5) IP Multi-Casting Protocols d. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) (1) VPN Protocols (a) Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) (b) Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) Protocol (c) Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) e. Exemplary Data Networks (1) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) (2) Frame Relay (3) Internet Protocol (IP) 4. Signaling Network a. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) b. Service Switching Points (SSPs) c. Services Control Points (SCPs) 5. Provisioning Component and Network Event Component a. Data Distributor (1) Data Distributor Interfaces 6. Provisioning Component and Network Event Component a. Master Network Event Database (1) MNEDB Interfaces (2) Event Block Definitions (a) Example Mandatory Event Blocks (EBs) Definitions (b) Example Augmenting Event Block (EBs) Definitions (3) Example Element Definitions (4) Element Definitions 7. Network management component a. Network operations center (NOC) b. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) c. Network Outage Recovery Scenarios (1) Complete Gateway Site Outage (2) Soft Switch Fail-Over (3) Complete Soft Switch Site Outage Scenario 8. Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) Protocol a. IPDC Base Protocol b. IPDC Control Protocol c. IPDC Control Message Codes d. A Detailed View of the IPDC Protocol Control Messages (1) Startup Messages (2) Protocol Error Messages (3) System Configuration Messages (4) Telephone Company Interface Configuration Messages (5) Soft Switch Configuration Messages (6) Maintenance-Status Messages (7) Continuity Test Messages (8) Keepalive Test Messages (9) LAN Test Messages (10) Tone Function Messages (11) Example Source Port Types (12) Example Internal Resource Types (13) Example Destination Port Types (14) Call Control Messages (15) Example Port Definitions (16) Call Clearing Messages (17) Event Notification Messages (18) Tunneled Signaling Messages e. Control Message Parameters f. A Detailed View of the Flow of Control Messages (1) Startup Flow (2) Module Status Notification Flow (3) Line Status Notification Flow (4) Blocking of Channels Flow (5) Unblocking of Channels Flow (6) Keepalive Test Flow (7) Reset Request Flow g. Call Flows (1) Data Services (a) Inbound Data Call via SS7 Signaling Flow (b) Inbound Data Call via Access Server Signaling Flow (c) Inbound Data Call via SS7 Signaling (with call-back) (d) Inbound Data Call (with loopback continuity testing) Flow (e) Outbound Data Call Flow via SS7 Signaling (f) Outbound Data Call Flow via Access Server Signaling (g) Outbound Data Call Flow Initiated from the Access Server with continuity testing (2) TDM Switching Setup Connection Flow (a) Basic TDM Interaction Sequence (b) Routing of calls to Appropriate Access Server using TDM connections Flow (3) Voice Services (a) Voice over Packet Services Call Flow (Inbound SS7 signaling, Outbound access server signaling, Soft Switch managed RTP ports) (b) Voice over Packet Call Flow (Inbound access server signaling, Outbound access server signaling, Soft switch managed RTP ports) (c) Voice over Packet Call Flow (Inbound SS7 signaling, outbound SS7 signaling, IP network with access server managed RTP ports) (d) Unattended Call Transfers Call Flow (e) Attended Call Transfer Call Flow (f) Call termination with a message announcement Call Flow (g) Wiretap B. Operational description 1. Voice Call originating and terminating via SS7 signaling on a Trunking Gateway a. Voice Call on a TG Sequence Diagrams of Component Intercommunication 2. Data Call originating on an SS7 trunk on a Trunking Gateway 3. Voice Call originating on an SS7 trunk on a Trunking Gateway and terminating via access server signaling on an Access Gateway 4. Voice Call originating on an SS7 trunk on a Trunking Gateway and terminating on an Announcement Server 5. Voice Call originating on an SS7 trunk on a Network Access Server and terminating on a Trunking Gateway via SS7 signaling a. Voice Call on a NAS Sequence Diagrams of Component Intercommunication 6. Voice Call originating on an SS7 trunk on a NAS and terminating via Access Server Signaling on an Access Gateway 7. Data Call originating on an SS7 trunk and terminating on a NAS a. Data Call on a NAS Sequence Diagrams of Component intercommunication 8. Data Call on NAS with Callback outbound reorigination 9. Voice Call originating on Access Server dedicated line on an Access Gateway and terminating on an Access Server dedicated line on an Access Gateway 10. Voice Call originating on Access Server signaled private line on an Access Gateway and terminating on SS7 signaled trunks on a Trunking Gateway 11. Data Call on an Access Gateway 12. Outbound Data Call from a NAS via Access Server signaling from an Access Gateway 13. Voice Services a. Private Voice Network (PVN) Service b. 1+ Long Distance Service (1) Project Account Codes (PAC) (a) PAC Variations (2) Class of Service Restrictions (COSR) (3) Origination and Termination (4) Call Rating (5) Multiple Service T-1 (6) Monthly Recurring Charges (MRCs) (7) PVN Private Dialing Plan (8) Three-Way Conferencing (9) Network Hold with Message Delivery c. 8XX Toll Free Services (1) Enhanced Routing Features (2) Info-Digit Blocking (3) Toll-Free Number Portability (TFNP) (4) Multiple-Server T-1 (5) Call Rating (6) Project Accounting Codes (7) Toll-Free Directory Listings (8) Menu Routing (9) Network ACD (10) Network Transfer (TBX) (11) Quota Routing (12) Toll-Free Valet (Call Park) d. Operator Services (1) Domestic Operator Services (a) Operator Services Features (2) International Operator Services e. Calling Card Services (1) Calling Card Features (2) Call Rating f. One-Number Services (1) One Number Features g. Debit Card/Credit Card Call Services h. Local Services (1) Local Voice/Dial Tone (LV/DT) (2) Call Handling Features (a) Line Hunting (b) Call Forward Busy (c) Call Forwarding Don't Answer (d) Call Forward Variable (e) Call Hold (f) Three-Way Calling (g) Call Transfer (h) Call Waiting/Cancel Call Waiting (i) Extension or Station-to-Station Calling (j) Direct Connect Hotline/Ring Down Line (k) Message Waiting Indicator (l) Distinctive Ringing (m) Six-Way Conference Calling (n) Speed Calling (o) Selective Call Rejection (p) Remote Activation of Call Forward Variable (3) Enhanced Services (a) Remote Call Forward (RCF) (b) Voice Messaging Services (c) Integrated Voice Messaging (d) Stand-alone Voice Messaging (4) Class Services (5) Class of Service Restrictions (b) Local Voice/Local Calling (LV/LC) i. Conferencing Services (1) Audio Conferencing (a) Audio conferencing features (2) Video Conferencing 14. Data Services a. Internet Hosting b. Managed Modem Services c. Collocation Services d. IP network Services e. Legacy Protocol Services - Systems Network Architecture (SNA) f. Permanent Virtual Circuits 15. Additional Products and Services IV. Definitions V. Conclusion I. HIGH LEVEL DESCRIPTION This section provides a high-level description of the voice over IP network architecture according to the present invention. In particular, a structural implementation of the voice over IP (VOIP) network architecture is described at a high-level. Also, a functional implementation for this structure is described at a high-level. This structural implementation is described herein for illustrative purposes, and is not limiting. In particular, the process described in this section can be achieved using any number of structural implementations, one of which is described in this section. The details of such structural implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts based on the teachings contained herein. A. Structural Description FIG. 1 is a block diagram 100 illustrating the components of the VOIP architecture at a high-level. FIG. 1 includes soft switch sites 104, 106, gateway sites 108, 110, data network 112, signaling network 114, network event component 116, provisioning component 117 and network management component 118. Included in FIG. 1 are calling parties 102, 122 and called parties 120, 124. Calling parties 102, 122 are homed to gateway site 108. Calling parties 102, 122 are homed to gateway site 108. Called parties 120, 124 are homed to gateway site 110. Calling party 102 can be connected to gateway site 108 via trunks from carrier facility 126 to gateway site 108. Similarly, called party 120 can be connected to gateway site 110 via trunks from carrier facility 130 to gateway site 110. Calling party 122 can be connected to gateway site 108 via a private line or dedicated access line (DAL) from customer facility 128 to gateway site 108. Similarly, called party 124 can be connected to gateway site 110 via a private line or a DAL from customer facility 132 to gateway site 110. Calling party 102 and called party 120 are off-network, meaning that they are connected to gateway sites 108, 110 via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) facilities. Calling party 122 and called party 124 are on-network, meaning that connect to gateway sites 108, 110 as direct customers. 1. Soft Switch Sites Soft switch sites 104, 106 provide the core call processing for the voice network architecture. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can process multiple types of calls. First, soft switch sites 104, 106 can process calls originating from or terminating at on-network customer facilities 128, 132. Second, soft switch sites 104, 106 can process calls originating from or terminating at off-network customer facilities 126, 130. Soft switch sites 104, 106 receive signaling messages from and send signaling messages to signaling network 114. For example, these signaling messages can include SS7, primary rate interface (PRI) and in-band signaling messages. Soft switch sites 104, 106 process these signaling messages for the purpose of establishing new calls from calling parties 102, 122 through data network 112 to called parties 120, 124. Soft switch sites 104, 106 also process these signaling messages for the purpose of tearing down existing calls established between calling parties 102, 122 and called parties 120, 124 (through data network 112). Calls can be transmitted between any combination of on-network and off-network callers. In one embodiment, signaling messages for a call which either originates from an off-network calling party 102, or terminates to an off-network called party 120, can be carried over out-of-band signaling network 114 from the PSTN to soft switches 104, 106. In another embodiment, signaling messages for a call which either originates from an on-network calling party 122, or terminates to on-network called party 124, can be carried in-band over data network 112 or over a separate data network to soft switch sites 104, 106, rather than through signaling network 114. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can be collocated or geographically diverse. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can also be connected by redundant connections to data network 112 to enable communication between soft switches 104, 106. Soft switch sites 104, 106 use other voice network components to assist with the processing of calls. For example, gateway sites 108, 110 provide the means to originate and terminate calls on the PSTN. In a preferred embodiment, soft switch sites 104, 106 use the Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) protocol to control network access devices known as media gateways in gateway sites 108, 110, and to request, for example, the set-up and tear-down of calls. The IPDC protocol is described below with reference to Tables 144-185. Alternatively, any protocol understood by those skilled in the art can be used to control gateway sites 108, 110. One example of an alternative protocol is the Network Access Server (NAS) Messaging Interface (NMI) Protocol, discussed in U.S. patent application entitled “System and Method for Bypassing Data from Egress Facilities”, filed concurrently herewith, Attorney Docket No. 1757.0060000, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Another example of a protocol is the Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) from the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Soft switch sites 104, 106 can include other network components such as a soft switch, which more recently can also be known as a media gateway controller, or other network devices. 2. Gateway Sites Gateway sites 108, 110 provide the means to originate and terminate calls between calling parties 102, 122 and called parties 120, 124 through data network 112. For example, calling party 122 can originate a call terminated to off-network called party 120, which is homed to gateway site 110 via carrier facility 130. Gateway sites 108, 110 can include network access devices to provide access to network resources. An example of a network access device is an access server which is more recently commonly known as a media gateway. These devices can include trunking gateways, access gateways and network access servers. Gateway sites 108, 110 provide for transmission of, for example, both voice and data traffic through data network 112. Gateway sites 108, 110 are controlled or managed by one or more soft switch sites 104, 106. As noted, soft switch sites 104, 106 can communicate with gateway sites 108, 110 via the IPDC, NMI, MGCP, or alternative protocols. Gateway sites 108, 110 can provide trunk interfaces to other telecommunication carriers via carrier facilities 126, 130 for the handling of voice calls. The trunk interfaces can also be used for the termination of dial-up modem data calls. Gateway sites 108, 110 can also provide private lines and dedicated access lines, such as T1 or ISDN PRI facilities, to customer facilities 128, 132. Examples of customer facilities 128, 132 are customer premises equipment (CPE) such as, for example, a private branch exchange (PBX). Gateway sites 108, 110 can be collocated or geographically diverse from one another or from other network elements (e.g. soft switch sites 104, 106). Gateway sites 108, 110 can also be connected by redundant connections to data network 112 to enable communication with and management by soft switches 104, 106. 3. Data Network Data network 112 connects one or more soft switch sites 104, 106 to one or more gateway sites 108, 110. Data Network 112 can provide for routing of data through routing devices to destination sites on data network 112. For example, data network 112 can provide for routing of internet protocol (IP) packets for transmission of voice and data traffic from gateway site 108 to gateway site 110. Data Network 112 represents any art-recognized data network. One well-known data network is the global Internet. Other examples include a private intranet, a packet-switched network, a frame relay network, and an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. 4. Signaling Network Signaling network 114 is an out-of-band signaling network providing for transmission of signaling messages between the PSTN and soft switch sites 104, 106. For example, signaling network 114 can use Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS), which is a network architecture for out-of-band signaling. A popular version of CCIS signaling is Signaling System 7 (SS7). SS7 is an internationally recognized system optimized for use in digital telecommunications networks. 5. Network Event Component Network event component 116 provides for collection of call events recorded at soft switch sites 104, 106. Call event records can be used, for example, for fraud detection and prevention, traffic reporting and billing. 6. Provisioning Component Provisioning component 117 provides several functions. First, provisioning component 117 receives provisioning requests from upstream operational support services (OSS) systems, for such items as order-entry, customer service, and customer profile changes. Second, provisioning component 117 distributes provisioning data to appropriate network elements. Third, provisioning component 117 maintains data synchronization, consistency, and integrity across multiple soft switch sites 104, 106. 7. Network Management Component Network management component 118 can include a network operations center (NOC) for centralized network management. Each network element (NE) of block diagram 100 can generate simple network management protocol (SNMP) events or alerts. The NOC uses the events generated by a NE to determine the health of the network, and to perform other network management functions. B. Operational Description The following operational flows describe an exemplary high level call scenario for soft switch sites 104, 106 and is intended to demonstrate at a high architectural level how soft switch sites 104, 106 process calls. The operational flow of the present invention is not to be viewed as limited to this exemplary illustration. As an illustration, FIG. 22A depicts a simple operational call flow chart describing how soft switch sites 104, 106 can process a long distance call, also known as a 1+ call. The operational call flow of FIG. 22A begins with step 2202, in which a soft switch site receives an incoming signaling message. The call starts by soft switch site 104 receiving an incoming signaling message from carrier facility 126 via signaling network 114, indicating an incoming call from calling party 102. In step 2204, the soft switch site determines the type of call by performing initial digit analysis. Based upon the information in the signaling message, the soft switch site 104 analyzes the initial digit of the dialed number of the call and determines that it is a 1+ call. In step 2222, soft switch site 104 can select a route termination based on the dialed number (i.e., the number of called party 120 dialed by calling party 102) using least cost routing. This route termination can involve termination off data network 112 or off onto another data network. Soft switch site 104 can then communicate with soft switch site 106 to allocate a terminating circuit in gateway site 110 for this call. In step 2224, soft switch site 104 can indicate connections to be made to complete the call. Soft switch site 104 or soft switch site 106 can return a termination that indicates the connections that must be made to connect the call. In step 2226, soft switch sites 104, 106 instruct the gateway sites to make connections to set up the call. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can send messages through data network 112 (e.g. using IPDC protocol commands) to gateway sites 108, 110, to instruct the gateway sites to make the necessary connections for setting up the call origination from calling party 102, the call termination to called party 120, and the connection between origination and termination. In step 2228, soft switch sites 104, 106 generate and send network events to a repository. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can generate and send network events to network event component 116 that are used, for example, in detecting and preventing fraud, and in performing billing. In step 2230, network management component 118 monitors the telecommunications network 100. All network elements create network management events such as SNMP protocol alerts or events. Network management component 118 can monitor SNMP events to enable management of network resources. FIG. 22B details a more complex operational call flow describing how soft switch sites 104, 106 process a long distance call. FIG. 22B inserts steps 2206, 2208 and 2220 between steps 2204 and 2222 of FIG. 22A. The operational call flow of FIG. 22B begins with step 2202, in which a soft switch site receives an incoming signaling message. The call starts by soft switch site 104 receiving an incoming signaling message from carrier facility 126 via signaling network 114, indicating an incoming call from calling party 102. In step 2204, the soft switch site determines the type of call by performing initial digit analysis. Based upon the information in the signaling message, the soft switch site 104 analyzes the initial digit of the dialed number of the call and determines that it is a 1+ call. In step 2206, the soft switch site queries a customer profile database to retrieve the originating trigger plan associated with the calling customer. With a 1+ type of call, the logic within the soft switch knows to query the customer profile database within soft switch site 104 to retrieve the originating trigger plan for the calling party. The step 2206 query can be made using the calling party number. The customer profile lookup is performed using as the lookup key, the originating number, i.e., the number of calling party 102, provided in the signaling message from signaling network 114. In step 2208, the lookup returns subscription information. For example, the customer profile can require entry of an account code. In this example, the customer profile lookup can return an indication that the customer, i.e., calling party 102, has subscribed to an account code verification feature. A class of service restriction can also be enforced, but this will not be known until account code verification identifies an associated account code. In step 2220, soft switch site 104 completes customer service processing and prepares to terminate the call. At this point, soft switch site 104 has finished executing all customer service logic and has a 10-digit dialed number that must be terminated. In step 2222, soft switch site 104 can select a route termination based on the dialed number (i.e., the number of called party 120 dialed by calling party 102) using least cost routing. This route termination can involve termination off data network 112 or off onto another data network. Soft switch site 104 can then communicate with soft switch site 106 to allocate a terminating circuit in gateway site 110 for this call. In step 2224, soft switch site 104 can indicate connections to be made to complete the call. Soft switch site 104 or soft switch site 106 can return a termination that indicates the connections that must be made to connect the call. In step 2226, soft switch sites 104, 106 instruct the gateway sites to make connections to set up the call. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can send messages through data network 112 (e.g. using IPDC protocol commands) to gateway sites 108, 110, to instruct the gateway sites to make the necessary connections for setting up the call origination from calling party 102, the call termination to called party 120, and the connection between origination and termination. In step 2228, soft switch sites 104, 106 generate and send network events to a repository. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can generate and send network events to network event component 116 that are used, for example, in detecting and preventing fraud, and in performing billing. In step 2230, network management component 118 monitors the telecommunications network 100. All network elements create network management events such as SNMP protocol alerts or events. Network management component 118 can monitor SNMP events to enable management of network resources. FIG. 22C details an even more complex operational call flow describing how soft switch sites 104, 106 can be used to process a long distance call using project account codes and class of service restrictions. FIG. 22C inserts steps 2210 through 2218 between steps 2208 and 2220 of FIG. 22B. The operational call flow of FIG. 22C begins with step 2202, in which a soft switch site receives an incoming signaling message. The call starts by soft switch site 104 receiving an incoming signaling message from carrier facility 126 via signaling network 114, indicating an incoming call from calling party 102. In step 2204, the soft switch site determines the type of call by performing initial digit analysis. Based upon the information in the signaling message, the soft switch site 104 analyzes the initial digit of the dialed number of the call and determines that it is a 1+ call. In step 2206, the soft switch site queries a customer profile database to retrieve the originating trigger plan associated with the calling customer. With a 1+ type of call, the logic within the soft switch knows to query the customer profile database within soft switch site 104 to retrieve the originating trigger plan for the calling party. The step 2206 query can be made using the calling party number. The customer profile lookup is performed using as the lookup key, the originating number, i.e., the number of calling party 102, provided in the signaling message from signaling network 114. In step 2208, the lookup returns subscription information. For example, the customer profile can require entry of an account code. In this example, the customer profile lookup can return an indication that the customer, i.e., calling party 102, has subscribed to an account code verification feature. A class of service restriction can also be enforced, but this will not be known until account code verification identifies an associated account code. In step 2210, soft switch site 104 instructs gateway site 108 to collect account codes. Using the information in the customer profile, soft switch site 104 can use the IPDC protocol to instruct gateway site 108 to collect a specified number of digits from calling party 102. In step 2212, soft switch site 104 determines how to process received digits. Assuming gateway site 108 collects the correct number of digits, soft switch site 104 can use the customer profile to determine how to process the received digits. For account code verification, the customer profile can specify whether the account code needs to be validated. In step 2214, soft switch site 104 verifies the validity of the received digits. If the account code settings in the customer profile specify that the account code must be verified and forced to meet certain criteria, soft switch site 104 performs two functions. Because “verify” was specified, soft switch site 104 queries a database to verify that the collected digits meet such criteria, i.e., that the collected digits are valid. Because “forced” was specified, soft switch site 104 also forces the calling customer to re-enter the digits if the digits were not valid. In step 2216, verification can result in the need to enforce a restriction, such as a class of service (COS) restriction (COSR). In this example, soft switch site 104 can verify that the code is valid, but that it requires, for example, that an intrastate COSR should be enforced. This means that the call is required to be an intrastate call to be valid. The class of service restriction logic can be performed within soft switch site 104 using, for example, pre-loaded local access and transport areas (LATAs) and state tables. If project account codes (PACs) are not used, class of service (COS) restrictions can be applied based on originating ANI or ingress trunk group. In step 2218, soft switch 104 allows the call to proceed if the class of service requested is permitted. For example, if the LATA and state tables show that the LATAs of originating party (i.e., calling party 102) and terminating party (i.e. called party 120), must be, and are, in the same state, then the call can be allowed to proceed. In step 2220, soft switch site 104 completes customer service processing and prepares to terminate the call. At this point, soft switch site 104 has finished executing all customer service logic and has a 10-digit dialed number that must be terminated. In step 2222, soft switch site 104 can select a route termination based on the dialed number (i.e., the number of called party 120 dialed by calling party 102) using least cost routing. This route termination can involve termination off data network 112 or off onto another data network. Soft switch site 104 can then communicate with soft switch site 106 to allocate a terminating circuit in gateway site 110 for this call. In step 2224, soft switch site 104 can indicate connections to be made to complete the call. Soft switch site 104 or soft switch site 106 can return a termination that indicates the connections that must be made to connect the call. In step 2226, soft switch sites 104, 106 instruct the gateway sites to make connections to set up the call. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can send messages through data network 112 (e.g. using IPDC protocol commands) to gateway sites 108, 110, to instruct the gateway sites to make the necessary connections for setting up the call origination from calling party 102, the call termination to called party 120, and the connection between origination and termination. In step 2228, soft switch sites 104, 106 generate and send network events to a repository. Soft switch sites 104, 106 can generate and send network events to network event component 116 that are used, for example, in detecting and preventing fraud, and in performing billing. In step 2230, network management component 118 monitors the telecommunications network 100. All network elements create network management events such as SNMP protocol alerts or events. Network management component 118 can monitor SNMP events to enable management of network resources. The intermediate level description and specific implementation example embodiments sections, below, will describe additional details of operation of the invention. For example, how soft switch site 104 performs initial digit analysis to identify the type of call and how to process the call will be discussed further. The sections also provide details regarding how soft switch sites 104, 106 interact with the other components of the voice network architecture. II. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL DESCRIPTION This section provides an intermediate level description of the VOIP network architecture according to the present invention. A structural implementation of the VOIP network architecture is described at an intermediate level. Also, a functional implementation for this structure is described at an intermediate level. This structural implementation is described herein for illustrative purposes, and is not limiting. In particular, the process described in this section can be achieved using any number of structural implementations, one of which is described in this section. The details of such structural implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts based on the teachings contained herein. A. Structural Description FIG. 2A is a block diagram further illustrating the components of VOIP architecture 100 at an intermediate level of detail. FIG. 2A depicts telecommunications system 200. Telecommunications system 200 includes soft switch site 104, gateway sites 108, 110, data network 112, signaling network 114, network event component 116, provisioning component 117 and network management component 118. Included in FIG. 2A are calling parties 102, 122 and called parties 120, 124. Soft switch site 104 includes soft switch 204, SS7 gateways 208, 210, service control point (SCP) 214, configuration server/configuration database (CDB) 206, route server 212, signal transfer points (STPs) 250, 252, and regional network event collection point (RNECP) 224. Table 1 below describes the functions of these network elements in detail. TABLE 1 Soft switch component Description soft switch (SS) Soft switches are call control components responsible for processing of signaling messages, execution of call logic and control of gateway site access devices. SS7 gateways (SS7 GW) SS7 gateways provide an interface between the SS7 signaling network and the soft switch. service switching points (SSP) Service switching points are the portions of backbone switches providing SS7 functions. For example, any switch in the PSTN is an SSP if it provides SS7 functions. A soft switch is an SSP. signal transfer point (STP) Signal transfer points route signaling messages from originating service switching points (SSPs) to destination SSPs. service control point (SCP) Service control points provide number translations for toll free services and validation of project account codes for PAC services. configuration server/ Configuration servers are servers configuration database managing customer profiles, voice (CDB) network topologies and configuration data. The configuration database is used for storage and retrieval of such data. route server (RS) Route servers are responsible for selection of least cost routes through the network and allocation of network ports. regional network event Route servers are responsible for collection point (RNECP) selection of least cost routes through the network and allocation of network ports. regional network event collection points are points in the network that collect call event data. Gateway site 108 includes trunking gateway (TG) 232, access gateway (AG) 238, network access server (NAS) 228, digital cross-connect system (DACS) 242 and announcement server (ANS) 246. TG 232, AG 238, and NAS 228 are collectively known as access server 254. Similarly, gateway site 110 includes TG 234, AG 240, NAS 230, DACS 244 and ANS 248. TG 234, AG 240, and NAS 230 are collectively known as access server 256. Gateway sites 108, 110 provide trunk, private line and dedicated access line connectivity to the PSTN. Table 2 below describes the functions of these network elements in detail. TABLE 2 Gateway site component Description trunking gateway (TG) A trunking gateway provides full- duplex PSTN to IP conversion for co-carrier and feature group D (FG- D) trunks. access gateway (AG) An access gateway provides full- duplex PSTN to IP conversion for ISDN-PRI and T1 digital dedicated access lines (DALs). network access server (NAS) A network access server provides modem access to an IP network. digital access and cross-connect A digital access and cross-connect system (DACS) system is a digital switching system used for the routing and switching of T-1 lines and DS-0 circuits of lines, among multiple T-1 ports. announcement server (ANS) An announcement server provides a network with PSTN terminating announcements. Data network 112 provides the network bandwidth over which calls can be connected through the telecommunications system. Data network 112 can be, for example, a packet switched data network including network routers for routing traffic through the network. Signaling network 114 includes signal transfer points (STPs) 216, 218 and signaling control points (SCPs) associated with each network node. Table 3 below describes the functions of these network elements in detail. TABLE 3 Signaling network component Description signal transfer points (STPs) Signal transfer points route signaling messages from originating service switching points (SSPs) to destination SSPs. service control point (SCP) Service control point provide number translations for Toll Free services and validation of project account codes (PAC) for PAC services. service switching point (SSPs) Service switching points are the portions of backbone switches providing SS7 functions. For example, any switch in the PSTN is an SSP if it provides SS7 functions. A soft switch is an SSP. Network management component 118 includes the means to manage a network. Network management component 118 gathers events and alarms related to network events. For example, event logs can be centrally managed from a network operations center (NOC). Alerts and events can be communicated to the NOC via the simple network management protocol (SNMP)). Table 4 below describes the functions of these network elements in detail. TABLE 4 Network management component Description network operations center (NOC) Network operations center is a centralized location for gathering network management events and for managing various network elements via the SNMP protocol. simple network management Simple network management protocol (SNMP) protocol provides site filtering of element alarms and messages before forwarding them to the NOC. Network event component 116 includes master network event database (MNEDB) 226. Table 5A below describes the functions of this network element in detail. TABLE 5A Network event component Description master network event database Master network event database is a (MNEDB) centralized server/database that collects call event records from regional network event collection points (RNECPs). It serves as a depository for the event records. Provisioning component 117 includes data distributor (DD) 222. Table 5B below describes the functions of this network element in detail. TABLE 5B Provisioning component Description data distributor (DD) The data distributor distributes service requests and data from upstream Operational Support Systems (OSS) to network elements. It maintains synchronization of redundant network resources. B. Operational Description The following operational flow describes an exemplary intermediate level call scenario intended to demonstrate at an intermediate architectural level how call processing is handled. The operational flow of the present invention is not to be viewed as limited to this exemplary illustration. FIG. 2B depicts an exemplary call flow 258. FIG. 2B illustrates interaction between a trunking gateway, a soft switch, a configuration server and a route server in order to connect a call through telecommunications network 200. FIG. 2B details a call flow from TG 232 of gateway site 108, controlled by soft switch site 104, to TG 234 of gateway site 110, controlled by soft switch site 106. (Soft switch site 106 is illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 3.) Soft switch site 106, including soft switch 304, route server 314, and configuration server 312, is further described below in the Specific Example Embodiments section, with reference to FIG. 3. Included in call flow 258 is a description of how soft switch 204 can process a 1+ long distance call that uses project account codes (PACs) with class of service (COS) restrictions. Call flow 258 also assumes that the origination and termination for the call uses SS7 signaling, i.e., that the call comes into network 200 via trunks from carrier facilities 126,130, to trunking gateways 232, 234. Exemplary call flow 258 begins with step 259. In step 259, soft switch 204 receives an incoming IAM signaling message from an SS7 GW 208, signaling an incoming call from calling party 102 on carrier facility 126 of a co-carrier. In step 260, soft switch 204 sends IPDC commands to trunking gateway 232 to set up a connection (e.g. a DS0 or DS1 circuit) between carrier facility 126 and TG 232 described in the received IAM signaling message. In step 262, trunking gateway 232 sends an acknowledgement message to soft switch 204. Based upon the information in the IAM message, soft switch 204 performs initial digit analysis on the dialed number, i.e., the number of called party 120, and determines that the incoming call is a 1+ call. In step 263, application program logic within soft switch 204 determines that, with this type of call, i.e., a 1+ call, soft switch 204 should query a customer profile database within configuration server 206, to retrieve the originating customer trigger plan 290 for calling party 102. The customer profile lookup is performed in configuration server 206 using the originating automatic number identification (ANI) of calling party 102 as the lookup key. In step 264 the customer profile lookup returns to soft switch 204 an indication that the calling party 102 has subscribed to project account codes (PAC). Examples of PACs include billing codes. They provide a mechanism for a network customer, such as a law firm, to keep an accounting of which of their clients to bill. Example call flow 258 will also perform a class of service (COS) restriction, but this will not be known by soft switch 204 until account code verification identifies an associated account code requiring the COS restriction. Alternatively, the customer profile information can reside in route server 212, enabling route server 212 to perform the functions of configuration server 206, in addition to its own functions. In step 267, using the information in the customer profile (i.e., customer trigger plans 290) of configuration server 206, soft switch 204 uses the IPDC protocol to instruct trunking gateway 232 to collect the specified number of digits, representing the project account code, from calling party 102. In step 268, the digits are sent from trunking gateway 232 to soft switch 204. Assuming that trunking gateway 232 collected the correct number of digits, soft switch 204 uses the customer profile of configuration server 206 to determine how to process the received digits. For project account codes (PACs), the customer profile in configuration server 206 specifies whether the project account code needs to be validated. If the project account code settings in the customer profile of configuration server 206 specify that the project account code is “verified and forced,” then soft switch 204, in step 265, can query SCP 214 with the collected digits to verify that they are valid. Table 129 below provides alternative PAC settings. In step 266, SCP 214 returns an indication that the project account code is valid, and it requires that an intrastate class of service (COS) restriction should be enforced. The class of service (COS) restriction logic can be performed within soft switch 204, using pre-loaded LATA and state tables from configuration server 206. If a PAC is not used, the COS restriction can be applied based on ANI or ingress trunk group. If the LATA and state tables from configuration server 206 show that the originating LATA (i.e., the LATA of calling party 102) and the terminating LATA (i.e., the LATA of called party 120) are in the same state, then the call is allowed to proceed. At this point, soft switch 204 has finished executing all customer service logic and has a 10-digit DDD number (i.e., the phone number of called party 120), that must be terminated. In step 269, soft switch 204 queries route server 212 to receive a call route and to allocate circuits to connect the call. Route server 212 is responsible for using the DDD number to select a least cost route through data network 112, and allocating a terminating circuit for this call. Additional information on how soft switch 204 interacts with route server 212 and terminating soft switch 304 is described in the Specific Implementation Example Embodiments Section below, in the section entitled Route Server. In step 270, route server 212 returns a route that indicates the connections that soft switch 204 must make to connect the call. In step 274, soft switch 204 communicates with soft switch 304 to allocate ports in trunking gateway 234 of gateway site 110, for termination of the call. Soft switch 304 is located in a central soft switch site 106. In step 276, soft switch 304 queries port status 298 of route server 314 to identify available ports in trunking gateway 234. In step 278, route server 314 returns an available port to soft switch 304. In steps 280 and 282, soft switch 304 communicates with trunking gateway 234 to allocate a port for termination of the call to called party 120. In step 284, soft switch 304 communicates with soft switch 204 to indicate terminating ports have been allocated. In steps 286 and 288, soft switch 204 communicates with trunking gateway 232 in order to notify trunking gateway 232 to set up an RTP session (i.e. an RTP over UDP over IP session) with trunking gateway 234 and to permit call traffic to be passed over data network 112. The Specific Implementation Example Embodiments Section, in the next section, describes additional information about, for example, how soft switch 204 performs initial digit analysis to identify the type of call, and how to process the call. The next section also describes how soft switch 204 interacts with other components of the voice network architecture 200 in transmitting the call. III. SPECIFIC IMPLEMENTATION EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS Various embodiments related to structures, and operations between these structures described above are presented in this section (and its subsections). These embodiments are described herein for purposes of illustration, and not limitation. The invention is not limited to these embodiments. Alternate embodiments (including equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., of the embodiments described herein) will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts based on the teachings contained herein. The invention is intended and adapted to include such alternate embodiments. Specifically, this section provides a detailed description of the VOIP network architecture according to the present invention. A structural implementation of the (VOIP) network architecture is described at a low-level. Also, a functional implementation for this structure is described at a low-level. A. Structural Description A more detailed structural description of telecommunications network 200 will now be described. 1. Soft Switch Site FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a more detailed implementation of telecommunications network 200. Specifically, FIG. 3 illustrates telecommunications network 300 containing three geographically diverse soft switch sites. These soft switch sites include western soft switch site 104, central soft switch 106, and eastern soft switch 302. Telecommunications network 300 also includes a plurality of gateway sites that may be collocated or geographically diverse. These gateway sites include gateway sites 108a, 108b, 110a and 110b. Data network 112 can route both signaling and transport traffic between the regional soft switch sites and regional gateway sites. For example, data network 112 can be used to route traffic between western soft switch site 104 and gateway site 110a. Signaling and transport traffic can also be segregated and sent over separate data networks. As those skilled in the art will recognize, data network 112 can be used to establish a data or voice connection among any of the aforementioned gateway sites 108a, 108b, 110a and 110b under the control of any of the aforementioned soft switch sites 104, 106 and 302. Western soft switch site 104 includes soft switch 204a, soft switch 204b, and soft switch 204c. Soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c can be collocated or geographically diverse. Soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c provide the features of redundancy and high availability. Failover mechanisms are enabled via this architecture, since the soft switches can act as one big switch. Soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c can intercommunicate via the inter soft switch communication protocol, permitting access servers to reconnect from one soft switch to another. Western soft switch site 104 includes SS7 gateway (GW) 208, configuration server/configuration database (CS/CDB) 206a and route server (RS) 212a. To provide high availability and redundancy, western soft switch site 104 includes a redundant SS7 GW, a redundant CS/CDB and a redundant RS. Specifically, western soft switch site 104 includes SS7 GW 210, CS/CDB 206b and RS 212b. Soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c are connected to SS7 GWs 208, 210, CS/CDBs 206a, 206b and RSs 212a, 212b via redundant ethernet switches (ESs) 332, 334 having multiple redundant paths. This architecture enables centralization of SS7 interconnection to gain economies of scale from use of a lesser number (than conventionally required) of links to signaling network 114, to be shared by many access servers in gateway sites. ESs 332, 334 also provide connectivity to routers (Rs) 320, 322. Routers 320, 322 respectively provide redundant connectivity between redundant ESs 332, 334 and data network 112. As noted, included in telecommunications network 300 are central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. Central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302 respectively include identical configurations to the configuration of western soft switch site 104. Central soft switch site 106 includes SS7 GWs 308, CS/CDBs 312, RSs 314, soft switches 304a, 304b, 304c, ESs 336, 338, and Rs 324, 326. Similarly, eastern soft switch site 302 includes SS7 GWs 310, CS/CDBs 316, RSs 318, soft switches 306a, 306b, 306c, ESs 340, 342, and Rs 328 and 330. Gateway site 108a includes TG 232a, NAS 228a, AG 238a and DACS 242a. Gateway sites 108b, 110a and 110b have similar configurations to gateway site 108a. Gateway site 108b includes TG 232b, NAS 228b, AG 238b and DACS 242b. Gateway site 110a includes TG 234a, NAS 230a, AG 240a and DACS 244a. Finally, gateway site 110b includes TG 234b, NAS 230b, AG 240b, and DACS 244b. The details of gateway site 108a, 108b, 110a and 110b will be further described below with reference to FIG. 10A. a. Soft Switch Referring back to FIG. 2A, soft switch 204 provides the call processing function for telecommunications network 200. Call processing refers to the handling of voice and data calls. There are a number of important call processing functions handled by soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 processes signaling messages used for call setup and call tear down. These signaling messages can be processed by in-band or out-of-band signaling. For an example of out-of-band signaling, SS7 signaling messages can be transmitted between signaling network 114 and soft switch 204. (Soft switch 204 refers to soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c.) Another call processing function performed by soft switch 204 is preliminary digit analysis. Preliminary digit analysis is performed to determine the type of call arriving at soft switch 204. Examples of calls include toll free calls, 1+ calls, 0+ calls, 011+ calls, and other calls recognized by those skilled in the art. One important feature of soft switch 204 is communicating with CS/CDB 206 to retrieve important customer information. Specifically, soft switch 204 queries CS/CDB 206 to retrieve a customer trigger plan. The customer trigger plan effectively identifies the service logic to be executed for a given customer. This trigger plan is similar to a decision tree pertaining to how a call is to be implemented. Subsequently, soft switch 204 executes the customer trigger plan. This includes the processing of special service calls requiring external call processing, i.e., call processing that is external to the functions of telecommunications network 200. Another important function soft switch 204 is communicating with RS 212 to provide network routing information for a customer call. For example, soft switch 204 can query RS 212 to retrieve the route having the least cost from an off-network calling party 102 (homed to gateway site 108) to an off-network called party 120 (homed to gateway site 110) over data network 112. Upon finding the least cost route, soft switch 204 allocates ports on TGs 232, 234. As described in detail below, soft switch 204 can also be used to identify the least cost route termination and allocate gateway ports over AGs 238, 240 between an on-network calling party 122 (homed to gateway site 108) and an on-network called party 124 (homed to gateway site 110). Soft switch 204 also communicates with AGs 238, 240, TGs 232, 234, and NASs 228, 230 over data network 112. Although AGs 238, 240, TGs 232, 234 and NASs 228, 230 can communicate with a plurality of soft switches, as illustrated in FIG. 3, these network nodes (referred to collectively as access servers 254a, 254b, 256a, and 256b) are respectively assigned to a primary soft switch. This primary soft switch, e.g., soft switch 204, assumes a primary responsibility or control of the access servers. In addition, the access servers can be as respectively assigned to secondary switches, which control the access servers in the event that the primary soft switch is unavailable. Referring back to FIG. 3, western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302 are geographically diverse. For example, western soft switch site 104 can be a soft switch site located in San Diego, Calif. Central soft switch site 106 can be a soft switch site located in Denver, Colo. Eastern soft switch site 302 can be a soft switch site located in Boston, Mass. It is permissible that additional network nodes are provided at any of soft switch sites 104, 106 and 302. For example, additional elements, including, e.g., SS7 GW 208, CDB 206a, and RS 212a can be collocated at western soft switch site 104. Examples of other supporting elements of western soft switch site 104 are an announcement server (ANS), a network event collection point (NECP), an SCP, and on-network STPs. Referring to the more detailed implementation of FIG. 2A, telecommunications network 200 includes ANSs 246, 248, NECP 224, SCP 214, and STPs 250, 252. (1) Soft Switch Interfaces FIG. 4A is a block diagram illustrating the interfaces between soft switch 204 and the remaining components of telecommunications network 200. The soft switch interfaces of FIG. 4A are provided for exemplary purposes only, and are not to be considered limiting. Soft switch 204 interfaces with SS7 GWs 208, 210 via soft switch-to-SS7 GW interface 402. One example of interface 402 is an SS7 integrated services digital network (ISDN) user part (ISUP) over a transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP). Soft switch 204 interfaces with configuration server 206 over interface 406. In an example embodiment, interface 406 is a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with RNECP 224 over interface 410. In an example embodiment, interface 410 is a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with route server 212 over interface 408. In an example embodiment, interface 408 is a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with SCP 214 over interface 404. In an example embodiment, interface 404 is a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with announcement servers 246, 248 over interface 416. In an example embodiment, interface 416 can include the IPDC protocol used over a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with TGs 232, 234 over interface 412. In an example embodiment, interface 412 can include the IPDC protocol used over a TCP/IP connection. Soft switch 204 interfaces with AGs 238, 240 over interface 414. In an example embodiment, interface 414 can include the IPDC protocol used over a TCP/IP connection. In one embodiment, soft switch 204 is an application software program running on a computer. The structure of this exemplary soft switch is an object oriented programming model discussed below with reference to FIGS. 4B-4E. Another interface to soft switch 204 (not shown) is a man-machine interface or maintenance and monitoring interface (MMI). MM can be used as a direct controller for management and machine actions. It should be noted that this is not intended to be the main control interface, but is rather available to accommodate the need for on-site emergency maintenance activities. Yet another interface permits communication between soft switches 204, 304. A soft switch-to-soft switch interface will be described further with reference to FIG. 2B. A soft switch 204-to-soft switch 1304 interface permits communication between the soft switches 204, 304 that control the originating call-half and terminating call-half of call flow 258. The soft switch 204-to-soft switch 304 interface allows soft switches 204, 304 to set up, tear down and manage voice and data calls. Soft switch 204 to soft switch 304 interface can allow for a plurality of inbound and outbound signaling types including, for example, SS7, ISDN, and in-band E&M signaling. In telephony, E&M is a trunking arrangement generally used for two-way (i.e., either side may initiate actions) switch-to-switch or switch-to-network connections. E&M signaling refers to an arrangement that uses separate leads, called respectively the “E” lead and the “M” lead, for signaling and supervisory purposes. The near-end signals the far-end by applying −48 volts DC (“VDC”) to the “M” lead, which results in a ground being applied to the far end's “E” lead. When −48 VDC is applied to the far-end “M” lead, the near-end “E” lead is grounded. “E” lead originally stood for “ear,” i.e., when the near-end “E” lead was grounded, the far end was calling and “wanted your ear.” “M” originally stood for “mouth,” because when the near-end wanted to call (i.e., to speak to) the far end, −48 VDC was applied to that lead. When a PBX wishes to connect to another PBX directly, or to a remote PBX, or to an extension telephone over a leased voice-grade line (e.g., a channel on a T-1), the PBX can use a special line interface. This special line interface is quite different from that which the PBX uses to interface to directly-attached phones. The basic reason for the difference between a normal extension interface and a long distance interface is that the respective signaling requirements differ. This is true even if the voice signal parameter, such as level and two-wire, four-wire remain the same. When dealing with tie lines or trunks, it is costly, inefficient, and too slow for a PBX to do what an extension telephone would do, i.e., to go off hook, wait for a dial tone, dial, wait for ringing to stop, etc. The E&M tie trunk interface device is a form of standard that exists in the PBX, T-1 multiplexer, voice-digitizer, telephone company world. E&M signaling can take on a plurality of forms. At least five different versions exist. E&M signaling is the most common interface signaling method used to interconnect switching signaling systems with transmission signaling systems. The sample configuration depicted in FIG. 2B, can use a soft switch 204-to-soft switch 304 protocol. In FIG. 2B, the access servers depicted are trunking gateways 232, 234. TGs 232, 234 are connected to the switch circuit network (SCN), i.e., signaling network 114, via SS7 trunks, ISDN trunks, and in-band trunks. The originating soft switch 204 can receive a call over any of these trunks. The signaling information from these SS7, ISDN, and in-band trunks is processed by soft switch 204 to establish the originating call-half. The signaling information processed by soft switch 204, can be used to determine the identity of terminating soft switch 304. The identity of terminating soft switch 304 is required to complete the call. Originating soft switch 204 can then communicate the necessary information to complete the call, via an inter-soft switch communication (ISSC) protocol. Terminating soft switch 304 can be required to be able to establish the terminating call-half on any of the supported trunk types. The ISSC protocol can use a message set that is structured similarly to the IPDC protocol message set. The messages can contain a header followed by a number of tag-length-value attributes. The incoming signaling message for the call being placed, can be carried in a general data block of one of the attribute value pairs (AVPs). The other AVPs, can contain additional information necessary to establish a voice-over-IP connection between the originating and terminating ends of the call. b. SS7 Gateway SS7 gateways (GWs) 208, 210 will now be described further with reference to FIG. 2A and FIG. 5A. In FIG. 2A, SS7 GWs 208, 210 receive signaling messages from signaling network 114 and communicate these messages to soft switch 204. Specifically, for SS7 signaled trunks, SS7 GWs 208, 210 can receive SS7 ISUP messages and transfer them to soft switch 204. SS7 GWs 208, 210 can also receive signaling messages from soft switch 204 and send SS7 ISUP messages out to signaling network 114. (1) SS7 Gateway Example Embodiment In an example embodiment, SS7 GWs 208, 210 can be deployed in a two (2) computing element (CE) cluster 207, depicted in FIG. 5A. SS7 GWs 208, 210, in two-CE-cluster 207 can fully load-share. SS7 GWs 208, 210 can intercommunicate as represented by connection 530 to balance their loads. Load-sharing results in a completely fault resilient hardware and software system with no single point of failure. Each SS7 GW 208, 210 can have, for example, six two-port cards for a total of twelve links to signaling network 114. In an example embodiment, SS7 GWs 208, 210 are application programs running on a computer system. An exemplary application program providing SS7 GW 208, 210 functionality is OMNI SIGNALWARE (QMNI), available from DGM&S, of Mount Laurel, N.J. OMNI is a telecommunications middleware product that runs on a UNIX operating system. An exemplary operating system is the SUN UNIX, available from SUN Microsystems, Inc. of Palo Alto, Calif. The core of OMNI resides logically below the service applications, providing a middleware layer upon which telecommunications applications can be efficiently deployed. Since the operating system is not encapsulated, service applications have direct access to the entire operating environment. Because of OMNI's unique SIGNALWARE architecture, OMNI has the ability to simultaneously support variants of SS7 signaling technology (ITU-T, ANSI, China and Japan). The SIGNALWARE architecture core is composed of the Message Transfer Part (MTP) Layer 2 and Layer 3, and Service Connection Control Part (SCCP). These core protocols are supplemented with a higher layer of protocols to meet the needs of a target application or service. OMNI supports multiple protocol stacks simultaneously, each potentially with the point code format and protocol support of one of the major SS7 variants. OMNI SIGNALWARE Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) are found on the higher layers of the SS7 protocol stack. OMNI APIs include: ISDN User Part (ISUP), Telephony User Part (TUP), Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP), Global System for Mobile Communications Mobile Application Part (GSM MAP), EIA/TIA Interim Standard 41 (IS-41 MAP), Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN), and Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP). (2) SS7 Gateway-to-Soft Switch Interface FIG. 5A depicts SS7 gateway to soft switch distribution 500. Soft switches receive signaling messages from signaling gateways. Specifically, for SS7 signaled trunks, SS7 GWs 208, 210 send and receive signals from signaling network 114. SS7 GWs 208, 210 communicate with soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, via redundant connections from the soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c to distributions 508, 510, of SS7 GWs 208, 210 respectively. SS7 GWs 208, 210 together comprise a CE cluster 207. Based upon an SS7 network design, a pair of SS7 gateways receive all signaling traffic for the trunking gateway (TG) circuits serviced by the soft switches at a single soft switch site. Specifically, a pair of SS7 GWs 208, 210 receive all signaling traffic for circuits serviced by soft switch site 104. Signals serviced by soft switch site 104 enter telecommunications network 200 from gateway sites 108, 502, 110. In an example embodiment, 96 circuits are serviced by each gateway site 108, 502, 110. Gateway site 108 includes TGs 232a, 232b. Gateway site 110 includes TGs 234a, 234b. Gateway site 502 includes TGs 504, 506. A circuit is identified by a circuit identification, code (CIC). TG 232a includes line card access to a plurality of circuits including CICs 1-48 512 of gateway site 108. TG 232b provides line card access to CICs 49-96 514 of gateway site 108. TG 504 provides line card access to CICs 1-48 516. TG 506 provides line card access to CICs 49-96 518 of gateway site 502. TG 234a provides line card access to CICs 1-48 520. TG 234b provides line card access to CICs 49-96 522 of gateway site 110. Thus, CICs 1-48 512, 516, 520, and CICs 49-96 514, 518, 522 are the trunking gateway circuits serviced by soft switch site 104. In an example embodiment, soft switches are partitioned such that any single soft switch will only service a subset of circuits serviced at a given soft switch site. For example, soft switch 204a can service CICs 1-48 512, 516, while soft switch 204b services CICs 49-96 514 and CICs 1-48 520, and soft switch 204c services CICs 49-96 518, 522. In order to assure that all signaling messages for a particular call get to the correct one of soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, it is necessary to partition SS7 signaling across the available soft switches based upon the circuits that each soft switch services. It is much more efficient to run SS7 links to soft switches than to each individual access server (compare to the conventional approach requiring an SS7 link to each SSP). Centralization of SS7 signaling traffic interconnection enables benefits from economies of scale, by requiring less SS7 interconnection links. An exemplary technique for distributing circuits across soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c is based upon the originating point code (OPC), destination point code (DPC), and CIC. OPC represents the originating point code for a circuit group, i.e., the point code of a local exchange carrier (LEC) switch, or signal point (SP). For example, the LEC providing CICs 1-48 512, and CICs 49-96 514 can have an OPC 524 of value 777. The LEC providing CICs 1-48 516, and CICs 49-96 518 can have an OPC 526 of value 888. The LEC switch providing CICs 1-48 520, and CICs 49-96 522 has an OPC 528 of value 999. Similarly, DPC represents the destination point code for a circuit group, i.e., the point code of soft switch site 104. Soft switch site 104 has a point code 529 of value 111, and an alternate point code 531 of value 444. Soft switch site 104 can act as one big switch using a flat network design of the present invention. This flat network design simplifies routing of calls. To support distribution of circuits across soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, SS7 GWs 208, 210 can include a lookup table that allows each signaling message to be routed to the correct soft switch 204a, 204b, 204c. The lookup table can route signaling messages to the correct soft switch 204a, 204b, 204c based upon the OPC, DPC, and CIC fields. This lookup table is built on SS7 GWs 208, 210 based upon registration messages coming from soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c. In an example embodiment, each time a TG boots up, the TG finds a soft switch to service its circuits. For example, when TG 232a is powered up, TG 232a must find a soft switch 204a, 204b, 204c to service its circuits, i.e. CICs 1-48 512. In an exemplary technique, TG 232a sends registration messages to soft switch 204a to register circuits CICs 1-48 512. Upon receipt of these registration messages the soft switch 204a registers these circuits with SS7 GWs 208, 210, at soft switch site 104. The circuit registration messages sent to the SS7 gateways are used to build the type of table shown in Table 6. TABLE 6 OPC, DPC, CIC registration request Value Message Type SS7 gateway circuit registration OPC Originating point code for the circuit group. Equals the LEC point code. Primary DPC Primary destination point code for the circuit group. Equals the Soft Switch site point code. Alias DPC Alias DPC for the Soft Switch site Start CIC Starting Circuit Identification Code for the circuit group End CIC Ending Circuit Identification Code for the circuit group Servicing Soft Unique Identifier for the Soft Switch that will Switch ID service requests for the OPC, DPC, CIC values Servicing Soft IP address for the Soft Switch that will service Switch IP address requests for the OPC, DPC, CIC values Servicing Soft Port number that the Soft Switch is listening on for Switch IP port incoming signaling messages. Primary/Secondary/ The Soft Switch identifies itself as the primary, Tertiary secondary or tertiary contact for signaling messages identification for the specified OPC, DPC and CIC. The format of a registration message is shown in Table 7. Table 7 includes the mapping of circuits to soft switches. The messages used by soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c to register their circuits with SS7 GWs 208, 210 contain information for the OPC, DPC and circuit range, i.e., the CICs that are being registered. Each message also contains information about the soft switch that will be servicing the signaling messages for the circuits being registered. The soft switch information includes an indication of whether this soft switch is identified as the primary servicing point for calls to these circuits, the secondary servicing point or the tertiary servicing point. The gateway uses this indicator in failure conditions, when it cannot contact the Soft Switch that is currently servicing a set of circuits. TABLE 7 OPC DPC CIC range Soft Switch 777 111 1-48 204a 777 111 49-96 204b 888 111 1-48 204a 888 111 49-96 204c 999 111 1-48 204b 999 111 49-96 204c FIG. 5A illustrates, and Table 7 represents in tabular form, the associations between circuit trunk groups of TGs 232a, 232b, 516, 518, 520, 522 and soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c. SS7 GWs 208, 210 distribute incoming SS7 signaling messages to the soft switch 204a, 204b, 204c listed as associated with the particular circuit in the circuit to soft switch mapping lookup table, (i.e., Table 7). For example, when the LEC switch, or signaling point, associated with OPC 524 (having point code 777) sends a call to TG 232b over CIC 55 (of CICs 49-96 514), an IAM message can be created and routed. The IAM includes the following information: (1) OPC 777 (originating LEC has a point code 777), (2) DPC 111 (soft switch site 104, the “switch” that the LEC believes it is trunking to, has point code 111), and (3) CIC 55 (the circuit selected by the LEC has circuit identifier code 55). The IAM message can then be routed by signaling network 114 (i.e., the SS7 network) to SS7 GWs 208, 210 at soft switch site 104, having point code 111. SS7 GWs 208, 210 can perform a lookup to Table 7, to identify which of soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c is handling the particular circuit described in the IAM message. In the example above, the IAM message having OPC 524 of value 777, DPC of value 111 and CIC 55 can be routed to soft switch 204b. SS7 GWs 208, 210 will now be discussed further with reference to FIG. 17A. FIG. 17A depicts an exemplary signaling network environment 1700. FIG. 17A includes signaling network 114 Specifically, signaling network 114 can be an SS7 national signaling network. FIG. 17A depicts three soft switch sites interfacing via a plurality of STPs to SS7 network 114. FIG. 17A includes soft switch sites 104, 106, 302. Western soft switch site 104 includes three soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c redundantly connected to routers 320, 322 and SS7 GWs 208, 210 via ethernet switches 332, 334. SS7 GW 208 and SS7 GW 210 communicate via a TCP/IP connection 1702 and serial link 1704. Similarly, central soft switch site 106 includes soft switches 304a, 304b, 304c redundantly connected to routers 324, 326 and SS7 GWs 308a, 308b via ethernet switches 336, 338. SS7 GW 308a and SS7 GW 308b communicate via TCP/IP connection 1706 and serial link 1708. Finally, eastern soft switch site 302 includes soft switches 306a, 306b, 306c redundantly connected to routers 328, 330 and SS7 GWs 310a, 310b via ethernet switches 340, 342. SS7 GW 310a and SS7 GW 310b communicate via TCP/IP connection 1710 and serial link 1712. FIG. 17A also includes data network 112 connected to soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 via routers 320, 322, routers 324, 326 and routers 328, 330, respectively. Data network 112 can carry data including control message information and call traffic information. Data network 112 can also carry in-band type signaling information and ISDN signaling information, via IPDC messages. Out-of-band signaling, such as, e.g., SS7 signaling, information is communicated to (i.e. exchanged with) soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 via SS7 GWs 208, 210, SS7 GWs 308a, 308b, and SS7 GWs 310a, 310b from signaling network 114. SS7 signaling messages are transferred through signaling network 114 from STP to STP until arriving at a final destination. Specifically, signaling messages intended for soft switch sites 104, 106, 302, are routed via packet switched SS7 signaling network 114 to STPs 216, 218 which are part of the SS7 national signaling network 114. STP services (i.e., STPs and A-F links) can be provided by an SS7 signaling services provider, such as, e.g., Transaction Network Services (TNS). Table 19 defines SS7 signaling links. Some of the SS7 links used are as follows. STPs 216, 218 are linked together by a C-link. STPs 216, 218 are linked by redundant D-links 1730 to STPs 250a, 252a, 1722, 1724, 250b, 252b. STPs 216, 218 can also be linked by redundant D-links 1730 to STPs 1718, 1720, 1714, 1716, though this is not shown. STP pairs 250a, 252a are linked together by one or more C-links 1728. Likewise, STP pairs 1722, 1724, STP pairs 250b, 252b, STP pairs 1718, 1720, and STP pairs 1714, 1716 can be linked together by C-links. STPs 1714, 1716, 250a, 252a, 1722, 1724, 250b, 252b, 1718, and 1720 can be linked by one or more A-links 1726 to SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a, and 310b. Thus, signaling messages from anywhere in signaling network 114 may be routed by STPs 216, 218 through STPs 1714, 1716, 250a, 252a, 1722, 1724, 250b, 252b, 1718, 1720, to SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a, and 310b of soft switch sites 104, 106, and 302. SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a, and 310b thus route messages through packet switched STPs to signaling network 114. SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a, and 310b use a separate physical interface for all simple network management protocol (SNMP) messages and additional functions that may be defined. Exemplary functions that may be defined include provisioning, updating, and passing special alarms, and performance parameters to the SS7 GW from the network operation center (NOC) of network management component 118. c. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) Signal transfer points (STPs) 216, 218 are the packet switches of signaling network 114. More specifically, STPs are the packet switches of the SS7 network. STPs 250, 252 are the STPs interfacing with SS7 GWs 208, 210 of soft switch site 104. STPs 216, 218 receive and route incoming signaling messages toward the proper destination. STPs 250, 252 also perform specialized routing functions. STPs are customarily deployed in pairs. While elements of a pair are not generally collocated, they work redundantly to perform the same logical function. STPs have several interfaces. STP interfaces are now described, with reference to FIGS. 17A and 17B. The interfaces can be described in terms of the links used. Table 19 shows links used in SS7 architectures. The first interface comprises one or more D-links 1730 from off-network STPs 250, 252 (as shown in FIG. 2A) to on-network STPs 216, 218. D-links connect mated STPs at different hierarchical levels to one another. On-network STPs 216, 218, as well as STPs 1714, 1716, 1722, 1724, 1718 and 1720 are part of the national SS7 signaling network 114. Additional D-links 1730 can connect STPs 216, 218 to STPs 250a, 252a, STPs 1722, 1724, STPs 250b, 252b, and STPs 1718 and 1720. The second interface comprises C-links. C-links connect mated STPs together. An example are C-links 1728 between STP 250a and 252a. C-links 1728 enable STPs 250a, 252a to be linked in such a manner that they need not be co-located. Similarly, STPs 250b, 252b, STPs 1718, 1720, STPs 1722, 1724, STPs 1714, 1716, and STPs 216, 218 can also be respectively linked via C-links. The third interfaces to STPs comprise A-links and E-links. A-links connect STPs to SSPs and SCPs. E-links are special links that connect SSPs to remote STPs, and are used in the event that A-links to home STPs are congested. The entire soft switch site is viewed as an SSP to a signaling network. A-links or E-links can be used to connect any of STPs 1714, 1716, 250a, 252a, 1722, 1724, 250b, 252b, 1718 and 1720 respectively to soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 at SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a and 310b. In an example embodiment, each of SS7 GWs 208, 210, 308a, 308b, 310a, 310b can have, for example, twelve (12) A-links 1726 distributed among STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b and STPs 1714, 1716, 1722, 1724, 1718, 1720. By using the plurality of A-links, the soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 have a fully redundant, fully meshed, fault tolerant signaling architecture. STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b use a separate physical interface for all SNMP messages and additional functions that can be defined. Additional functions that can be defined include provisioning, updating, and passing special alarms and performance parameters to and from STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b and network operation center (NOC) of network management component 118. In another embodiment of the invention, as illustrated in FIG. 17B, soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 have additional soft switches and SS7 GWs. Additional soft switches and SS7 GWs can be used, for example, for handling additional traffic and for testing of alternative vendor soft switches and SS7 GWs. FIG. 17B includes SS7 gateway to SS7 signaling network alternative embodiment 1740. FIG. 17B includes signaling network 114 interfacing to western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106, and eastern soft switch site 302. Signaling network 114 includes STPs 216, 218 connected via multiple D-Links 1730 to STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b. In an example embodiment STP 250a and STP 252a are connected together by C-Links 1728. In an alternative embodiment, STPs 250a, 252a and STPs 250b, 252b can be linked by quad B-Links. B-links connect mated STP pairs to other mated STP pairs. STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b are connected by multiple redundants A-Links 1726 to SS7 GWs in soft switch sites 104, 106, 302. Western soft switch site 104 includes SS7 GWs 208, 210, which can communicate via a TCP/IP connection and a serial link. SS7 GWs 208, 210 are connected to soft switches 204a, 204b, and 204c. In addition, western soft switch site 104 includes soft switch 1742 and SS7 GW 1744 connected to STPs 250a and 252a. Also western soft switch site 104 includes soft switch 1746 and SS7 GW 1748 connected to STPs 250a, 252a. Central soft switch site 106 includes SS7 GWs 308a, 308B which can communicate via a TCP/IP connection or a serial link. SS7 GWs 308a, 308b connect soft switches 304a, 304b and 304c to STPs 250a and 252a. Central soft switch site 106 also includes soft switch 1750 and SS7 GWs 1752 connected to STPs 250a, 252a. Central soft switch site 106 also includes soft switch 1754 connected to SS7 GW 1756, which is connected to STPs 250a, 252a. Eastern soft switch site 302 includes SS7 GWs 310a, SS7 GW 310b, which can communicate over TCP/IP and over a serial link. SS7 GWs 310a, 310b connect soft switches 306a, 306b and 306c to STPs 250b and 252b. Eastern soft switch site 302 also includes soft switch 1758 connected to SS7 GW 1760, which is connected to STPs 250b, 252b. Eastern soft switch site 302 also includes soft switch 1762, which is connected to SS7 GW 1764 which is in turn connected to STPs 250b, 252b. Alternative embodiment 1740, by including additional soft switches and SS7 gateways, permits additional redundancy and enables testing of alternate devices for connection to signaling network 114 via STPs 250a, 252a, 250b, 252b, 216 and 218. (1) STP Example Embodiment STPs 250, 252, in an example embodiment, can be a TEKELEC Network Switching Division's EAGLE STP. An EAGLE STP, available from TEKELEC of Calabasas, Calif., is a high speed packet switch designed to support SS7 signaling. STPs 250, 252 can be equipped with a plurality of links. In an example embodiment, STPs 250, 252 can support up to, for example, 84 links. For example, in a preferred embodiment, 14 links can be used initially, and additional links can be added in the future. In a preferred embodiment, several additional features can be added to STPs 250, 252. (a) Global Title Translation In a preferred embodiment, STPs 250, 252 can have global title translation capability. Global title translation uses global title information. Global title information is information unrelated to signaling network address, which can be used to determine the appropriate destination of a message. Global title translation can support translations from, for example, one to twenty-one digits. For example, translations can be assigned to translation types from 0 to 225. In a preferred embodiment, STPs 250, 252 can support up to, for example, 1,000 global title translation requests per second, per application service module (ASM). (b) Gateway Screening Software In a preferred embodiment, STPs 250, 252 include a gateway screening software feature. EAGLE STP can support user definitions of up to 64 screen sets In this embodiment, each screen set can accommodate up to 2,000 condition statements (or rules) with the gateway screening software. Gateway screening can be performed on all in-bound messages from another network. Gateway screening can also be performed on all outgoing network management messages. Since gateway screening can occur on the link interface modules (LIMs) and the application service modules (ASMs), the deployment of the gateway screening feature does not impact link throughput capacity, and can contribute to less than 5 milliseconds increase to cross-STP delays. (c) Local Number Portability (LNP) In a preferred embodiment, local number portability (LNP) can be integrated into the EAGLE architecture of STPs 250, 252. An advantage of the integration of LNP functionality is that it eliminates the need for costly external LNP databases, and associated transmission equipment. In one embodiment, LNP portability can support, complete scalabilty in configurations ranging from 500,000 translation entries and up to more than several million translation entries for very large metropolitan serving areas (MSAs). (d) STP to LAN Interface In a preferred embodiment, the STP-to-LAN interface of the EAGLE architecture can allow the user to connect external data collection or processing systems directly to STPs 250, 252 via a TCP/IP protocol. In this embodiment, the STP-to-LAN interface could be used to carry SS7 signaling over IP packets. (e) ANSI to ITU Gateway In a preferred embodiment, STPs 250, 252 can include a feature referred to as the ANSI-ITU gateway feature. In a preferred embodiment, the ANSI-ITU feature of STPs 250, 252 allows STPs 250, 252 to interconnect three types of signaling networks, i.e., ITU international, ITU national and ANSI, by means of three different message signaling unit (MSU) protocols. In a preferred embodiment of STPs 250, 252, the ANSI-ITU feature can allow a smooth transition from an all-ANSI network to a combined ANSI-ITU network. d. Services Control Points (SCPs) FIG. 6A depicts off-switch called processing abstraction diagram 600 showing communication mechanisms between soft switch and STPs. FIG. 6A includes at the gateway-facing layer, soft switch processing 604 which can use the IPDC protocol 602, or alternatively, the Network Access Server (NAS) Messaging Interface (NMI) protocol to interface with access servers, or the messaging gateway control protocol (MGCP). IPDC protocol 602 provides a protocol for communications between soft switches and respectively TGs, AGs, NASs and ANSs. Soft switch processing 604 uses IPDC for gateway communication and uses off-switch call processing 606 to access SCPs 608, 614, 618, 620. SS7 TCAP 608 is connected to SCP 610 an off-network SCP, via STP 250. IP TCAP 614 is connected to SCP 612. SCP 616 is connected to custom IP 618. SCP 214 is an on-network SCP and is connected via INAP/IP 620. FIG. 6A represents how some interfaces to soft switch 204 sit on top of a common interface used by soft switch 204 to handle off-switch call processing. SCPs and other devices, such as route servers, can use this common interface. For example, SCP 610 is an off-network or off-switch SCP, meaning that it is not within soft switch site 104. Off-switch call processing abstraction layer 606 is intended to be a flexible interface, similar to TCAP in function, that allows interaction between any type of SCP (or other call processing logic) and soft switch 204. The abstraction layer is so designed that interfaces to a set of call processors supporting a specific function (e.g., 800 service), contain the same types of data, and can all map arguments to data elements supported by off-switch call processing abstraction layer 606. The field values for messages supplied by off-switch call processing abstraction layer 606 are identified in this section (i.e., describing SCPs) and also in the section describing route servers below. The SCPs can be off-switch call processing servers, which support intelligent services within the telecommunications network SCPs 610, 612, and 616 can support such services as, for example, account code verification and toll free/800 services, local number portability (LNP), carrier ID identification, and card services. Other services and capabilities of SCPs 610, 612, and 616 include basic toll-free services, project account code (PAC) services, local number portability (LNP) services, 800 carrier ID services, calling name (CNAM) services, advanced toll-free/network automatic call distribution (ACD) services, customer premise toll-free routing services, one number (or follow-me) services, and SCP gateway for customer premises equipment (CPE) route selection services. These services are recognized by those skilled in the art. Additional services and capabilities can include intelligent peripherals. Intelligent peripherals can include calling card, debit card, voicemail, unified messaging, conference calling, and operator services. These peripherals are recognized by those skilled in the art. FIG. 6B illustrates intelligent network architecture 622. FIG. 6B includes gateway site 110, communicating via data network 112, to soft switch 204. The communication can be performed by the H.323 protocol or the IPDC protocol. Soft switch 204 gains signaling information from signaling network 114 via STP 250, through SS7 gateway 208. Gateway site 110, in intelligent network architecture 622, is connected to multiple off-network service providers. Off network service providers include local exchange carrier (LEC) 624, inter-exchange (IXC) carrier 626 and operator services service bureau 628. Thus calls coming in from LEC 624 or from IXC 626 into gateway site 110, if identified as an operator call, may be routed to off-network operator services 628. Soft switch 204 does not dictate any particular SCP interface, but it is assumed that this interface will support the following types of interactions: (1) route request; (2) route response; (3) call gapping; and (4) connect to resource. A route request is a message sent from soft switch 204 to an external SCP 610. The route request is sent to request a translation service from SCP 610, for example, to translate disclosed digits to a destination number. A route response is a message sent from SCP 610 to soft switch 204 in response to a route request. The route response includes a sequence of prioritized destinations for the call. SCPs that perform routing can return a list of prioritized destinations. These destinations can be, for example, any combination of destination numbers or circuit groups. If SCP 610 returns a destinations number, soft switch 204 can attempt to route to that destination number using the least cost routing logic included in route server 212. If SCP 610 returns a circuit group, the soft switch 204 can use route server 212 to select an available circuit in that group. Soft switch 204 can try to terminate to the specified destinations in the prioritized order that the destinations are returned from SCP 610. The interface that can be used by soft switch 204, in order to interact with SCPs 214, 610, 612, and 616, is called the off-switch call processing (OSCP) interface. This interface is also used for route server 212 and any other call processing engines. OSCP is represented in FIG. 6A as off-switch call processing abstraction layer 606. Tables 8, 9, 10, and 11 identify the fields in the OSCP route request and route response messages, which are necessary for 800 and account code processing service calls. TABLE 8 800 Route Request SCP Route Request Parameter 800 SCP - Route Request Value Message Type 800 Route Request Call Reference Unique call identifier Requesting Soft-Switch Soft Switch ID Bearer Capability Voice, Data or Fax Destination type DDD (an 8XX number was dialed) Destination Dialed 8XX number Originating LATA LATA from IAM or from DAL profile Calling Number ANI Originating station type II-digits from IAM or DAL profile Collected Digits Not Used for 800 processing. TABLE 9 Account Code Route Request OSCP Route Request Parameter Account Code SCP - Route Request Value Message Type Account Code Route Request Call Reference Unique call identifier Requesting Soft-Switch Soft Switch ID Bearer Capability Not used for Account Code processing Destination type Not used for Account Code processing Destination Not used for Account Code processing Originating LATA LATA from IAM or from DAL profile Calling Number ANI Originating station type II-digits from IAM or DAL profile Collected Digits Not Used for Account Code processing TABLE 10 800 Route Response OSCP Route Request Parameter 800 SCP - Route Response Value Message Type 800 Route Response Call Reference Unique call identifier Result Code Success/fail Number of responses Number of responses sent from the SCP Destination circuit group - 1 Terminating circuit group for the first route if the SCP identifies circuit groups Destination circuit - 1 Not used for 800 processing Outpulse digits - 1 Outpulse digits for selected termination Destination number - 1 Destination number for the first route Destination Soft Switch - 1 Not used for 800 processing Destination circuit group - N Terminating circuit group for the Nth route, if the SCP identifies circuit groups Destination circuit - N Not used for 800 processing Outpulse digits - N Outpulse digit format for selected circuit on the Nth route Destination number - N Destination number for the Nth route Destination Soft Switch - N Not used for 800 processing TABLE 11 Account Code Route Response Account Code SCP - Route Response OSCP Route Request Parameter Value Call Reference Unique call identifier Result Code Success/fail Number of responses 0 - this is a success/fail response Destination circuit group - 1 Not used for account code processing Destination circuit - 1 Not used for account code processing Outpulse digits - 1 Not used for account code processing Destination number - 1 Not used for account code processing Destination Soft Switch - 1 Not used for account code processing Destination circuit group - N Not used for account code processing Destination circuit - N Not used for account code processing Outpulse digits - N Not used for account code processing Destination number - N Not used for account code processing Destination Soft Switch - N Not used for account code processing A route response can also include an indication to initiate a call gapping for a congested call. Call gapping refers to a message sent from an SCP to a soft switch to control the number and frequency of requests sent to that SCP. The call gapping response can indicate a length of time for which gapping should be active, as well as a gap interval, at which the soft switch should space requests going to the SCP. Call gapping can be activated on the SCP for each individual service supported on the SCP. For example, if SCP 214 supports 800 and project account code queries, it may gap on 800, but not on project account codes. Alternatively, SCP 214 can gap on project codes but not on 800, or can gap on both or neither. A connect-to resource is a response that is sent from the SCP to the soft switch in response to a route request for requests that require a call termination announcement to be played. FIG. 6C illustrates additional off-switch services 630. For example, calling card interactive voice response (IVR) 632 services can be provided off-switch, similarly to operator services 628. FIG. 6C also depicts on-switch SCP services. Specifically, project account codes (PAC) SCP 214a and basic toll-free SCP 214b communicate with soft switch 204 via an INAP/IP protocol 620. Project account codes are discussed further below. Basic toll-free services are also discussed further below. FIG. 6D depicts additional services 634. For example, FIG. 6D depicts service node/IP 656, which can be a voice services platform with a voice over IP (VOIP) interface on data network 112. In addition, network IVR 654 is depicted. Network IVR 654 is an IVR that connects to data network 112. Network IVR 654 can communicate with soft switch 204 via the IPDC protocol. Network IVR 654 is also in communication with an advanced toll-free SCP 648, via the SR-3511 protocol. Advanced toll-free SCP 648 is in communication with soft switch 204 via INAP/IP protocol 620. Advanced toll-free SCP 648 is also in communication with computer telephony integration (CTI) server 650. CTI server 650 can communicate with an automatic call distributor (ACD) 652. FIG. 6D also depicts an IP client connected via a customer network into data network 112. Specifically, IP-Client 660 is connected to data network 112 via customer network 658. Customer network 658 is connected to data network 112 and communicates via an H.323 protocol or via IPDC protocol 602 through data network 112 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 is in communication with SS7 gateway 208 via a TCAP/SS7 608 protocol. SS7 gateway 208 is in turn in communication with STP 208 via a TCAP/SS7 608 protocol. STP 208 in turn can communicate with SCPs in the SS7 network via the TCAP/SS7 608 protocol. Specifically, STP 208 can communicate with local number portability (LNP) SCP 636 and also 800 carrier SCP 610. Soft switch 204 can still communicate with PAC SCP 214A and basic toll-free SCP 214B via an INAP/IP 620 protocol. Soft switch 204 can also communicate with an SCP gateway 638 via an INAP/IP 620 protocol. SCP gateway 638 can be used to communicate with customer premises toll-free 640 facilities. Customer premises toll-free 640 facilities can communicate with computer telephony integration (CTI) server 642. CTI server 642 can be in communication with an automatic call distributer (ACD) 644. The H.323 Recommendation will now be briefly overviewed with reference to FIGS. 71A-E The H.323 standard provides a foundation for, for example, audio, video, and data communications across IP-based networks, including the Internet. By complying with the H.323 Recommendation, multimedia products and applications from multiple vendors can interoperate, allowing users to communicate without concern for compatibility. H.323 will be the foundation of future LAN-based products for consumer, business, entertainment, and professional applications. H.323 is an umbrella recommendation from the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) that sets standards for multimedia communications over Local Area Networks (LANs) that do not provide a guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). These networks dominate today's corporate desktops and include packet-switched TCP/IP and IPX over Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Token Ring network technologies. Therefore, the H.323 standards are important building blocks for a broad new range of collaborative, LAN-based applications for multimedia communications. The H.323 specification was approved in 1996 by the ITU's Study Group 16. Version 2 was approved in January 1998. The standard is broad in scope and includes both stand-alone devices and embedded personal computer technology as well as point-to-point and multipoint conferences. H.323 also addresses call control, multimedia management, and bandwidth management as well as interfaces between LANs and other networks. H.323 is part of a larger series of communications standards that enable videoconferencing across a range of networks. Known as H.32×, this series includes H.320 and H.324, which address ISDN and PSTN communications, respectively. FIG. 58A depicts a block diagram of the H.323 architecture for a network-based communications system 5800. H.323 defines four major components for network-based communications system 5800, including: terminals 5802, 5804 and 5810, gateways 5806, gatekeepers 5808, and multipoint control units 5812. Terminals 5802, 5804, 5810 are the client endpoints on the LAN that provide real-time, two-way communications. All terminals must support voice communications; video and data are optional. H.323 specifies the modes of operation required for different audio, video, and/or data terminals to work together. It is the dominant standard of the next generation of Internet phones, audio conferencing terminals, and video conferencing technologies. All H.323 terminals must also support H.245, which is used to negotiate channel usage and capabilities. FIG. 58B depicts an exemplary H.323 terminal 5802. Three other components are required: Q.931 for call signaling and call setup, a component called Registration/Admission/Status (RAS), which is a protocol used to communicate with a gatekeeper 5808; and support for RTP/RTCP for sequencing audio and video packets. Optional components in an H.323 terminal are video codecs, T.120 data conferencing protocols, and MCU capabilities (described further below). Gateway 5806 is an optional element in an H.323 conference. FIG. 59 depicts an example H.323 gateway. Gateways 5806 provide many services, the most common being a translation function between H.323 conferencing endpoints and other terminal types. This function includes translation between transmission formats (i.e. H.225.0 to H.221) and between communications procedures (i.e. H.245 to H.242). In addition, gateway 5806 also translates between audio and video codecs and performs call setup and clearing on both the LAN side and the switched-circuit network side. FIG. 59 shows an H.323/PSTN Gateway 5806. In general, the purpose of gateway 5806 is to reflect the characteristics of a LAN endpoint to an SCN endpoint and vice versa. The primary applications of gateways 5806 are likely to be: Establishing links with analog PSTN terminals. Establishing links with remote H.320-compliant terminals over ISDN-based switched-circuit networks. Establishing links with remote H.324-compliant terminals over PSTN networks Gateways 5806 are not required if connections to other networks are not needed, since endpoints may directly communicate with other endpoints on the same LAN. Terminals communicate with gateways 5806 using the H.245 and Q.931 protocols. With the appropriate transcoders, H.323 gateways 5806 can support terminals that comply with H.310, H.321, H.322, and V.70. Many gateway 5806 functions are left to the designer. For example, the actual number of H.323 terminals that can communicate through the gateway is not subject to standardization. Similarly, the number of SCN connections, the number of simultaneous independent conferences supported, the audio/video/data conversion functions, and inclusion of multipoint functions are left to the manufacturer. By incorporating gateway 5806 technology into the H.323 specification, the ITU has positioned H.323 as the glue that holds the world of standards-based conferencing endpoints together. Gatekeeper 5808 is the most important component of an H.323 enabled network. It acts as the central point for all calls within its zone and provides call control services to registered endpoints. In many ways, an H.323 gatekeeper 5808 acts as a virtual switch. Gatekeepers 5808 perform two important call control functions. The first is address translation from LAN aliases for terminals and gateways to IP or IPX addresses, as defined in the RAS specification. The second function is bandwidth management, which is also designated within RAS. For instance, if a network manager has specified a threshold for the number of simultaneous conferences on the LAN, the Gatekeeper 5808 can refuse to make any more connections once the threshold is reached. The effect is to limit the total conferencing bandwidth to some fraction of the total available; the remaining capacity is left for e-mail, file transfers, and other LAN protocols. FIG. 60 depicts a collection of all terminals, gateways 5806, and multipoint control units 5812 which can be managed by a single gatekeeper 5808. This collection of elements is known as an H.323 Zone. An optional, but valuable feature of a gatekeeper 5808 is its ability to route H.323 calls. By routing a call through a gatekeeper, it can be controlled more effectively. Service providers need this ability in order to bill for calls placed through their network. This service can also be used to re-route a call to another endpoint if a called endpoint is unavailable. In addition, a gatekeeper 5808 capable of routing H.323 calls can help make decisions involving balancing among multiple gateways. For instance, if a call is routed through a gatekeeper 5808, that gatekeeper 5808 can then re-route the call to one of many gateways based on some proprietary routing logic. While a gatekeeper 5808 is logically separate from H.323 endpoints, vendors can incorporate gatekeeper 5808 functionality into the physical implementation of gateways 5806 and MCUs 5812. Gatekeeper 5808 is not required in an H.323 system. However, if a gatekeeper 5808 is present, terminals must make use of the services offered by gatekeepers 5808. RAS defines these as address translation, admissions control, bandwidth control, and zone management. Gatekeepers 5808 can also play a role in multipoint connections. To support multipoint conferences, users would employ a Gatekeeper 5808 to receive H.245 Control Channels from two terminals in a point-to-point conference. When the conference switches to multipoint, the gatekeeper can redirect the H.245 Control Channel to a multipoint controller, the MC. Gatekeeper 5808 need not process the H.245 signaling; it only needs to pass it between the terminals 5802, 5804, 5808 or the terminals and the MC. LANs which contain Gateways 5806 could also contain a gatekeeper 5808 to translate incoming E.164 addresses into Transport Addresses. Because a Zone is defined by its gatekeeper 5808, H.323 entities that contain an internal gatekeeper 5808 require a mechanism to disable the internal function so that when there are multiple H.323 entities that contain a gatekeeper 5808 on a LAN, the entities can be configured into the same Zone. The Multipoint Control Unit (MCU) 5812 supports conferences between three or more endpoints. Under H.323, an MCU 5812 consists of a Multipoint Controller (MC), which is required, and zero or more Multipoint Processors (MP). The MC handles H.245 negotiations between all terminals to determine common capabilities for audio and video processing. The MC also controls conference resources by determining which, if any, of the audio and video streams will be multicast. MCU 2112 is depicted in FIG. 61. The MC does not deal directly with any of the media streams. This is left to the MP, which mixes, switches, and processes audio, video, and/or data bits. MC and MP capabilities can exist in a dedicated component or be part of other H.323 components. A soft switch includes some functions of an MP. An access server, also sometimes referred to as a media gateway controller, includes some of the functions of the MC. MCs and MPs are discussed further below with respect to the IPDC protocol. Approved in January of 1998, version 2 of the H.323 standard addresses deficiencies in version 1 and introduces new functionality within existing protocols, such as Q.931, H.245 and H.225, as well as entirely new protocols. The most significant advances were in security, fast call setup, supplementary services and T.120/H.323 integration. (1) Project Account Codes Project Account Codes can be used for tracking calls for billing, invoicing, and Class of Service (COS) restrictions. Project account code (PAC) verifications can include, for example, types Unverified Unforced, Unverified Forced, Verified Forced, and Partially Verified Forced. A web interface can be provided for a business customer to manage its accounts. The business customer can use the web interface to make additions, deletions, changes, and modifications to PAC translations without involvement of a carrier's customer service department. An example of call processing using PACs follows. PAC SCP 214a of FIG. 6C can receive validation requests from Soft-Switch 204 after Soft-Switch 204 has requested and received PAC digits. The PAC digits can be forwarded to SCP 214a for verification. When SCP 214a receives this request, SCP 214a can compare the entire PAC, if the PAC type is Verified Forced, against a customer PAC table. SCP 214a can compare only the verified portion of the PAC, if the PAC type is Partially Verified Forced, against the customer PAC table. The PAC digits can be sent from Soft-Switch 204 to SCP 214a in the ‘Caller Entered Digits’ field. The indicated customer can be sent from Soft-Switch 204 to SCP 214a in the ‘Customer’ field. (2) Basic Toll-Free Basic Toll-Free Service SCP 214b can translate a toll free (e.g., 800 and 888) number to a final routing destination based on a flexible set of options selected by a subscriber. Basic toll-free service supports e.g., 800 and 8XX Service Access Codes. Subscriber options can include, for example: 1) routing based on NPA or NPA-NXX of calling party; 2) routing based on time of day and day of week; 3) routing based on percent distribution; 4) emergency override routing; and 5) blocking based on calling party's NPA or NPA-NXX or ii-digits. An exemplary embodiment of basic toll-free SCP 214b is a GENESYS Network Interaction Router available from GENESYS of San Francisco, Calif. The GENESYS Network Interaction Router product suite provides Basic Toll-Free service. Soft-Switch 204 can send route requests to SCP 214b for any Toll Free numbers that Soft-Switch 204 receives. SCP 214b can then attempt to route the call using a route plan or trigger plan that has been defined for that Toll Free (dialed) number. SCP 214b can have several possible responses to a soft switch routing request, see Table 10 above. Using the subscriber routing option (described in the previous paragraph) SCP 214b can return a number translation for the Toll Free number. For example, SCP 214b can receive a dialed number of 800-202-2020 and return a DDD such as 303-926-3000. Alternatively, SCP 214b can return a circuit identifier. SCP 214b usually returns a circuit identifier when the termination is a dedicated trunk to a customer premise equipment (CPE). Then if SCP 214b determines that it can not route the call or has determined to block the call (per the route plan), SCP 214b returns a ‘route to resource’ response to Soft-Switch 204 with an announcement identifier. In this case Soft-Switch 204 can connect the calling party with Announcement Server 246 for the playing of an announcement and then disconnect the caller. SCP 214b can store call events in CDR database tables on SCP 214b. CDR database tables can then be replicated to Master Network Event Database 226 using a data distributor 222, such as, for example, the Oracle Replication Server. e. Configuration Server (CS) or Configuration Database (CDB) The configuration server 206 will now be described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 2. Configuration server 206 supports transaction requests to a database containing information needed by network components. Configuration server 206 supports queries by voice network components during initialization and call processing. The data contained within configuration server 206 databases can be divided into two types. The first type of data is that used to initialize connections between components. Examples of such data used to initialize connections between network components include the following: IP address and port numbers for all servers that soft switch 204 must communicate with; information indicating initial primary/secondary/tertiary configurations for server relationships; configuration information for access gateways 238, 240 and trunking gateways 232, 234; number and configuration of bays, modules, lines and channels (BMLC); relationship of module, line and channels to originating point code (OPC), destination point code (DPC) and circuit identification code (CIC) values; relationship of module, line and channels to trunk groups; call processing decision trees for soft switch processing; mapping of OPC, DPC and CIC values soft switches 204; mapping of access server 254, 256 ports to dedicated access line (DAL) identifiers and customer IDs; tables necessary to support class of service (COS) restrictions; local access transport area (LATA) tables; state tables; and blocked country code tables. The second set of data can be categorized as that data needed by soft switch 204 for use during call processing. This type of data includes customer and DAL profiles. These profiles define the services that a customer has associated with their ANIs or DALs. This information can include information describing class of service restrictions and account code settings. The database of configuration server 206 contains voice network topology information as well as basic data tables necessary for soft switch 204 call processing logic. Configuration server 206 is queried by soft switches 204 at start-up and upon changes to this information in order to set up the initial connections between elements of telecommunications network 200. Configuration server 206 is also queried by soft switches 204 in order to configure initial settings within soft switch 204. Configuration server 206 contains the following types of information: IP address and port numbers for all servers that soft switch 204 must communicate with; information indicating initial primary/secondary/tertiary configurations for server relationships; configuration information for AGs 238, 240 and TGs 232, 234; call processing decision trees for soft switch 204 call processing; mapping of OPC, DPC and CIC values to soft switch 204; mapping of access server 254, 256 ports to DALs and customer IDs; and tables necessary to support COS restrictions. Configuration information for AGs and TGs includes: number and configuration of bays, modules, lines and channels; relationship of modules, line and channels to OPC, DPC and CIC values; and relationship of module, line and channels to trunk groups. Tables necessary to support class of service restrictions include: LATA tables; state tables; and blocked country code tables. Configuration server 206 also contains information related to customer trigger plans and service options. Customer trigger plans provide call processing logic used in connecting a call. Configuration server 206 information is queried during call processing to identify the service logic to be executed for each call. The information that soft switch 204 uses to look-up customer profile data is the ANI, trunk ID or destination number for the call. The information that will be returned defines the call processing logic that is associated with ANI, trunk ID or destination number or trunk group. Table 12 includes an example of a customer profile query. TABLE 12 Customer Profile Query Customer Profile Query Field Value Customer identification type DDD, DAL ID, Customer ID Customer identification The value for the DDD, Trunk ID Table 13 includes an example of a customer profile query response provided by configuration server 206. TABLE 13 Customer Profile Query Response Customer Profile Response Field Value Customer identification type DDD, Trunk ID Customer Identification The value for the DDD, Trunk ID Class of Service restriction None Type Intrastate IntraLATA Domestic Domestic and selected international Selected International List ID When the class of service restriction type is domestic and selected international destinations, this is an index to the list of allowed international destinations. Account Code Type None Verified Forced Unverified Forced Unverified Unforced Partially Verified Forced Account code length 2-12 digits Local Service Area, State, For queries on numbers, these fields are LATA, and Country identify the geographic information that is necessary to process the call. Configuration server 206 interfaces to components. Configuration server 206 receives provisioning and reference data updates from data distributor 222 of provisioning component 222. Configuration server 206 also provides data to soft switch 204 for call processing. Configuration server 206 is used by soft switch 204 to retrieve information necessary for initialization and call processing. Information that soft switch 204 retrieves from configuration server 206 during a query is primarily oriented towards customer service provisioning and gateway site 108, 110 port configuration. Configuration server 206 database tables accessible to soft switch 204 include the following: toll free number to SCP type translation; SCP type to SCP translation; CICs profiles; ANI profiles summary; ANI profiles; account code profiles; NPA/NXX; customer profiles; customer location profiles; equipment service profiles; trunk group service profile summaries; trunk group services; high risk countries; and selected international destinations. Configuration server 206 uses a separate physical interface for all SNMP messages and additional functions that may be defined. Examples of additional functions that may be defined include provisioning, updating, and the passage of special alarms and performance parameters to configuration server 206 from the NOC. In an alternative embodiment, the functionality of configuration server 206 can be combined with that of route server 212 in a single network component. In an additional embodiment of the invention, the functions of either or both of CS 206 and RS 212 can be performed by application logic residing on soft switch 204. f. Route Server (RS) FIG. 8A depicts route server support for an exemplary soft switch site 800. FIG. 8A includes route server 212a and route server 212b. Route servers 212a and 212b are connected via redundant connections to soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c. Soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c are in turn connected to gateway sites via data network 112 (not shown). For example, soft switch 204a is in communication with TG 232a and TG 232b. Similarly soft switch 204b is in communication with AG 238a and TG 234a. Soft switch 204c is in turn in communication with AG 238b and AG 240a. It would be apparent to a person skilled in the art that additional TGs and AGs, as well as other gateway site devices, (such as a NAS device) can also be in communication with soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c. Route server 212 will now be described in further detail with reference to FIG. 2. Route server 212 provides at least two functions. Route server 212 performs the function of supporting the logic for routing calls based upon a phone number. This routing, performed by route server 212, results in the selection of one or more circuit groups for termination. Another function of route server 212 is the tracking and allocation of network ports. As shown in FIG. 8A, route server 212 (collocated with other components at soft switch site 104) services routing requests for all soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c at that site. Therefore, route server 212 tracks port resources for all TGs 232a, 232b and 234a and AGs 238a, 238b and 240a that are serviced by soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c at soft switch site 104. (1) Route Server Routing Logic The routing logic accepts translated phone numbers and uses anywhere from full digit routing to NPA-based routing to identify a terminating circuit group. Routing logic selects the translation based upon the best match of digits in the routing tables. An exemplary routing table is illustrated as Table 14. TABLE 14 Number Routing Table Terminating Number Circuit Group Priority Load 303-926-3000 34 1 50% 303-926-3000 56 1 50% 303-926-3000 23 2 303-926 76 1 303 236 1 44 1784 470 330 564 1 44 923 1 In Table 14, there are five entries that can match the dialed number “303-926-3000”. The first route choice is the one that has a full match of digits with priority one. Since there are two entries with full matching digits, and which are marked as priority one, the load should be distributed as shown in the load column, (i.e., 50% load share is distributed to the first, and 50% load share is distributed to the second). The second route choice is the entry with a full digit match, but marked with the lower priority of two. The third route match is the one that has a matching NPA-NXX. The last route choice is the one that has a matching NPA only. In situations where there are multiple route choices for a DDD number (i.e., the number of called party 120) route server 212 must take into consideration several factors when selecting a terminating circuit group. The factors to be considered in selecting a terminating circuit group include: (1) the percent loading of circuit groups as shown in the load column of Table 14; (2) the throttling use of trunk groups to avoid overloaded networks; (3) the fact that end office trunk groups should be selected before tandem office trunk groups; and (4) routing based upon negotiated off-network carrier agreements. Agreements should be negotiated with off-network carriers to provide the flexibility to route calls based upon benefits of one agreement another. The following types of agreements can be accounted for: (1) commitments for the number of minutes given to a carrier per month or per year; (2) the agreement that for specific NPA or NPA-NXX sets, one carrier may be preferred over another; (3) the agreement that international calls to specific countries may have preferred carriers; (4) the agreement that intra-LATA or intra-state calls originating for certain areas may have a preferred carrier in that area; and (5) the agreement that extended area service calls may have a preferred carrier. The logic for route server 212 can include routing for international calls. In the example shown in Table 14, it is possible to have fully specified international numbers, or simply specified routing, for calls going to a particular country. As with domestic numbers, the routing logic should select the table entry that matches the most digits within the dialed number, (i.e. the number of called party 120). (2) Route Server Circuit Management Once a terminating circuit group has been identified, route server 212 needs to allocate a terminating circuit within the trunk group. The selection of a terminating circuit is made by querying the port status table. Table 15A shows an exemplary port status table. The results of a query to port status Table 15A yields the location and allocation of a circuit. Route server 212 can use algorithms to select circuits within the trunk group. Each circuit group can be tagged with the selected algorithm that should be used when selecting circuits within that group. Example algorithms to select circuits within the group include: (1) the most recently used circuit within a circuit group; (2) the least recently used circuit within a circuit group; (3) a circular search, keeping track of the last used circuit and selecting the next available circuit; (4) the random selection of an available circuit within a circuit group; and (5) a sequential search of circuits within a circuit group, selecting the lowest numbered available circuit. Table 15A illustrates the association between a circuit group and the selection algorithm that should be used to allocate ports from that group. TABLE 15A Circuit Group Parameters Circuit group Selection algorithm 34 Random 35 Least recently used TABLE 15B Port Status Circuit group Port Status 34 3-4-6-1 Avail 34 3-4-6-2 In-use 34 3-4-6-3 avail 34 3-4-6-4 avail Table 15B includes the circuit group (that a port is a member of), a port identifier, and the current status of that port. The port identifier shown in Table 15B assumes the type of port identification currently used in the IPDC protocol, where the port is represented by a bay, module, line and channel (BMLC). It would be apparent to persons skilled in the art that other methods of identifying a port can be used. The function of route server 212 is to provide least-cost routing information to soft switch 204, in order to route a call from calling party 102 to called party 120. In addition to providing routing information, route server 212 allocates ports for terminating calls on the least cost routes, e.g., allocating ports within TGs 232, 234. Route server pair 212 is located at each of soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 and services all soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, 304a, 304b, 304c, 306a, 306b and 306c at that site. (Refer to FIG. 3.) Route server 212 interacts with at least two other voice network components. Route server 212 interacts with configuration server 206. Configuration server 206 is used to retrieve initial information on route server 212 start-up to set up the initial routing tables in preparation for receiving requests from soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c, for example. Route server 212 also interfaces with soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can send route requests to route server 212 that contain either a phone number or a circuit group. Route server 212 can perform its least cost routing logic to first select a terminating circuit group for the call. Using that circuit group, route server 212 can then select and allocate a terminating circuit. A description of the messages and model of interaction between route server 212 and soft switch 204 follows. Route server 212 is used by soft switch 204 to identify the possible network terminations for a call. Soft switch 204 passes a DDD number, an international DDD (IDDD) number, or a circuit group to route server 212 in a “route request” message. Using this information from soft switch 204, route server 212 can return the port on an AG 238, 240 or TG 232, 234 that should be used to terminate this call. Using this port information, soft switch 204 can then signal the originating and terminating TG or AG to connect the call through data network 112. The route server 212 will now be described further with reference to FIG. 2B. FIG. 2B depicts a sample call flow 258, illustrating how soft switch 204 interacts with route server 212 to identify a terminating port for a call. In exemplary call flow 258, the call originates and terminates at different sites, specifically, gateway sites 108, and 110. Since exemplary call flow 258 originates and terminates at different sites, the cooperation of the originating soft switch 204 and terminating soft switch 304 and route servers 212, 314, respectively to identify the terminating circuit. Portions of the call flow will now be described in greater detail. As depicted in step 259, for calls arriving on SS7 signal trunks, soft switch 204 receives call arrival notifications in the form of IAM messages. Upon receipt of the IAM message from SS7 GW 208, soft switch 204 performs some initial digit analysis to determine the type of the call. In step 260, for calls involving customer features, soft switch 204 can use the ANI of calling party 102 (i.e., the telephone number of calling party 102) to query a customer profile database in configuration server 206. This is done to identify the originating customer's feature set. Each customer's feature set is known as a “trigger plan” for origination of the call. A trigger plan can be thought of as a flowchart which branches based on certain triggering events dependent on the caller's identity. Customer trigger plans 290 reside in a customer profile on configuration server 206. In step 262, the customer profile database of configuration server 206 returns the customer trigger plan 290 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can perform any processing necessary to implement the customer's specified originating triggers. Application logic in soft switch 204 can then generate a translated number or an identification of the terminating circuit group for this call. For example, in the case of an 800 call, a translation may be requested as in step 265 of an SCP 214. SCP 214 converts the 800 number into a normal number for termination, and in step 266 returns the number to soft switch 204. In step 267, in order to translate the translated number or circuit group into an egress port, soft switch 204 makes a route request to route server 212. The routing logic uses the NPA-NXX-XXXX to identify the terminating circuit group. Upon identifying the terminating circuit group, the route logic queries a circuit group to soft switch mapping table in route logic 294 of route server 212, to identify the target soft switch that handles the identified termination. For example, the target soft switch may be soft switch 304. It is important to note that there can be multiple route choices, and therefore there can be multiple soft switches 204, 304 supporting a single route request. In step 268, route server 212 responds to soft switch 204 with the terminating circuit group. In this example, the terminating circuit group is included in trunks connected to trunking gateway 234, which is serviced by a different soft switch (namely soft switch 304) than originating soft switch 204. Therefore, route server 212 responds with the terminating circuit group and identifies soft switch 304 as the soft switch that handles that terminating circuit group. In step 269, originating soft switch 204 initiates the connection from the origination to the termination, by requesting a connection from the originating trunking gateway 232. Trunking gateway 232, upon receipt of the set-up request from soft switch 204, allocates internal resources in trunking gateway 232. TG 232 manages its own ports. In an example embodiment, TG 232 uses real time protocol (RTP) over UDP, and RTP sessions, which are ports used to implement an RTP connection. In step 270, TG 232 returns to soft switch 204 the IP address and listed RTP port. In step 274, originating soft switch 204 issues a call setup command to terminating soft switch 304. This is the command identified by route server 212. In step 276, soft switch 304 queries route server 314 to determine the termination port for the call. Specifically, soft switch 304 queries port status 298 of route server 314. The query in step 276, “passes in” as a parameter the terminating circuit group. In step 278, route server 314 allocates a termination port and returns the allocated termination port to terminating soft switch 304. In step 280, terminating soft switch 304 instructs the identified end point (i.e., trunking gateway 234) to reserve resources, and to connect the call. Terminating soft switch 304 passes in an IP address and an RTP port corresponding to the port that was allocated by originating TG 232. In step 282, terminating TG 234 returns the allocated resources for the call to soft switch 304. For voice over IP (VOIP) connections, this includes the listed port and IP address for the terminating TG 234. In step 284, terminating soft switch 304 returns to originating soft switch 204 the IP address of TG 234. In step 286, originating soft switch 204 communicates with originating TG 232 in order to inform originating TG 232 of the listed port that was allocated by terminating TG 234. At this point, originating TG 232 and terminating TG 234 have enough information to exchange full duplex information. In step 288, originating TG 232 acknowledges the receipt of the communication from soft switch 304 to soft switch 204. Table 16A shows fields that can be included in a route request sent from soft switch 204 to route server 212. The route request can contain either a DDD number or a circuit group that requires routing. The route request message can also contain information about the call, collected from the IAM message, that is necessary to perform routing of this call. The route request message can also contain information about the call, necessary to perform routing of the call, which is obtained from the processing of the call. For example, in the case of an 800 call, this information can be a translated number. TABLE 16A Values for Route Request sent to the Route Server OSCP Route Request Parameter Route Server - Route Request Value Message Type Route Server Route Request Call Reference Unique call identifier Requesting Soft Switch Soft Switch ID Bearer Capability Voice, Data or Fax Destination type DDD or circuit group Destination Fully translated DDD (or IDDD) number or circuit group ID Originating LATA LATA from IAM or from DAL profile Calling Number ANI Originating station type II-digits from IAM or DAL profile Collected Digits Not Used for Route Server Table 16B shows fields which can be included in a response corresponding to the route response, sent from route server 212 back to soft switch 204. Alternatively, each route response can include one route termination, and multiple consecutive route terminations can be determined with multiple route request/response transactions. TABLE 16B Values for Route Response sent from the Route Server Customer Profile Query Field Route Server - Route Response Value Message Type Route Server Route Response Call Reference Unique call identifier Result code Success/Fail Number of responses Number of responses sent from the route server Destination circuit Terminating circuit group for the first route group - 1 Destination circuit - 1 Terminating circuit allocated by the route server for the first route Outpulse digits - 1 Outpulse digit format for selected circuit on the first route Destination number - 1 Destination number for the first route Destination Soft Switch - 1 Soft switch servicing the circuit group for the first route Destination circuit Terminating circuit group for the Nth route group - N Destination circuit - N Terminating circuit allocated by the route server for the Nth route Outpulse digits - N Outpulse digit format for selected circuit on the Nth route Destination number - N Destination number for the Nth route Destination Soft Switch − Soft switch servicing the circuit group for the N Nth route The route response message can contain a plurality of route terminations for the DDD or circuit group that was passed in as a parameter to route server 212. For example, the route response message can include 1 to 5 route choices. Each of the route choices of the route response message can include various fields of information. For example, each route choice can include the following information: the circuit group, the circuit, the outpulse digits, the destination number and the destination soft switch 304. Alternatively, each route response can include one route termination and multiple consecutive route terminations can be determined with multiple route request/route response transactions. In situations where the selected circuit group is managed by the same route server 212 that serviced the route request, the response for that route can contain all the information about the destination. This is possible because route server 212 can identify and allocate the circuit within the circuit group. In situations where another route server 314 services the selected circuit group, the response for that route only contains the circuit group and the destination soft switch 304. Originating soft switch 204 can then make a request to terminating soft switch 304 to query the terminating route server 314 for a circuit within the identified circuit group. The terminating soft switch 304 can then control the termination of the call. g. Regional Network Event Collection Point (RNECP) Referring back to FIG. 2A, regional network event collection points (RNECPs) 224 serve as collection points for real-time recorded call events that can be used by other systems. Soft switch 204 generates call data. This call data can be collected during call processing. Call data can also be generated by capturing events from other network elements. These network elements include internal soft switch site 104 components and external components. External components include SCPs 214, intelligent peripherals (IPs), AGs 238,240, TGs 232, 234, and signaling components, such as STPs 250,252, SSPs, and off switch SCPs. Soft switch 204 provides call event data to RNECPs 224. Call data can be collected by a primary and secondary server at each RNECP 224, using high availability redundancy to minimize the possibility of potential data loss. Data from RNECPs 224 can then be transmitted in real-time to a centralized server, called the master network event database (MNEDB) 226. The MNEDB is discussed further below, with reference to FIG. 20. FIG. 9 depicts a network event collection architecture 900. FIG. 9 includes western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. Soft switch sites 104, 106, 302 are illustrated as including RNE CPs for collecting events and routing events to a master database. Specifically, western soft switch site 104 has soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c communicating via a local area network to RNECPs 224a, 224b. RNECPs can include disks 914, 916. RNECPs 224a, 224b can be in direct communication with, as well as can take a primary and a secondary role in communicating with, soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c. RNECPs 224a, 224b can route network events through management virtual private network (VPN) 910 to master network event data center 912. Network events come through management VPN 910 and can be routed via redundant paths to MNEDB server 226a and/or MNEDB 226b. MNEDBs 226a and 226b can communicate with one another. MNEDB 226a uses disks 926a as primary storage for its database. MNEDB 226a also uses disks 926b for secondary storage. Similarly MNEDB 226b uses primary and secondary disks, 926a, 926b. MNEDB 226a and MNEDB 226b can be collocated or can be geographically diverse. Thus master data center 912 can be either in one geographical area or in multiple locations. Management VPN 910 also collects events from the other soft switch sites, i.e., central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. Central soft switch site 106 includes soft switches 304a, 304b, 304c redundantly connected via a LAN to RNECPs 902 and 904. RNECP 902 has disks 918 and 920. Eastern soft switch site 302 includes soft switches 306a, 306b, 306c, redundantly connected via a LAN. RNECPs 906 and 908 RNECP 906 can have disks 922 and 924. RNECPs 902 and 904 of central soft switch site 106 and RNECPs 906 and 908 of eastern soft switch site 302 can route network events for storage in disks 926a, 926b of MNEDBs 226a, 226b. This is done by routing network events via management VPN 910 to master data center 912. The soft switches generate event blocks and push event block data to the RNECPs. (Event blocks are recorded call events that are created during call processing.) Each RNECP 224a, 224b, 902, 904, 906 and 908 forwards collected event blocks (EBs) to (MNEDBs) 226a, 226b, which are centralized databases. RNECPs 224a, 224b, 902, 904, 906 and 908 use separate physical interfaces for all SNMP messages and additional functions that may be defined. Additional functions that can be defined include provisioning, updating, and passing special alarm and/or performance parameters to RNECPs from the network operation center (NOC). RNECPs 224a, 224b, 902, 904, 906 and 908 are used by soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, 304a, 304b, 304c, 306a, 306b and 306c to collect generated call events for use in such services as preparation of billing and reporting. At specific points throughout the duration of a call, soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, 304a, 304b, 304c, 306a, 306b and 306c take the information that the soft switches have collected during call processing and push that data to the RNECPs. Multiple types of data are logged by the soft switches during call processing of a normal one plus (1+) long distance call using account codes. Examples of data logged by an exemplary soft switch 204 include: a call origination record on the originating side, call termination information on the terminating side, an account code record, egress routing information, answer information on the originating side, call disconnect information on the originating side, call disconnect information on the terminating side, and final event blocks with call statistics. Exemplary soft switch 204 can record data during call processing. Soft switch 204 transfers call events from RNECP 224 to MNEDB 226 for storage. This call event data, stored in MNEDB 226, can be used by various downstream systems for post-processing. These systems include, for example, mediation, end-user billing, carrier access billing services (CABS), fraud detection/prevention, capacity management and marketing. There are at least two types of EBs. Example Mandatory and Augmenting event blocks can be explained as follows. Mandatory EBs are created by soft switch 204 during the initial point-in-call analysis. Initial point-in-call analysis includes going off-hook, (picking up the telephone set) call <insert> setup, initial digit analysis (i.e., digit analysis prior to any external database transactions or route determinations). Since other events such as, for example, session/call answer, and SCP transactions, can occur during call processing, soft switch 204 can create augmenting EBs. Augmenting EBs are EBs which can augment the information found in a mandatory EB. Events such as, for example, route determination, and answer indication, can be recorded in an augmenting EBs. Examples of mandatory and augmenting EBs follow. For a complete illustration of these EBs, the reader is referred to Tables 20-143 and the corresponding discussions below. Specifically, Tables 20-48 provide mandatory EBs, Tables 49-60 provide augmenting EBs, and Tables 61-143 provide the call event elements that comprise the Ebs. (1) Example Mandatory Event Blocks EBs The following event blocks are examples of Mandatory Event Blocks: EB 0001—Domestic Toll (TG Origination); EB 0002—Domestic Toll (TG Termination); EB 0003—Domestic Toll (AG Origination); EB 0004—Domestic Toll (AG Termination); EB 0005—Local (TG Origination); EB 0006—Local (TG Termination); EB 0007—Local (AG Origination); EB 0008—Local (AG Termination); EB 0009—8XX/Toll-Free (TG Origination); EB 0010—8XX/Toll-Free (TG Termination); EB 0011—8XX/Toll-Free (AG Origination); EB 0012—8XX/Toll Free (AG Termination); EB 0013—Domestic Operator Services (TG Termination); EB 0014—Domestic Operator Services (AG Origination); EB 0015—Domestic Operator Services (OSP Termination); EB 0016—International Operator Services (TG Origination); EB 0017—International Operator Services (AG Origination); EB 0018—International Operator Services (OSP Termination); EB 0019—Directory Assistance/555-1212 (TG Origination); EB 0020—Directory Assistance/555-1212 (AG Origination); EB 0021—Directory Assistance/555-1212 (DASP Termination); EB 0022—OSP/DASP Extended Calls (Domestic); EB 0023—OSP/DASP Extended Calls (International); EB 0024—International Toll (TG Origination); EB 0025—International Toll (AG Origination); EB 0026—International Toll (TG Termination); EB 0027—International Toll (AG Termination); EB 0040—IP Origination; and EB 0041—IP Termination. (2) Augmenting Event Blocks EBs The following event blocks are examples of Augmenting Event Blocks: EB 0050—Final Event Block; EB 0051—Answer Indication; EB 0052—Ingress Trunking Disconnect Information; EB 0053—Egress Trunking Disconnect Information; EB 0054—Basic 8XX/Toll-Free SCP Transaction Information; EB 0055—Calling Party (Ported) Information; EB 0056—Called Party (Ported) Information; EB 0057—Egress Routing Information (TG Termination); EB 0058—Routing Congestion Information; EB 0059—Account Code Information; EB 0060—Egress Routing Information (AG Termination); and EB 0061—Long Duration Call Information. h. Software Object Oriented Programming (OOPs) Class Definitions (1) Introduction to Object Oriented Programming (OOP) In an example embodiment, soft switch site 104 comprises a plurality of object oriented programs (OOPs) running on a computer. As apparent to those skilled in the art, soft switch site 104 can alternatively be written in any form of software. (a) Object Oriented Programming (OOP) Tutorial OOPs can be described at a high level by defining object oriented programming classes. For example, in an embodiment of the present invention, soft switch 204 comprise an OOP written in an OOP language. Example languages include C++ and JAVA. An OOP model is enforced via fundamental mechanisms known as encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism. Encapsulation may be thought of as placing a wrapper around the software code and data of a program. The basis of encapsulation is a structure known as a class. An object is a single instance of a class. A class describes general attributes of that object. A class includes a set of data attributes plus a set of allowable operations (i.e., methods). The individual structure or data representation of a class is defined by a set of instance variables. Inheritance is another feature of an OOP model. A class (called a subclass) may be derived from another class, (called a superclass) wherein the subclass inherits the data attributes and methods of the superclass. The subclass may specialize the superclass by adding code which overrides the data and/or methods of the superclass, or which adds new data attributes and methods. Thus, inheritance represents a mechanism by which subclasses are more precisely specified. A new subclass includes all the behavior and specification of all of its ancestors. Inheritance is a major contributor to the increased programmer efficiency provided by the OOP. Inheritance makes it possible for developers to minimize the amount of new code they have to write to create applications. By providing the significant portion of the functionality needed for a particular task, classes on the inheritance hierarchy give the programmer a head start to program design and creation. Polymorphism refers to having one object and many shapes. It allows a method to have multiple implementations selected based on the type of object passed into a method and location. Methods are passed information as parameters. These are parameters passed as both a method and an invocation of a method. Parameters represent the input values to a function that the method must perform. The parameters are a list of “typed” values which comprise the input data to a particular message. The OOP model may require that the types of the values be exactly matched in order for the message to be understood. Object-oriented programming is comprised of software objects that interact and communicate with each other by sending one another messages. Software objects are often modeled from real-world objects. Object-oriented programs of the present invention are hardware platform independent. Client computer 7008 in a preferred embodiment is a computer workstation, e.g., a Sun UltraSPARC Workstation, available from SUN Microsystems, Inc., of Palo Alto, Calif., running an operating system such as UNIX. Alternatively a system running on another operating system can be used, as would be apparent to those skilled in the art. Other exemplary operating systems include Windows/NT, Windows98, OS/2, Mac OS, and other UNIX-based operating systems. Exemplary UNIX-based operating systems include solaris, IRIX, LINUX, HPUX and OSF. However, the invention is not limited to these platforms, and can be implemented on any appropriate computer systems or operating systems. An exemplary computer system is shown in FIG. 70B. Other network components of telecommunications network 200, such as, for example, route server 212 and configuration server 206, can also be implemented using computer system 7008 shown in FIG. 70B. Computer system 7008 includes one or more processors 7012. Processor 7012 is connected to a communication bus 7014. Client computer 7006 also includes a main memory 7016, preferably random access memory (RAM), and a secondary memory 7018. Secondary memory 7018 includes hard disk drive 7020 and/or a removable storage drive 7022. Removable storage drive 7022 reads from and/or writes to a removable storage unit 7024 in a well known manner. Removable storage unit 7024 can be a floppy diskette drive, a magnetic tape drive or a compact disk drive. Removable storage unit 7024 includes any computer usable storage medium having stored therein computer software and/or data, such as an object's methods and data. Client computer 7008 has one or more input devices, including but not limited to a mouse 7026 (or other pointing device such as a digitizer), a keyboard 7028, or any other data entry device. Computer programs (also called computer control logic), including object oriented computer programs, are stored in main memory 7016 and/or the secondary memory 7018 and/or removable storage units 7024. Computer programs can also be called computer program products. Such computer programs, when executed, enable computer system 7008 to perform the features of the present invention as discussed herein. In particular, the computer programs, when executed, enable the processor 7012 to perform the features of the present invention. Accordingly, such computer programs represent controllers of computer system 7008. In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a computer program product comprising a computer readable medium having control logic (computer software) stored therein. The control logic, when executed by processor 7012, causes processor 7012 to perform the functions of the invention as described herein. In yet another embodiment, the invention is implemented primarily in hardware using, for example, one or more state machines. Implementation of these state machines so as to perform the functions described herein will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant arts. (2) Software Objects in an OOP Environment Prior to describing the class definitions in detail, a description of an exemplary software object in an OOP environment is described. FIG. 70A is a graphical representation of a software object 7002. Software object 7002 is comprised of methods and variables. For example software object 7002 includes methods 1-8 7004 and variables VI-VN 7006. Methods 7004 are software procedures that, when executed, cause software objects variables 7006 to be manipulated (as needed) to reflect the effects of actions of software object 7002. The performance of software object 7002 is expressed by its methods 7004. The knowledge of software object 7002 is expressed by its variables 7006. In object oriented programming, software objects 7002 are outgrowths (or instances) of a particular class. A class defines methods 7004 and variables 7006 that are included in a particular type of software object 7002. Software objects 7002 that belong to a class are called instances of the class. A software object 7002 belonging to a particular class will contain specific values for the variables contained in the class. For example, a software class of vehicles may contain objects that define a truck, a car, a trailer and a motorcycle. In object oriented programming, classes are arranged in a hierarchical structure. Objects that are defined as special cases of a more general class automatically inherit the method and variable definitions of the general class. As noted, the general class is referred to as the superclass. The special case of the general class is referred to as the subclass of the general class. In the above example, vehicles is the general class and is, therefore, referred to as the superclass. The objects (i.e. truck, car, trailer, and motorcycle) are all special cases of the general class, and are therefore referred to as subclasses of the vehicle class. (3) Class Definitions Example OOP class definitions are now described. The functions performed by the methods included in the class definitions, and the type of information stored in and/or passed as parameters in the variables of the classes depicted, will be apparent to those skilled in the art. (a) Soft Switch Class FIG. 4B depicts a soft switch OOP class 418. Soft switch class 418 may be instantiated to create a soft switch application object. Related OOP classes will be described with reference to FIGS. 4C, 4D and 4E. Soft switch class 418 includes variables 420 and methods 422. Variables 420 include information about a soft switch 204, including soft switch 204's identifier (ID), error message information, RNECP information, alarm server information, and run time parameters. Variables 420 can be used to provide information to the methods 422 included in soft switch class 418. Methods 422 can include a method to start a soft switch to receive information, to receive a message, to receive a response to a message, and to perform updates. Methods 422 also include the means to read configuration data, to acknowledge messages, to get call context information from a signaling message, and to get call context information from an IPDC message. Methods 422 also include the means to get call context information from a route response, to get call context information from a route server message, and to forward messages. FIG. 4B includes SS7 gateway proxy 424 which can have inter-object communication with soft switch class 418. FIG. 4B also includes route server proxy 426 and configuration server proxy 428, which can also have inter-object communication. These proxies can also be instantiated by soft switch class 418 objects. FIG. 4B also includes route response 430, signaling message 432, and IPDC message 434, which can be passed parameters from soft switch class 418. FIG. 4F depicts a block diagram 401 of interprocess communication including the starting of a soft switch command and control functions by a network operations center. Diagram 401 illustrates intercommunications between network operations center (NOC) 2114, soft switch 204 and configuration server (CS) 206. NOC 2114 communicates 404 with soft switch 418 to startup soft switch command and control. Soft switch command and control startup registers 405 soft switch 204 with CS 206 by communicating 411 with CS proxy 702, and accepts configuration information for soft switch 204 from CS 206. FIG. 4G depicts a block diagram of soft switch command and control startup by a network operations center sequencing diagram 413, including message flows 415, 417, 419, 421 and 423. FIG. 4H depicts a block diagram of soft switch command and control registration with configuration server sequencing diagram 425, including message flows 427, 429, 431 and 433. FIG. 4I depicts a block diagram of soft switch accepting configuration information from configuration server sequencing diagram 435, including message flows 437, 439, 441, 443, 445 and 447. (b) Call Context Class FIG. 4C illustrates a call context class 438 OOP class definition. Call context class 438 includes variables 440 and methods 442. Variables 440 can be used to store information about call context class objects 438. For example, variables 440 can include signaling message information for an incoming message, signaling message information for an outgoing message, a time stamp, and the number of stored signaling messages. Methods 442 include various functions which can be performed by call context class 438. For example, methods 442 include a call context message which passes parameters identifying a call event and a signaling message. Other methods 442 include a function to get an IAM message, to get a call event identifier, to get an originating network ID, to get a terminating network ID, to get a signaling message, and to get a subroute. Methods 442 also include the means to add an ACM message, an ANM message, an REL message, an RLC message, a connect message, and a route response message. Methods 442 also permit call context class 438 to set various states as, for example, that an ACM was sent, an IAM was received, an RTP connect was sent, a CONI was received, a connect was sent, an answer was sent, an REL was sent, that the system is idle, that an ANM was sent, or that an RLC was sent. Methods 442 can also get a route. FIG. 4C also includes route response 430, call context repository 444, call event identifier 448, and network ID 452. Call context repository 444 includes methods 446. Methods 446 include a register function, a function to get call context, and to find call context. Call event identifier 448 includes the function of identifying a call event 450. (c) Signaling Message Class FIG. 4D includes signaling message class 432 OOP class definition. Signaling message class 432 includes variables 456 and methods 458. Variables 456 include an originating message and a type of the message. Classes 481 inherit from classes 432, i.e. class 432 is the base class for SS7 signaling messages. Methods 458 include various signaling message functions which can pass various parameters and receive various parameters. Parameters which can be sent by signaling message functions include the request/response header (Rhs), the signaling message, the network ID, the port, the route response, the IPDC message and the soft switch information. Methods 458 also include the function to set the originating ingress port, to set the network identifier, to get a message type, and to get a network identifier. FIG. 4D also includes network ID 452 and route response 430. Network ID 452 can communicate with signal message class objects 432. Route response 430 can receive parameters passed by signaling message class objects 432. FIG. 4D also includes ACK message 460, IAM message 464, ACM message 468, ANM message 472, REL message 476, and RLC message 480, collectively referred to as SS7 signaling message class definitions 481. Each message of SS7 message class definition 481 includes various functions. For example ACK message 460 includes methods 462, i.e., the ACK message function. IAM message 464 includes methods 466. Methods 466 include several functions, such as, for example the IAM message function, the get dialed digits function, the get NOA function and the get ANI function. ACM message 468 includes method 470, which includes function ACM message. ANM message 472 includes methods 474, which includes the ANM message function. REL message 476 includes methods 478, which includes the REL message functions. RLC message 486 includes methods 482, which includes the RLC message functions. (d) SS7 Gateway Class FIG. 5B includes SS7 gateway OOP class definition 532 and SS7 gateway proxy class definition 424. SS7 gateway class 532 includes variables 534, including runtime parameters, STP information, point code, and alias point code for an SS7 gateway. FIG. 5C depicts a block diagram 536 of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with SS7 gateways. Diagram 536 illustrates intercommunications between SS7 gateways (SS7 GW) 208 and soft switch 204. SS7 GW 208 communicates 538, 540 with soft switch 418. Soft switch 418 communicates 538 with SS7 GW proxy 424 accepting signaling messages from SS7 gateways 208. Soft switch 418 communicates 540 with SS7 GW proxy 424 sending signaling messages to SS7 gateway 208. In sending signaling messages, soft switch 204 uses 542 command and control registration of the soft switch 204 with SS7 gateway 208. FIG. 5D depicts a block diagram 542 of interprocess communication including an access server signaling a soft switch to register with SS7 gateways. Diagram 542 illustrates intercommunications between access server 232a, soft switch 204 and SS7 gateway 208. Access server 232a communicates 544 with soft switch 418. Soft switch accepts IPDC messages from access servers from interaction with the servers. This communication extends 544 the soft switch command and control which registers soft switch 204 with SS7 gateways 232a. This registration uses 546 interaction between the soft switch and SS7 gateway 424. SS7 gateway 424 communicates 548 with the soft switch 418. FIG. 5E depicts a block diagram of a soft switch registering with SS7 gateways sequencing diagram 550, including message flows 552-564. (e) IPDC Message Class FIG. 4E illustrates IPDC message OOP class definition 434. IPDC message 434 includes variables 484 and methods 486. Variables 484 include an IPDC identifier for an IPDC message. Methods 486 include IPDC message functions, which pass such parameters as the route node container, RHS, IPDC message, an IN port, an OUT port, and a bay module line channel (BMLC). Methods 486 include the get message type function, the get call event identifier function (i.e. passing the call event identifier variable), and the get IPDC identifier function (i.e., passing the IPDC identifier variable). (f) Call Event Identifier Class FIG. 4E includes call event identifier 448 in communication with IPDC message class 434, and route node container class 488 also in communication with IPDC message class 434 for passing parameters. FIG. 4E also includes exemplary IPDC messages 495, which inherit from IPDC base class 434. IPDC messages 495 include ACR message 490, ACSI message 492, CONI connect message 494, connect message 496, RCR message 498, RTP connect message 454, and TDM cross connect message 497. IPDC messages can include various methods. For example, ACR message 490 can include ACR message function 493. Similarly connect message 496, RCR message 498, and RTP connect message 454, can include connect message function 491, RCR message function 489, RTP connect function methods, respectively. (g) Configuration Proxy Class FIG. 7A illustrates configuration server proxy OOP class definition 702. Configuration server proxy 702 includes methods 704. Methods 704 include multiple functions. For example, methods 704 include the register function, the get configuration data function, the update function, the update all function, and the get data function. FIG. 7B depicts a block diagram 706 of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with configuration server (CS) 206. Diagram 706 illustrates intercommunications between CS 206 and soft switch 204. CS 206 communicates 708, 710 with soft switch 418. Soft switch 418 communicates 708 with CS proxy 702 to register soft switch 204 with CS. Soft switch 418 communicates 710 with CS proxy 702 to permit soft switch 204 to accept configuration information from CS 206. (h) Route Server Class FIG. 8B depicts route server class diagram 802. Class diagram 802 includes route server OOP class definition 804. Route server class 804 includes variables 806 and methods 808. Variables 806 include, for a respective route server 212, an identifier (ID), a ten digit table, a six digit table, a three digit table, a treatment table, a potential term table, an local serving area (LSA) table, a circuit group (CG) table, an destination AD table, a runtime parameters and an alarm server. Methods 808 include several functions. For example methods 808 include a start function, a receive message function, a receive request function, an update function, a process function and a digit analysis function. FIG. 8B includes route server proxy class 426. FIG. 8B also includes route request class 430, from route objects superclass 803, which is passed parameters from route server class 804. FIG. 8B also includes route server message class 810, also from route objects superclass 803, similarly receiving parameters from route server class 804. FIG. 8B also includes configuration server proxy class 428, which is in communication with route server class 804. FIG. 8B also includes RTP pool class 812, chain pool class 814 and modem pool class 818, all of which are from superclass pools 805, and are in communication with route server class 804. Circuit pool class 816, which is also from a superclass 805, is also in communication with route server class 804. (i) Route Objects Class FIG. 8C illustrates superclass route objects 803 in greater detail. FIG. 8C includes route response OOP class definition 430. Route response class 430 includes variables 820 and methods 822. Variables 820 include the type of a route response and a version of the route response. Methods 822 include several functions. For example, methods 822 include the route response function, the get type of route response function, the get call event identifier function, the get originating out BMLC function, the get originating IP function, the get terminating out BMLC function, the get terminating IP function, and the get terminating network ID function. FIG. 8C includes route calculator class 824, including methods 826, which include a calculate function. FIG. 8C includes route server message class 810, including methods 828. Methods 828 include several functions, including the route server message function, and the get BMLCs function. FIG. 8C includes call event identifier class 448. Network call event identifier 448 is in communication with route response class 430. FIG. 8C also depicts route request class 832 in communication with call event identifier class 448. Route request class 832 includes variables 834 and methods 836. Variables 834 include the nature of address, the dialed digits, the ANI, version, and the jurisdiction information parameters, of route request class 832. Methods 836 include multiple functions. Methods 836 include the route request function, the get dialed digits function, the get nature of address function, and the get network ID function. Network ID class 452 is in communication with route request class 832. Potential term container class 844 is in communication with route response class 430. Route class 840 is in communication with route response class 430. Route class 840 includes methods 842. Methods 842 include several functions. For example methods 842 can include a route function, a get next function, a begin function, an end function, a get current function, an add route node function, and an end function. Route node class 846 is in communication with route class 840. Route node 846 includes variables 848 and methods 850. Variables 848 include a BMLC, an IP, a location, and a bay name for a particular route node. Methods 850 include several functions. For example methods 850 can include a get OPC function, a get DPC function, a get terminating CIC (TCIC) function, a get IP function, a reserve function, a route node function, a get type function, a match function, a get pool function and a get BMLC function. Call event identifier class 448 is in communication with route node class 846. Route node class 846 has additional route node subclasses 851. Route node subclasses 851 include MLC route node class 852, modem route node class 856, RTP route node class 858 and treatment route node class 862. MLC route node class 852 includes methods 854. Methods 854 includes several functions. For example methods 854 can include a match function, an are you available function, a get BMLC function and an unreserve function. RTP route node class 858 includes methods 860. Methods 860 include several functions, e.g., a get address port pair function. Treatment route node class 862 includes variables 864, e.g., an announcement to play variable. RTP route node class 858 has two subclasses, i.e. IP address class 866 and IP port class 868. Finally, FIG. 8C includes route node container class 488. Route node container class 488 includes methods 853. Methods 853 can include several functions, e.g., a begin function, a get current function, and a next function. FIG. 8F depicts a block diagram 894 of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with route server (RS) 212. Diagram 894 illustrates intercommunications between RS 212 and soft switch 204. RS 804 accepts 896 route requests from soft switch 418 and sends 898 route responses from RS 804 to soft switch 418. Soft switch manages ports by using RS 804 to process 899 unallocate messages from soft switch 418. (j) Pool Class FIG. 8D depicts superclass pool class 870. Pool class 870 includes methods 872, including a get route node function and a find route node function. Pool class 870 has a plurality of subpool classes 871. Subpool classes 871 include modem pool class 818, real-time transport protocol (RTP) pool class 812, and chain pool class 814. RTP pool class 812 includes methods 876. Methods 876 include several functions, including a get originating route node function, a get terminating out route node function and a get route node function. Chain pool class 814 includes methods 878, including a get function, a get route node function, a get chain pair function and a get route node function. In communication with modem pool class 818 is modem route node class 856, which is a subclass from route objects 803. In communication with chain pool class 814 is chain pair class 874. Chain pair class 874 includes methods 880, including a match MLC route node function, a match function and an are you available function. Chain pair class 874 is in communication with MLC route node class 852, i.e., a subclass of route objects class 803. (k) Circuit Pool Class FIG. 8E illustrates circuit pool class 816 having methods 886, including a get circuit function. In communication with circuit pool class 816 is a circuit class 882 having methods 888, including a get route node function. In communication with circuit class 882 is circuit group class 884 having variables 890 and methods 892. Variables 890 include a trunk group reference and a type for circuit groups of circuit group class 884. Methods 892 include an any available function. Method ID class 452 is in communication with circuit class 882. FIG. 8E also includes module line channel (MLC) route node class 852 from the route objects superclass. 2. Gateway Site FIG. 10A depicts a more detailed drawing 1000 of gateway site 108. FIG. 10A includes gateway site 108 comprising TG 232, NAS 228, AG 238, DACS 242 and announcement server ANS 246. TG 232, NAS 228 and AG 238 collectively are referred to as access server 254. DACs 242 could also be considered an access server 254 if it can be controlled by soft switch 204. TG 232, NAS 228 and AG 238 are connected via an IP interface connection to data network 112. TG 232, NAS 228, AG 238 are connected via separate interface to network management component 118. Specifically, TG 232 is connected to network management component 118 via interface 1002. NAS 228 is connected to network management component 118 via interface 1004. Also, AG 238 is connected to network management component 118 via interface 1006. In addition, FIG. 10A includes ANS 246, which as pictured is connected directly via the IP connection to data network 112. Alternatively, the ANS can functionally exist in other areas of the telecommunications network. For example, ANS 246 can functionality exist in TG 232, as depicted by ANS 1008, TG 232 having ANS functionality 1008. Similarly, ANS functionality (shown as ANS 1010) can be provided by AG 238. FIG. 10A includes customer facility 128, providing access for calling party 122 to AG 238 via a direct access line or dedicated access line (e.g., a PRI or T1). In a preferred embodiment, signaling for calling party 122 is carried inband between customer facility 128 and AG 238 via a signaling channel, e.g., an integrated services digital network (ISDN) data channel (D-channel). Calling party 102, on the other hand, is connected via carrier facility 126 to DACS 242, in order to provide connectivity to TG 232 and NAS 228. In a preferred embodiment, signaling for calling party 102 is carried out-of-band over signaling network 114, as shown in FIG. 10A. FIG. 10B depicts a block diagram 1012 of interprocess communication including soft switch interaction with access servers such as trunking gateway 232a. Diagram 1012 illustrates intercommunications between access server 232a and soft switch 204. Soft switch 418 accepts 1014 IPDC messages from access server 232a. Soft switch 418 sends 1016 IPDC messages to access server 232a. a. Trunking Gateway (TG) A TG is a gateway enabling termination of PSTN co-carrier trunks and feature group-D (FG-D) circuits. FIG. 11A illustrates an exemplary TG 232. Gateway common media processing is illustrated in FIGS. 11B and 11C below. Gateway common media processing on the ingress side will be described with reference to FIG. 11B. Gateway common media processing on the egress side will be described with reference to FIG. 11C. Specifically, FIG. 11A depicts a trunking gateway high level functional architecture 1100 for TG 232. FIG. 11A includes calling party 102, connected via carrier facility 126 to DS3 trunks, which in turn provide connection to TG 232. Signaling for a call from calling party 102 is carried via out-of-band signaling network 114, through SS7 gateway 208, to soft switch 204. This is shown with signaling 1118. TG 232 is controlled by soft switch 204, via the IPDC protocol 1116 through data network 112. TG 232 includes PSTN interface card 1102 connecting TG 232 to the incoming DS3 trunks from the PSTN. PSTN interface card 1102 is connected to a time division multiplexed (TDM) bus 1104. TDM bus 1104 takes the incoming DS3 trunks and separates the trunks, using time division multiplexing, into separate DS1 signals 1106. DS1 1106 can be encoded/decoded via, for example, DSP-based encoder/decoder 1108. Encoder/decoder 1108 typically performs a voice compression, such as G.723.1, G.729, or simply breaks out G.711 64 kbps DS0 channels. Encoder/decoder 1108 is connected to packet bus 1110, for packetizing the incoming digital signals. Packet bus 1110, in turn, is connected to IP Interface cards 1112-1114. IP Interface cards 1112-1114 provide connectivity to data network 112 for transmission of VOIP packets to distant gateways and control messages to soft switch 204. TG 232 also includes network management IP interface 1002 for receiving and sending network management alarms and events via the simple network management protocol (SNMP) to network management component 118. Trunks can handle switched voice traffic and data traffic. For example, trunks can include digital signals DS1-DS4 transmitted over T1-T4 carriers. Table 17 provides typical carriers, along with their respective digital signals, number of channels, and bandwidth capacities. TABLE 17 Bandwidth in Number of Designation Megabits per Digital signal channels of carrier second (Mbps) DS0 1 None 0.064 DS1 24 T1 1.544 DS2 96 T2 6.312 DS3 672 T3 44.736 DS4 4032 T4 274.176 Alternatively, trunks can include optical carriers (OCs), such as OC-1, OC-3, etc. Table 18 provides typical optical carriers, along with their respective synchronous transport signals (STSs), ITU designations, and bandwidth capacities. TABLE 18 Electrical International signal, or Telecommunications synchronous Union Bandwidth in Optical carrier transport signal (ITU) Megabits per (OC) signal (STS) terminology second (Mbps) OC-1 STS-1 51.84 OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 155.52 OC-9 STS-9 STM-3 466.56 OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 622.08 OC-18 STS-18 STM-6 933.12 OC-24 STS-24 STM-8 1244.16 OC-36 STS-36 STM-12 1866.24 OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2488.32 With reference to FIGS. 2A and 11A, TGs 232 and 234 can receive call control messages from and send messages to soft switch 204, via the IPDC protocol. Soft switch site 104 implements a signaling stack, e.g., an SS7 signaling network stack, for communications with legacy PSTN devices. On the ingress side of the telecommunications network, ingress trunking gateway 232 seizes a circuit as a call is initiated (i.e. assuming calling party 102 is placing a call to called party 120). As the circuit is seized at call initiation, SS7 signaling network 114 begins the process of setting up a call, by sending messages via SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. As the call progresses, ingress TG 232 can receive commands from soft switch 204 to complete the call through ingress TG 232 and out through the virtual voice network via the IP interface 1114 to a destination gateway. On the egress side of the network, this process is reversed to complete the call through the interconnected network to egress trunking gateway 234 and ultimately to called party 120. FIG. 11B depicts gateway common media processing components on the ingress side 1140. FIG. 11B begins with incoming media stream 1142. From incoming media stream 1142, tone detection 1144 can occur and then data detection 1146 can occur or tone detection 1144 can be bypassed (see path 1148), as disabled/enabled by soft switch 204 via IPDC. From data detection 1146, silence detection/suppression 1150 can be performed. Next, a coder 1152 can be processed and then the packet stream can be transferred, as shown in 1154. FIG. 11B is now described with respect to ingress trunking gateway 232. Incoming media stream 1142 must be processed as it passes through ingress gateway 232 to complete the call via the IP core data network 112. The first process that takes place is data detection process 1146. Data detection process 1146 attempts to detect the media type of the call traffic. The media type of the call traffic can include voice, data and modem. The media type information can be passed via IPDC protocol to soft switch 204 for process determination. In one embodiment, no additional processing is required. In another embodiment, a compression/decompression software component (CODEC) that is used in performing media processing, can be selected based on data detection process 1146. Specifically, if the data is determined to be modem traffic and if a suitable CODEC exists for the data rate, soft switch 204 can choose to incorporate this CODEC on the stream. Alternatively, if the call is a voice call, soft switch 204 can select the CODEC optimized for voice processing and current network conditions. In an embodiment of the invention, data calls can always be processed with the default bit rate CODEC. In silence detection and suppression process 1150, silence in a voice call can be detected and suppressed, yielding potential decreases in the volume of transmission of packets carrying no digitized voice, due to silence. In encoding process 1152, once a CODEC has been chosen by soft switch 204 or the decision is made to use the default CODEC, the media stream passes through a digital signal processor (DSP) 1108 to apply an appropriate compression algorithm. This compression processing algorithm can take the media stream as a traditional stream from the traditional voice world and transform it into a stream suitable for digital packetization. Once these packets have been formed, ingress TG 232 can process the packets into IP packets and prepare the packets for transport through the IP backbone 112 to egress TG 234. On the egress side of the network, packetized media is converted back to a digital stream. Specifically, egress TG 234 can take the packets from data network 112 and decompress them and decode them with the same DSP process and algorithm used on the ingress side of the network. FIG. 11C depicts exemplary gateway common media processing components on the egress side 1120. FIG. 11C begins with egress TG 234 receiving packets 1122. Next, packets are buffered to compensate for jitter 1124, and comfort noise 1126 can be inserted into the call. Comfort background noise process 1126 can provide reassurance to the party on the other end of the call that the call has not been interrupted, but instead that the other party is merely being silent. Next, decoding process 1128 can be performed by DSP 1108 and echo processing 1130 can detect and cancel echo. Finally, digital bit stream media, (e.g., a DS0), is transferred to a telephony interface (e.g., a DS3 port). Additional media stream processing functions internal to TGs 232, 234 can include, for example, the ancillary processes of silence detection and suppression 1150, voice activation, and comfort noise insertion 1126. The media stream processing functions include, for example, the major core functionality needed for TGs 232, 234. Other functional components needed in trunking gateways 232, 234 can also be included. Other functional components can include the provisioning and maintenance of trunking gateways 232, 234. (1) Trunking Gateway Interfaces TGs 232, 234 provide voice network connectivity to the traditional public switched telephone network (PSTN). TGs 232, 234 can accept co-carrier and feature group-D (FG-D) trunks. It would be apparent to those skilled in the art that TGs 232, 234 can accept other telecommunications trunks. TGs 232, 234 allow for termination of SS7 signaled calls to and from telecommunications network 200. TGs 232, 234 can convert the media stream into packets for transmission over data network 112. TGs 232, 234 also provide a management interface for remote management, control and configuration changes. TGs 232, 234 can interface to multiple components of telecommunications network 200. For example, TGs 232, 234 can interface with, for example, the PSTN for carrying media, soft switch 204 for communication of control messages from soft switch 204, the voice network interface of data network 112 for carrying packetized voice media, and network management component 118 for sending SNMP alerts to the network operation center (NOC). TGs 232, 234 interface to the PSTN via co-carrier or FG-D trunks. These trunks are groomed via DACS 242, 244, to allow multiple two-way 64 kilobits per second (KPS) circuits to pass the media stream into and out of TGs 232, 234. The PSTN interface to TGs 232, 234 provides all low level hardware control for the individual circuits and allows the interface to look like another switch connection to the PSTN network. TGs 232, 234 also interface with soft switch 204. Referring to FIG. 4A, the TG to soft switch interface 412 is used to pass information needed to control the multiple media streams. Soft switch 204 controls all available circuit channels that connect through TGs 232, 234. TG to soft switch interface 412 uses the physical IP network interface cards (NICs) 1112-1114 to send and receive control information to and from soft switch 204 using the IPDC protocol. The IPDC protocol will be described in greater detail below. Referring to FIG. 11A, TGs 232, 234 interface with a voice virtual private network (VPN) that is overlaid on an IP data network 112. The TG to voice VPN interface sends or receives voice packets on the IP side of the network from TGs 232, 234 to other network components, e.g., to another of TGs 232, 234. TG to voice VPN interface, in a preferred embodiment, can physically be a 100 BaseT Ethernet interface, but can be logically divided into virtual ports that can be addressable via soft switch 204. The media stream can be connected through this interface, i.e., the TG to voice VPN interface, to a distant connection with a real-time transport protocol (RTP) connection. TGs 232, 234 can also interface with network management component (NMC) 118 for the purposes of communicating network management SNMP alerts. The TGs 232, 234 to SNMP interface is a management interface that can be connected to NMC 118 of the network management network through a dedicated connection on TGs 232, 234. SNMP messages that are generated at TGs 232, 234 can be passed to the network operations center (NOC) through the TG to SNMP interface. In addition, messages and commands from the NOC can be passed to TGs 232, 234 through this interface for several purposes including, for example, network management, configuration and control. b. Access Gateway (AG) An AG is a gateway that enables customers to connect via a Direct Access Line (DAL) from their customer premise equipment (CPE), such as, for example, a private branch exchange (PBX), to the telecommunications network. The AG terminates outgoing and incoming calls between the CPE, the telecommunications network and the PSTN. FIG. 12 depicts an AG high level functional architecture 1200. FIG. 12 includes calling party 122, connected via customer facility 128 to DAL (e.g., either an ISDN PRI or a T1 DAL). A PRI DAL is connected from the PSTN-to-PSTN interface card 1202a. PSTN interface card 1202a includes ISDN signaling and media, meaning it includes both bearer channels (B-channels) for carrying media and data channels (D-channels) for carrying ISDN signaling information. A T1 DAL can be connected from the PSTN to a PSTN interface card 1202b, supporting T1 in-band channel associated signaling (CAS). PSTN interface cards 1202a, 1202b are connected to TDM bus 1204. Using TDM bus 1204, incoming T1 and PRI signals are broken into separate DS1 signals 1206. DS1 1206 is then encoded via DSP-based encode/decode 1208. After encoding via DSP-based encode/decode 1208, the signal is packetized via packet bus 1210, to be transmitted via IP interface cards 1212-1214, over data network 112. IP packets containing signaling information (e.g., D-channel) are routed to soft switch 204. IP packets containing media are transmitted to other media gateways, i.e. access servers such as an AG or TG IP interface card 1214 includes both control and signaling information in its packets. This is illustrated showing IPDC protocol control information 1216 and signaling information 1218. AG 238 delivers signaling information inband over data network 112 to soft switch 204. Accordingly, calling party 122 need not have its customer facility 128 have connectivity with SS7 signaling network 114. AG 238 is functionally equivalent to TG 232. AG 238 differs from TG 232 only in the circuit types and scale of the terminated circuits supported. The circuit types and scale of terminated circuits supported drives the line side cards and signaling that AG 238 provides to a PBX or other customer facility 128. The circuit associated and in-band signaling provided by the PBX or customer facility 128 must be passed from AG 238 to soft switch 204 via the IPDC protocol. AG 238 receives call-processing information from soft switch 204. (1) Access Gateway Interfaces AGs 238, 240 interface to several components of telecommunications network 200. The interfaces of AGs 238, 240 include interfaces facing the network, i.e., data network 112, and network management component 118, as described for TGs 232, 234 above. AGs 238, 240 also interface on the line side, through line side card interfaces, which can be needed to support in-band T1 and ISDN primary rate interface (ISDN PRI) circuits. In-band T1 and ISDN PRI interfaces can be provisioned on an as-needed basis on AGs 238, 240, to support the equipment that can terminate the circuit on the far end. The ISDN PRI can support standard ISDN circuit associated D-channel signaling in the 23B+1D, NB+1D and NB+2D (bearer (B−) and data (D−) channel) configurations. For the in-band signaling T1 configuration, the circuit can support wink start or loop start signaling. The next six paragraphs briefly introduce wink start, loop start, and ground start signaling as would be apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the relevant communications signaling art. Wink start refers to seizing a circuit by using a short duration signal. The signal is typically of a 140 millisecond duration. The wink indicates the availability of an incoming register for receiving digital information from a calling switch. Wink starts are used in telephone systems which use address signaling. Loop start refers to seizing a circuit using a supervisory signal. A loop start signal is typically generated by taking the phone off hook. With a loop start, a line is seized by bridging a tip and ring (i.e., the wires of the telephone line) through a resistance. A loop start trunk is the most common type of trunk found in residential installations. The ring lead is connected to −48 V and the tip lead is connected to 0 V (i.e., connected to ground). To initiate a call, a “loop” ring can be formed through the telephone to the tip. A central office (CO) can ring a telephone by sending an AC voltage to the ringer within the telephone. When the telephone goes off-hook, the DC loop is formed. The CO detects the loop and the fact that it is drawing a DC current, and stops sending the ringing voltage. Ground starting refers to seizing a trunk, where one side of a two-wire trunk (the ring conductor of the tip and ring) is temporarily grounded to get a dial tone. Ground starts are typically used for CO to PBX connections. Ground starting is effectively a handshaking routine that is performed by the CO and PBX. The CO and PBX agree to dedicate a path so that incoming and outgoing calls cannot conflict, so that “glare” cannot occur. The PBX can check to see if a CO ground start trunk has been dedicated. In order to see if the trunk has been dedicated, the PBX checks to see if the tip lead is grounded. An undedicated ground start trunk has an open relay between 0 V (ground) and the tip lead connected to the PBX. If the trunk has been dedicated, the CO will close the relay and ground the tip lead. In a ground start, the PBX can also indicate to the CO that it requires a trunk. The PBX has a PBX CO caller circuit. The PBX CO caller circuit can call a CO ground start trunk. The PBX CO caller circuit briefly grounds the ring lead causing DC current to flow. The CO detects the current flow and interprets it as a request for service from the PBX. “Glare” occurs when both ends of a telephone line or trunk are seized at the same time for different purposes or by different users. Glare resolution refers to the ability of a system to ensure that if a trunk is seized by both ends simultaneously, then one caller is given priority, and the other is switched to another trunk. AGs 238 and 240 interface to the PSTN via T1 CAS signaling and ISDN PRI trunks. ISDN PRI trunks are groomed via the DACS 242 and 244 to allow multiple two-way 64 kps circuits to pass signaling information circuits to pass signaling information and the media stream into and out of AGs 238 and 240. The AG to PSTN interface provides all low level hardware control for the individual circuits. The AG to PSTN interfaces, specifically, PSTN interface cards 1202a and 1202, also allow the interface to look like a switch connection to the PSTN network. AG to soft switch interface 414 can be used to pass information needed to control multiple media streams. Soft switch 204 can control all available circuit channels that connect through AGs 238, 240. AG to soft switch interface 414 can use the physical voice network interface card to send and receive control information to and from soft switch 204 using the IPDC protocol. AGs 238, 240 can have a separate physical interface to network management component (NMC) 118. AG 238 has network management IP interface 1006, which sends network management alarms and events in the SNMP protocol format to NMC 118. The AG to NMC interface can be used for delivery of SNMP messages and additional functions. Examples of additional functions that can be defined include, for example, functions for provisioning, updating, and passing special alarms and performance parameters to AGs 238, 240 from the network operation center (NOC) of NMC 118. c. Network Access Server (NAS) NASs 228, 230 accept control information from soft switch 204 and process the media stream accordingly. Modem traffic is routed to the internal processes within NASs 228, 230 to terminate the call and route the data traffic out to data network 112. The reader is directed to U.S. patent application entitled “System and Method for Bypassing Data from Egress Facilities”, filed concurrently herewith, Attorney Docket No. 1757.0060000, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, describing with greater details the interaction between NASs 228, 230 and control server soft switch 204. FIG. 13 depicts a NAS high-level architecture 1300. FIG. 13 includes calling party 102 calling into carrier facility 126. Its signaling information is routed via out-of-band signaling network 114 to SS7 GW 208. The signaling information 1318 is sent to soft switch 204. NAS 228 receives trunk interfaces from the PSTN at PSTN interface card 1302. PSTN interface card 1302 is connected to TDM bus 1304. TDM bus 1304, in turn, can break out separate DS1 signals 1306. These DSI signals 1306 can be terminated to modems 1308. Modem 1308 can convert the incoming data stream from a first format to a second format over packet bus 1310 to IP interface card 1312 or 1314. It is important to note that IP interfaces 1312 and 1314 are the same. Interface card 1312 carries media (e.g., data, voice traffic, etc.) over data network 112. The media can be sent over multiple routers in data network 112 to the media's final destination. IP interface card 1314 transmits packets of information through data network 112 to soft switch 204, including control information 1316 in the IPDC protocol format. Interface cards 1312 and 1314 can also perform additional functions NAS 228 includes network management interface card (NMIC) 1004, for providing network management alarms and events in an SNMP protocol format to network management component 118. (1) Network Access Server Interfaces Telecommunications network 200 supports interaction with NASs via communication of control information from soft switch 204. The interfaces between NASs 228, 230 and the other network components of telecommunications network 200, can be identical to those found on TGs 232, 234, with the exception of the FG-D interface. NASs 228, 230 can interface to the PSTN via co-carrier trunks. The co-carrier trunks can be groomed via the DACS 242, 244, to allow multiple two-way 64 kps circuits to pass the media stream into and out of NASs 228, 230. The NASs to PSTN interface provides all low level hardware control for the individual circuits. The NASs to PSTN interface looks like another switch connection to the PSTN network. NASs 228, 230 interface with soft switch 204 in order to pass information required to control the multiple media streams. Soft switch 204, via the NASs to soft switch interface, can control all available circuit channels that connect through NASs 228, 230. The interface between NASs 228, 230 and soft switch 204 uses the physical voice network interface card (NIC) to send and receive control information to and from soft switch 204 and NASs 228, 230 via the IPDC protocol. NASs 228, 230 can interface with the backbone network of data network 112. The NASs to backbone interface of data network 112 can allow the media stream to access the data network 112 and to terminate to any termination with an IP address including public Internet and world wide web sites, and other Internet service providers (ISP). This modem traffic media stream can be separate from any voice data media stream that is carried over the backbone. Modem traffic can enter NASs 228, 230 in the form of serial line interface protocol (SLIP) or a point to point protocol (PPP) protocol and can be terminated to modems and can then be converted into another protocol, such as, for example, an IPX, an Apple Talk, a DECNET protocol, an RTP protocol, an Internet protocol (IP) protocol, a transmission control protocol/user datagram protocol (UDP), or any other appropriate protocol for routing to, for example, another private network destination. NASs 228, 230 can use a separate physical interface for communication of SNMP alerts and messages to NMC 118. The NAS to NMC interface can be used for additional functions. Examples of additional functions that can be defined include, for example, provisioning, updating, and passing special alarms, and performance parameters to NASs 228, 230 from the network operations center (NOC). d. Digital Cross-Connect System (DACS) FIG. 14 illustrates exemplary DACS 242 in detail. DACS 242 is a time division multiplexer providing switching capability for incoming trunks. Referring to FIG. 14, voice and data traffic comes into DACS 242 from carrier facility 126 on incoming trunks. DACS 242 receives a signal from soft switch 204 (over data network 112) indicating how DACS 242 is to switch the traffic. Depending on the signal provided by soft switch 204, DACS 242 can switch the incoming traffic onto either circuits directed to TG 232, or circuits directed to NAS 228. More generally, a DACS 242 is a digital switching machine, employed to manage or “groom” traffic at a variety of different traffic speeds. Grooming functions of DACS 242 include the consolidation of traffic from partly filled incoming lines with a common destination and segregation of incoming traffic of differing types and destinations. A traditional DACS 242 can have one of several available architectures. Example architectures, which accommodate different data rates and total port counts, include narrowband (or I/O), wideband (or 3/1), and broadband (or 3/3). As backbone traffic has grown, with increased data traffic, there is an emerging need for even higher capacity DACS 242, having interface speeds of OC-48 and beyond, as well as cell and packet-switching capabilities to accommodate the increasing data traffic. As data traffic continues to grow, increasing the demands of telecommunications networks, and as through-put speeds increase, DACS (e.g., DACS 242) are migrating to include higher-speed switching matrices capable of terabit throughput. DACS 242 can also include high-speed optical interfaces. Telecommunications network 200 can also make use of virtual DACS (VDACS). VDACS are conceptually the use of a computer software controlled circuit switch. For example, a DACS can be built which is capable of intercommunicating with a soft switch via, a protocol such as, for example, internet protocol device control (IPDC), to perform the functionality of a DACS. In one embodiment of the invention, a NAS is used to terminate co-carrier, or local trunks, and a TG is used to terminate long distance trunks. In such a system, if a voice call were to come in over a NAS, then the voice call could be transmitted to the TG for termination. One approach that can be used to terminate this voice call includes occupying an outgoing channel to transmit the call out of the NAS and into the TG. Another approach uses a commandable DACS, a VDACS. The VDACS can cross-connect on command, so as to act as a commandable circuit switch. In practice, the soft switch can send a command down to the VDACS via IPDC, for example. A VDACS can be built by using a traditional DACS with the addition of application program logic supporting control and communication with a soft switch. e. Announcement Server (ANS) Referring back to FIGS. 2A and 10A, ANSs 246, 248 store pre-recorded announcements on disk in an encoded format. ANSs 246, 248 provide telecommunications network 200 with the ability to play pre-recorded messages and announcements, at the termination of a call. For example, ANSs 246, 248 can play a message stating that “all circuits are busy.” In one embodiment, the functionality of ANSs 246, 248 can be included in TG 232 and/or AG 238. The features of this embodiment are dependent on the amount of resources in TG 232 and AG 238. This internal announcement server capability is shown in FIG. 10A, including, for example, ANS 1008 in TG 232 and ANS 1010 in AG 238. It would be apparent to those skilled in the art that ANS functionality can be placed in other systems, such as, for example, soft switch 204 and NAS 1004. In another embodiment, ANSs 246, 248 are applications running on one or more separate servers, as shown in FIG. 15. FIG. 15 depicts an announcement server (ANS) component interface design 1500. FIG. 15 includes ANS 246, which is in communication with TG 232, AG 238 and soft switch 204 over data network 112. ANS 246 can be controlled by soft switch 204 via the IPDC protocol. ANS 246 can send network management alerts and events to network management component (NMC) 118. Data distributor 222 can send announcement files to ANS 246. A benefit of providing separate ANSs 246, 248 is that a more robust database of announcements can be stored and made available for use by the soft switch than is supported in conventional networks. Another benefit of a separate ANS 246, 248 is that less storage is required in TGs and AGs since the announcement functionality is supported by the server of ANSs 246, 248 server. ANSs 246, 248 can be controlled by one or more soft switches to play the voice messages, via the IPDC protocol. After determining that an announcement should be played, Soft switch 204 chooses an ANS 246 or 248 that is closest to the point of origination for the call, if available. The ANS and gateway site establish a real-time transport protocol (RTP) session for the transmission of the voice announcement. Then ANS 246 or 248 streams the file over RTP to the terminating gateway. When the message is complete, ANSs 246, 248 can replay the message or disconnect the call. ANSs 246, 248 can store the message files in each of the media coder/decoders (CODECs) that the network supports. ANSs 246, 248 can send announcements stored in the format of the G.711, G.726, and G.728, and other standard CODECs. The soft switch can direct ARS 246, 248 to play announcements using other CODECS if the network enters a state of congestion. Soft switch 204 can also direct ANS 246, 248 to play announcements using other CODECs if the gateway or end client is an IP client that only supports a given CODEC. In another embodiment, the CODEC of an announcement can be modified while the announcement is playing. ANS 246 will now be described with greater detail with reference to FIG. 15. ANS 246 has several interfaces. ANS interfaces include the provisioning, control, alarming, and voice path interfaces. ANS 246 also has several data paths. The path from ANS 246 to TG 232 or to AG 238, have a common voice path interface (i.e., which is the same for TG 232 and AG 238). The voice path interface can use RTP and RTCP. In a preferred embodiment, ANS 246 to soft switch 204 interface provides for a data path using the internet protocol device control (IPDC) protocol to control announcement server 246. The ANS 246 to SNMP agent in network management component 118 data path is used to send alarm and event information from ANS 246 to SNMP agent via SNMP protocol. Data distributor 222 to announcement server 246 data path carries announcement files between announcement server 246 and data distributor 222. The provisioning interface downloads, via a file transfer protocol (FTP), encoded voice announcement files to announcement server 246. Announcement server 246 uses a separate physical interface for all SNMP messages and additional functions that can be defined. Examples of additional functions that can be defined include provisioning, updating, and passing of special alarms and performance parameters to announcement servers 246 from NOC 2114. In another embodiment, announcement server 246 is located in soft switch site 104. It would be apparent to those skilled in the art that announcement server 246 could be placed in other parts of telecommunications network 200. 3. Data Network In an example embodiment, data network 112 can be a packet-switched network. A packet-switched network such as, for example, an ATM network, unlike a circuit switch network, does not require dedicated circuits between originating and terminating locations within the packet switch network. The packet-switched network instead breaks a message into pieces known as packets of information. Such packets are then encapsulated with a header which designates a destination address to which the packet must be routed. The packet-switched network then takes the packets and routes them to the destination designated by the destination address contained in the header of the packet. FIG. 16A depicts a block diagram of an exemplary soft switch/gateway network architecture 1600. FIG. 16A illustrates a more detailed version of an exemplary data network 112. In an exemplary embodiment, data network 112 is a packet-switched network, such as, for example, an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. FIG. 16 includes western soft switch site 104 and gateway sites 108, 110 connected to one another via data network 112. Data is routed from western soft switch 104 to gateway sites 108, 110 through data network 112, via a plurality of routers located in western soft switch site 104 and gateway sites 108, 110. Western soft switch site 104 of FIG. 16A includes soft switches 204a, 204b, 204c, SS7 GWs 208, 210, CSs 206a, 206b, RSs 212a, 212b and RNECPs 224a, 224b, all interconnected by redundant connections to ethernet switches (ESs) 332, 334. ESs 332, 334 are used to interconnect the host computers attached to them, to create an ethernet-switched local area network (LAN). ESs 332, 334 are redundantly connected to routers 320, 322. The host computers in the local area network included in western soft switch site 104 can communicate with host computers in other local area networks, e.g., at gateway sites 108, 110, via routers 320, 322. Gateway site 108 of FIG. 16A includes TGs 232a, 232b, AGs 238a, 238b and NASs 228a, 228b, 228c, interconnected via redundant connections to ESs 1602, 1604. ESs 1602, 1604 interconnect the multiple network devices to create a LAN. Information can be intercommunicated to and from host computers on other LANs via routers 1606, 1608 at gateway site 108. Routers 1606, 1608 are connected by redundant connections to ESs 1602, 1604. Gateway site 110 of FIG. 16A includes TGs 234a, 234b, AGs 240a, 240b, and NASs 230a, 230b, 230c, connected via redundant connections to ESs 1610, 1612 to form a local area network. Ethernet switches (ESs) 1610, 1612 can in turn intercommunicate information between the LAN in gateway site 110 and LANs at other sites, e.g., at western soft switch site 104 and gateway site 108 via routers 1614, 1616. Routers 1614, 1616 are connected to ESs 1610, 1612 via redundant connections. Routers 320, 322 of western soft switch site 104, routers 1606, 1608 of gateway site 108, and routers 1614, 1616 of gateway site 10 can be connected via NICs, such as, for example, asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) interface cards in routers 320, 322, 1606, 1608, 1614, 1616 and physical media such as, for example, optical fiber link connections, and/or copper wire connections. Routers 320, 322, 1606, 1608, 1614, 1616 transfer information between one another and intercommunicate according to routing protocols. a. Routers Data network 112 can include a plurality of network routers. Network routers are used to route information between multiple networks. Routers act as an interface between two or more networks. Routers can find the best path between any two networks, even if there are several different networks between the two networks. Network routers can include tables describing various network domains. A domain can be thought of as a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Information can be transferred between a plurality of LANs and/or WANs via network devices known as routers. Routers look at a packet and determine from the destination address in the header of the packet the destination domain of the packet. If the router is not directly connected to the destination domain, then the router can route the packet to the router's default router, i.e. a router higher in a hierarchy of routers. Since each router has a default router to which it is attached, a packet can be transmitted through a series of routers to the destination domain and to the destination host bearing the packet's final destination address. b. Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) A local area network (LAN) can be thought of as a plurality of host computers interconnected via network interface cards (NICs) in the host computers. The NICs are connected via, for example, copper wires so as to permit communication between the host computers. Examples of LANs include an ethernet bus network, an ethernet switch network, a token ring network, a fiber digital data interconnect (FDDI) network, and an ATM network. A wide area network (WAN) is a network connecting host computers over a wide area. In order for host computers on a particular LAN to communicate with a host computer on another LAN or on a WAN, network interfaces interconnecting the LANs and WANs must exist. An example of a network interface is a router discussed above. A network designed to interconnect multiple LANs and/or WANs is known as an internet. An internet can transfer data between any of a plurality of networks including both LANs and WANs. Communication occurs between host computers on one LAN and host computers on another LAN via, for example, an internet protocol (IP) protocol. The IP protocol requires each host computer of a network to have a unique IP address enabling packets to be transferred over the internet to other host computers on other LANs and/or WANs that are connected to the internet. An internet can comprise a router interconnecting two or more networks. The “Internet” (with a capital “I”) is a global internet interconnecting networks all over the world. The Internet includes a global network of computers which intercommunicate via the internet protocol (IP) family of protocols. An “intranet” is an internet which is a private network that uses internet software and internet standards, such as the internet protocol (IP). An intranet can be reserved for use by parties who have been given the authority necessary to use that network. c. Network Protocols Data network 112 includes a plurality of wires, and routes making up its physical hardware infrastructure. Network protocols provide the software infrastructure of data network 112. Early network protocols and architectures were designed to work with specific proprietary types of equipment. Early examples included IBM systems network architecture (SNA) and Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet. Telecommunications vendors have moved away from proprietary network protocols and technologies to multi-vendor protocols. However, it can be difficult for all necessary vendors to agree on how to add new features and services to a multi-vendor protocol. This can be true because vendor-specific protocols can in some cases offer a greater level of sophistication. For example, initial versions of asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) completed by the ATM Forum did not have built-in quality of service (QoS) capabilities. Recent releases of the specification added those features, including parameters for cell-transfer delay and cell-loss ratio. However, interoperability among equipment of different vendors and device performance still need improvement. The IETF is working on defining certain Internet protocols (IP) “classes of service”. IP classes of service could provide a rough equivalent to ATMs QoS. IP classes of service is included as part of the IETF's integrated services architecture (ISA). ISA's proposed elements include the resource reservation protocol (RSVP), a defined packet scheduler, a call admission control module, an admission control manager, and a set of policies for implementing these features (many of the same concepts already outlined in ATM QoS). (1) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) The Internet protocol (IP) has become the primary networking protocol used today. This success is largely a part of the Internet, which is based on the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) family of protocols. TCP/IP is the most common method of connecting PCs, workstations, and servers. TCP/IP is included as part of many software products, including desktop operating systems (e.g., Microsoft's Windows 95 or Windows NT) and LAN operating systems. To date, however, TCP/IP has lacked some of the desired features needed for mission-critical applications. The most pervasive LAN protocol to date, has been IPX/SPX from Novell's NetWare network operating system (NOS). However, IPX/SPX is losing ground to TCP/IP. Novell has announced that it will incorporate native IP support into NetWare, ending NetWare's need to encapsulate IPX packets when carrying them over TCP/IP connections. Both UNIX and Windows NT servers can use TCP/IP. Banyan's VINES, IBM's OS/2 and other LAN server operating systems can also use TCP/IP. (2) Internet Protocol (IP)v4 and IPv6 IPv6 (previously called next-generation IP or IPng) is a backward-compatible extension of the current version of the Internet protocol, IPv4. IPv6 is designed to solve problems brought on by the success of the Internet (such as running out of address space and router tables). IPv6 also adds needed features, including circuiting security, auto-configuration, and real-time services similar to QoS. Increased Internet usage and the allocation of many of the available IP addresses has created an urgent need for increased addressing capacity. IPv4 uses a 32-byte number to form an address, which can offer about 4 billion distinct network addresses. In comparison, IPv6 uses 128-bytes per address, which provides for a much larger number of available addresses. (3) Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) Originally developed to enhance IPv4 with QoS features, RSVP lets network managers allocate bandwidth based on the bandwidth requirements of an application. Basically, RSVP is an emerging communications protocol that signals a router to reserve bandwidth for real-time transmission of data, video, and audio traffic. Resource reservation protocols that operate on a per-connection basis can be used in a network to elevate the priority of a given user temporarily. RSVP runs end to end to communicate application requirements for special handling. RSVP identifies a session between a client and a server and asks the routers handling the session to give its communications a priority in accessing resources. When the session is completed, the resources reserved for the session are freed for the use of others. RSVP offers only two levels of priority in its signaling scheme. Packets are identified at each router hop as either low or high priority. However, in crowded networks, two-level classification may not be sufficient. In addition, packets prioritized at one router hop might be rejected at the next. Accepted as an IETF standard in 1997, RSVP does not attempt to govern who should receive bandwidth, and questions remain about what will happen when several users all demand a large block of bandwidth at the same time. Currently, the technology outlines a first-come, first-served response to this situation. The IETF has formed a task force to address the issue. Because RSVP provides a special level of service, many people equate QoS with the protocol. For example, Cisco currently uses RSVP in its IPv4-based internetwork router operating system to deliver IPv6-type QoS features. However, RSVP is only a small part of the QoS picture because it is effective only as far as it is supported within a given client/server connection. Although RSVP allows an application to request latency and bandwidth, RSVP does not provide for congestion control or network-wide priority with the traffic flow management needed to integrate QoS across an enterprise. (4) Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) RTP is an emerging protocol for the Internet championed by the audio/video transport workgroup of the IETF. RTP supports real-time transmission of interactive voice and video over packet-switched networks. RTP is a thin protocol that provides content identification, packet sequencing, timing reconstruction, loss detection, and security. With RTP, data can be delivered to one or more destinations, with a limit on delay. RTP and other Internet real-time protocols, such as the Internet stream protocol version 2 (ST2), focus on the efficiency of data transport. RTP and other Internet real-time protocols are designed for communications sessions that are persistent and that exchange large amounts of data. RTP does not handle resource reservation or QoS control. Instead, RTP relies on resource reservation protocols such as RSVP, communicating dynamically to allocate appropriate bandwidth. RTP adds a time stamp and a header that distinguishes whether an IP packet is data or voice, allowing prioritization of voice packets, while RSVP allows networking devices to reserve bandwidth for carrying unbroken multimedia data streams. Real-time Control Protocol (RTCP) is a companion protocol to RTP that analyzes network conditions. RTCP operates in a multi-cast fashion to provide feedback to RTP data sources as well as all session participants. RTCP can be adopted to circumvent datagram transport of voice-over-IP in private IP networks. With RTCP, software can adjust to changing network loads by notifying applications of spikes, or variations, in network transmissions. Using RTCP network feedback, telephony software can switch compression algorithms in response to degraded connections. (5) IP Multi-Casting Protocols Digital voice and video comprise of large quantities of data that, when broken up into packets, must be delivered in a timely fashion and in the right order to preserve the qualities of the original content. Protocol developments have been focused on providing efficient ways to send content to multiple recipients, transmission referred to as multi-casting. Multi-casting involves the broadcasting of a message from one host to many hosts in a one-to-many relationship. A network device broadcasts a message to a select group of other devices such as PCS or workstations on a LAN, WAN, or the Internet. For example, a router might send information about a routing table update to other routers in a network. Several protocols are being implemented for IP multi-casting, including upgrades to the Internet protocol itself. For example, some of the changes in the newest version of IP, IPv6, will support different forms of addressing for uni-cast (point-to-point communications), any cast (communications with the closest member of a device group), and multi-cast. Support for IP multi-casting comes from several protocols, including the Internet group management protocol (IGMP), protocol-independent multi-cast (PIM) and distance vector multi-cast routing protocol (DVMRP). Queuing algorithms can also be used to ensure that video or other multi-cast data types arrive when they are supposed to without visible or audible distortion. Real-time transport protocol (RTP) is currently an IETF draft, designed for end-to-end, real-time delivery of data such as video and voice. RTP works over the user datagram protocol (UDP), providing no guarantee of in-time delivery, quality of service (QoS), delivery, or order of delivery. RTP works in conjunction with a mixer and translator and supports encryption and security. The real-time control protocol (RTCP) is a part of the RTP definition that analyzes network conditions. RTCP provides mandatory monitoring of services and collects information on participants. RTP communicates with RSVP dynamically to allocate appropriate bandwidth. Internet packets typically move on a first-come, first-serve basis. When the network becomes congested, Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) can enable certain types of traffic, such as video conferences, to be delivered before less time-sensitive traffic such as E-mail for potentially a premium price. RSVP could change the Internet's pricing structure by offering different QoS at different prices. The RSVP protocol is used by a host, on behalf of an application, to request a specific QoS from the network for particular data streams or flows. Routers can use the RSVP protocol to deliver QoS control requests to all necessary network nodes to establish and maintain the state necessary to provide the requested service. RSVP requests can generally, although not necessarily, result in resources being reserved in each node along the data path. RSVP is not itself a routing protocol. RSVP is designed to operate with current and future uni-cast and multi-cast routing protocols. An RSVP process consults the local routing database to obtain routes. In the multi-cast case for example, the host sends IGMP messages to join a multi-cast group and then sends RSVP messages to reserve resources along the delivery paths of that group. Routing protocols determines where packets are forwarded. RSVP is concerned with only the QoS of those packets as they are forwarded in accordance with that routing. d. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) A virtual private network (VPN) is a wide area communications network operated by a telecommunications carrier that provides what appears to be dedicated lines when used, but that actually includes trunks shared among all customers as in a public network. A VPN allows a private network to be configured within a public network. VPNs can be provided by telecommunications carriers to customers to provide secure, guaranteed, long-distance bandwidth for their WANs. These VPNs generally use frame relay or switched multi-megabyte data service (SMDS) as a protocol of choice because those protocols define groups of users logically on the network without regard to physical location. ATM has gained favor as a VPN protocol as companies require higher reliability and greater bandwidth to handle more complex applications. VPNs using ATM offer networks of companies with the same virtual security and QoS as WANs designed with dedicated circuits. The Internet has created an alternative to VPNs, at a much lower cost, i.e. the virtual private Internet. The virtual private Internet (VPI) lets companies connect disparate LANs via the Internet. A user installs either a software-only or a hardware-software combination that creates a shared, secure intranet with VPN-style network authorizations and encryption capabilities. A VPI normally uses browser-based administration interfaces. (1) VPN Protocols A plurality of protocol standards exist today for VPNs. For example, IP security (IPsec), point-to-point tunneling protocol (PPTP), layer 2 forwarding protocol (L2F) and layer 2 tunneling protocol (L2TP). The IETF has proposed a security architecture for the Internet protocol (IP) that can be used for securing Internet-based VPNs. IPsec facilitates secure private sessions across the Internet between organizational firewalls by encrypting traffic as it enters the Internet and decrypting it at the other end, while allowing vendors to use many encryption algorithms, key lengths and key escrow techniques. The goal of IPsec is to let companies mix-and-match the best firewall, encryption, and TCP/IP protocol products. (a) Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) Point-to-point tunneling protocol (PPTP) provides an alternate approach to VPN security than the use of IPsec. Unlike IPsec, which is designed to link two LANs together via an encrypted data stream across the Internet, PPTP allows users to connect to a network of an organization via the Internet by a PPTP server or by an ISP that supports PPTP. PPTP was proposed as a standard to the IETF in early 1996. Firewall vendors are expected to support PPTP. PPTP was developed by Microsoft along with 3Com, Ascend and US Robotics and is currently implemented in WINDOWS NT SERVER 4.0, WINDOWS NT WORKSTATION 4.0, WINDOWS 95 via an upgrade and WINDOWS 98, available from Microsoft Corporation of Redmond, Wash. The “tunneling” in PPTP refers to encapsulating a message so that the message can be encrypted and then transmitted over the Internet. PPTP, by creating a tunnel between the server and the client, can tie up processing resources. (b) Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) Protocol Developed by Cisco, layer 2 forwarding protocol (L2F) resembles PPTP in that it also encapsulates other protocols inside a TCP/IP packet for transport across the Internet, or any other TCP/IP network, such as data network 112. Unlike PPTP, L2F requires a special L2F-compliant router (which can require changes to a LAN or WAN infrastructure), runs at a lower level of the network protocol stack and does not require TCP/IP routing to function. L2F also provides additional security for user names and passwords beyond that found in PPTP. (c) Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) The layer 2 tunneling protocol (L2TP) combines specifications from L2F with PPTP. In November 1997, the IETF approved the L2TP standard. Cisco is putting L2TP into its Internet operating system software and Microsoft is incorporating it into WINDOWS NT 5.0. A key advantage of L2TP over IPsec, which covers only TCP/IP communications, is that L2TP can carry multiple protocols. L2TP also offers transmission capability over non-IP networks. L2TP however ignores data encryption, an important security feature for network administrators to employ VPNs with confidence. Data network 112 will now be described in greater detail relating to example packet-switched networks. It will be apparent to persons having skill in the art that multiple network types could be used to implement data network 112, including, for example, ATM networks, frame relay networks, IP networks FDDI WAN networks SMDS networks, X-25 networks, and other kinds of LANs and WANs. It would be apparent to those skilled in the art that other data networks could be used interchangeably for data network 112 such as, for example, an ATM, X.25, Frame relay, FDDI, Fast Ethernet, or an SMDS packet switched network. Frame relay and ATM are connection-oriented services. Switched multi-megabyte data service (SMDS) is a connection-oriented mass packet service that offers speeds up to 45 Mbps. Originally, SMDS was intended to fill the gap for broadband services until broadband ISDN (BISDN) could be developed. Because the infrastructure for BISDN is not fully in place, some users have chosen SMDS. e. Exemplary Data Networks (1) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ATM is a high-bandwidth, low-delay, packet-switching, and multiplexing network technology. ATM packets are known as “cells.” Bandwidth capacity is segmented into 53-byte fixed-sized cells, having a header and payload fields. ATM is an evolution of earlier packet-switching network methods such as X.25 and frame relay, which used frames or cells that varied in size. Fixed-length packets can be switched more easily in hardware than variable size packets and thus result in faster transmissions. Each ATM cell contains a 48-byte payload field and a 5-byte header that identifies the so-called “virtual circuit” of the cell. ATM can allocate bandwidth on demand, making it suitable for high-speed combinations of voice, data, and video services. Currently, ATM access can perform at speeds as high as 622 Mbps or higher. ATM has recently been doubling its maximum speed every year. In an example embodiment, data network 112 is an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. An ATM cell of data network 112 includes a header (having addressing information and header error checking information), and a payload (having the data being carried by the cell). ATM is a technology, defined by a protocol standardized by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), ETSI, and the ATM Forum. ATM comprises a number of building blocks, including transmission paths, virtual paths, and virtual channels. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a cell based switching and multiplexing technology designed to be a general purpose connection-oriented transfer mode for a wide range of telecommunications services. ATM can also be applied to LAN and private network technologies as specified by the ATM Forum. ATM handles both connection-oriented traffic directly or through adaptation layers, or connectionless traffic through the use of adaptation layers. ATM virtual connections may operate at either a constant bit rate (CBR) or a variable bit rate (VBR). Each ATM cell sent into an ATM network contains addressing information that establishes a virtual connection from origination to destination. All cells are transferred, in sequence, over this virtual connection. ATM provides either permanent or switched virtual connections (PVCs or SVCs). ATM is asynchronous because the transmitted cells need not be periodic as time slots of data are required to be in synchronous transfer mode (STM). ATM uses an approach by which a header field prefixes each fixed-length payload. The ATM header identifies the virtual channel (VC). Therefore, time slots are available to any host which has data ready for transmission. If no hosts are ready to transmit, then an empty, or idle, cell is sent. ATM permits standardization on one network architecture defining a multiplexing and a switching method. Synchronous optical network (SONET) provides the basis for physical transmission at very high-speed rates. ATM also supports multiple quality of service (QoS) classes for differing application requirements, depending on delay and loss performance. ATM can also support LAN-like access to available bandwidth. The primary unit in ATM, the cell, defines a fixed-size cell with a length of 53 octets (or bytes) comprised of a five-octet header and 48-octet payload. Bits in the cells are transmitted over a transmission path in a continuous stream. Cells are mapped into a physical transmission path, such as the North American DS1, DS3, and SONET; European, E1, E3, and E4; ITU-T STM standards; and various local fiber and electrical transmission payloads. All information is multiplexed and switched in an ATM network via these fixed-length cells. The ATM cell header field identifies the destination, cell type, and priority., and includes six portions. An ATM cell header includes a generic flow control (GFC), a virtual path identifier (VPI), a virtual channel identifier (VCI), a payload type (PT), a call loss priority (CLP), and a header error check (HEC). VPI and VCI hold local significance only, and identify the destination. GFC allows a multiplexer to control the rate of an ATM terminal. PT indicates whether the cell contains user data, signaling data, or maintenance information. CLP indicates the relative priority of the cell, i.e., lower priority cells are discarded before higher priority cells during congested intervals. HEC detects and corrects errors in the header. The ATM cell payload field is passed through the network intact, with no error checking or correction. ATM relies on higher-layer protocols to perform error checking and correction on the payload. For example, a transmission control protocol (TCP) can be used to perform error correction functions. The fixed cell size simplifies the implementation of ATM switches and multiplexers and enables implementations at high speeds. When using ATM, longer packets cannot delay shorter packets as in other packet-switched networks, because long packets are separated into many fixed length cells. This feature enables ATM to carry CBR traffic, such as voice and video, in conjunction with VBR data traffic, potentially having very long packets, within the same network. ATM switches take traffic and segment it into the fixed-length cells, and multiplex the cells into a single bit stream for transmission across a physical medium. As an example, different kinds of traffic can be transmitted over an ATM network including voice, video, and data traffic. Video and voice traffic are very time-sensitive, so delay cannot have significant variations. Data, on the other hand, can be sent in either connection-oriented or connectionless mode. In either case, data is not nearly as delay-sensitive as voice or video traffic, conventionally. Conventional, however, data traffic is very sensitive to loss. Therefore, ATM conventionally must discriminate between voice, video, and data traffic. Voice and video traffic requires priority and guaranteed delivery with bounded delay, while data traffic requires, simultaneously, assurance of low loss. According to the present invention, data traffic can also carry voice traffic, making it also time-dependent. Using ATM, in one embodiment, multiple types of traffic can be combined over a single ATM virtual path (VP), with virtual circuits (VCs) being assigned to separate data, voice, and video traffic. FIG. 16B depicts graphically the relationship 1618 between a physical transmission path 1620, virtual paths (VPs) 1622, 1624 and 1626, and virtual channels (VCs) 1628, 1630, 1632, 1634, 1636, 1638, 1640, 1642, 1644, 1646, 1648 and 1650. A transmission path 1620 includes one or more VPs 1622, 1624 and 1626. Each VP 1622, 1624 and 1626 includes one or more VCs 1628, 1630, 1632, 1634, 1636, 1638, 1640, 1642, 1644, 1646, 1648 and 1650. Thus, multiple VCs 1628-1650 can be trunked over a single VP and 1622. Switching can be performed on either a transmission path 1620, VPs 1622-1626, or at the level of VCs 1628-1650. The capability of ATM to switch to a virtual channel level is similar to the operation of a private or public branch exchange (PBX) or telephone switch in the telephone world. In a PBX switch, each channel within a trunk group can be switched. Devices which perform VC connections are commonly called VC switches because of the analogy to telephone switches. ATM devices which connect VPs are commonly referred to as VP cross-connects, by analogy with the transmission network. The analogies are intended for explanatory reasons, but should not be taken literally. An ATM cell-switching machine need not be restricted to switching only VCs and cross-connection to only VPs. At the ATM layer, users are provided a choice of either a virtual path connection (VPC) or a virtual channel connection (VCC). Virtual path connections (VPCs) are switched based upon the virtual path identifier (VPI) value only. Users of a VPC can assign VCCs within a VPI transparently, since they follow the same route. Virtual channel connections (VCCs) are switched upon a combined VPI and virtual channel identifier (VCI) value. Both VPIs and VCIs are used to route calls through a network. Note that VPI and VCI values must be unique on a specific transmission path (TP). It is important to note that data network 112 can be any of a number of other data-type networks, including various packet-switched data-type networks, in addition to an ATM network. (2) Frame Relay Alternatively, data network 112 can be a frame relay network. It would be apparent to persons having ordinary skill in the art, that a frame relay network could be used as data network 112. Rather than transporting data in ATM cells, data could be transported in frames. Frame relay is a packet-switching protocol used in WANs that has become popular for LAN-to-LAN connections between remote locations. Formerly frame relay access would top out at about 1.5 Mbps. Today, so-called “high-speed” frame relay offers around 45 Mbps. This speed is still relatively slow as compared with other technology such as ATM. Frame relay services employ a form of packet-switching analogous to a streamlined version of X.25 networks. The packets are in the form of frames, which are variable in length. The key advantage to this approach it that a frame relay network can accommodate data packets of various sizes associated with virtually any native data protocol. A frame relay network is completely protocol independent. A frame relay network embodiment of data network 112 does not undertake a lengthy protocol conversion process, and therefore offers faster and less-expensive switching than some alternative networks. Frame relay also is faster than traditional X.25 networks because it was designed for the reliable circuits available today and performs less-rigorous error detection. (3) Internet Protocol (IP) In an embodiment, data network 112 can be an internet protocol (IP) network over an ATM network. It would be apparent to persons having ordinary skill in the art, that an internet protocol (IP) network (with any underlying data link network) could be used as data network 112. Rather than transporting data in ATM cells, data could be transported in IP datagram packets. The IP data network can lie above any of a number of physical networks such as, for example, a SONET optical network. 4. Signaling Network FIG. 17C illustrates signaling network 114 in greater detail. In an embodiment of the invention, signaling network 114 is an SS7 signaling network. The SS7 signaling network 114 is a separate packet-switched network used to handle the set up, tear down, and supervision of calls between calling party 102 and called party 120. SS7 signaling network 114 includes service switching points (SSPs) 104, 106, 126 and 130, signal transfer points (STPs) 216, 218, 250a, 250b, 252a and 252b, and service control point (SCP) 610. In SS7 signaling network 114, SSPs 104, 106, 126 and 130 are the portions of the backbone switches providing SS7 functions. The SSPs 104, 106, 126 and 130 can be, for example, a combination of a voice switch and an SS7 switch, or a computer connected to a voice switch. SSPs 104, 106, 126 and 130 communicate with the switches using primitives, and create packets for transmission over SS7 signaling network 114. Carrier facilities 126, 130 can be respectively represented in SS7 network 114 as SSPs 126, 130. Accordingly, the connections between carrier facilities 126 and 130 and signaling network 114 (presented as dashed lines in FIG. 2A) can be represented by connections 1726b and 1726d. The types of these links are described below. STPs 216, 218, 250a, 250b, 252a and 252b act as routers in the SS7 network, typically being provided as adjuncts to in-place switches. STPs 216, 218, 250a, 250b, 252a and 252b route messages from originating SSPs 104 and 126 to destination SSPs 106 and 130. Architecturally, STPs 216, 218, 250a, 250b, 252a and 252b can be and are typically provided in “mated pairs” to provide redundancy in the event of congestion or failure and to share resources (i.e. load sharing is done automatically). As illustrated in FIGS. 17A, 17B and 17C, STPs 216, 218, 250a, 250b, 252a and 252b can be arranged in hierarchical levels, to provide hierarchical routing of signaling messages. For example, mated STPs 250a, 252a and mated STPs 250b, 252b are at a first hierarchical level, while mated STPs 216, 218 are at a second hierarchical level. SCP 610 can provide database functions. SCP 610 can be used to provide advanced features in SS7 signaling network 114, including routing of special service numbers (e.g., 800 and 900 numbers), storing information regarding subscriber services, providing calling card validation and fraud protection, and offering advanced intelligent network (AIN) services. SCP 610 is connected to mated STPs 216 and 218. In SS7 signaling network 114, there are unique links between the different network elements. Table 19 provides definitions for common SS7 links. Mated STP pairs are connected together by C links. For example, STPs 216 and 218, mated STPs 250a and 252a, and mated STPs 250b and 252b are connected together by C links 1728a, 1728b, 1728c, 1728d, 1728e and 1728f, respectively. SSPs 104 and 126 and SSPs 106 and 130 are connected together by F links 1734 and 1736, respectively. Mated STPs 250a and 252a and mated STPs 250b and 252b, which are at the same hierarchical level, are connected by B links 1732a, 1732b, 1732c and 1732d. Mated STPs 250a and 252a and mated STPs 216 and 218, which are at different hierarchical levels, are connected by D links 1730a, 1730b, 1730e and 1730f. Similarly, mated STPs 250b and 252b and mated STPs 216 and 218, which are at different hierarchical levels, are connected by D links 1730c, 1730d, 1730g and 1730h. SSPs 104 and 126 and mated STPs 250a and 252a are connected by A links 1726a and 1726b. SSPs 106 and 130 and mated STPs 250b and 252b are connected by A links 1726c and 1726d. SSPs 104 and 126 can also be connected to mated STPs 216 and 218 by E links (not shown). Finally, mated STPs 216 and 218 are connected to SCP 610 by A links 608a and 608b. For a more elaborate description of SS7 network topology, the reader is referred to Russell, Travis, Signaling System #7, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. 10020, ISBN 0-07-054991-5, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TABLE 19 Port Status SS7 link terminology Definitions Access (A) A links connect SSPs to STPs, or SCPs to STPs, links providing network access and database access through the STPs. Bridge (B) B links connect mated STPs to other mated STPs. links Cross (C) links C links connect the STPs in a mated pair to one another. During normal conditions, only network management messages are sent over C links. Diagonal (D) D links connect the mated STPs at a primary hierarchical links level to mated STPs at a secondary hierarchical level. Extended (E) E links connect SSPs to remote mated STPs, and are links used in the event that the A links to home mated STPs are congested. Fully F links provide direct connections between local SSPs associated (F) (bypassing STPs) in the event there is much traffic links between SSPs, or if a direct connection to an STP is not available. F links are used only for call setup and call teardown. a. Signal Transfer Points (STPs) Signal transfer points (STPs) are tandem switches which route SS7 signaling messages long the packet switched SS7 signaling network 114. See the description of STPs with reference to FIG. 17A, in the soft switch site section, and with reference to FIG. 17C above. b. Service Switching Points (SSPs) Service switching points (SSPs) create the packets which carry SS7 signaling messages through the SS7 signaling network 114. See the description of SSPs with reference to FIG. 17C, above. c. Services Control Points (SCPs) Services control points (SCPs) can provide database features and advanced network features in the SS7 signaling network 114. See the description of SCPs with reference to FIG. 17B in the soft switch site section, and with reference to FIG. 17C above. 5. Provisioning Component FIG. 18 depicts a provisioning component and network event component architecture 1800. FIG. 18 includes a spool-shaped component (including provisioning component 117 and network event component 116), and three soft switch sites, i.e. western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. The top elliptical portion of the spool-shaped component, illustrates an embodiment of provisioning component 117, including operational support services (OSS) order entry (O/E) component 1802, alternate order entry component 1804 and data distributors 222a and 222b. In an example embodiment, data distributors 222a and 222b comprise application programs. In a preferred embodiment, data distributors 222a and 222b include ORACLE 8.0 relational databases from Oracle Corporation of Redwood Shores, Calif., Tuxedo clients and a BEA M3 OBJECT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, CORBA-compliant interface, available from BEA Systems, Inc. of San Francisco, Calif., with offices in Golden, Colo. BEA M3 is based on the CORBA distributed objects standard. BEA M3 is a combination of BEA OBJECTBROKER CORBA ORB (including management, monitoring, and transactional features underlying BEA TUXEDO), and an object-oriented transaction and state management system, messaging and legacy access connectivity. BEA M3 is scalable, high performance, designed for high availability and reliability, supports transactions, includes CORBA/IIOP ORB, security, MIB-based management, supports fault management, dynamic load balancing, gateways and adapters, client support, multi-platform porting, data integrity, management, reporting and TUXEDO Services. In another embodiment, data distributors 222a and 222b include an application program by the name of automated service activation process (ASAP) available from Architel Systems Corporation of Toronto, Ontario. Customer service request calls can be placed to a customer service office. Customer service operators can perform order entry of customer service requests via OSS 1802 order entry (O/E) 1803 system. In the event of the unavailability of OSS O/E 1802, customer service requests may be entered via alternate O/E 1804. Customer service requests are inputted into data distributors 222a and 222b for distribution and replication to configuration servers 312a, 312b, 206a, 206b, 316a and 316b which contain customer profile database entries. In addition, provisioning requests can be performed. Replication facilities in data distributors 222a and 222b enable maintaining synchronization between the distributed network elements of telecommunications network 200. a. Data Distributor Referring to FIG. 18 data distributors 222a and 222b receive service requests from upstream provisioning components such as, e.g., OSS systems. Data distributors 222a and 222b then translate the service requests and decompose the requests into updates to network component databases. Data distributors 222a and 222b then distribute the updates to voice network components in soft switch sites and gateway sites. FIG. 19A depicts examples of both the upstream and downstream network components interfacing to data distributors 222 and 222b. FIG. 19A depicts data distributor architecture 1900. FIG. 19A includes a data distributor 222 interfacing to a plurality of voice network elements. Voice network elements illustrated in FIG. 19A include SCPs 214a and 214b, configuration servers 206a, 312a and 316a route servers 212a, 212b, 314a, 314b, 316a and 316b TGs 232 and 234, AGs 238 and 240, and SS7 GWSI 208 and 210. In addition, data distributor 222 interfaces to a plurality of services. Services include provisioning services 1902, customer profiles/order entry services 1803, OSS 1802, route administration services 1904, service activation services 1906, network administration services 1908, network inventory services 1910 and alternate data entry (APDE) services 1804. Data distributor 222 has a plurality of functions. Data distributor 222 receives provisioning requests from upstream OSS systems, distributes provisioning data to appropriate network elements and maintains data synchronization, consistency and integrity across data centers, i.e., soft switch sites 104, 106, 302. A more detailed architectural representation of one embodiment of data distributor 222 is provided in FIG. 19B. Data distributor 222 accepts various requests from multiple upstream OSS systems 1922, 1924, 1926, 1928 and APDE 1804. Services request processes (SRPs) 1938 manage the upstream interface between data distributor 222 and OSS systems 1922-1928. SRPs 1938 are developed to support communication between individual OSS systems 1802, 1922-1928, APDE 1804 and data distributor 222. A common service description layer 1936 acts as an encapsulation layer for upstream applications. Common service description layer 1936 translates service requests from upstream OSS systems 1922-1928 and APDE 1804 to a common format. Common service description layer 1936 buffers the distribution logic from any specific formats or representations of OSS 1922-1928 and APDE 1804. Distribution layer 1930 includes the actual distribution application logic resident within data distributor 222. Distribution layer 1930 manages incoming requests, performs database replications, maintains logical work units, manages application revisions, performs roll-backs when required, maintains synchronization, handles incoming priority schemes and priority queues, and other data distribution functions. Distribution layer 1930 includes access to multiple redundant high-availability database disks 1940, 1942, which can include a database of record. Updates are distributed downstream through a network element description layer 1932. Network element description layer 1932 is an encapsulation layer that insulates data distributor 222 from the individual data formats required by specific network element types. A network element processor (NEP) 1934 performs a role analogous to SRP 1938, but instead for downstream elements rather than upstream elements. NEPs 1934 manage the physical interface between data distributor 222 and heterogeneous network elements 1943, i.e. the down stream voice network elements to which data distributor 222 distributes updates. Heterogeneous network elements 1943 include SCPs 214a and 214b, configuration servers 206a, 212a and 216a, route servers 212a, 212b, 314a, 314b, 316a and 316b, TGs 232 and 234, AGs 238 and 240, and SS7 GWs 208 and 210. Each NEP 1934 handles a particular type of heterogeneous network elements, e.g., route servers. In addition to upstream feeds to OSS systems 1922-1928 and downstream feeds to heterogeneous network elements 1943, data distributor 222 allows updates directly to distribution layer 1930 via APDE 1804. APDE 1804 enables update of distribution layer 1930 and allows updates to the network in the unlikely event that an emergency update is required when interfacing OSS systems 1922 1928 upstream application are out of service or down for maintenance activity. APDE 1804 the alternate provisioning order entry system, can comprise a small local area network including several PCs and connectivity peripherals. APDE 1804 provides a backup for OSSs 1922-1928. In a preferred example embodiment of data distributor 222, data distributor 222 is an application program BEA M3 available from BEA Systems, Inc. of San Francisco, Calif. In another example embodiment, data distributor 222 could be another application program capable of distributing/replication/rollback of software such as, for example, AUTOMATED SERVICE ACTIVATION PROCESS (ASAP) available from Architel of Toronto, Canada. Example upstream operational support services (OSS) components include application programs which perform multiple functions. FIG. 19C illustrates some example OSS applications 1802 including provisioning application 1902, customer profiles/order entry application 1803, route administration application 1904, service activation triggers 1906, network administration application 1908, network inventory application 1910, alternate provisioning data entry application (APDE) 1804, and trouble ticketing application (not shown). Browsing tools can also be used, such as, for example, a browsing or query application programs. FIG. 19C illustrates a more detailed view of an example embodiment of data distributor 222. Data distributor 222 includes distribution layer 1930 interfacing to database disks 1940 and 1942. Distribution layer 1930 of FIG. 19 interfaces to common service description layer 1936. In an example embodiment, common service description layer 1936 is a common object request broker architecture (CORBA) compliant server such as, for example, BEA M3 from BEA Systems, Inc. of San Francisco, Calif. Alternate provisioning data entry (APDE) 1804 interfaces to CORBA server 1936. Upstream voice provisioning components, i.e., operational support services (OSS) 1922-1928, include application components 1802 and 1902-1910. Provisioning component 1902 has a CORBA client in communication with CORBA server common service description layer 1936. Customer profiles/order entry 1802 includes a CORBA client interface into CORBA server common service description layer 1936. Similarly, routing administration 1904, network inventory 1910, network administration 1908 and service triggers 1906 all interface via CORBA clients to CORBA server common service description layer 1936. Distribution layer 1930 also interfaces to downstream voice network elements via an application program, i.e., network element description layer 1932. In an exemplary embodiment, network element description layer 1932 is an application program running on a work station, such as, for example BEA TUXEDO, available from BEA Systems, Inc. Voice network element configuration servers 206, 312a and 314a interface via a TUXEDO client to TUXEDO server network element description layer 1932. Routing servers 212a, 212b, 314a, 314b, 316a and 316b interface via a TUXEDO client to TUXEDO server network element description layer 1932, as well. Similarly, SS7 GWs 208 and 210, SCPs 214a and 214b, AGs 238 and 240, and TGs 232 and 234, interface to TUXEDO server network element description layer 1932 via TUXEDO clients. Preferred embodiment BEA TUXEDO available from BEA Systems, Inc. of San Francisco, Calif. (Colorado Springs and Denver/Golden, Colo. office) supports among other functions, rollback and data integrity features. FIG. 19C also includes database of record (DOR) 1940, 1942. FIG. 19E includes a more detailed illustration of a specific example embodiment of the data distributor and provisioning element 116. FIG. 19E includes DOR 1940 and 1942, which can be in a primary/secondary relationship for high availability purposes. DORs 1940, 1942 can have stored on their media, images of the Route Server and Configuration Server databases. In one embodiment, the functions of route server 314a and configuration server 312a are performed by the same physical workstation element, a routing and configuration database (RCDB). DOR 1940 can be used for referential integrity. ORACLE relational database management (RDBMS) databases, e.g., ORACLE 8.0 RDBMS can support the use of a foreign key between a database and an index. DOR 1940 can be used to maintain integrity of the database. DOR 1940 sets constraints on the RCDB databases. DOR 1940 is used to maintain integrity of RCDB data and can be used to query data without affecting call processing. DOR 1940 supports parity calculations to check for replication errors. FIG. 19E includes distribution layer 1930 which can be used to distribute service level updates of telecommunications network system software to network elements using database replication features of, e.g., ORACLE 8.0. Other business processes demand updating the software on network elements. For example, other business processes requiring updates include, NPA splits. NPA splits, occur when one area code becomes two or more area codes. An NPA split can require that thousands of rows of numbers must be updated. FIG. 19E includes an automated tool to distribute changes, i.e. a routing administration tool (RAT) 1904. FIG. 19E also includes data distributor common interface (DDCI) 1999, which can be thought of as an advanced programming interface (API) functional calls that OSS developers can invoke in writing application programs. OSS applications include programs such as, e.g., provisioning, order management and billing, (each of which can require the means to provision the RCDB, i.e., RS and CS, or can provide updates to the database of record (DOR). FIG. 19E illustrates a data distributor including BEA M3, a CORBA-compliant interface server 1936 with an imbedded TUXEDO layer. BEA M3 communicates through the CORBA server interface 1936 to CORBA-compliant clients. Other examples of CORBA compliant distributed object connectivity software includes, for example, VISIGENICS VISIBROKER, available from Inprise Corporation, of Scotts Valley, Calif. DOR 1940 includes a plurality of relational database tables including each EO, NPA, NXX, LATA, and state. Each EO can home to 150,000 NPA/NXXs. Multiple inputs must be replicated into DOR 1040. For example, Lockheed Martin Local Exchange and Routing Guide (LERG) 1941 includes twelve (12) tables maintained by the industry including flat files which are sent to a carrier each month. FIG. 19E demonstrates an exemplary monthly reference data update process 1957. Monthly, a LERG 1941 compact disk (CD) is received by the carrier including changes to all of the 12 tables. Process 1957 includes merging an image snapshot of DOR 1940 with the LERG CD and storing the results in a temporary routing database (shown) to create a discrepancy report. This process can be used to yield a subset of the NPA/NXXs which have changed, which can then be audited and used to update the production DOR 1940 if found to be necessary. Once an updated version of the database is prepared, the database update can be sent to data distributor 1930 for distribution to all the relevant network elements. FIG. 19F depicts an even more detailed example embodiment block diagram 1958 of BEA M3 data distributor of provisioning element 116. Diagram 1958 shows the flow of a provisioning request from OSS 1802 or APDE 1804 through BEA M3 CORB A interface 1936 through queues to data distributor 1930 for distribution/replication through queue servers 1995a, 1995b, 1995c, and queues 1996a, 1996b, 1996c for dispatch to geographically diverse RCDBs 212a, 206 (RSs and CSs at remote soft switch sites) through dispatch servers 1997a, 1997b, 1997c and DBProxyServers 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1998d, 1998e and 1998f. Operationally, when a provisioning request comes in from OSS 1802, the request enters a queue. Priority queuing is enabled by BEA TUXEDO. Tuxedo creates a plurality of queues in order to protect database integrity, e.g., a high, medium and low priority queue. An example of the use of queues might be to place a higher priority on customer updates that to LERG updates, which are less time sensitive. Requests can be categorized in queues based on dates such as, for example, the effective date of the request, the effective deactivation date. Once categorized by date, the updates can be stored with a timestamp placed on them, and can then be placed in a TUXEDO queue. TUXEDO permits the use of down word transaction in its multi-level queuing architecture. This permits pulling back transactions, also known as “rolling back” a replication/update, so updates will occur to all of or none of the databases. In some instances one network element can be removed from the network, but this is done rarely. For an example, in the event of RCDB crashing, the NOC can remove the crashing RCDB from the network configuration and thus it might not be capable of being updated. However, for normal situations of the network, updates are either performed on all elements or no updates are performed. FIG. 19G depicts a block diagram illustrating a high level conceptual diagram of the CORBA interface 1960. CORBA IDL Interface 1936 includes routing provisioning 1966, common configuration provisioning (configuration server provisioning) 1803, provisioning factory 1902, routing factory 1968, common configuration factory 1970, routing services 1908, 1910, common configuration services 1960 and SQL translator 1972. SQL translator 1972 takes the application API calls and translates them into structured query language queries for queuing for eventual invocation against database of record 1940. FIG. 19H depicts a block diagram 1962 illustrating additional components of the high level conceptual diagram of the CORBA interface 1960. CORBA IDL Interface 1936 includes routing administration 1904, routing validation 1974, routing administration factory 1980, composite updates 1976, batch updates 1982, and projects 1978. SQL translator 1972 can take the application API calls and translate them into structured query language queries for queuing for eventual invocation against project database 1984. FIG. 19I depicts a block diagram illustrating a data distributor sending data to configuration server sequencing diagram 1964 including message flows 1986-1994. (1) Data Distributor Interfaces Data distributor 222 receives service requests from upstream OSS systems 1922, 1924, 1926 and 1928. OSS service requests appear in the form of provisioning updates and administrative reference updates. Provisioning updates include high-level attributes required to provision a customer's telecommunications service. Example high-level attributes required for provisioning include, for example, customer automatic number identification (ANI), and trunk profiles; class of service restrictions (COSR) and project account codes (PAC) profiles; AG and TG assignments; and toll-free number to SCP translation assignments. Administrative reference updates include high-level attributes required to support call processing. Example high-level attributes required to perform administrative updates include, for example, 3/6/10 digit translation tables, international translation tables and blocked country codes. Alternate provisioning data entry (APDE) 1804 replicates OSS functionality supported at the interface with data distributor 222. APDE 1804 can provide an alternative mechanism to provide provisioning and reference data to data distributor 222 in the event that an OSS 1922-1928 is unavailable. FIG. 19D illustrates data distributor 222 passing provisioning information from upstream OSSs 1922-1928 to downstream SCPs 214. A plurality of tables are distributed from data distributor 222 to each SCP 214. Exemplary data tables distributed include a PAC table, an ANI table, blocking list tables, numbering plan area (NPA)/NXX tables, state code tables, and LATA tables. Each of these tables is maintained at the customer level to ensure customer security. FIG. 19D illustrates block diagram 1946 depicting provisioning interfaces into SCPs. SCP 214 can receive customer and routing provisioning from data distributor 222. Data distributor 222 distributes customer database tables to SCP 214. Data distributor 222 also distributes route plan updates of configurations to SCP 214. Customer tables are updated through a database replication server. An exemplary database replication server is an ORACLE database replication server, available from ORACLE of Redwood Shores, Calif. ORACLE replication server performs replication functions including data replication from data distributor to SCP 1952 and route plan distribution from data distributor to SCP 1954. These functions are illustrated in FIG. 19D originating from ORACLE databases 1940 and 1942 of data distributor 222 and replicating to an ORACLE database in SCP 214. ORACLE databases 1940 and 1942 in data distributor 222 are updated via toll-free routing provisioning 1950 from SCP 1902. ORACLE databases 1940 and 1942 of data distributor 222 can also be updated via order entry application 1802 including customer tables 1948 of OSS systems 1922-1928. Routing plans are updated via an SCP vendor's proprietary interfaces. Specifically, toll-free routing provisioning 1950 may be updated via a computer 1902 which interfaces to data distributor 222. Referring to FIG. 19C, data distributor 222 passes provisioning and configuration information from upstream OSS systems 1922-1928 (primarily the provisioning system) to configuration servers 206a, 312a and 314a. A plurality of tables are distributed from data distributor 222 to each configuration server. Exemplary tables distributed include, for example, toll-free numbers to SCP-type tables, SCP-type to SCP tables, carrier identification code (CIC) profile tables, ANI profile summary tables, ANI profile tables, account, code profile tables, NPA/NXX tables, customer profile tables, customer location profile tables, equipment service profile tables, trunk group service profile summary tables, trunk group service tables, high risk country tables, and selected international destinations tables. Data distributor 222 passes administrative and reference information from upstream OSS systems 1922-1928 to route server 212. A plurality of tables are distributed from data distributor 222 to route servers 212a, 212b, 314a, 314b, 316a and 316b. Exemplary tables distributed include country code routing tables, NPA routing tables, NPA/NXX routing tables, ten-digit routing tables, route group tables, circuit group tables, and circuit group status tables. Data distributor 222 passes administrative configuration information to TGs 232 and 234. Data distributor 222 passes administration configuration information to AGs 238 and 240. Data distributor passes administrative configuration information to SS7 gateways 208 and 210. The administrative configuration information sent can be used in the routing of SS7 signaling messages throughout signaling network 114. Data distributor 222 uses a separate physical interface for all SNMP messages and additional functions that can be defined. Additional functions that can be defined include, for example, provisioning, and passing special alarm and performance parameters to data distributor 222 from the network operation center (NOC). 6. Network Event Component FIG. 18 depicts the provisioning component and network event component architecture 1800. FIG. 18 includes a spool-shaped component (comprising provisioning component 117 and network event component 116), and three soft switch sites, i.e. western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. The spindle portion of the spool-shaped component includes western soft switch site 104. Western soft switch site 104 includes configuration servers 206a and 206b, route servers 212a and 212b, soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c, and network event collection points, i.e., RNECPs 224a and 224b. FIG. 18 also includes central soft switch site 106 including configuration servers 312a and 312b, route servers 314a and 314b, soft switches 304a, 304b and 304c, and RNECPs 902 and 904. FIG. 18 also includes eastern soft switch site 302 including configuration servers 316a and 316b, route servers 318a and 318b, soft switches 306a, 306b and 306c and RNECPs 906 and 908. As depicted in FIG. 18, network call events are collected at regional network event collection points via RNECPs 902, 904, 224a, 224b, 906 and 908, at the regional soft switch sites 104, 106 and 302, which are like FIFO buffers. A call record can be created by the ingress soft switch. The ingress soft switch can generate a unique identifier (UID) for the call based, for example, on the time of origination of the call. Ingress related call event blocks can be generated throughout the call and are forwarded on to the RNECPs for inclusion in a call event record identified by the UID. The call event records can be sent from the RNECPs to master network event data base NEDB 226a and 226b for storage in database disks 926a, 926b and 926c for further processing using application programs such as, for example, fraud DB client 1806, browser 1808, statistics DB client 1810 and mediation DB client 1812. In one embodiment, a version of the call record including all call event blocks as of that time, can be forwarded from the RNECPs to the NEDB on a periodic basis, to permit real-time, mid-call call event statistics to be analyzed. The call records can be indexed by the UID associated with the call. In one embodiment, a copy of a call event record for a call, including ingress call event blocks, remains in the RNECP until completion of the phone call. In completing a phone call, the ingress soft switch and egress soft switch can communicate using inter soft switch communication, identifying the call by means of the UID. A load balancing scheme can be used to balance storage and capacity requirements of the RNECPs. For example, in one embodiment, calls can be assigned, based on origination time, i.e., a UID can be assigned to a specific RNECP (based, e.g., on time of origination of the call) for buffered storage. The egress soft switch can similarly generate and forward call event blocks to the same or another RNECP for inclusion in the call event record. In one embodiment, all the call event blocks for the call record for a given call are sent to one RNECP which maintains a copy throughout the call (i.e. even if interim copies are transmitted for storage). In one embodiment, the call event record is removed from the RNECP upon completion of the call to free up space for additional calls. The bottom elliptical portion of spool-shaped component, illustrates an embodiment of network event component 116 including master NEDBs 226a and 226b having database disks 926a, 926b and 926c. MNEDBs 226a and 226b can be in communication with a plurality of applications which process network call event blocks. For example, a fraud DB client 1806, a browser 1808, a statistics DB client 1810, and a mediation DB client 1812 can process call event blocks (EBs) MNEDBs 226a and 226b can be in set up in a primary and secondary mode. a. Master Network Event Database (MNEDB) The master network event database (MNEDB) 226 is a centralized server which acts as a repository for storing call event records. MNEDB 226 collects data from each of RNECPs 224 which transmit information real-time to MNEDB 226. MNEDB 226 can also be implemented in a primary and secondary server strategy, wherein RNECPs 224 are connected to a primary and a secondary MNEDB 226 for high availability redundancy. MNEDB 226 can store call event blocks (EBs) received from RNECPs 224 organized based on a unique call/event identifier as the primary key and a directional flag element as the secondary key. MNEDB 226 can serve as the “database of record” for downstream systems to be the database of record. Downstream systems include, for example, an accounting/billing system, a network management system, a cost analysis system, a call performance statistics system, a carrier access billing system (CABS), fraud analysis system, margin analysis system, and others. MNEDB 226, in a preferred embodiment, has enough disk space to store up to 60 days of call event records locally. MNEDBs 226 can create and feed real-time call event data to downstream systems. Real-time call event data provides significant advantages over call event data available in conventional circuit-switched networks. Conventional circuit-switched networks can only provide call records for completed calls to downstream systems. The advantages of real-time call event data include, for example, fraud identification and prevention, and enablement of real-time customized customer reporting and billing (e.g., billing based on packets sent). (1) MNEDB Interfaces MNEDBs 226 collect recorded call event blocks (EBs) from RNECPs 224. MNEDB 226 correlates the EBs and forwards the data to various downstream systems. FIG. 20 illustrates master data center architecture 2000. FIG. 20 includes master data center 2004 having MNEDBs 226a and 226b. MNEDBs 226a and 226b have multiple redundant high availability disks 926a and 926b which can be arranged in a primary and secondary fashion for high availability redundancy. MNEDBs 226a and 226b intercommunicate as shown via communication line 2006. MNEDBs 226a and 226b are in communication via multiple redundant connections with a plurality of downstream application systems. Downstream application systems include, for example, browser system 1808, fraud DB client system 1806, carrier access billing system (CABS) DB client 2002, statistics DB client 1810 and mediation DB client 1812. MNEDBs 226a and 226b provide recorded call event record data to fraud database client 1806 in real-time. Real-time call event data allows fraud DB client 1806 to detect fraudulent activities at the time of their occurrence, rather than after the fact. Traditional circuit-switched networks can only identify fraud after completion of a call, since event records are “cut” at that time. Real-time fraud detection permits operations personnel to take immediate action against fraudulent perpetrators. MNEDBs 226a and 226b provide recorded call event data to CABS DB client 2002. CABS DB client 2002 uses the recorded call event data to bill other LECs and IXCs for their usage of telecommunications network 200, using reciprocal billing. MNEDBs 226a and 226b provide recorded call data to statistics DB client 1810. Statistics DB client 1810 uses the recorded call event data to assist in traffic engineering and capacity forecasting. MNEDBs 226a and 226b can provide recorded call event data to mediation DB client 1812, in one embodiment. Mediation DB client 212 normalizes the recorded call data it receives from MNEDBs 226a and 226b and provides a data feed to a billing system at approximately real-time. MNEDBs 226a and 226b use a separate physical interface for all SNMP messages and additional functions that can be defined to communicate with network management component 118. Additional functions can include, for example, provisioning, updating and passing special alarm and performance parameters to MNEDBs 326a and 326b from the network operation center (NOC) of network management component 118. (2) Event Block Definitions Definitions of the Event Blocks (EBs) that can be recorded during call processing are detailed in this section. (a) Example Mandatory Event Blocks (EBs) Definitions Table 20 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0001. EB 0001 defines a Domestic Toll (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Long Distance calls, originating via a Trunking Gateway, i.e., from facilities of the PSTN. Typically, these calls can be PIC-calls, originating over featuring group-D (FGD) facilities. TABLE 20 EB 0001 - Domestic Toll (TG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Selection Information 51 2 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Jurisdiction Information 30 6 Table 21 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0002. EB 0002 defines Domestic Toll (TG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Long Distance calls terminating via a Trunking Gateway to the PSTN. TABLE 21 EB 0002 - Domestic Toll (TG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Jurisdiction Information 30 6 Table 22 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0003. EB 0003 defines Domestic Toll (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Long Distance calls, originating via an Access Gateway, i.e., entering via a DAL or ISDN PRI line. Inc. TABLE 22 EB 0003 - Domestic Toll (AG origination) Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Selection Information 51 2 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Ingress Access Gateway 36 7 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 23 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0004. EB 0004 defines Domestic Toll (AG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Long Distance calls, terminating via an Access Gateway to a DAL or PRI TABLE 23 EB 0004 - Domestic Toll (AG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Table 24 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0005. EB 0005 defines Local (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all local calls, originating via a Trunking Gateway from a facility on the PSTN. TABLE 24 EB 0005 - Local (TG origination) Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Jurisdiction Information 30 6 Table 25 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0006. EB 0006 defines Local (TG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all local calls terminating via a Trunking Gateway to facilities of the PSTN. TABLE 25 EB 0006 - Local (TG termination) Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Table 26 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0007. EB 0007 defines Local (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all local calls, originating via an Access Gateway. TABLE 26 EB 0007 - Local (AG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 7 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 27 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0008. EB 0008 defines Local (AG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all local calls, terminating via an Access Gateway. TABLE 27 EB 0008 - Local (AG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 2 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Table 28 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0009. EB 0009 defines 8XX/Toll-Free (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for Toll-Free (8XX) calls, originating via a Trunking Gateway from facilities of the PSTN. TABLE 28 EB 0009 - 8XX/Toll-Free (TG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Dialed NPA 25 3 Dialed Number 26 7 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Table 29 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0010. EB 0010 defines 8XX/Toll-Free (TG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for Toll-Free (8XX)s calls, terminating via a Trunking Gateway to the facilities of the PSTN. TABLE 29 EB 0010 - 8XX/Toll-Free (TG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Dialed NPA 25 3 Dialed Number 26 7 Destination NPA/CC 27 5 Destination Number 28 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Table 30 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0011. EB 0011 defines 8XX/Toll-Free (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for Toll-Free (8XX) calls, originating via an Access Gateway. TABLE 30 EB 0011 - 8XX/Toll-Free (AG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Dialed NPA 25 3 Dialed Number 26 7 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 7 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 31 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0012. EB 0012 defines 8XX/Toll-Free (AG termination), which can be the logical data set generated for Toll-Free (8XX)s calls, terminating via an Access Gateway. TABLE 31 EB 0012 - 8XX/Toll-Free (AG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Dialed NPA 25 3 Dialed Number 26 7 Destination Number 28 10 Destination NPA/CC 27 5 Call Type Identification 79 3 Table 32 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0013. EB 0013 defines Domestic Operator Services (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Operator Assisted calls, originating via a TG. The actual billing information (which can include the services utilized on the operator services platform (OSP): 3rd party billing, collect, etc.) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 32 EB 0013 - Domestic Operator Services (TG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Table 33 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0014. EB 0014 defines Domestic Operator Services (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Operator Assisted calls, originating via an AG. The actual billing information (which can include the services utilized on the OSP) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 33 EB 0014 - Domestic Operator Services (AG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 6 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 6 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 34 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0015. EB 0015 defines Domestic Operator Services (OSP termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Operator Assisted calls, terminating to the OSP. The actual billing information (which can include the services utilized on the OSP) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 34 EB 0015 - Domestic Operator Services (OSP termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Operator Trunk Group Number 69 4 Operator Circuit Identification Code 70 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 35 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0016. EB 0016 defines International Operator Services (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Operator Assisted calls, originated via a TG. The actual billing information (which can include the services utilized on the OSP) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 35 EB 0016 - International Operator Services (TG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (International) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Table 36 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0017. EB 0017 defines International Operator Services (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Operator Assisted calls, originated via an AG. The actual billing information (which will include the services utilized on the OSP) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 36 EB 0017 - International Operator Services (AG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (International) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 6 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 37 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0018. EB 0018 defines International Operator Services (OSP termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Operator Assisted calls, terminating to the OSP. The actual billing information (which will include the services utilized on the OSP) can be derived from the OSP. TABLE 37 EB 0018 - International Operator Services (OSP termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (International) 74 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Operator Trunk Group Number 69 4 Operator Circuit Identification Code 70 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 38 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0019. EB 0019 defines Directory Assistance/555-1212 (TG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for 555-1212 calls, originating via a TG from the PSTN. TABLE 38 EB 0019 - Directory Assistance/555-1212 (TG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Table 39 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0020. EB 0020 defines Directory Assistance/555-1212 (AG origination), which can be the logical data set generated for 555-1212 calls, originating via an AG on a DAL. TABLE 39 EB 0020 - Directory Assistance/555-1212 (AG origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 6 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 40 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0021. EB 0021 defines Directory Assistance/555-1212 (Directory Assistance Services Platform (DASP) termination), which can be the logical data set generated for 555-1212 calls, terminating to the DASP. TABLE 40 EB 0021 - Directory Assistance/555-1212 (DASP termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Access Gateway 36 6 DA Trunk Group Number 75 4 DA Circuit Identification Code 76 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 41 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0022. EB 0022 defines OSP/DASP Extended Calls (Domestic), which can be the logical data set generated for all Domestic Operator and Directory Assisted calls that are extended back to telecommunications network 200 for termination. TABLE 41 EB 0022 - OSP/DASP Extended Calls (Domestic) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 2 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 42 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0023. EB 0023 defines OSP/DASP Extended Calls (International), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Operator and Directory Assisted calls that are extended back to the telecommunications network 200 for termination. TABLE 42 EB 0023 - OSP/DASP Extended Calls (International) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 2 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (International) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Date 72 8 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 43 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0024. EB 0024 defines International Toll (TG Origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Long Distance calls, originating via a Trunking Gateway from facilities of the PSTN. Typically, these calls can be PIC-calls, originating over FGD facilities. TABLE 43 EB 0024 - International Toll (TG Origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Overseas Indicator 8 2 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (Intl.) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Selection Information 51 2 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Ingress Trunking Gateway 52 6 Ingress Carrier Connect Time 13 9 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Ingress Originating Point Code 17 9 Ingress Destination Point Code 18 9 Jurisdiction Information 30 6 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 44 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0025. EB 0025 defines International Toll (AG Origination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Long Distance calls, originating via an Access Gateway. TABLE 44 EB 0025 - International Toll (AG Origination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (Intl.) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Selection Information 51 2 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Ingress Access Gateway 36 6 Ingress Trunk Group Number 15 4 Ingress Circuit Identification Code 16 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 45 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0026. EB 0026 defines International Toll (TG Termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Long Distance calls terminating via a Trunking Gateway to facilities of the PSTN. TABLE 45 EB 0026 - International Toll (TG Termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (Intl.) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Jurisdiction Information 30 6 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 46 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0027. EB 0027 defines International Toll (AG Termination), which can be the logical data set generated for all International Long Distance calls, terminating via an Access Gateway to a DPL or PRI. TABLE 46 EB 0027 - International Toll (AG Termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Calling Party Category 6 3 Originating Number 7 10 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (Intl.) 74 14 Call Type Identification 79 3 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 47 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0040. EB 0040 defines IP Origination, which can be the logical data set generated for ALL IP originations. TABLE 47 EB 0040 - IP Origination Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Originating Number 7 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Originating IP Address 63 12 Ingr. Security Gateway IP Address 65 12 Ingress Firewall IP Address 67 12 Table 48 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0041. EB 0041 defines IP Termination, which can be the logical data set generated for ALL IP terminations. TABLE 48 EB 0041 - IP Termination Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Connect Date 3 8 Connect Time 4 9 Originating Number 7 10 Terminating NPA/CC 9 5 Terminating Number (NANP) 10 10 Call Type Identification 79 3 Terminating IP Address 64 12 Egr. Security Gateway IP Address 66 12 Egress Firewall IP Address 68 12 (b) Example Augmenting Event Block (EBs) Definitions Table 49 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0050. EB 0050 defines a Final Event Block, which can be used as the FINAL Event Block for ALL calls/events. It signifies the closure of a call/event. TABLE 49 EB 0050 - Final Event Block Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 End Date 40 8 End Time 39 9 Elapsed Time 11 10 Audio Packets Sent 59 9 Audio Packets Received 60 9 Audio Packets Lost 61 9 Audio Bytes Transferred 62 9 Table 50 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0051. EB 0051 defines Answer Indication, which can be used as to indicate whether or not a call/session was answered or unanswered. If the call was unanswered, the Answer Indicator element will indicate that the call was not answered and the Answer Time element will contain the time that the originating party went on-hook. TABLE 50 EB 0051 -Answer Indication Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Answer Indicator 5 1 Answer Date 41 8 Answer Time 42 9 Table 51 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0052. EB 0052 defines Ingress Trunking Disconnect Information which can contain Ingress Trunking Disconnect information. The release date and time of the ingress circuit used in the call can be recorded. This EB can be extremely important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. TABLE 51 EB 0052 - Ingress Trunking Disconnect Information Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Ingress Carrier Disconnect Date 44 8 Ingress Carrier Disconnect Time 43 9 Table 52 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0053. EB 0053 defines Egress Trunking Disconnect Information, which can contain Egress Trunking Disconnect information. The release date and time of the egress circuit used in the call can be recorded. This EB can be extremely important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that can need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. TABLE 52 EB 0053 - Egress Trunking Disconnect Information Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Egress Carrier Disconnect Date 46 8 Egress Carrier Disconnect Time 45 9 Table 53 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0054. EB 0054 defines Basic 8XX/Toll-Free SCP Transaction Information, which can be used for all basic toll-free (8XX) SCP transactions. TABLE 53 EB 0054 - Basic 8XX/Toll-Free SCP Transaction Information Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Transaction Identification 31 9 Database Identification 34 3 Transaction Start Time 32 9 Transaction End Time 33 9 Carrier Selection Information 51 2 Carrier Identification Code 12 4 Overseas Indicator 8 1 Destination NPA/CC 27 5 Destination Number 28 10 Customer Identification 80 12 Customer Location Identification 81 12 Alternate Billing Number 29 10 Table 54 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0055. EB 0055 defines Calling Party (Ported) Information, which can be used to record information in regards to a Calling Party Number that has been ported. TABLE 54 EB 0055 - Calling Party (Ported) Information Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Location Routing Number 48 11 LRN Supporting Information 49 1 Table 55 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0056. EB 0056 defines Called Party (Ported) Information, which can be used to record information in regards to a Called Party Number that has been ported. TABLE 55 EB 0056 - Called Party (Ported) Information Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Location Routing Number 48 11 LRN Supporting Information 49 1 Table 56 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0057. EB 0057 defines Egress Routing Information (TG termination), which can be used to record the egress routing information (i.e., terminating via the PSTN). TABLE 56 EB 0057 - Egress Routing Information (TG termination) Element Number of Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Egress Routing Selection 54 2 Egress Trunking Gateway 53 6 Egress Carrier Connect Date 73 8 Egress Carrier Connect Time 19 9 Egress Trunk Group Number 21 4 Egress Circuit Identification Code 22 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Egress Originating Point Code 23 9 Egress Destination Point Code 24 9 Table 57 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0058. EB 0058 defines Routing Congestion Information, which can be used to record routes/trunks that were unavailable (e.g., due to congestion, failure, etc.) during the route selection process in soft switch 204. EB 0057 (for TG termination) and EB 0060 (for AG termination) can be used to record the ACTUAL route/trunk used to terminate the call. This information can be extremely valuable to, for example, traffic engineering, network management, cost analysis. TABLE 57 EB 0058 - Routing Congestion Information Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Routing Attempt Time 57 9 Routing Attempt Date 58 8 Egress Routing Selection 54 2 Egress Trunking Gateway 53 6 Egress Trunk Group Number 21 4 Congestion Code 55 2 Table 58 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0059. EB 0059 defines Account Code Information, which can be used for all calls requiring account codes. TABLE 58 EB 0059 - Account Code Information Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Account Code Type 71 1 Account Code 38 14 Account Code Validation Flag 56 1 Table 59 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0060. EB 0060 defines Egress Routing Information (for AG termination), which can be used to record the egress routing information (i.e., terminating via an AG). TABLE 59 EB 0060 - Egress Routing Information (AG termination) Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Egress Routing Selection 54 2 Egress Access Gateway 37 6 Egress Carrier Connect Date 73 8 Egress Carrier Connect Time 19 9 Egress Trunk Group Number 21 4 Egress Circuit Identification Code 22 4 Trunk Group Type 78 3 Table 60 below provides a definition of event block (EB) 0061. EB 0061 defines Long Duration Call Information, which can be used to record a timestamp of long duration calls. Soft switch 204 can generate this block when a call has been up for a duration that spans over two midnights. Subsequent LDCI EBs can be generated after each additional traverse of a single midnight. As an example, if a call has been up from 11:52 pm on Monday, through 4:17 pm on Thursday (of the same week), then TWO EB 0061s can be generated for the call. One can be generated at midnight on Tuesday, the other can be generated at midnight on Wednesday. TABLE 60 EB 0061 - Long Duration Call Information Number of Element Element Number Characters Event Block Code 0 6 Unique Call/Event Identifier 1 26 Call Event Block Sequence Number 82 2 Soft-Switch ID 2 6 Soft Switch Version ID. 50 4 Directional Flag 77 1 Long Duration Sequence Number 83 2 Long Duration Event Time 84 9 Long Duration Event Date 85 8 (3) Example Element Definitions Elements are the building blocks of Event Blocks (EBs). Event Blocks are logical groupings of elements. Each element can contain information that is collected during call/event processing, whether from, for example, signaling messages, external databases (SCPs and intelligent peripherals (IPs)), Access GTGs, customer attributes, or derived by a soft switch. All of the elements contain information that is used by various downstream systems. Downstream systems include, for example, billing/mediation, traffic engineering, carrier access billing, statistical engines, cost analysis engines, and marketing tools. Example Call Elements include the following: Element 0—Event Block Code; Element 1—Unique Call/Event Identifier; Element 2—Soft-Switch ID; Element 3—Connect Date; Element 4—Connect Time; Element 5—Answer Indicator; Element 6—Calling Party Category; Element 7—Originating Number; Element 8—Overseas Indicator; Element 9—Terminating NPA/CC; Element 10—Terminating Number; Element 11—Elapsed Time; Element 12—Carrier Identification Code; Element 13—Ingress Carrier Connect Time; Element 14—Ingress Carrier Elapsed Time; Element 15—Ingress Trunk Group Number; Element 16—Ingress Circuit Identification Code; Element 17—Ingress Originating Point Code; Element 18—Ingress Destination Point Code; Element 19—Egress Carrier Connect Time; Element 20—Egress Carrier Elapsed Time; Element 21—Egress Trunk Group Number; Element 22—Egress Circuit Identification Code; Element 23—Egress Originating Point Code; Element 24—Egress Destination Point Code; Element 25—Dialed NPA; Element 26—Dialed Number; Element 27—Destination NPA/CC; Element 28—Destination Number; Element 29—Alternate Billing Number; Element 30—Jurisdiction Information; Element 31—Transaction Identification; Element 32—Transaction Start Time; Element 33—Transaction End Time; Element 34—Database Identification; Element 36—Ingress Access Gateway; Element 37—Egress Access Gateway; Element 38—Account Code; Element 39—End Time; Element 40—End Date; Element 41—Answer Date; Element 42—Answer Time; Element 43—Ingress Carrier Disconnect Time; Element 44—Ingress Carrier Disconnect Date; Element 45—Egress Carrier Disconnect Time; Element 46—Egress Carrier Disconnect Date; Element 47—Announcement Identification; Element 48—Location Routing Number; Element 49—LRN Supporting Information; Element 50—Soft Switch Version; Element 51—Carrier Selection Information; Element 52—Ingress Trunking Gateway; Element 53—Egress Trunking Gateway; Element 54—Egress Routing Selection; Element 55—Egress Route Congestion Code; Element 56—Account Code Validation Flag; Element 57—Routing Attempt Time; Element 58—Routing Attempt Date; Element 59—Audio Packets Sent; Element 60—Audio Packets Received; Element 61—Audio Packets Lost; Element 62—Audio Bytes Transferred; Element 63—Originating IP Address; Element 64—Terminating IP Address; Element 65—Ingress Security Gateway IP Address; Element 66—Egress Security Gateway IP Address; Element 67—Ingress Firewall IP Address; Element 68—Egress Firewall IP Address; Element 69—Operator Trunk Group Number; Element 70—Operator Circuit Identification Code; Element 71—Account Code Type; Element 72—Ingress Carrier Connect Date; Element 73—Egress Carrier Connect Date; Element 74—Terminating Number (International); Element 75—DA Trunk Group Number; Element 76—DA Circuit Identification Code; Element 77—Directional Flag; Element 78—Trunk Group Type; Element 79—Call Type Identification; Element 80—Customer Identification; Element 81—Customer Location Identification; Element 82—Call Event Block Sequence Number; Element 83—Long Duration Sequence Number; Element 84—Long Duration Event Time; and Element 85—Long Duration Event Date. (4) Element Definitions Element definitions recorded during call processing are defined in this section. Table 61 below provides a definition of element 0. Element 0 defines an Event Block Code element, which contains a code that can be mapped/correlated to a type of call/event. The EB code can be used for parsing and data definition for downstream systems. An example of this element follows: EB0012. TABLE 61 Element 0 - Event Block Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 EB (constant) 3-6 Event Block Code Table 62 below provides a definition of element 1. Element 1 defines an Unique Call/Event Identifier (UCEI), which can be used to correlate all events (EBs) for a particular call/session. The correlation can be done in the MNEDB. An example of this element follows: BOS00219980523123716372001. TABLE 62 Element 1 - Unique Call/Event Identifier (UCEI) ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Site Identification 3-6 Node Identification 7-14 Date 15-23 Connect Time 24-26 Sequence Number* *A sequential number (per millisecond (ms)) from 0-999 can be incremented, then appended to each UCEI. This will allow differentiation of calls/events that are processed at the same Site, on the same Node (soft switch), on the same date, at exactly the same time(down to the ms). Table 63 below provides a definition of element 2. Element 2 defines a Soft-Switch ID element, which contains the soft switch identification number. This can indicate which soft switch recorded the call event data. An example of this element follows: BOS003. TABLE 63 Element 2 - Soft-Switch ID ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Three Letter City ID 4-6 Soft Switch Number Table 64 below provides a definition of element 3. Element 3 defines a Connect Date element, which contains the date when the call was originated. An example of this element follows: 19980430. TABLE 64 Element 3 - Connect Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 65 below provides a definition of element 4. Element 4 defines a Connect Time element, which contains the time when the soft switch received an IAM. An example of this element follows: 125433192. TABLE 65 Element 4 - Connect Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 66 below provides a definition of element 5. Element 5 defines an Answer Indicator element, which states whether or not a call/session was answered/unanswered. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 66 Element 5 - Answer Indicator ASCII Characters Meaning 1 0 = Answered 1 = Unanswered Table 67 below provides a definition of element 6. Element 6 defines a Calling Party Category element, which contains whether a call was originated from, for example, a Hotel, a Prison, a Cell Phone, a pay phone, a PVIPS, and an inward wide area telephone service (INWATS), based on the Calling Party Category received in the Initial Address Message (IAM), derived from a soft switch, or received from a database external from the soft switch. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 67 Element 6 - Calling Party Category ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 000 = PVIPS 001 = Prepay Coin 002 = Hotel/Motel 003 = IP Phone 008 = INWATS Terminating 018 = Prison Table 68 below provides a definition of element 7. Element 7 defines an Originating Number element, which contains the NPA NXX-XXXX (DN) that originated the call. An example of this element follows: 3039263223. TABLE 68 Element 7 - Originating Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-10 Originating Number Table 69A below provides a definition of element 8. Element 8 defines an Overseas Indicator element, which provides the digit length of an overseas call, as well as whether or not an NPA was dialed or implied/derived from the soft switch. This element is crucial to downstream systems (i.e., billing/mediation) which need to differentiate between NPAs and CCs. An example of this element follows: 01D. TABLE 69A Element 8 - Overseas Indicator ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 00 = NPA Dialed By the Customer (not an overseas call) 01 = NPA Implied/Derived By Soft Switch 02 = Non-North American Numbering Plan Termination 03 = 7 Digit Overseas Number 04 = 8 Digit Overseas Number 05 = 9 Digit Overseas Number 06 = 10 Digit Overseas Number 07 = 11 Digit Overseas Number 08 = 12 Digit Overseas Number 09 = 13 Digit Overseas Number 10 = 14 Digit Overseas Number 11 = 15 Digit Overseas Number Table 69B below provides a definition of element 9. Element 9 defines a Terminating Numbering Plan Area/Country Code (NPA/CC) element, which contains either the NPA of the dialed number for domestic calls, or up to five characters of the overseas number dialed. Today, country codes (CCs) can be up to 3 digits and the national significant number can be up to 14 digits (since Dec. 31, 1996), for a total of no more than 15 digits. If the call is domestic, the first two characters can be 00 (padding), the next three characters can be the NPA, and the last character can be the delimiter. An example of this element follows: 00303D. TABLE 69B Element 9 - Terminating Numbering Plan Area/Country Code NPA/CC ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Overseas Expander Positions 3-5 NPA Table 69C below provides a definition of element 10. Element 10 defines a Terminating Number North American Numbering Plan (NANP) element, which contains the NXX-LINE of the dialed number for domestic calls. The terminating number element should be populated for ALL calls that require a terminating number for billing. An example of this element follows: 9263223. TABLE 69C Element 10 - Terminating Number North American Numbering Plan (NANP) ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 NXX 4-7 Four Digit Line Number Table 70 below provides a definition of element 11. Element 111 defines an Elapsed Time element, which contains the elapsed time (duration) of a completed call/session. The time can be GMT. An example of this element follows: 123716372 TABLE 70 Element 11 - Elapsed Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 4-5 Minutes 6-7 Seconds 8-10 Milliseconds Table 71 below provides a definition of element 12. Element 12 defines a Carrier Identification Code element, which contains the toll carrier's identification code. This can be an extremely useful element for downstream systems (i.e. billing), that need to parse records for wholesale customers! An example of this element follows: 0645 TABLE 71 Element 12 - Carrier Identification Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Carrier Identification Code Table 72 below provides a definition of element 13. Element 13 defines an Ingress Carrier Connect Time element, which contains the time that the ingress trunk/circuit was seized for a call, that is, when an ACM was sent towards the PSTN. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 123716372 TABLE 72 Element 13 - Ingress Carrier Connect Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 73 below provides a definition of element 14. Element 14 defines an Ingress Carrier Elapsed Time element, which contains the elapsed time (duration) that the ingress trunk/circuit was in use (from seizure to release) for both answered and unanswered calls/sessions. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 123716372. TABLE 72 Element 14 - Ingress Carrier Elapsed Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 74 below provides a definition of element 15. Element 15 defines an Ingress Trunk Group Number element, which contains the Trunk Number on the originating/ingress side of a call. The information can be derived from either TG or AG, or from a correlation table, using Element 16—Ingress Circuit Identification Code, Element 17—Ingress Originating Point Code, and Element 18—Ingress Destination Point Code, to correlate to a specific trunk group. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. This can also assist traffic engineers in trunk sizing. An example of this element follows: 1234. TABLE 74 Element 15 - Ingress Trunk Group Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Trunk Group Number Table 75 below provides a definition of element 16. Element 16 defines an Ingress Circuit Identification Code element, which contains the circuit number/id of the circuit used on the originating/ingress side of a call. The information can be derived from either TG or AG, or from the Circuit Identification Code (CIC) field in the IAM. An example of this element follows: 0312 TABLE 75 Element 16 - Ingress Circuit Identification Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Circuit Identification Code/Trunk Member Number Table 76 below provides a definition of element 17. Element 17 defines an Ingress Originating Point Code (IOPC) element, which contains the ingress OPC. An example of this element follows: 212001001. TABLE 76 Element 17 - Ingress Originating Point Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Network (0-255) 4-6 Cluster (0-255) 7-9 Member (0-255) Table 77 below provides a definition of element 18. Element 18 defines an Ingress Destination Point (IDC) Code. An example of this element follows: 213002002. TABLE 77 Element 18 - Ingress Destination Point Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Network (0-255) 4-6 Cluster (0-255) 7-9 Member (0-255) Table 78 below provides a definition of element 19. Element 19 defines an Egress Carrier Connect Time element, which contains the time that the egress trunk/circuit was seized for a call. The time can be derived from the Access or Trunking Gateways, or from the Initial Address Message. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. CABS) that need this information to BILL other LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 123716372. TABLE 78 Element 19 - Egress Carrier Connect Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 79 below provides a definition of element 20. Element 20 defines an Egress Carrier Elapsed Time element, which contains the elapsed time (duration) that the egress trunk/circuit was in use (from seizure to release) for both answered and unanswered calls/sessions. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. CABS) that need this information to BILL other LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 123716372. TABLE 79 Element 20 - Egress Carrier Elapsed Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 80 below provides a definition of element 21. Element 21 defines an Egress Trunk Group Number element, which contains the Trunk Number on the terminating/egress side of a call. The information can be derived from either TG or AG, or from a correlation table, using Element 22—Egress Circuit Identification Code, Element 23—Egress Originating Point Code, and Element 24—Egress Destination Point Code, to correlate to a specific trunk group. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 4321. TABLE 80 Element 21 - Egress Trunk Group Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Trunk Group Number Table 81 below provides a definition of element 22. Element 22 defines an Egress Circuit Identification Code element, which contains the circuit number/id of the circuit used on the terminating/egress side of a call. The information can be derived from either TG or AG, or from the Circuit Identification Code (CIC) field in the IAM message. An example of this element follows: 0645. TABLE 81 Element 22 - Egress Circuit Identification Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Circuit Identification Code/Trunk Member Number Table 82 below provides a definition of element 23. Element 23 defines an Egress Originating Point (EOP) Code. An example of this element follows: 212001001. TABLE 82 Element 23 - Egress Originating Point Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Network (0-255) 4-6 Cluster (0-255) 7-9 Member (0-255) Table 83 below provides a definition of element 24. Element 24 defines an Egress Destination Point (EDP) Code. An example of this element follows: 213002002. TABLE 83 Element 24 - Egress Destination Point Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Network (0-255) 4-6 Cluster (0-255) 7-9 Member (0-255) Table 84 below provides a definition of element 25. Element 25 defines a Dialed NPA element, which contains the 8XX code for a toll-free call. An example of this element follows: 888. TABLE 84 Element 25 - Dialed NPA ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 NPA Table 85 below provides a definition of element 26. Element 26 defines a Dialed Number element, which contains the NXX-LINE of the dialed number for domestic toll-free calls. The terminating number element has seven significant characters and a sign (delimiter) character. An example of this element follows: 4532609. TABLE 85 Element 26 - Dialed Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 NXX 4-7 Four Digit Line Number Table 86 below provides a definition of element 27. Element 27 defines a Destination NPA/CC element, which contains the Numbering Plan Area (NPA) for domestic calls and the Country Code (CC) for international calls. This information is SCP derived for 8XX calls. The element is right justified and padded (with 0s) if necessary. An example of this element follows: 00303D. TABLE 86 Element 27 - Destination NPA/CC ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Overseas Expander Positions 3-5 NPA/CC Table 87 below provides a definition of element 28. Element 28 defines a Destination Number element, which contains the NXX-LINE of the destination number for domestic toll-free calls. This number is the routing number returned from a SCP 800 query. The terminating number element has seven significant characters and a sign (delimiter) character. The terminating number element should be populated for ALL calls that require a terminating number for billing. An example of this element follows: 9263223D. TABLE 87 Element 28 - Destination Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 NXX 4-7 Four Digit Line Number Table 88 below provides a definition of element 29. Element 29 defines an Alternate Billing Number field element, which contains the billing number obtained from the optional billing number data received from SCP. An example of this element follows: 3039263223D. TABLE 88 Element 29 - Alternate Billing Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-10 Alternate Billing Number Table 89 below provides a definition of element 30. Element 30 defines a Jurisdiction Information element, which contains the NPA-NXX of the originating Switch. This information can be contained in the Initial Address Message. An example of this element follows: 303926D. TABLE 89 Element 30 - Jurisdiction Information ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 NPA 4-6 NXX 7 Delimiter Table 90 below provides a definition of element 31. Element 31 defines a Transaction Identification element, which contains a unique identification number for each external request to a SCP, an Intelligent Peripheral (IP), or some other database. An example of this element follows: 0000012673. TABLE 90 Element 31 - Transaction Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-9 Transaction ID Table 91 below provides a definition of element 32. Element 32 defines a Transaction Start Time element, which contains the time that the Soft Switch sent an external request to an SCP, an Intelligent Peripheral (IP), or some other database. An example of this element follows: 124312507. TABLE 91 Element 32 - Transaction Start Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 92 below provides a definition of element 33. Element 33 defines a Transaction End Time element, which contains the time that the Soft Switch received a response from an external request to a SCP, an Intelligent Peripheral (IP), or some other database. An example of this element follows: 102943005. TABLE 92 Element 33 - Transaction End Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 93 below provides a definition of element 34. Element 34 defines a Database Identification element, which contains the SCP, Intelligent Peripheral (IP), or some other database's identification number, that a transaction was performed. An example of this element follows: 005. TABLE 93 Element 34 - Database Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Database ID number Table 94 below provides a definition of element 36. Element 36 defines an Ingress Access Gateway element, which contains the AG identification number. An example of this element follows: BOS003. TABLE 94 Element 36 - Ingress Access Gateway ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Three Letter City ID 4-6 Trunking Gateway Number Table 95 below provides a definition of element 37. Element 37 defines an Egress Access Gateway element, which contains the AG identification number. An example of this element follows: BOS003. TABLE 95 Element 37 - Egress Access Gateway ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Three Letter City ID 4-6 Trunking Gateway Number Table 96 below provides a definition of element 38. Element 38 defines an Account Code element, which contains the length of the account code, as well as the actual account code digits that were entered. An example of this element follows: 06000043652678. TABLE 96 Element 38 - Account Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Account Code Length 00 = 2 Digit Account Code 01 = 3 Digit Account Code 02 = 4 Digit Account Code 03 = 5 Digit Account Code 04 = 6 Digit Account Code 05 = 7 Digit Account Code 06 = 8 Digit Account Code 07 = 9 Digit Account Code 08 = 10 Digit Account Code 09 = 11 Digit Account Code 11 = 12 Digit Account Code 3-14 Account Code Digits * The Account Code digits can be right justified and padded with 0 s. Table 97 below provides a definition of element 39. Element 39 defines an End Time element, which contains the time when the call completed. The time should be recorded after both parties, originating and terminating, go on-hook. An example of this element follows: 032245039. TABLE 97 Element 39 - End Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 98 below provides a definition of element 40. Element 40 defines an End Date element, which contains the date when the call was completed. An example of this element follows: 19980218. TABLE 98 Element 40 - End Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 99 below provides a definition of element 41. Element 41 defines an Answer Date element, which contains the date when the call was answered. An example of this element follows: 19980513. TABLE 99 Element 41 - Answer Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 100 below provides a definition of element 42. Element 42 defines an Answer Time element, which contains the time when the terminating station went off-hook. The timer could start when the Soft Switch receives an answer message. If the call was unanswered, the Answer Time will contain the time that the originating party went on-hook. An example of this element follows: 023412003. TABLE 100 Element 42 - Answer Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 101 below provides a definition of element 43. Element 43 defines an Ingress Carrier Disconnect Time element, which contains the time that the ingress trunk/circuit was released for a call. The time will either be derived from the Access or Trunking Gateways, or from the Release Message. This element can be important to downstream systems (i.e. cost analysis/CABS analysis) that may need to audit the bills coming from LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 041152092. TABLE 101 Element 43 - Ingress Carrier Disconnect Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 102 below provides a definition of element 44. Element 44 defines an Ingress Carrier Disconnect Date Disconnect Date element, which contains the date when the ingress trunk/circuit was released for a call. An example of this element follows: 19980523. TABLE 102 Element 44 - Ingress Carrier Disconnect Date Disconnect Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 103 below provides a definition of element 45. Element 45 defines an Egress Carrier Disconnect Time element, which contains the time that the egress trunk/circuit was released for a call. The time will either be derived from the Access or Trunking Gateways, or from the Release Message. This element can be extremely important to downstream systems (i.e. CABS) that need this information to BILL other LECs/CLECs/Carriers. An example of this element follows: 041152092. TABLE 103 Element 45 - Egress Carrier Disconnect Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 104 below provides a definition of element 46. Element 46 defines an Egress Carrier Disconnect Date element, which contains the date when the egress trunk/circuit was released for a call. An example of this element follows: 19981025D. TABLE 104 Element 46 - Egress Carrier Disconnect Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 105 below provides a definition of element 47. Element 47 defines an Announcement Identification element, which contains the announcement number (correlating to an announcement) that was invoked during call processing. An example of this element follows: 0056D. TABLE 105 Element 47 - Announcement Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Announcement ID Table 106 below provides a definition of element 48. Element 48 defines a Location Routing Number (LRN) element, which contains the Location Routing Number. Depending on the EB being created (EB 0055 or EB 0056), this field contains the LRN for the Calling Party Number (if ported) or the LRN for the Called Party Number (if ported). An example of this element follows: 13039263223D. TABLE 106 Element 48 - Location Routing Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1 Party Identifier 1 = Calling Party 2 = Called Party 2-11 Location Routing Number Table 107 below provides a definition of element 49. Element 49 defines a LRN Supporting Information element, which contains the source/system where the LRN was derived. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 107 Element 49 - LRN Supporting Information ASCII Characters Meaning 1 LRN Source Indicator 1 = LNP Database (SCP) 2 = Derived from the SS 3 = Signaling Data Table 108 below provides a definition of element 50. Element 50 defines a Soft Switch Version element, which contains the current software version that is operating on the soft switch. An example of this element follows: 0150. TABLE 108 Element 50 - Soft Switch Version ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 SS Version Number (Prefix) 2-4 SS Version Number (Suffix) Table 109 below provides a definition of element 51. Element 51 defines a Carrier Selection Information element, which contains the toll carrier selection method. This allows downstream systems, such as end-user billing and fraud, to parse records based on carrier selection methods (e.g., pre-subscription, dial-around/casual-calling.) An example of this element follows: 01. TABLE 109 Element 51 - Carrier Selection Information ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Carrier Selection Method 01 = Pre-Subscribed 02 = SS Derived 03 = SCP Derived 04 = Carrier Designated by Caller at Time of Call (casual-call/dial-around) Table 110 below provides a definition of element 52. Element 52 defines an Ingress Trunking Gateway element, which contains the TG identification number. An example of this element follows: BOS003. TABLE 110 Element 52 - Ingress Trunking Gateway ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Three Letter City ID 4-6 Trunking Gateway Number Table 111 below provides a definition of element 53. Element 53 defines an Egress Trunking Gateway element, which contains the TG identification number. An example of this element follows: DEN003. TABLE 111 Element 53 - Egress Trunking Gateway ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Three Letter City ID 4-6 Trunking Gateway Number Table 112 below provides a definition of element 54. Element 54 defines an Egress Routing Selection. An example of this element follows: 02. TABLE 112 Element 54 - Egress Routing Selection ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Final Route Selection/Choice 01 = 1st route choice 02 = 2nd route choice 03 = 3rd route choice 04 = 4th route choice 05 = 5th route choice Table 112 below provides a definition of element 55. Element 55 defines an Egress Route Congestion Code element, which contains the reason for congestion on a trunk. An example of this element follows: 01. TABLE 113 Element 55 - Egress Route Congestion Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Route Congestion Code 01 = Circuit Congestion 02 = Circuit Failure 03 = QoS Not Available Table 114 below provides a definition of element 56. Element 56 defines an Account Code Validation Flag element, which contains a flag that specifies whether or not the account code validation was successful. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 114 Element 56 - Account Code Validation Flag ASCII Characters Meaning 1 Account Code Validation Flag 0 = AC Validation NOT Successful 1 = AC Validation Successful Table 115 below provides a definition of element 57. Element 57 defines a Routing Attempt Time element, which contains the time that an unsuccessful routing attempt was made on a trunk. This information can be useful to downstream Network Management and Traffic Engineering systems. An example of this element follows: 102943005. TABLE 115 Element 57 - Routing Attempt Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 116 below provides a definition of element 58. Element 58 defines a Routing Attempt Date element, which contains the date that an unsuccessful routing attempt was made on a trunk. This information can be useful to downstream Network Management and Traffic Engineering systems. An example of this element follows: 19980430. TABLE 116 Element 58 - Routing Attempt Date element ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 117 below provides a definition of element 59. Element 59 defines an Audio Packets Sent element, which contains the number of audio packets that were sent from an AG or TG during a session. An example of this element follows: 000043917. TABLE 117 Element 59 - Audio Packets Sent ASCII Characters Meaning 1-9 Audio Packets Table 118 below provides a definition of element 60. Element 60 defines an Audio Packets Received element, which contains the number of audio packets that were received by an AG or TG during a session. An example of this element follows: 000043917. TABLE 118 Element 60 - Audio Packets Received ASCII Characters Meaning 1-9 Audio Packets Table 119 below provides a definition of element 61. Element 61 defines an Audio Packets Lost element, which contains the number of audio packets that were lost during a session. An example of this element follows: 000043917. TABLE 119 Element 61 - Audio Packets Lost ASCII Characters Meaning 1-9 Audio Packets Table 120 below provides a definition of element 62. Element 62 defines an Audio Bytes Transferred element, which contains the total number of audio packets that were transferred sent from an AG or TG during a session. An example of this element follows: 000023917. TABLE 120 Element 62 - Audio Bytes Transferred element ASCII Characters Meaning 1-9 Audio Bytes Table 121 below provides a definition of element 63. Element 63 defines an Originating IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the originator. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 121 Element 63 - Originating IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 122 below provides a definition of element 64. Element 64 defines a Terminating IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the termination. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 122 Element 64 - Terminating IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 123 below provides a definition of element 65. Element 65 defines an Ingress Security Gateway IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the security gateway on the ingress portion of a call/session. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 123 Element 65 - Ingress Security Gateway IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 124 below provides a definition of element 66. Element 66 defines an Egress Security Gateway IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the security gateway on the egress portion of a call/session. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 124 Element 66 - Egress Security Gateway IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 125 below provides a definition of element 67. Element 67 defines an Ingress Firewall IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the security gateway on the ingress portion of a call/session. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 125 Element 67 - Ingress Firewall IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 126 below provides a definition of element 68. Element 68 defines an Egress Firewall IP Address element, which contains the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the security gateway on the egress portion of a call/session. An example of this element follows: 205123245211. TABLE 126 Element 68 - Egress Firewall IP Address ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Class A Address 4-6 Class B Address 7-9 Class C Address 10-12 Class D Address Table 127 below provides a definition of element 69. Element 69 defines an Operator Trunk Group Number element, which contains the trunk group number for the trunk selected to the Operator Services Platform (OSP). An example of this element follows: 1234. TABLE 127 Element 69 - Operator Trunk Group Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Trunk Group Number Table 128 below provides a definition of element 70. Element 70 defines an Operator Circuit Identification Code (CIC) element, which contains the circuit number/id of the circuit used for an Operator service call. An example of this element follows: 0312. TABLE 128 Element 70 - Operator Circuit Identification Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Circuit Identification Code/Trunk Member Number Table 129 below provides a definition of element 71. Element 71 defines an Account Code Type element, which contains a value associated with the type of account used in the call. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 129 Element 71 - Account Code Type ASCII Characters Meaning 1 Account Code Type 1 = Verified Forced 2 = Verified Unforced 3 = Unverified Forced 4 = Unverified Unforced Table 130 below provides a definition of element 72. Element 72 defines an Ingress Carrier Connect Date element, which contains the date when the ingress trunk/circuit was seized. An example of this element follows: 19980513. TABLE 130 Element 72 - Ingress Carrier Connect Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day 9 Delimiter Table 131 below provides a definition of element 73. Element 73 defines an Egress Carrier Connect Date element, which contains the date when the egress trunk/circuit was seized. An example of this element follows: 19980513. TABLE 131 Element 73 - Egress Carrier Connect Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day Table 132 below provides a definition of element 74. Element 74 defines a Terminating Number (International) element, which contains the overseas number that was dialed for domestic calls. The terminating number element should be populated for ALL calls that require a terminating number for billing. This field can be right-justified, padded with 0s. An example of this element follows: 34216273523482. TABLE 132 Element 74 - Terminating Number (International) ASCII Characters Meaning 1-14 Overseas Number Table 133 below provides a definition of element 75. Element 75 defines a DA Trunk Group Number element, which contains the trunk group number for the trunk selected to the directory assistance (DA) service provider. An example of this element follows: 1234. TABLE 133 Element 75 - DA Trunk Group Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Trunk Group Number Table 134 below provides a definition of element 76. Element 76 defines a DA Circuit Identification Code element, which contains the circuit number/id. of the circuit used for a DA service call. An example of this element follows: 0312. TABLE 134 Element 76 - DA Circuit Identification Code ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Circuit Identification Code/Trunk Member Number Table 135 below provides a definition of element 77. Element 77 defines a Directional Flag element, which contains a flag that specifies whether a call event block is an ingress or an egress generated block. An example of this element follows: 1. TABLE 135 Element 77 - Directional Flag ASCII Characters Meaning 1 0 = Ingress 1 = Egress Table 136 below provides a definition of element 78. Element 78 defines a Trunk Group Type element, which contains a type identification number, which maps to a type/use of a trunk. The element can be useful to downstream systems, such as mediation/billing, fraud, etc. This element can also be used in call processing. An example of this element follows: 001. TABLE 136 Element 78 - Trunk Group Type ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Trunk Group Type Table 137 below provides a definition of element 79. Element 79 defines a Call Type Identification element, which contains a call type identification number, which maps to a type of a call. The element can be useful to downstream systems, such as, for example, mediation/billing, fraud. This element can also be used in call processing. This element can be derived during LSA analysis. An example of this element follows: 001. TABLE 137 Element 79 - Call Type Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-3 Call Type Identification Table 138 below provides a definition of element 80. Element 80 defines a Customer Identification element, which contains a customer account number. An example of this element follows: 000000325436. TABLE 138 Element 80 - Customer Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-12 Customer Identification Table 139 below provides a definition of element 81. Element 81 defines a Customer Location Identification element, which contains a customer location identification number. An example of this element follows: 000000000011. TABLE 139 Element 81 - Customer Location Identification ASCII Characters Meaning 1-12 Customer Location Identification Table 140 below provides a definition of element 82. Element 82 defines a Call Event Block Sequence Number element, which contains a sequence number for each event block created by the soft switch for a particular call. An example of this element follows: 03. TABLE 140 Element 82 - Call Event Block Sequence Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Call Event Block Sequence Number Table 141 below provides a definition of element 83. Element 83 defines a Long Duration Sequence Number element, which contains a sequence number for each long duration call (LDC) event block created by the soft switch for a particular call. An example of this element follows: 03. TABLE 141 Element 83 - Long Duration Sequence Number ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Long Duration Sequence Number Table 142 below provides a definition of element 84. Element 84 defines a Long Duration Event Time element, which contains the time when the soft switch generated the LDC Event Block. An example of this element follows: 120000002. TABLE 142 Element 84 - Long Duration Event Time ASCII Characters Meaning 1-2 Hours 3-4 Minutes 5-6 Seconds 7-9 Milliseconds Table 143 below provides a definition of element 85. Element 85 defines a Long Duration Event Date element, which contains the date when the soft switch generated the LDC Event Block. An example of this element follows: 19980430. TABLE 143 Element 85 - Long Duration Event Date ASCII Characters Meaning 1-4 Year 5-6 Month 7-8 Day 7. Network Management Component Telecommunications network 200 includes network management component 118 which can use a simple network management protocol (SNMP) to trap alarm conditions within and receive network alerts from hardware and software elements of the network. FIG. 21A illustrates in detail SNMP network management architecture 2100. SNMP network management architecture 2100 is organized into a plurality of tiers and layers (not shown). Tier 1 addresses hardware specific events that are generated on each respective hardware and software system. Generally, hardware vendors provide tier 1 functionality in the form of a management information base (MIB). Tier 2 is designed to capture operating system specific events and is also available as a commercially sold product in the form of an MIB from a software vendor. Tier 3 is related to events generated by customized software running on the platform. In one embodiment of the invention, tiers 1 and 2 are provided by a hardware vendor, for example, from Sun Microsystems of Palo Alto, Calif. Tier 1 and 2 MIBs are designed to provision, update, and pass special event and performance parameters to a network operations center (NOC), pictured as NOC 2114 in FIG. 21A. Tier 3 can support alarm transmission from software applications and can be designed and implemented via a customized software solution from a third party vendor. Software applications can call a standardized alarm transport application programming interface (API) to signal events and alarms within the software code. The vendor supplied alarm API can redirect events to a local alarm manager application. There can be one instance of a local alarm manager application on each customized platform or computer in the network. The local alarm manager can log events to a disk-based database. The local alarm manager can also log events to a disk-based log file and can then forward the events from the database or log file to a specialized MIB component. The specialized MIB component can then divert this information to a regional SNMP agent at each geographical location, i.e., at each soft switch site 104, 106 and 302, or gateway site 108a, 108b, 108C, 108D, 108E, 110a, 110b, 110c, 110D and 110E. Regional SNMP agents can then route all incoming network management events or alarms to master SNMP managers 2102 and 2104 at the NOC 2114. a. Network Operations Center (NOC) FIG. 21A includes Network Operations Center (NOC) 2114 in SNMP network management architecture 2100. Soft switch sites 104, 106 and 302 include a plurality of network components each having their own SNMP agents. For example, soft switch site 104 includes RNECP 224a and 224b having their own SNMP agents. Soft switch site 104 also includes configuration servers 206a and 206b, soft switches 204a, 204b and 204c, route servers 212a and 212b, SS7 GWs 208 and 210, and ESs 332 and 334, each having their own SNMP agents. Soft switch site 104 can also include one or more redundant SNMP servers 2110 and 2112 for collecting regional SNMP alerts. SNMP servers 2110 and 2112 can maintain log files of network management events. SNMP servers 2110 and 2112 can then send events and alarms upstream to NOC 2114 of network management component 118. NOC 2114 can include one or more centralized SNMP manager servers 2102 and 2104 for centrally managing telecommunications network 200. Soft switch sites 106 and 302 can have similar SNMP agents in network components included in their sites. Gateway sites 108a, 108b, 108c, 108d, 108e, 110a, 110b, 110c, 110d and 110e include multiple gateway site components which can each have their SNMP agents. For example, gateway site 108a can include TGs 232a and 232b which have SNMP agents 1002. Gateway site 108a can also include AGs 238a and 238b having SNMP agents 1006. Gateway sites 108a can also include ESs 1602 and 1604 and routers 1606 and 1608 having their own SNMP agents. Gateway site 108a can also have one or more SNMP servers 2106 and 2108 for gathering SNMP alerts, events and alarms at gateway site 108a, from SNMP agents such as, for example, SNMP agents 1002 and 1006. SNMP servers 2106 and 2108 can then forward network management events and alarms to NOC 2114 for centralized network management processing. b. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Simple network management protocol (SNMP) events generated by network elements can enable NOC 2114 to determine the health of the voice network components and the rest of telecommunications network 200. Tier 1 and tier 2 MIBs can be purchased as commercially off the shelf (COTS) components, or are provided with computer hardware and operating systems. Events generated within the customized third tier can be prioritized according to multiple levels of severity. Prioritization can allow a programmer to determine the level of severity of each event generated and sent to NOC 2114. Customized alarm managers resident in each computer system can serve as alarm logging components and transport mechanisms for transport to downstream SNMP agents. Personnel working at NOC 2114 can log into a computer system to analyze special alarm conditions and to focus on the cause of the SNMP alarms. Multiple alarm conditions can be registered at NOC 2114. A local log file can store all events processed by a local alarm manager application. For example, local alarm manager applications can reside in SNMP servers 2106 and 2108 at gateway site 108a, and at SNMP servers 2110 and 2112 of soft switch site 104. The local log files can serve as a trace mechanism to identify key network and system event conditions generated on the computer systems. c. Network Outage Recovery Scenarios FIG. 21B illustrates an example outage recovery scenario 2116. Outage recovery scenario 2116 can be used in the event of, for example, a fiber cut, a period of unacceptable latency or a period of unacceptable packet loss failure in data network 112. FIG. 21B includes a calling party 102 placing a call to called party 120. Calling party 102 is connected to carrier facility 126. Called party 120 is connected to carrier facility 130. A call path from calling party 102 to called party 120 is illustrated between carrier facility 126 and carrier facility 130 over a normal call path route 2118 through DACS 242 and 244 and TGs 232 and 234 of gateway sites 108 and 110, respectively. Normal call path route 2118 would go through, in succession, TG 232, one of ESs 1602 and 1604, one of routers 1606 and 1608, data network 112, one of routers 1614 and 1616, one of ESs 1610 and 1612, and TG 234, before exiting DACs 244 to connect to carrier facility 130. Assuming a fiber cut occurs, or excessive latency or packet loss failure occurs in data network 112, outage recovery scenario 2116 routes the call over backup call path 2117 of FIG. 21B. Backup call path 2117 takes a call which originated from carrier facility 126 through DACS 242 to TG 232, and connects the call back out through DACS 242 to an off-network carrier 2115 which connects the call traffic for termination at carrier facility 130. By using off-network routing via off-network carrier 2115, service level agreements (SLA) can be maintained providing for a higher percentage of network uptime and a higher level of audio quality. Outage recovery scenario 2116 would cover any failure or degradation in a network device which falls after TG 232 including IP media processes within TG 232, in normal call path route 2116, assuming that TG 232 can still be controlled so as to route the call out over DACS 242 over backup call path 2117 to off-network carrier 2115. (1) Complete Gateway Site Outage FIG. 21C depicts an example network outage recovery scenario 2120. Outage recovery scenario 2120 envisions a complete gateway site outage. Specifically, gateway site 108 is illustrated as experiencing a complete gateway outage. In such a scenario, normal call path 2118 will never be received by the internal network telecommunications network 200. In outage recovery scenario 2120, the call is rerouted via carrier facility routing from carrier facility 126 over backup call path 2122 through off-network carrier 2115 to carrier facility 130 for termination to called party 120. For calls placed from carrier facility 126 and other carrier facilities which are serviced from failed gateway site 108, CIC overflow routing tables in carrier facility 126 will automatically reroute traffic through off-network carrier 2115. FIG. 21D illustrates outage recovery scenario 2124 depicting another complete gateway site outage, different from that illustrated in FIG. 21C. In FIG. 21D, it is gateway site 110 that has experienced a complete gateway site outage. In such a scenario, call path 2118 from calling party 102 does reach an on-network device TG 232, but the call is placed to a called party on failed gateway site 110. Backup call path 2126, is rerouted via soft switch overflow routing from TG 232 over DACS 242 to off-network carrier 2115 for termination at carrier facility 130 of called party 120. For calls placed from the area served by operating gateway site 108, attempting to terminate at failed gateway site 110, soft switch 204 overflow routing automatically reroutes call traffic through off-network carrier 2115. (2) Soft Switch Fail-Over Anticipating the possibility of a failure of a soft switch 204 of soft switch site 104 it is important that existing calls (i.e. those placed through an associated gateway device, e.g., TGs 232 and 234 of gateway sites 108 and 110, respectively) not be impacted by the failure. In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible that some calls that are in the process of being established might be lost, such that a calling party 102 might have to re-dial to connect. In order to preserve calls set up and managed by failed soft switch 204, back-up soft switch 304 has access to the states of the stable calls managed by failed soft switch 204. Once the back-up soft switch 304 initiates fail-over, it notifies the primary and secondary SS7 GWs 208 and 308 that the back-up soft switches 204 and 304 are now the contact points for signaling messages that had previously been targeted for failed soft switch 204. (3) Complete Soft Switch Site Outage Scenario FIGS. 21E and 21F illustrate outage recovery scenarios 2132 and 2140 involving a complete soft switch site outage. FIG. 21E depicts soft switch site coverage of various gateway sites. Specifically, FIG. 21E illustrates western soft switch site 104, central soft switch site 106 and eastern soft switch site 302. Western soft switch site 104 is responsible for controlling all access servers 254 and 256 in circle 2136. Central soft switch site 106 is responsible for controlling all access servers 254 and 256 within circle 2134. Similarly, eastern soft switch site 302 is responsible for controlling all access servers 254 and 256 within circle 2138. Western soft switch site 104 thus is responsible for controlling access servers 254 and 256 (not shown) in gateway sites 2135a, 2135b, 2135c, 2135d and 2135e. Central soft switch site 106 is responsible for controlling access servers 254 and 256 (not shown) in gateway sites 2133a, 2133b, 2133c, 2133d, 2133e and 2133f. Eastern soft switch site 302 is responsible for controlling access servers 254 and 256 (not shown) which are located in gateway sites 2139a, 2139b, 2139c, 2139d, 2139e and 2139f FIG. 21F illustrates outage recovery scenario 2140 depicting a complete soft switch site outage. Specifically, central soft switch site 106 has failed or been shut down for maintenance in outage recovery scenario 2140. Failure of central soft switch site 106 means that central soft switch site 106 can no longer control access servers 254 and 256 (not shown) which lie within circle 2134. Specifically, access servers 254 and 256 which lie within gateway sites 2133a-2133f cannot be controlled by central soft switch site 106. FIG. 21F illustrates how western soft switch site 104 and eastern soft switch site 302 can take over control of gateway sites 2133a-2133f to overcome the outage of central soft switch site 106. Specifically, western soft switch site 104 can take over control of gateway sites 2133a, 2133d, 2133e and 2133f. Similarly, eastern soft switch site 302 can take over control of gateway sites 2133b and 2133c. Thus, access servers 254 and 256 located in gateway sites 2133a, 2133b, 2133c, 2133d, 2133e and 2133f can seemlessly be controlled by soft switch sites 106 and 302 in other geographies. It would be apparent to persons having ordinary skill in the art that other outage scenarios could be similarly remedied via communication between soft switch sites 104, 106 and 302. FIG. 21G depicts a block diagram 2146 of interprocess communication including a NOC 2114 communicating with a soft switch 204. NOC 2114 communicates 2148 to soft switch 418 to startup command and control. Soft switch 418 communicates 2150 in order to send alarms and network management alerts to NOC 2114. NOC 2114 communicates 2152 in order to shut down soft switch 418 command and control. Soft switch 418 can also accept management instructions from NOC 2114 at startup 2154 or at shutdown 2156. 8. Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) Protocol a. IPDC Base Protocol The IPDC base protocol described below, provides the basis for the IP device control family of protocols. The IPDC protocols include a protocol suite. The components of the IPDC protocol suite can be used individually or together to perform multiple functions. Functions which can be performed by the IPDC protocol suite include, for example, connection control, media control, and signaling transport for environments where the control logic is separated from the access server 254 and 256. The IPDC protocol suite operates between the media gateway controller and the media gateway. The media gateway controller can be thought of as soft switch 204. The media gateway can be thought of as access servers 254 and 256, including, for example, TGs 232 and 234, AGs 238 and 240 and NASs 228 and 230. The corresponding entities of media gateway controller and the media gateway are the call control and media control portions of the H.323 gateway. IPDC acts to fulfill a need for protocols to control gateway devices which sit at the boundary between the circuit-switched telephone network and the Internet and to terminate circuit-switched trunks. Examples of such devices include NASs 228 and 230 and voice-over-IP gateways, also known as access servers 254 and 256, including TGs 232 and 234 and AGs 238 and 240. This need for a control protocol separate from call signaling arises when the service control logic needed to process calls lies partly or wholly outside the gateway devices. The protocols implement the interface between soft switch 204 and access servers 254, 256. IPDC views access servers 254 and 256, also known as media gateways, as applications which may control one or more physical devices. In addition to its primary mandate, IPDC can be used to control devices which do not meet the strict definition of a media gateway such as DACS 242 and 244 and ANSs 246 and 248. IPDC builds on a base provided by DIAMETER. DIAMETER has a number of advantages as a starting point including, for example, built-in provision for control security, facilities for starting up the control relation, and ready extensibility both in modular increments and at the individual command and attribute level. DIAMETER is specifically written for authentication, authorization and accounting applications. Calhoun, Rubins, “DIAMETER based protocol”, July 1998. The DIAMETER based protocol specification was written by Pat Calhoun of Sun Microsystems, Inc. and Alan C. Rubins of Ascend Communications. The IPDC protocol includes a message header followed by attribute-value-pairs (AVPs) an IPDC command is a specialized data object which indicates the purpose and structure of the message which contains the IPDC command. The command name can be used to denote the message format. A DIAMETER device can be a client or server system that supports the DIAMETER based protocol. Alternatively, a DIAMETER device can support extensions in addition to the DIAMETER based protocol. An IPDC entity can be any object, logical or physical, which is subject to control through IPDC or whose status IPDC must report. Every IPDC entity has a type. Types of IPDC entities include, for example, a media_gateway_type, a physical_gateway type, a station_type, an equipment holder type, a transport_termination type, an access_termination type, a trunk_termination type, a signaling_termination type, a device_type, a modem type, a conference_port type, a fax_port type, a stream_source type, a stream_recorder type, an RTP_port type, an ATM spec type, an H323 spec type, and a SIP spec type. An IPDC protocol endpoint can be used to refer to either of the two parties to an IPDC control session, i.e. the media gateway controller (e.g., soft switch 204), or the media gateway (e.g., access servers 254 and 256). To the extent that IPDC can be viewed as providing extensions to DIAMETER, an IPDC protocol endpoint can also be a DIAMETER device. A transaction can be a sequence of messages pre-defined as part of the definition of IPDC commands which constitute that sequence. Every message in the sequence can carry the same identifier value in the header and the same transaction-originator value identifying the originator of the transaction. DIAMETER packets or IPDC messages can be transmitted over UDP or TCP. Each DIAMETER service extensions draft can specify the transport layer. For UDP, when a reply is generated the source and destination ports are reversed. IPDC requires a reliable, order-preserving transport protocol with minimal latency so that IPDC control can be responsive to the demands of call processing. UDP combined with a protocol description satisfies these requirements, and is therefore the default transport protocol for IPDC. It would apparent to those skilled in the art that network operators can choose to implement transmission control program (TCP) instead for greater security, or for other reasons. The IPDC base protocol is a publically available document published on the Internet. It is important to note, that the IPDC based protocol is a document in a so called, “Internet-draft,” as of the time of the writing of this publication. Internet-drafts are working documents of the internet engineering task force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Other groups can also distribute working documents as Internet-drafts. Internet-drafts can be updated, replaced or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It would be apparent to someone skilled in the art that an alternative base protocol could be used. Command AVPs include a plurality of DIAMETER based commands and additional IPDC commands. For example, DIAMETER base commands include, for example, command-unrecognized-IND, device-reboot-IND, device-watchdog-IND, device-feature-query, device-feature-reply, device-config-REQ, and device-config-answer. Additional IPDC commands include, for example, command-ACK and message-reject. In addition to command AVPs, a plurality of other AVPs exist, including, for example, DIAMETER base AVPs, and additional IPDC AVPs. DIAMETER base AVPs include host-IP-address, host-name, version-number, extension-ID, integrity-check-vector, digital-signature, initialization-vector, time stamp, session-ID, X509-certificate, X509-certificate-URL, vendor-name, firmware-revision, result-code, error-code, unknown-command-code, reboot-type, reboot-timer, message-timer, message-in-progress-timer, message-retry-count, message-forward-count and receive-window. Additional IPDC AVPs include, for example, transaction-originator and failed-AVP-code. Protection of data integrity is enabled using the integrity-check-vector, digital signatures and mixed data integrity AVPs. AVP data encryption is supported including, for example, shared secrets, and public keys. Public key cryptography support includes, for example, X509-certificate, X509-certificate-URL, and static public key configuration. b. IPDC Control Protocol The IPDC is a control protocol that facilitates the delivery of voice and data services requiring interconnection with an IP network. The IPDC protocol permits a soft switch control server to control a media gateway or access server. IPDC includes signaling transport, connection control, media control and device management functionality. These control functions include creation, modification, and deletion of connections; detection and generation of media and bearer channel events; detection of resource availability state changes in media gateways; and signal transport. Alternatively, other protocols can be used to provide this control. For example, the network access server messaging interface (NMI) protocol or the media gateway control protocol (MGCP). The MGCP protocol from the internet engineering task force (IETF) supports a subset of the functionality of the IPDC protocol plus the simple gateway control protocol (SGCP) from Bellcore and CISCO. SGCP includes connection control and media control (i.e. a subset of IPDC media control) functionality. IPDC protocol allows a call control server, i.e. a soft switch 204, to command a circuit network to packet network gateway (a media gateway), i.e. an access server 254, provides the control mechanism to for setting up, tearing down and managing voice and data calls. The term packet network gateway is intended to allow support for multiple network types including, for example, an IP network and an ATM network, data network 112. In addition, the IPDC protocol supports the management and configuration of the access server 254. The following types of messages are described in this document: start-up messages describing access server start-up and shut-down; configuration messages describing access server, soft switch and telco interface query and configuration; maintenance messages describing status and test messages; and call control messages describing call set-up tear-down and query for data, TDM and packet-switched calls. The architecture in which IPDC operates incorporates existing protocols wherever possible to achieve a full interconnection of IP-based networks with the global switched telephone network (GSTN). The architecture accommodates any GSTN signaling style, including, for example, SS7 signaling, ISDN signaling and in-band signaling. The architecture also accommodates an interface with H.323 voice-over-IP networks. A modification to the H.323 architecture can allow H.323 networks to be seamlessly integrated with SS7 networks. Until now, H.323 protocols have been defined assuming that an H.323 to GSTN gateway uses an access signaling technique such as ISDN or in-band access signaling for call set-up signaling on the GSTN. The H.323 architecture did not readily accommodate the use of SS7 signaling for call set-up via H.323 gateways, creating a gap in the standards. Until now, H.323 standards have distinguished between multi-point processor (MP) functions and multi-point controller (MC) functions only in the definition of multi-point control units (MCUs). Recent international telecommunications union (ITU) work on H.323 version III has considered extending the concept of MC/MP separation to H.323 gateways as well as MCUs. Separation of the MC function from the H.323 gateway can allow SS7 to be properly interconnected with an H.323 network. By separating the MC function from the MP function, a separate SS7 signaling gateway, such as, for example, SS7 GW 208, can be created to interconnect the SS7 network with the H.323 network. Such an SS7 gateway can implement the H.323 gateway MC function as a signaling interface shared among multiple H.323 gateway MP functions. At least five functions must be performed in order to interface an H.323 network to a GSTN network. The functions include, for example, a packet network interface, H.323 signal intelligence, GSTN signaling intelligence, a media processing function and a GSTN circuit interface. In an H.323 gateway which interfaces with an in-band signaled or ISDN-signaled GSTN trunk, all of these five functions could be performed with a H.323 gateway. However, in a H.323 gateway which interfaces with a SS7 signaled trunk, the functionality could be more optimally partitioned to allow for a group of SS7 links to be shared among multiple H.323 gateway MP functions. For example, an H.323 gateway MC function could include, for example, a packet network interface, H.323 signaling intelligence, and GSTN SS7 signaling intelligence. In addition, an H.323 gateway MP function could include a packet network interface, a media processing function, and a GSTN circuit interface. Thus, the H.323 gateway functionality could be separated into the H.323 gateway MC function and the H.323 gateway MP function. In another embodiment, the MC function could be further partitioned. For example, H.323 gateway MC function could include a packet network interface, H.323 signaling intelligence, and a packet network interface. An SS7 gateway could include additional MC functions, such as, for example, a packet network interface, and a GSTN SS7 signaling intelligence. The physical separation of the H.323 gateway MC function from the SS7 gateway provides several advantages, including, for example, more than one SS7 gateway can be interfaced to one or more MC functions, allowing highly reliable geographically redundant configurations; service logic implemented at the H.323 gateway MC function (or at an associated gatekeeper) can be provisioned at a smaller number of more centralized sites, reducing the amount of data replication needed for large-scale service implementation across an H.323 network; and SS7 gateway to H.323 gateway MC functional interface could be a model for other signaling gateways, such as, for example, an ISDN NFAS gateway, a channel-associated C7 signaling gateway, and a DPNSS gateway. In fact, once service providers have implemented service logic at the H.323 gateway MC function for their SS7 signaled trunks, the following anomalies become apparent, for example, service providers will likely want to exercise the same or similar service logic for their ISDN and in-band signal trunks as well as their SS7 signaled trunks; and service providers will want to incorporate media processing events into the service logic implemented at the H.323 gateway MC function (or at an associated gatekeeper). The IPDC protocol is intended to interface the MC function with the MP function in H.323 to GSTN gateways. Based upon events detected in the signaling stream, the H.323 gateway MC function must be able to create, delete, and modify connections in the H.323 gateway MP function. Also, the H.323 gateway MC function must be able to create or detect events in the media stream which only the H.323 gateway MP function has access to. A standardized protocol is needed to allow an H.323 gateway MC function to remotely control one or more H.323 gateway MP functions. Therefore, IPDC was created to allow H.323 gateway MC function to remotely control one or more H.323 gateway MP functions. Specifically, soft switch 204 can remotely control one or more access servers 254. The IPDC protocol uses the terminology of bay, module, line and channel. A bay is one unit, or set of modules and interfaces within an access server 254. A stand-alone access server 254 or a multi-shelf access server 254 can constitute a single bay. A module is a sub-unit that sits within a bay. The module is typically a slot card that implements one or more network line interfaces, e.g., a dual span T1 card. A line is a sub-unit that sits within a module. The line is typically a physical line interface that plugs into a line card, e.g., a T1. A channel is a sub-unit within a line. The channel is typically a channel within a channelized line interface, e.g., one of the 24 channels in a channelized T1. All numbers in the IPDC protocol should be in binary, and coded in network byte order (big endian or motorola format). The format for date/time fields is a 4 bytes integer expressing the number of seconds elapsed since Jan. 1, 1990 at 0:00. The soft switches 204 and 304 (e.g., primary/secondary/tertiary, etc.) are completely hot-swappable. Switching to a backup soft switch 204 does not require fall back in call processing states or other IPDC-level operation on access server 254. Both soft switches 204 and 304 follow the operations of the other soft switch, precisely. The message exchange as defined in IPDC can be implemented over any IP base protocol. Suggested protocols include, e.g., TCP and UDP. Access server 254 can include the following configuration items: IP addresses and TCP or UDP ports of any number of soft switches 204 to which access server 254 should connect; bay number (8 bytes, in alpha numeric characters); system type (9 bytes, in alpha-numeric characters); and protocol version supported. An IPDC packet can have the following components included in its format, for example, a protocol ID, a packet length, a data field tag, a data field length, data flags, an optional vendor ID, data and padding. For example, a protocol ID may exist in a first byte. Packet length can be a 2 byte field appearing second, a single byte reserved field can then occur followed by a 4 byte data field tag. Next a 2 byte data field length can be used, followed by a single byte data flag, and a single byte reserved field. Next, a 4 byte optional vendor ID can exist. Next, the data included in the body of the message can contain a variable number of 4 byte aligned tag, length, value combinations. Finally, a 3 byte data and single byte padding field can be placed in the LPDC packet. For all IPDC messages, the message type and transaction ID are required attribute value pairs. The message code must be the first tag following the header. This tag is used in order to communicate the message type associated with the message. There must only be a single message code tag within a given message. The value of this tag for each message type may be found below. The transaction ID is assigned by the originator of a transaction. The transaction ID must remain the same for all messages exchanged within a transaction. The transaction ID is a 12-byte value with the following tag, length, value format: the first 4 bytes can contain a data field tag; the next two bytes can include the data field length; the next byte can contain flags; the next byte is reserved; the next 4 bytes can contain an originator ID; the following 4 bytes can contain originator ID; and in the last 4 bytes there can exist in the first bit the originator, and in the remaining bytes the transaction correlator 31 bits. c. IPDC Control Message Codes Table 144 below provides a listing of the names and corresponding codes for control messages transmitted between Soft Switch 204 and Access Servers 254 and 256. Also included are the source of each message and the description for each message. For example, the NSUP message is transmitted from Access Server 254 to Soft Switch 204, informing Soft Switch 204 that Access Server 254 is coming up. TABLE 144 Message Codes Name Code Source Description NSUP 0x00000081 AS Notify the soft switch that the access server is coming up ASUP 0x00000082 SS Acknowledgment to NSUP NSDN 0x00000083 AS Notify the soft switch that the access server is about to reboot RST1 0x00000085 SS Request system reset - Drop all channels ARST1 0x00000086 AS Reset in progress - awaiting Reboot command RST2 0x00000087 SS Request system reset (Reboot command) ARST2 0x00000088 AS Reboot acknowledgment MRJ 0x000000FF SS or AS Message reject. RSI 0x00000091 SS Request system information NSI 0x00000092 AS Response to RSI RBN 0x00000093 SS Request bay number NBN 0x00000094 AS Response to RBN SBN 0x00000095 SS Set bay number ABN 0x00000096 AS Acknowledgment to SBN RMI 0x00000097 SS Request module information NMI 0x00000098 AS Notify module information RLI 0x00000099 SS Request line information NLI 0x0000009A AS Notify line information RCI 0x0000009B SS Request channel information NCI 0x0000009C AS Notify channel information SLI 0x0000009D SS Set line information ASLI 0x0000009E AS Acknowledgment to SLI SDEF 0x0000009F SS Set Default Settings ADEF 0x000000A0 AS Accept Default Settings RSSI 0x000000A1 SS Request soft switch information NSSI 0x000000A2 AS Notify soft switch information SSSI 0x000000A3 SS Set soft switch information ASSSI 0x000000A4 AS Acknowledgment to SSSI RSSS 0x000000A5 SS Request soft switch status NSSS 0x000000A6 AS Notify soft switch status RMS 0x00000041 SS Request module status RLS 0x00000043 SS Request line status RCS 0x00000045 SS Request channel status NMS 0x00000042 AS Notify module status NLS 0x00000044 AS Notify line status NCS 0x00000046 AS Notify channel status SMS 0x00000051 SS Set a module to a given state SLS 0x00000053 SS Set a line to a given state SCS 0x00000055 SS Set a group of channels to a given state RSCS 0x00000056 AS Response to SCS PCT 0x00000061 SS Prepare channel for continuity test APCT 0x00000062 AS Response to PCT SCT 0x00000063 SS Start continuity test procedure with far end as loopback (Generate tone and check for received tone) ASCT 0x00000064 AS Continuity test result RTE 0x0000007D SS or AS Request test echo ARTE 0x0000007E AS or SS Response to RTE RTP 0x0000007B SS Request test ping to given IP address ATP 0x0000007C AS Response to RTP LTN 0x00000071 SS Listen for tones ALTN 0x00000072 AS Response to listen for tones STN 0x00000073 SS Send tones ASTN 0x00000074 AS Completion result of STN command RCSI 0x00000001 SS Request inbound call setup ACSI 0x00000002 AS Accept inbound call setup CONI 0x00000003 AS Connect inbound call (answer) RCSO 0x00000005 AS or SS Request outbound call setup ACSO 0x00000006 SS or AS Accept outbound call setup CONO 0x00000007 SS or AS Outbound call connected RCST 0x00000009 SS Request pass-through call setup (TDM conncetion between two channels) ACST 0x0000000A AS Accept pass-through call RCON 0X00000013 SS Request Connection ACON 0X00000014 AS Accept Connection MCON 0X00000015 SS Modify connection AMCN 0X00000016 AS Accept modify connection RCR 0x00000011 SS or AS Release channel request ACR 0x00000012 AS or SS Release channel complete NOTI 0x00000017 AS, SS Event notification to the soft switch RNOT 0x00000018 SS, AS Request event notification from the access server d. A Detailed View of the IPDC Protocol Control Messages The following section provides a more detailed view of the control messages transmitted between Soft Switch 204 and Access Server 254. (1) Startup Messages Table 145 below provides the Startup messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages) and the R/O status. TABLE 145 Startup (registration and de-registration) Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O NSUP - Notify Access 0x000000C0 Message Code R Server coming up 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000001 Protocol version implemented. R 0x00000002 System ID R 0x00000003 System type R 0x00000004 Maximum number of modules (cards) R on the system (whether present or not). 0x00000005 Bay number. R ASUP - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Acknowledgment to 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R NSUP 0x00000002 System ID R NSDN - Notify Access 0x000000C0 Message Code R Server coming down 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R (about to reboot) 0x00000002 System ID R This message will be sent by the access server when it has been asked to reset (for instance, from the console, etc.) RST1 - Request system 0x00C0 Message Code R reset - Drop all channels 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 System ID R ARST1 - Reset in 0x000000C0 Message Code R progress - awaiting 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R Reboot command 0x00000002 System ID R RST2 - Request system 0x000000C0 Message Code R reset (Reboot command) 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 System ID R ARST2 - Reboot 0x000000C0 Message Code R acknowledgment 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 System ID R 0x00000006 Result code R (2) Protocol Error Messages Table 146 below provides the Protocol error messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages) and the R/O status. TABLE 146 Protocol Error handling Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O MRJ—Message reject 0x000000C0 Message Code R 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x000000FD Cause Code Type R 0x000000FE Cause code R This message is generated by the access server or soft switch when a message is received with an error, such as an invalid message code, etc. The cause code indicates the main reason why the message was rejected. (3) System Configuration Messages Table 147 below provides the System configuration messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 147 System configuration Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes RSI—Request system This message does not contain any fields, the receiving access information server returns an NSI message. NSI—Notify system 0x000000C0 Message Code R information (response 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R to RSI) 0x00000001 Protocol version R implemented (initially, set to 0). 0x00000002 System ID R 0x00000003 System type R 0x00000004 Maximum number of R modules (cards) on the system (whether present or not). 0x00000005 Bay number R This message is sent as a response to a RSI request. RBN—Request bay This message does not contain any fields, the receiving access number server returns an NBN message. NBN - Response to 0x000000C0 Message Code R RBN 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000005 Bay number R This message is sent as a response to a RBN request. SBN—Set bay number 0x000000C0 Message Code R 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000005 Bay number R ASBN - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Acknowledgment to 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R SBN 0x00000005 Bay number R This message is sent as a response to a SBN request. SDEF - Set Default 0x000000C0 Message Code R Settings 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number O If module number is not specified, all changes apply to all modules/lines/channels within the bay. 0x0000000D Line number O If line number is not specified, all changes apply to all lines/channels within the specified module. If line number is specified, module number must also be specified. 0x00000015 Channel number O If channel number is not specified, all changes apply to all channels within the specified line. If channel number is specified, module number and line number must also be specified. 0x00000070 Encoding Type (1 byte) O Required only 0x00000071 Silence Suppression O when a change to Activation Timer the setting is 0x00000072 Comfort Noise O desired. Generation 0x00000073 Packet Loading O 0x00000074 Echo Cancellation O 0x00000075 Constant DTMF Tone O Detection on/off 0x00000076 Constant MF Tone O Detection on/off 0x00000077 Constant Fax Tone O Detection on/off 0x00000078 Constant Modem Tone O Detection on/off 0x00000079 Programmable DSP O Algorithm activation 0x0000007A Programmable DSP O Algorithm deactivation 0x0000007B Constant Packet Loss O Detection on/off 0x0000007C Packet Loss Threshold O 0x0000007D Constant Latency O Threshold Detection on/off 0x0000007E Latency Threshold O 0x00000084 Signaling channel QoS O type 0x00000085 Signaling channel QoS O value (variable length) 0x0000006E Forward Signaling O Events to the Soft Switch This message is used to configure default settings within the access server. If no module is specified, default settings will apply to all modules/lines/channels in the bay. If no line number is specified, default settings will apply to all lines/channels within a module. If no channel number is specified the default settings will apply to all channels within a line. ADEF - Accept 0x000000C0 Message Code R Default Settings 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number O The setting for 0x0000000D Line number O these fields are 0x00000015 Channel number O the same as those passed in on the SDEF message. 0x00000048 Set Channel Status R Result This message is sent from the access server to the soft switch on response to a SDEF message. (4) Telephone Company Interface Configuration Messages Table 148 below provides the Telephone Company (Telco) interface configuration messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 148 Telco interface configuration Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes RMI—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R module information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R NMI—Notify 0x000000C0 Message Code R module information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R (response to RMI) 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000A Module type R 0x0000000B Module capabilities R 0x00000008 Number of lines (or R items, depending on card type). 0x0000003A Number of failed lines (or R items, depending on card type). 0x00000009 External name (i.e., R “8tl-card”, etc.) in ASCII format. RLI—Request line 0x000000C0 Message Code R information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R NLI—Notify line 0x000000C0 Message Code R information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R (response to RLI) 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x0000000E Number of channels R 0x0000000F External name in ASCII R format 0x00000010 Line coding R 0x00000011 Framing R 0x00000012 Signaling type R 0x00000013 In-band signaling details R 0x00000041 T1 front-end type R 0x00000042 T1 CSU build-out R 0x00000043 T1 DSX-1 line length R RCI—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R NCI—Notify channel 0x000000C0 Message Code R information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R (response to RCI) 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x00000016 Channel status R 0x00000017 Bearer Capability of the R Channel (BCC) or type of the active call, when a call is present 0x00000018 Calling Party number O Required only if 0x00000019 Dialed Phone number O the channel has an active call. 0x0000001A Timestamp of the last R channel status transition 0x00000040 Access Server Call O Required only if Identifier the channel has an active call. SLI—Set line 0x000000C0 Message Code R information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x0000000F External name in ASCII O Required only if format the value is to be changed in the access server. 0x00000010 Line coding O Required only if 0x00000011 Framing O the value is to be 0x00000012 Signaling type O changed in the 0x00000013 In-band signaling details O access server. 0x00000041 T1 front-end type O Valid for telco 0x00000042 T1 CSU build-out O interface cards 0x00000043 T1 DSX-1 line length O only. ASLI - New line 0x000000C0 Message Code R information ACK 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R This message is sent as a response to a SLI request. (5) Soft Switch Configuration Messages Table 149 below provides the Soft Switch configuration messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 149 Soft Switch Configuration Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes RSSI—Request soft switch information NSSI—Notify soft 0x000000C0 Message Code R switch information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x0000001B IP address for primary soft R switch 0x0000001C TCP port for primary soft R switch 0x0000001D IP address for secondary O Required only if soft switch secondary soft 0x0000001E TCP port for secondary soft O switch has been switch configured 0x0000003B IP address for tertiary soft O Required only if switch tertiary soft 0x0000003C TCP port for tertiary soft O switch has been switch configured This message is sent as a response to a RSSI request, or when the local access server configuration is changed by other means. SSSI - Set 0x000000C0 Message Code R information 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 Serial number of remote R unit 0x0000001B New IP address of primary R soft switch SSSI (cont.) 0x0000001C TCP port for primary soft R switch 0x0000001D New IP address of O Required only if secondary soft switch secondary soft 0x0000001E TCP port for secondary soft O switch is being switch set configured 0x0000003B IP address for tertiary soft O Required only if switch tertiary soft 0x0000003C TCP port for tertiary soft O switch is being switch set configured ASSSI - This message is sent as a response to a SSSI request. Acknowledge to SSSI RSSS—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R soft switch status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 Serial Number of Remote R Unit NSSS—Notify soft 0x000000C0 Message Code R switch status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000002 Serial Number of Remote R Unit 0x0000001B New IP Address of Primary R Host 0x0000001C TCP port for Primary R 0x0000001D New IP Address of O Required only if Secondary Host secondary soft 0x0000001E TCP port for Secondary O switch is configured 0x0000003B IP Address for tertiary soft O Required only if switch tertiary soft 0x0000003C TCP port for tertiary soft O switch is switch configured 0x0000001F Soft Switch in use R (Primary/Secondary/ Tertiary) This message is sent in response to a RSSS request. (6) Maintenance-Status Messages Table 150A below provides the Maintenance-Status messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 150A Maintenance Status Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes RMS—Request for 0x000000C0 Message Code R module status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R This message will force an immediate NMS. RLS—Request line 0x000000C0 Message Code R status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R This message will force an immediate NLS. RCS—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R This message will force an immediate NCS. NMS—Notify 0x000000C0 Message Code R module status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000A Module type (see NMI R above) 0x0000000C Module status R 0x00000020 Number of lines O Valid for telco 0x00000021 Line status: one entry O interface cards per line only. This message should be issued by the access server any time that the module status changes or if a RMS command was received. NLS—Notify line 0x000000C0 Message Code R status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000014 Line status R 0x00000022 Number of channels R 0x00000023 Channel status: one R entry per channel This message should be issued by the access server any time that the line status changes or if a RLS command was received. NCS—Notify 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x00000023 Channel status R This message should be issued by the access server if an RCS command was received. SMS - Set a module 0x000000C0 Message Code R to a given status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x00000024 Requested module state R As the Module changes status, the access server will notify the soft switch with NMS messages. The transaction ID in those NMS messages will not be the same as the transaction ID in the SMS message. SLS - Set a line to a 0x000000C0 Message Code R given status 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000025 Requested line state R As the lin changes status, the access server will notify the soft switch with NLS messages. The transaction ID in those NLS messages will not be the same as the transaction ID in the SLS message. SCS - Set a group 0x000000C0 Message Code R of channels to a 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R given status 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x00000029 End Channel number R 0x00000026 Requested Channel R Status Action 0x00000027 Set Channel Status R Option RSCS - Response to 0x000000C0 Message Code R SCS 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000028 Start Channel number R 0x00000029 End Channel number R 0x0000002A Set Channel Status R Result 0x00000022 Number of channels R 0x00000023 Channel status: one R entry per channel Table 150B below lists actions which can set the channels from an initial state to a final state. TABLE 150B Action Valid initial state Final state Reset to idle maintenance, blocked, loopback, idle, idle in use, connected Reset to out of maintenance, blocked, loopback, idle, out of service service in use, connected Start loopback idle loopback End loopback loopback idle Block idle blocked Unblock blocked idle (7) Continuity Test Messages Table 151 below provides the Continuity test messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 151 Continuity Test Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes PCT - Prepare 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel for 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R continuity test 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R APCT - Response 0x000000C0 Message Code R to PCT request 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x0000002B Prepare for continuity R check result SCT—Start 0x000000C0 Message Code R continuity test 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R procedure with far 0x00000007 Module number R end as loopback 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x0000002C Timeout in milliseconds R Default is 2 milliseconds The SCT command must be received less than 3 seconds after the APCT was sent. The continuity test performed by the access server is as follows: 1. Start tone detection 2. Generate a check tone 3. Start timer 4. When tone is detected (minimum of 60 ms): 4.1. Stop timer 4.2. Stop generator 4.2.1 TEST SUCCESSFUL 5. If timer expires: 5.1. Stop generator 5.2. TEST FAILED After continuity testing, a channel is always left in the idle state. ASCT - Continuity 0x000000C0 Message Code R test result 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x0000002D Continuity Test Result R (8) Keepalive Test Messages Table 152 below provides the Keepalive test messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 152 Keepalive Test Parameter Parameter Message Tag Description R/O Notes RTE—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R test 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R echo 0x0000002E Random R characters ARTE - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Response 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R to RTE 0x0000002E Random R Same random characters characters from RTE (9) LAN Test Messages Table 153 below provides the LAN test messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status, and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 153 LAN test Parameter Parameter Message Tag Description R/O Notes RTP - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Request a 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R test ping 0x00000002 System ID R 0x0000002F IP Address to Ping R 0x00000030 Number of pings R Number of pings to send ATP - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Response 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R to 0x00000002 System ID R RTP 0x0000002F IP Address to Ping R 0x00000030 Number of pings R Number of successful pings (10) Tone Function Messages Table 154 below provides the Tone function messages, the parameter tags, the parameter descriptions (associated with these messages), the R/O status and any notes associated with the message. TABLE 154 Tone functions Message Tag Value Field Description R/O Notes STN—Send tones 0x000000C0 Message Code R 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x00000007 Module number R 0x0000002D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x00000049 Tone Type R 0x0000004A Apply or Cancel Tone R 0x00000032 Number of tones to send R 0x00000033 String of Tones to send R ASTN - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Completion 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R result of STN 0x00000007 Module number R command 0x0000000D Line number R 0x00000015 Channel number R 0x00000036 Tone Send Completion R Status (11) Example Source Port Types Table 155 below provides a list of exemplary Source Port Types. TABLE 155 Source Ports Source Port Parameter Type Tag Parameter Description GSTN Tag 0x07 Source module number Tag 0x0D Source line number Tag 0x15 Source channel number Tag 0x48 Source jack ID (for DSL) Packet ATM Tag 0x59 Source ATM Address Type Tag 0x5A Source ATM Address Packet Tag 0x5B Source H.323 Network Address (IP address) H.323 Tag 0x9A Source H.323 TSAP Identifier (Port) -or Tag 0x5C Source H.323 alias -with- Tag 0x63 Destination H.323 Network Address (IP address) Tag 0x9B Destination H.323 TSAP Identifier (Port) -or- Tag 0x64 Destination H.323 alias Packet RTP Tag 0x5D Destination listen IP address 0xFFFFFFFF tells soft switch to allocate Tag 0x5E Destination listen RTP port number Tag 0x5F Destination send IP address 0xFFFFFFFF indicates unspecified address Tag 0x60 Destination send RTP port number (12) Example Internal Resource Types Table 156 below provides a list of exemplary Internal Resource Types. TABLE 156 Resource Identifier for Internal Resources Internal Resource Parameter Type Tag Parameter Description Modem Port 0x0000006B Identifier for internal modem resource - optional Fax Port 0x00000068 Identifier for internal fax resource - optional Conference 0x00000067 Identifier for internal conference resource - Port optional Playback 0x00000069 Internal announcement resource ID - optional 0x0000007F Announcement identifier - optional 0x00000080 Announcement information - optional 0x00000086 Announcement treatment - optional Recording 0x00000069 Internal recording resource ID - optional (13) Example Destination Port Types Table 157 below provides a list of exemplary Destination Port Types. TABLE 157 Destination Ports Destination Port Types Parameter Tag Parameter Description GSTN Tag 0x00000037 Destination module number Tag 0x00000038 Destination line number Tag 0x00000039 Destination channel number Packet RTP Tag 0x0000005D Destination listen IP address 0xFFFFFFFF tells soft switch to allocate Tag 0x0000005E Destination listen RTP port number Tag0x0000005F Destination send IP address 0xFFFFFFFF indicates unspecified address Tag 0x00000060 Destination send RTP port number Packet ATM Tag 0x00000037 To module number Tag 0x00000038 To line number Tag 0x00000039 To channel number Tag 0x00000061 To ATM Address Type Tag 0x00000062 To ATM Address Packet H.323 Tag 0x0000005B Source H.323 Network Address (IP address) Tag 0x0000009A Source H.323 TSAP Identifier (UDP Port) -or- Tag 0x0000005C Source H.323 alias -with- Tag 0x00000063 Destination H.323 Network Address (IP address) Tag 0x000009B Destination H.323 TSAP Identifier (UDP Port) -or- Tag 0x00000064 Destination H.323 alias (14) Call Control Messages Table 158A below provides a list of exemplary Call Control Messages. TABLE 158A Call Control Parameter Parameter Port Message Tag Description R/O Notes Types RCON—Request 0x000000C0 Message Code R All Connection 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R All 0x000000C2 Call ID R All 0x00000065 Source port type R See additional fields All necessary for each port type 0x00000066 Destination port R See additional fields All type necessary for each port type 0x00000017 Bearer Capability O M of the Channel (BCC) required for the call 0x00000019 Called Phone O Used only for M Number authentication for 0x00000018 Calling Pary O modem transfer calls M Number 0x00000044 CPE lines to O Used only for GSTN G, M present the call on ports where an outbound call is to be made. This field can be used for applications when the same physical channel can be timeshared by several CPE devices/ports 0x00000045 Date and time of O Used only for GSTN G the call ports where an associated outbound call is to be made 0x00000047 Requested Priority O Required only for All (forced 911, not priority calls forced) 0x00000070 Encoding Type O Required only when R, H, A (1 byte) feature is desired 0x00000071 Silence O Suppression Activation timer 0x00000072 Comfort Noise O Generation 0x00000073 Packet Loading O 0x00000074 Echo Cancellation O All 0x00000075 Constant DTMF O All Tone Detection on/off 0x00000076 Constant MF tone O All Detection on/off 0x00000077 Constant Fax tone O All detection on/off 0x00000078 Constant Modem O All tone detection on/off 0x00000079 Programmable O All DSP Algorithm activation 0x0000007A Programmable O All DSP Algorithm deactivation 0x0000007B Constant Packet O R, H, A Loss Detection on/off 0x0000007C Packet Loss O R, H, A Threshold 0x0000007D Constant Latency O R, H, A Threshold Detection on/off 0x0000007E Latency O R, H, A Threshold 0x00000081 QoS type O R, H, A 0x00000082 QoS value O R, H, A (variable length) This message is sent from the soft switch to the access server to request a connection to be setup to the specified endpoint. ACON—Accept 0x000000C0 Message Code R All Connection 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R All 0x000000C2 Call ID R All 0x00000065 Source port type O See additional fields All necessary for each port type 0x00000066 Destination port O See additional fields All type necessary for each port type 0x00000040 Access Server O All Caller Identifier This message is sent from the access server to the soft switch indicating that the connection has been accepted. This message is sent in response to an RCON, if the access server allocates an endpoint on its own (if resource management is done by the access server) the endpoint ID will be returned in the ACON. MCON—Modify 0x000000C0 Message Code R All Connection 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R All 0x000000C2 Call ID R All 0x00000065 Source port type R See additional fields All necessary for each port type 0x00000066 Destination port R See additional fields All type necessary for each port type 0x00000070 Encoding Type O Required only when a R, H, A 0x00000071 Silence O change to the field R, H, A Suppression value is desired Activation timer 0x00000072 Comfort Noise O R, H, A Generation 0x00000073 Packet Loading O R, H, A 0x00000074 Echo Cancellation O All 0x00000075 Constant DTMF O All Tone Detection on/off 0x00000076 Constant MF O All Tone Detection on/off 0x00000077 Constant Fax tone O All detection on/off 0x00000078 Constant Modem O All tone detection on/off 0x00000079 Programmable O All DSP Algorithm activation 0x0000007A Programmable O All DSP Algorithm deactivation 0x0000007B Constant Packet O R, H, A Loss Detection on/off 0x0000007C Packet Loss O R, H, A Threshold 0x0000007D Constant Latency O R, H, A Threshold Detection on/off 0x0000007E Latency O R, H, A Threshold 0x00000081 QoS type O R, H, A 0x00000082 QoS (variable O R, H, A length) This message is sent from the soft switch to the access server to query or request changes to the settings associated with a connection. Except for the “from” and “to” port fields, all other fields are optional. If a field is specified the access server is requested to change to the specified setting. In response to an MCON the access server responds with current settings for all fields. AMCN—Accept 0x000000C0 Message Code R All Modify 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R All Connection 0x000000C2 Call ID R All 0x00000065 Source port type R See additional fields All necessary for each port type 0x00000066 Destination port R See additional fields All type necessary for each port type 0x00000070 Encoding Type R All fields are required R, H, A 0x00000071 Suppression R since the message is R, H, A Activation timer also a query response 0x00000072 Comfort Noise R R, H, A Generation 0x00000073 Packet Loading R R, H, A 0x00000074 Echo Cancellation R All 0x00000075 Constant DTMF R All Tone Detection on/off 0x00000076 Constant MF R All Tone Detection on/off 0x00000077 Constant Fax tone R All detection on/off 0x00000078 Constant Modem R All tone detection on/off 0x00000079 Programmable R All DSP Algorithm 0x0000007B Constant Packet R All Loss Detection on/off 0x0000007C Packet Loss R R, H, A Threshold 0x0000007D Constant Latency R R, H, A Threshold Detection on/off 0x0000007E Latency R R, H, A Threshold 0x00000040 Access Server R All Call Identifier 0x00000081 QoS type R R, H, A 0x00000082 QoS (variable R R, H, A length) This message is sent from the access server to the soft switch to acknowledge the modifications made in response to the MCON. Only those tags sent in the modify request should be returned in the modify accept. (15) Example Port Definitions Table 158B below provides a list of exemplary Port Definitions. TABLE 158B Port Definitions Type Description All The field applies to all port types G The field applies to GSTN port types H The field applies to H.323 port types R The field applies to RTP port types A The field applies to ATM port types M The field applies to internal modem port types F The filed applies to internal fax port types C The field applies to internal conference port types P The field applies to internal playback port types Re The field applies to internal recording port types (16) Call Clearing Messages Table 158B below provides a list of exemplary Call Clearing Messages. TABLE 159 Call Clearing Parameter Message Tag Parameter Description R/O Notes RCR—Release 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel request 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R 0x000000C2 Call ID R 0x00000065 Source Port type R See additional fields necessary for each port type 0x000000FD Cause Code Type R 0x000000FE Cause Code R In case of a pass-through call (TDM or packet connection), the channel identified should be the source side. ACR - Release 0x000000C0 Message Code R channel 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R completed 0x000000C2 Call ID R 0x00000065 Source Port type R See additional fields necessary for each port type 0x000000FD Cause Code Type R 0x000000FE Cause Code R 0x00000091 Number of packets sent O Required for packet and received pass through calls only 0x00000092 Number of packets O dropped 0x00000093 Number of bytes sent O and received 0x00000094 Number of bytes dropped O 0x00000095 Number of signaling O packets sent and received 0x00000096 Number of signaling O packets dropped 0x00000097 Number of signaling O bytes sent and received 0x00000098 Number of signaling O bytes dropped 0x00000099 Estimated average O latency 0x0000009D Number of audio packets O received 0x0000009E Number of audio bytes O received 0x0000009F Number of signaling O packets received 0x000000A0 Number of signaling O bytes received (17) Event Notification Messages Table 158B below provides a list of exemplary Event Notification Messages. TABLE 160 Event Notification Parameter Message Parameter Tag Description R/O Notes NOTI - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Event 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R Notification 0x000000C2 Call ID R 0x00000065 Source Port type R See additional fields necessary for each port type 0x00000083 Event type O 0x00000019 Called phone O Required tags for event type number 0x000000 - Inbound call 0x00000018 Calling party number O notification 0x000000FD Cause Code Type O Required tags for event type 0x000000FE Cause Code O 0x04 - Call termination notification 0x0000007C Packet Loss O Required tags for event type Threshold 0x05 - Packet loss threshold exceeded 0x00000070 Encoding Type O Required tags for event type 0x06 - Voice codec changed 0x00000073 Packet Loading O Required tags for event type 0x07 - Voice codec changed 0x000000A1 Pattern1 detected O 0x000000B0 Pattern16 detected O 0x000000B7 Input buffer O Detected Signals in character string form This message is sent from the access server to the soft switch to indicate the occurrence of an event. RNOT - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Request 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R Event 0x000000C2 Call ID R Notification 0x00000065 Source port type R See additional fields necessary for each port type. Note that a soft switch can request notification for a set of events on an entire bay, or on an entire bay/module, or on an entire bay/module/line, without specifying each individual channel. 0x00000083 Event type O A soft switch can request notification of a specific event or set of events. The event type field can be repeated as many times as needed. 0x000000A1 Pattern1 O A soft switch can request notification of a specific pattern as described in the pattern grammar above. 0x000000B0 Pattern16 O A soft switch can request notification of a specific pattern as described in the pattern grammar above. 0x000000B1 Initial Timeout O If parameter is not included, then there is no timeout. Initial Timeout is the maximum time between starting retrieve signals and the first signal detected. 0x000000B2 Inter-signaling O If parameter is not included, Timeout then there is no timeout. Inter-signaling Timeout is the maximum time between the detection of one signal and the detection of another signal. 0x00000046 Maximum time to O If parameter is not included, wait for signal then there is no timeout. detection 0x000000B3 Enabled Event O Specifies an automated response if a signal pattern is detected, in the form “[pattern #], [event character]”. This tag may be included multiple times within a single message. 0x000000B4 Discard Oldest O When parameter is included with any value, then as the input buffer fills up, the oldest received signal is discarded. 0x000000B5 Buffer Size O If parameter is not specified, default buffer size is 35 characters. 0x000000B6 Filter O Filter Pattern allows certain signals to be excluded from the input buffer of detected signals (ignored signals). This event is sent from the soft switch to the access server to indicate that the access server should notify the soft switch of the indicated events. (18) Tunneled Signaling Messages Table 158B below provides a list of Tunneled Signaling Messages. TABLE 161 Tunneled Signaling Parameter Parameter R/ Message Tag Description O Notes SIG - 0x000000C0 Message Code R Notify/ 0x000000C1 Transaction ID R Initiate 0x00000065 Source R Only port type of GSTN, Signaling port type H.323 and ATM are Events allowable values for this field. See the additional fields necessary for these ports types. 0x0000006C Signaling R Identifies the signaling Event Type event included in the Signaling Data field. 0x0000006D Signaling R Event Data e. Control Message Parameters Table 162 below provides a listing of the control message parameters, and the control messages which use these message parameters. More specifically, Table 162 provides the tags associated with the parameters, the size (in bytes) of the parameters, the type of the parameters (e.g., ASCII), the parameter descriptions, the values and the control messages which use the parameters. TABLE 162 Parameter Size Parameter Tag (bytes) Type description Values Usage 0x00000000 4 BYTE End marker Always 0x00000000 All messages. 0x00000001 4 UINT Protocol 0x00000000 Version 0 NSUP version (Xcom NMI 5.0) 0x00000001 IPDC Version 0.1 0x00000002 1 to 24 ASCII System NSUP, ID/Serial ASUP, Number NSDN, RST1, ARST1, RST2, ARST2, NSI, SSSI, RSSS, NSSS 0x00000003 9 ASCII System type NSUP, NSI 0x00000004 4 UINT Max. NSUP, NSI number of modules (slot cards) supported 0x00000005 8 ASCII Bay number NSUP, NSI, NBN 0x00000006 4 BYTE Reboot 0x00000000 Request ARST2 acknowledgement accepted. Access server will reboot now. 0x00000001 Request denied Access server will not reboot. 0x00000007 4 UINT Module RMI, NMI, number RLI, NLI, RCI, NCI, SLI, ASLI, RMS, RLS, RCS, NMS, NLS, NCS, SMS, SLS, SCS, RSCS, PCT, APCT, SCT, ASCT, STN, ASTN, RCON, ACON, MCON, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000008 4 UINT Number of NMI, NMS lines on this module 0x00000009 16 ASCII Module NMI name 0x0000000A 4 BYTE Module type 0x00000000 not present NMI 0x00000001 unknown Other values to be defined 0x0000000B 4 BYTE Module Logical OR of any of the NMI capabilities following flags 0x00000001 Capable of continuity testing 0x00000002 Network interface module 0x0000000C 4 BYTE Module 0x00000000 not present NMS status (empty) 0x00000001 out of service (down) 0x00000002 up 0x00000003 error 0x0000000D 4 UINT Line RLI, NLI, Number RCI, NCI, SLI, ASLI, RLS, RCS, NLS, NCS, SLS, SCS, RSCS, PCT, APCT, SCT, ASCT, STN, ASTN, MCON, ACON, RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000000E 4 UINT Number of NLI, NLS channels on this line 0x0000000F 16 ASCII Line name NLI, SLI 0x00000010 4 BYTE Line coding 0x00000000 Unknown NLI, SLI 0x00000001 AMI 0x00000002 B8ZS 0x00000011 4 BYTE Line 0x00000000 Unknown NLI, SLI framing 0x00000001 D4 0x00000002 ESF 0x00000012 4 BYTE Line 0x00000000 Unknown NLI, SLI signaling 0x00000001 In-band details 0x00000002 ISDN PRI 0x00000003 NFAS 0x00000004 SS7 gateway 0x00000013 4 BYTE Line in-band 0x00000000 Unknown NLI, SLI signaling 0x00000001 Wink start details 0x00000002 Idle start 0x00000003 wink-wink with 200 msec wink 0x00000004 wink-wink with 400 msec wink 0x00000005 loop start CPE 0x00000006 ground start CPE 0x00000014 4 BYTE Line status 0x00000000 not present NLS 0x00000001 disabled 0x00000002 red alarm (loss of sync) 0x00000003 yellow alarm 0x00000004 other alarms or errors 0x00000005 up 0x00000006 loopback 0x00000015 4 UINT Channel RCI, NCI, number RCS, NCS, SCS, RSCS, PCT, APCT, SCT, ASCT, STN, ASTN, MCON, ACON, RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000016 4 BYTE Channel 0x00000000 not present NCS status 0x00000001 out of service 0x00000002 signaling channel (i.e., D- channel on an ISDN PRI line 0x00000003 maintenance (continuity test pending or in progress) 0x00000004 blocked 0x00000005 loopback 0x00000006 idle 0x00000007 in use (dialing, ringing, etc.) 0x00000008 connected 0x00000009 in use/DSP output 0x0000000A in use/DSP input 0x0000000B in use/DSP input + output 0x0000000E off hook/ idle 0x00000017 4 BYTE Bearer A one byte value. The NCI, capability encoding is the same as the RCON octet “Information Transfer Capability” from the User Service Information parameter from ANSI T1.113.3: 0x00000000 Voice call 0x00000008 64K data call 0x00000009 56K data call 0x00000010 Modem call (3.1K Audio call) 0x00000012 Fax call (Reserved for future use, not ANSI- compliant) 0x00000018 24 ASCII Calling NCI, party RCON number 0x00000019 24 ASCII Dialed NCI, number RCON 0x0000001A 4 TIME Channel NCI status change timestamp 0x0000001B 4 BYTE Primary soft 1st byte: Class A octet NSSI, switch IP 2nd byte: Class B octet SSSI, 3rd byte: Class C octet NSSS 4th byte: Server octet 0x0000001C 4 UINT Primary soft NSSI, switch TCP SSSI, port NSSS 0x0000001D 4 BYTE Secondary 1st byte: Class A octet NSSI, soft switch 2nd byte: Class B octet SSSI, IP 3rd byte: Class C octet NSSS 4th byte: Server octet 0x0000001E 4 UINT Secondary NSSI, soft switch SSSI, TCP port NSSS 0x0000001F 4 BYTE Soft switch 0x00000001 Primary Soft NSSS selector Switch 0x00000002 Secondary Soft Switch 0x00000003 Tertiary Soft Switch 0x00000020 4 UINT Number of NMS lines in the Line status array 0x00000021 Variable BYTE Line status 0x00000000 not present NMS array 0x00000001 disabled 0x00000002 red alarm (loss of sync) 0x00000003 yellow alarm 0x00000004 other alarms or errors 0x00000005 up 0x00000006 loopback 0x00000022 4 UINT Number of NLS channels in the Channel status array 0x00000023 Variable BYTE Channel 0x00000000 not present NLS status array 0x00000001 out of service 0x00000002 signaling channel (i.e., D- channel on an ISDN PRI) 0x00000003 maintenance (continuity test pending/in progress) 0x00000004 blocked 0x00000005 loopback 0x00000006 idle 0x00000007 in use (dialing, ringing, etc.) 0x00000008 connected 0x00000009 in use/DSP output 0x0000000A in use/DSP input 0x0000000B in use/DSP input + output 0x0000000E off hook/ idle 0x00000024 4 BYTE Requested 0x00000000 out of service SMS module state 0x00000001 initialize (bring up) 0x00000025 4 Requested 0x00000000 Disable SLS line state 0x00000001 Enable 0x00000002 Start loopback 0x00000003 Terminate loopback 0x00000026 4 BYTE Requested 0x00000000 Reset to idle SCS channel 0x00000001 Reset to out of status action service 0x00000002 Start loopback 0x00000003 Terminate loopback 0x00000004 Block 0x00000005 Unblock 0x00000027 4 BYTE Set channel 0x00000000 Do not perform SCS status option the indicated action if any of the channels is not in the valid initial state. 0x00000001 Perform the indicated action on channels which are on the valid initial state. Other channels are not affected. 0x00000028 4 UINT Channel SCS, RSCS number first (for grouping) 0x00000029 4 UINT Channel SCS, RSCS number last (for grouping) 0x0000002A 4 BYTE “Set channel 0x00000000 action RSCS status” result successfully performed in all channels 0x00000001 at least one channel failed 0x0000002B 4 BYTE “Prepare for 0x00000000 Resources APCT continuity reserved check” result successfully 0x00000001 Resource not available 0x0000002C 4 UINT Continuity Time out in milliseconds, SCT timeout default is 2000 (2 seconds) 0x0000002D 4 BYTE Continuity 0x00000000 Test completed ASCT test result successfully 0x00000001 Test failed 0x0000002E 0 to 16 Test echo RTE, ARTE 0x0000002F 4 BYTE Test ping 1st byte: Class A octet RTP, ATP address 2nd byte: Class B octet 3rd byte: Class C octet 4th byte: Class Server octet 0x00000030 4 UINT Number of RTP, ATP pings 0x00000032 4 UINT Number of STN tones 0x00000033 Variable ASCII Tone string ASCII characters ‘0’-‘9’, ‘*’, STN (‘0’-‘9’, ‘#’, ‘A’-‘D’, ‘*’, ‘d’ - contiguous dialtone, ‘#’) ‘b’ - contiguous user busy ‘n’ - contiguous network busy ‘s’ - short pause ‘r’ - contiguous ringback ‘s’ - short pause ‘r’ - ring back tone ‘w’ - wink ‘f’ - flash hook ‘c’ - call waiting tone ‘a’ - answer tone ‘t’ - ringing ‘p’ - prompt tone ‘e’ - error tone ‘i’ - distinctive ringing tone ‘u’ - Stutter dialtone 0x00000036 4 UINT Tone send 0x00000000 Operation STN completion succeeded status 0x00000001 Operation failed 0x00000002 Operation was interrupted 0x00000037 4 UINT TDM RCST, destination ACST, Module RCSO (SS) 0x00000038 4 UINT TDM RCST, destination ACST, Line RCSO (SS) 0x00000039 4 UINT TDM RCST, destination ACST, channel RCSO (SS) 0x0000003A 4 UINT Number of NMI failed lines 0x0000003B 4 BYTE Tertiary soft 1st byte: Class A octet NSSI, switch IP 2nd byte: Class B octet SSSI, 3rd byte: Class C octet NSSS 4th byte: Server octet 0x0000003C 4 UINT Tertiary soft NSSI, switch TCP SSSI, port NSSS 0x00000040 4 UINT Access RCON, Server Call AMCN, identifier NCI 0x00000041 4 BYTE T1 front-end 0x00000000 Unknown SLI, NLI type 0x00000001 CSU (T1 long haul) 0x00000002 DSX-1 (T1 short haul) 0x00000042 4 BYTE T1 CSU 0x00000000 0 dB SLI, NLI build-out 0x00000001 7.5 dB 0x00000002 15 dB 0x00000003 22.5 dB 0x00000043 4 BYTE T1 DSX line 0x00000000 1-133 ft SLI, NLI length 0x00000001 134-266 ft 0x00000002 267-399 ft 0x00000003 400-533 ft 0x00000004 534-655 ft 0x00000044 1 to 255 BYTE List of CPE RCON line the call is offered on for inbound calls or the port the call was originated from for outbound calls. 0x00000045 4 TIME Timestamp RCON of the call setup (for caller ID service). Number of seconds since Jan 1 00:00:00 1990. 0x00000046 4 UINT Maximum Time in milliseconds RNOT total time allowed for digit recognition. 0x00000047 4 BYTE Requested 0x00000000 not forced RCON Priority 0x00000001 forced 0x00000048 4 UINT Set Defaults 0x00000000 action ADEF Settings successfully result performed in all channels 0x00000001 at least one channel failed 0x00000049 4 BYTE Tone Type 0x00000000 DTMF STN 0x00000001 MF 0x0000004A 4 BYTE Apply/Cancel 0x00000000 Apply tone STN Tone 0x00000001 Cancel tone 0x00000055 4 BYTE Source listen 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, IP address 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000056 4 UINT Source listen RCON, RTP port ACON, number RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000057 4 BYTE Source send 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, IP address 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000058 4 UINT Source send RCON, RTP port ACON, number RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000059 4 UINT Source ATM 0x00000001 E.164 format RCON, Address 0x00000002 ATM End ACON, Type System Address RMCN, format AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000005A Variable ASCII Source ATM RCON, Address ACON, RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000005B 4 BYTE Source 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, H.323 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, Network 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, Address (IP 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, Address) RCR, ACR 0x0000005C Variable ASCII Source RCON, H.323 alias ACON, RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000005D 4 BYTE Destination 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, listen IP 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, address 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000005E 4 UINT Destination RCON, listen RTP ACON, port number RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x0000005F 4 BYTE Destination 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, send IP 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, address 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000060 4 UINT Destination RCON, send RTP ACON, port number RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000061 4 BYTE Destination 0x00000001 E.164 format RCON, ATM 0x00000002 ATM End ACON, Address System Address RMCN, Type format AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000062 Variable ASCII Destination RCON, ATM ACON, Address RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000063 4 BYTE Destination 1st byte: Class A octet RCON, H.323 2nd byte: Class B octet ACON, Network 3rd byte: Class C octet RMCN, Address (IP 4th byte: Server octet AMCN, Address) RCR, ACR 0x00000064 Variable ASCII Destination RCON, H.323 alias ACON, RMCN, AMCN, RCR, ACR 0x00000065 4 BYTE Source port 0x00000000 GSTN channel RCON, type 0x00000001 RTP port ACON, 0x00000002 ATM port RMCN, 0x00000003 H.323 port AMCN, 0x00000004 Internal Modem RCR, ACR Resource 0x00000005 Internal Fax Resource 0x00000006 Internal Conference Resource 0x00000007 Internal Recording Resource 0x00000008 Internal Playback Resource 0x00000066 4 BYTE Destination 0x00000000 GSTN channel RCON, port type 0x00000001 RTP port ACON, 0x00000002 ATM port RMCN, 0x00000003 H.323 port AMCN, 0x00000004 Internal Modem RCR, ACR Resource 0x00000005 Internal Fax Resource 0x00000006 Internal Conference Resource 0x00000007 Internal Recording Resource 0x00000008 Internal Playback Resource 0x00000067 4 BYTE Internal RCON conference resource ID 0x00000068 4 BYTE Internal Fax RCON resource ID 0x00000069 4 BYTE Internal RCON playback resource ID 0x0000006A 4 BYTE Internal RCON recording resource ID 0x0000006B 4 BYTE Internal RCON modem resource ID 0x0000006C 4 BYTE Signaling For GSTN ports using Q.931 SIG Event Type signaling 0x00000000 ALERTING 0x00000001 CALL PROCEEDING 0x00000002 CONNECT 0x00000003 CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE 0x00000004 DISCONNECT 0x00000005 USER INFORMATION 0x00000006 PROGRESS 0x00000007 RELEASE 0x00000008 RELEASE COMPLETE 0x00000009 RESUME 0x0000000A RESUME ACKNOWLEDGE 0x0000000B RESUME REJECT 0x0000000C SETUP 0x0000000D SETUP ACKNOWLEDGE 0x0000000E STATUS 0x0000000F STATUS INQUIRY 0x00000010 SUSPEND 0x00000011 SUSPEND ACKNOWLEDGE 0x00000012 SUSPEND REJECT For ATM ports using Q.2931 signaling 0x00000100 ALERTING 0x00000101 CALL PROCEEDING 0x00000102 CONNECT 0x00000103 CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE 0x00000104 DISCONNECT 0x00000105 USER INFORMATION 0x00000106 PROGRESS 0x00000107 RELEASE 0x00000108 RELEASE COMPLETE 0x0000010C SETUP 0x0000010D SETUP ACKNOWLEDGE 0x0000010E STATUS 0x0000010F STATUS INQUIRY 0x0000006D Variable BYTE Signaling Q.931 or Q.2931 signaling SIG Event Data messages 0x0000006E 4 BYTE Forward Indicates whether the access SDEF Signaling server should send signaling Events to the events to the soft switch Soft Switch 0x00000000 Do not send signaling events 0x00000001 Send signaling events 0x00000070 4 BYTE Encoding These values are defined in RCON, Type ietf-avt-profile-new-02.txt, RMCN, dated Nov. 20, 1997. AMCN 0x00000001 1016 0x00000002 DVI4 0x00000003 G722 0x00000004 G723 0x00000005 G726-16 0x00000006 G726-24 0x00000007 G726-32 0x00000008 G726-40 0x00000009 G727-16 0x0000000A G727-24 0x0000000B G727-32 0x0000000C G727-40 0x0000000D G728 0x0000000E G729 0x0000000F GSM 0x00000010 L8 0x00000011 L16 0x00000012 LPC 0x00000013 MPA 0x00000014 PCMA (G.711 A-law) 0x00000015 PCMU (G.711 mu-law) 0x00000016 RED 0x00000017 SX7300P 0x00000018 SX8300P 0x00000019 VDVI 0x00000071 4 UINT Silence Time in milliseconds RCON, Suppression RMCN, Activation AMCN Timer 0x00000072 4 BYTE Comfort 00x00 off RCON, Noise 0x01 on (default) RMCN, Generation AMCN 0x00000073 4 UINT Packet Numeric value expressed in RCON, Loading milliseconds per packet RMCN, (frames per packet) AMCN 0x00000074 4 BYTE Echo 0x00000000 off RCON, Cancellation 0x00000001 on, 16 ms tail RMCN, 0x00000002 on, 32 ms tail AMCN (default) 0x00000075 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off RCON, DTMF Tone 0x00000001 on (default) RMCN, Detection AMCN on/off 0x00000076 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off (default) RCON, MF Tone 0x00000001 on RMCN, Detection AMCN on/off 0x00000077 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off RCON, Fax tone 0x00000001 on (default) RMCN, detection AMCN on/off 0x00000078 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off RCON, Modem tone 0x00000001 on (default) RMCN, detection AMCN on/off 0x00000079 4 UINT Programmable Identifier of the DSP RCON, DSP algorithm RMCN, Algorithm Values to be assigned AMCN activation 0x0000007A 4 UINT Programmable Identifier of the DSP RCON, DSP algorithm RMCN, Algorithm Values to be assigned AMCN deactivation 0x0000007B 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off RCON, Packet Loss 0x00000001 on (default) RMCN, Detection AMCN on/off 0x0000007C 4 UINT Packet Loss Number of packets lost per RCON, Threshold second RMCN, AMCN 0x0000007D 4 BYTE Constant 0x00000000 off RCON, Latency 0x00000001 on (default) RMCN, Threshold AMCN Detection on/off 0x0000007E 4 UINT Latency Max latency end to end RCON, Threshold measured in milliseconds RMCN, AMCN 0x0000007F 4 UINT Announcement Identifier of announcement RCON Identifier (Values to be assigned) 0x00000080 Variable ASCII Announcement RCON Information 0x00000081 4 BYTE QoS type 0x00000001 MPLS RCCP, 0x00000002 ToS bits RMCP, 0x00000003 ATM AMCP 0x00000082 4 BYTE QoS value For MPLS 4 byte, network RCCP, defined, MPLS tag RMCP, For ToS 1 byte (4 bits used, AMCP big-Endian) as defined in RFC 1349 0x00000008 Minimize delay 0x00000004 Maximize throughput 0x00000002 Maximize reliability 0x00000001 Minimize monetary cost 0x00000000 Normal service For ATM 0x00000001 Constant bit rate 0x00000002 Real-Time variable bit rate 0x00000003 Non-Real-Time variable bit rate 0x00000004 Available bit rate 0x00000005 Unspecified bit rate 0x00000083 4 BYTE Event type 0x00000000 Inbound call NOTI notification 0x00000001 Ringing notification 0x00000002 Call Answer notification 0x00000003 On hook notification 0x00000004 Packet loss threshold exceeded 0x00000005 Voice codec changed 0x00000006 Sampling rate changed 0x00000007 Flash hook 0x00000008 Off hook 0x00000009 Latency Threshold exceeded 0x0000000A Channel Blocked 0x0000000B Busy notification 0x0000000C Fast Busy notification 0x0000000D Answering Machine Detected 0x0000000E Operation complete Need to make sure that this lit is complete with respect to handling MF and DTMF signaling. 0x00000084 4 BYTE Signaling 0x00000001 MPLS RCCP, Channel 0x00000002 ToS bits RMCP, QoS type 0x00000003 ATM AMCP 0x00000085 4 BYTE Signaling For MPLS 4 byte, network RCCP, Channel defined, MPLS tag RMCP, QoS value For ToS 1 byte (4 bits used, AMCP big-Endian) as defined in RFC 1349 0x00000008 Minimize delay 0x00000004 Maximize throughput 0x00000002 Maximize reliability 0x00000001 Minimize monetary cost 0x00000000 Normal service For ATM 0x00000001 Constant bit rate 0x00000002 Real-Time variable bit rate 0x00000003 Non-Real-Time variable bit rate 0x00000004 Available bit rate 0x00000005 Unspecified bit rate 0x00000086 4 BYTE Announcement 0x00 Continuous play RCON Treatment 0x01 Play once and terminate the call 0x02 Play twice and terminate the call 0x00000091 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR audio packets sent 0x00000092 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR audio packets dropped 0x00000093 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR audio bytes sent 0x00000094 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR audio bytes dropped 0x00000095 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR signaling packets sent 0x00000096 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR signaling packets dropped 0x00000097 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR signaling bytes sent 0x00000098 4 UINT Number of RCR, ACR signaling bytes dropped 0x00000099 4 UINT Estimated Time in milliseconds RCR, ACR average latency 0x0000009A 4 UINT Source RCCP, H.323 TSAP ACCP, Identifier RMCP, (UDP Port) AMCP, RCR, ACR 0x0000009B 4 UINT Destination RCCP, H.323 TSAP ACCP, Identifier RMCP, (UDP Port) AMCP, RCR, ACR 0x0000009D 4 UINT Number of ACR audio packets received 0x0000009E 4 UINT Number of ACR audio bytes received 0x0000009F 4 UINT Number of ACR signaling packets received 0x000000A0 4 UINT Number of ACR signaling bytes received 0x000000A1 Variable ASCII Pattern1 Refer to the section NOTI, (character describing the NOTI and RNOT string) RNOT messages for more 0x000000A2 Variable ASCII Pattern2 information on the contents NOTI, (character of these fields RNOT string) 0x000000A3 Variable ASCII Pattern3 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A4 Variable ASCII Pattern4 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A5 Variable ASCII Pattern5 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A6 Variable ASCII Pattern6 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A7 Variable ASCII Pattern7 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A8 Variable ASCII Pattern8 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000A9 Variable ASCII Pattern9 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AA Variable ASCII Pattern10 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AB Variable ASCII Pattern11 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AC Variable ASCII Pattern12 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AD Variable ASCII Pattern13 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AE Variable ASCII Pattern14 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000AF Variable ASCII Pattern15 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000B0 Variable ASCII Pattern16 NOTI, (character RNOT string) 0x000000B1 4 UINT Initial RNOT Timeout (in ms) 0x000000B2 4 UINT Inter- RNOT signaling Timeout (in ms) 0x000000B3 Variable ASCII Enabled RNOT Event (character string) 0x000000B4 4 ASCII Discard RNOT Oldest flag 0x000000B5 4 UINT Buffer Size RNOT 0x000000B6 Variable ASCII Filter RNOT (pattern character string) 0x000000B7 Variable ASCII Input Buffer NOTI (character string) 0x000000C0 4 UINT Message This tag is used in order to Code communicate the message type associated with the message. There MUST only be a single message code tag within a given message. 0x000000C1 12 BYTE Transaction The transaction ID is ID assigned by the originator of a transaction. It must remain the same for all messages exchanged within the transaction. 0x000000C2 16 BYTE Call ID The call ID is used for all call related messages within IPDC. It must remain the same for all messages exchanged for the same call. The data is a 16 byte value that follows the GUID format specified in H.225.0. 0x000000FD 4 UINT Cause code 0x01 ISDN MRJ, RCR, type Other values reserved for ACR, future use NOTI 0x000000FE 4 UINT Cause code A one byte value. For ISDN MRJ, RCR, cause codes, the encoding is ACR, defined in ANSI T1.113.3, NOTI using the CCITT coding standard. The following is a list of ISDN cause codes values is for reference only: 1 Unassigned (unallocated) number 2 No route to specified transit network 3 No route to destination 6 Channel unacceptable 7 Call awarded and being delivered in an established channel 16 Normal call clearing 17 User busy 18 No user responding 19 No answer from user (user alerted) 21 Call rejected 22 Number changed 26 Non-selected user clearing 27 Destination out of order 28 Invalid number format (incomplete number) 29 Facility rejected 30 Response to status enquiry 31 Normal, unspecified 34 No circuit/channel available 38 Network out of order 41 Temporary failure 42 Switching system congestion (Soft switch, Access Server, IP network) 43 Access information discarded 44 Requested circuit/channel not available 47 Resource unavailable, unspecified 50 Requested facility not subscribed 57 Bearer capability not authorized 58 Bearer capability not presently available 63 Service or option not available 65 Bearer capability not implemented 66 Channel type not implemented 69 Requested facility not implemented 70 Only restricted digital information bearer capability is available 79 Service or option not implemented, unspecified 81 Invalid call reference value 82 Identified channel does not exist 83 A suspended call identity exists but this call identity does not 84 Call identity in use 85 No call suspended 86 Call having the requested call identity has been cleared 88 Incompatible destination 91 Invalid transit network selection 95 Invalid message, unspecified 96 Mandatory information element is missing 97 Message type non-existent or not implemented 98 Message not compatible with call state or message type non-existent or not implemented 99 Information element non- existent or not implemented 100 Invalid information element contents 101 Message not compatible with call state 102 Recovery on time expiry 111 Protocol error, unspecified 127 Interworking, unspecified f. A Detailed View of the Flow of Control Messages The following section provides a detailed view of the flow of control messages between Soft Switch 204 and Access Server 254. Included are the source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments describing the message flow. (1) Startup Flow Table 163 below provides the Startup flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 163 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 NSUP Access Server coming up. The message contains server information, including number of modules in the system. 2 ASUP Acknowledge that the Access Server is coming up. Note: At this time, the Soft Switch must wait for the Access Server to send notification when modules (cards) become available. (2) Module Status Notification Flow Table 164 below provides the Module status notification flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 164 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 NMS Notify module status. If the module is in the UP state: 2 RMI Request module information 3 NMI Notify module information (including number of lines in this module). Note: At this time, the Soft Switch must wait for the Access Server to send notification when lines become available. (3) Line Status Notification Flow Table 165 below provides the Line status notification flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 165 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 NLS Notify line status If the line is in the UP state: 2 RLI Request line information 3 NLI Notify line information (including number of channels). Note: Channels will remain in the out-of-service state until the line becomes available. At that time, the channels will be set to the idle state. The Soft Switch must then explicitly disable or block channels that should not be in the idle state. (4) Blocking of Channels Flow Table 166 below provides the Blocking of channels flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 166 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 SCS Set a group of channels to be blocked state. 2 RSCS Message indicates if the operation was successful or if it failed. (5) Unblocking of Channels Flow Table 167 below provides the Unblocking of channels flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 167 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 SCS Set a group of channels to be unblocked state. 2 RSCS Message indicates if the operation was successful or if it failed. (6) Keepalive Test Flow Tables 168A and 168B below provides the Keep-alive test flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. Table 168A shows the Access Server verifying that the Soft Switch is still operational. Table 168B shows the Soft Switch verifying that the Access Server is still operational. TABLE 168A Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RTE 2 ARTE TABLE 168B Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RTE 2 ARTE (7) Reset Request Flow Table 169 below provides the Reset request flow, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 169 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RST1 First step. 2 ARST1 3 RST2 Second step. If the Access Server doesn't receive this command within 5 seconds of sending an ARST1, it will not reboot. 4 ARST2 The Access Server starts the reboot procedure. 5 NSDN Access Server is now rebooting. g. Call Flows (1) Data Services The Data Call Services Scenarios that follow can be used to deliver internet and intranet access services through NASs 228 and 230. The scenarios assume that access servers 254 and 256 provide modem termination for inbound calls. (a) Inbound Data Call via SS7 Signaling Flow Table 170 below provides an Inbound data call flow via SS7 signaling, including the step, the control message source (Soft Switch 204, SS7 signaling network 114 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The reader is directed to the text below further detailing a data call on NASs 228 and 230, described with reference to FIG. 26C and FIGS. 46-61. The reader is also directed to FIG. 63 which depicts a flowchart state diagram of Access Servers 254 and 256 inbound call handling. TABLE 170 Soft Access Step Switch Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call 2 RCON Request the soft switch to accept the call 3 ACON Accept inbound call 4 NOTI Answer validated call 5 ANM Request ANM message to be sent out to outgoing network SS7 network initiated termination from this side of the call 6 REL Incoming release message form SS7 network 7 RCR Release call on the Soft Switch 8 ACR Release complete from Soft Switch Soft Switch initiated or remote network side initiated call termination 6 REL Send a release request to the SS7 Soft Switch 7 RCR Request release of the call on the Soft Switch 8 ACR Release call complete from the Soft Switch (b) Inbound Data Call Via Access Server Signaling Flow Table 171 below provides an Inbound data call flow via Access Serving signaling, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The incoming data call could arrive at AGs 238 and 240 from a customer facility 128 via a DAL or ISDN PRI connection. The reader is directed to FIG. 63 which depicts a flowchart state diagram of Access Servers 254 and 256 inbound call handling. The reader is also directed to FIG. 25B which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 171 Network initiated call termination Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 NOTI Notify the soft switch of an inbound call 2 RCON Request the soft switch to accept the call 3 ACON Accept inbound call 4 NOTI Answer validated call 5 NOTI Notify the soft switch of hang up 6 RCR Request release of the call on the soft switch 7 ACR Release call complete from Soft Switch (c) Inbound Data Call Via SS7 Signaling (with Call-Back) Table 172 below provides an Inbound data call flow via SS7 signaling (with call-back), including the step, the control message source (Soft Switch 204, SS7 signaling network 114 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 24D which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 172 Soft Access Step Switch Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call 2 RCON Request the soft switch to accept the call 3 ACON Accept inbound call 4 ANM Request outgoing ANM for SS7 network 5 RCR Release complete message with cause code indicating call back 6 REL Send a release request to the SS7 soft switch 7 RCON Request an outbound call with the same transaction ID 8 ACON Accept outbound call request 9 IAM Send an IAM request to the SS7 soft switch 10 ACM Incoming address complete from SS7 network 11 ANM Incoming answer message from network 12 NOTI Call passes RADIUS verification SS7 network initiated termination from this side of the call 13 REL Incoming release message form SS7 network 14 RCR Release call on the soft switch 15 ACR Release complete from soft switch Soft switch initiated or remote network side initiated call termination 13 REL Send a release request to the SS7 soft switch 14 RCR Request release of the call on the soft switch 15 ACR Release call complete from the soft switch The call scenario in Table 172 includes a call flow where the intranet service provider does not want to accept direct inbound calls to the network. The intranet service provider accepts inbound calls only for authentication of calling party 102 and then drops the line and dials-back to calling party 102 at the registered location of calling party 102. (d) Inbound Data Call (with Loopback Continuity Testing) Flow Table 173 below provides an Inbound data call flow (with loopback continuity testing), including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. TABLE 173 Access Step Soft Switch Server Comments 1 SCS Set a channel to loopback state 2 RSCS Message indicates if the operation was successful or if it failed If the soft switch determines that the test was successful: 3 RCON Setup for inbound call on given module/line/channel 4 ACON Accept inbound call. At this time, the access server may start any Radius lookup, etc. 5 NOTI Connect (answer) inbound call If the soft switch determines that the test was not successful: 3 SCS Release a channel from the loopback state (back to the idle state). 4 RSCS Message indicates if the operation was successful or if it failed. Note: In this case, a continuity test is required before the call proceeds. Also note that different transaction IDs are used throughout this sequence, as follows: the RSCS message uses the same transaction ID as the SCS command (steps 1 and 2); the ACSI and CONI messages use the same transaction ID as the RCSI command (steps 3.1 through 3.3); and the RSCS message uses the same transaction ID as the SCS command (steps 4.1 and 4.2). (e) Outbound Data Call Flow Via SS7 Signaling Table 174 below provides an Outbound data call flow via SS7 signaling, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204, SS7 signaling network 114 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 24D which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 174 Soft Access Step Switch Server SS7 Comments 1 RCON IAM Request an outbound call 2 ACON Accept outbound call request 3 IAM Send an IAM request to the SS7 soft switch 5 ACM Incoming address complete from SS7 network 6 ANM Incoming answer message from network 7 NOTI Call passes RADIUS verification SS7 network initiated termination from this side of call 8 REL Incoming release message from SS7 network 9 RCR Release complete from soft switch 10 ACR Release complete from soft switch Soft switch initiated call termination 8 REL Send a release request to the SS7 soft switch 10 RCR Request release of the call on the soft switch 11 ACR Release call complete from the soft switch (f) Outbound Data Call Flow Via Access Server Signaling Table 175 below provides an Outbound data call flow via Access Server signaling, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 69 which illustrates a flowchart depicting an Access Server outbound call handling initiated by Soft Switch state diagram. The reader is also directed to FIG. 25D which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 175 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RCON Request an outbound call 2 ACON Accept outbound call request 3 NOTI Notify the soft switch of ringing 4 NOTI Notify the soft switch of answer 5 NOTI Call passes RADIUS verification Network initiated call termination 6 NOTI Notify the soft switch of hang up 7 RCR Request release of the call on the soft switch 8 ACR Release call complete from the soft switch Soft switch initiated call termination 6 RCR Request release of the call on the soft switch 7 ACR Release call complete from the soft switch (g) Outbound Data Call Flow Initiated from the Access Server with Continuity Testing Table 176 below provides an Outbound data call flow initiated from the Access Server with continuity testing, including the step, the control message source (either Soft Switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIGS. 67A and 67B which illustrate a flowchart depicting an Access Server continuity test handling state diagram, and to FIGS. 68A and 68B which illustrate a flowchart depicting an Access Server outbound call handling initiated by an Access Server state diagram. TABLE 176 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RCON Request outbound call. Note that the access server doesn't know yet what module/line/channel will be used for the call and so, they are set to 0. 2 RPCT Soft switch requests a continuity test 3 APCT Accept continuity test 4 SCT Start continuity test. If the access server doesn't receive this command within 3 seconds of sending an APCT, the continuity test will be canceled and all reserved resources will released. 5 ASCT Continuity test result 6 ACON Accept outbound call on module/line/channel. This message is used by the soft switch to notify the access server which module, line and channel will be used for the call. If the access server can't process the call on that channel, it should issue a release command. 7 NOTI Outbound call answered by called party Note: In this case, the Soft Switch requests a continuity test when selecting the outbound channel. Also note that different transaction IDs are used in this sequence as follows: the ACSO and CONO messages should use the same transaction ID as the RCSO command; and the APCT, SCT and ASCT messages should use the same transaction ID as the RPCT command. (2) TDM Switching Setup Connection Flow The following call scenarios can be used to control a device that is used for TDM circuit switching. TDM circuit switching can be necessary in configurations where a single set of access trunks are used for calls that must terminate on different access server 254, 256 devices. Soft switch 204 can make the determination of where to send the call based upon the information in the signaling message. TDM switching can be used to route voice traffic to one device and data to another. TDM switching can also be used to connect different inbound calls to different access servers connected to different intranets. The reader is also directed to FIG. 66 which depicts a flowchart of a stated diagram of Access Server TDM connection handling. (a) Basic TDM Interaction Sequence Table 177 below provides a basic interaction sequence for establishing a connection within a TDM switching device including the step, the control message source (either soft switch 204 or Access Server 254) and relevant comments. The sequence includes a RCST request from soft switch 204 and an ACST response from access servers 254 and 256. TABLE 177 Soft Access Step Switch Server Comments 1 RCON Soft Switch requests a given pair of module/line/channel to be interconnected for inter-trunk switching. 2 ACON Accept inter-trunk switch connection. (b) Routing of Calls to Appropriate Access Server Using TDM Connections Flow Table 178 below illustrates the routing of calls to the appropriate Access Server using TDM connections including the step, the control message source (including soft switch 204, TDM switching device (e.g., DACs 242 and 244), SS7 signaling network 114 and Data Access Server (e.g. NASs 228 and 230). In this call flow, a data call can arrive via the SS7 signaling network 114. Soft switch 204 must identify the call as a data call and make a TDM connection to connect the call to the appropriate data server. Soft switch 204 can look at information in the IAM message such as the dialed number to determine the type of call and therefore the destination of the TDM connection. This call flow can be used to separate data and voice calls as well as separate data calls destined for different data networks. The reader is also directed to FIG. 23B which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 178 TDM Data Soft switching Access Step Switch device Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call 2 ACM Send ACM to originating network 3 RCON Identify the call as a data call, and request a connection to the correct access server 4 ACON Accept the TDM connection 5 RCON Request the data access server to accept the call 6 ACON Accept the call 7 ANM Forward answer message to the originating network SS7 network initiated termination from this side of the call 14 REL Incoming release message from SS7 network 15 REL Forward release message to the originating network 17 RCR Release call on the TDM device 18 ACR Release complete from the TDM device 19 RCR Release call on the data access server 20 ACR Release complete from data access server (3) Voice Services The following message flows show how to connect calls that originate and terminate on a Switched Circuit Network (SCN), but pass through a data network 112. (a) Voice Over Packet Services Call Flow (Inbound SS7 Signaling, Outbound Access Server Signaling, Soft Switch Managed RTP Ports) Table 179 below provides an illustration of a Voice over packet call flow having (Inbound SS7 signaling, Outbound access server signaling, Soft Switch managed RTP ports), including the step, the control message source (i.e., the soft switch 204, originating access server 254, SS7 signaling network 114 and terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 63 depicting a flowchart illustrating an Access Server inbound call handling state diagram. The reader is also directed to FIG. 23C which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 179 Originating Terminating Soft Access Access Step Switch Server Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call 2 IAM Send IAM to terminating switch 3 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call. Include port information in request. 4 ACON Accept the incoming call and allocate DSP resources 5 RCON Request the terminating access server to accept the call. Include port information in request. 6 ACON Accept the outbound call and allocate DSP resources. 7 NOTI Notification of ringing 8 ACM Address complete to originating network 9 STN Apply ringing to inbound circuit 10 NOTI Notification of answer from the termination 11 STN Remove ringing from inbound circuit 12 ANM Forward answer message to the originating network SS7 network initiated termination from this side of the call 13 REL Incoming release message from SS7 network 14 REL Forward release message to the originating network 15 RCR Release call on the originating access server 16 ACR Release complete from originating access server 17 RCR Release call on the terminating access server 18 ACR Release complete form terminating access server (b) Voice over Packet Call Flow (Inbound Access Server Signaling, Outbound Access Server Signaling, Soft Switch Managed RTP Ports) Table 180 below provides an illustration of a Voice over packet call services flow having (Inbound access server signaling, Outbound access server signaling, Soft switch managed RTP ports), including the step, the control message source (i.e., the soft switch 204, originating access server 254 and terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 63 illustrating a flowchart depicting an Access Server inbound call handling state diagram. The reader is also directed to FIG. 25A which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 180 Termi- Originating nating Soft Access Access Step Switch Server Server Comments 1 RNOT Request event notification for inbound calls, this is probably done at port initialization. 2 NOTI Notify the Soft Switch of an inbound call 3 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call. Include packet port in the request. 4 ACON Accept the incoming 5 RCON Request the terminating access server to accept the call. Include packet port in the request 6 ACON Accept the call 7 NOTI Notification of ringing from termination 8 NOTI Notification of ringing to origination 9 STN Apply ringing to origination 10 NOTI Notification of answer from the termination 11 STN Cancel ringing on origination 12 NOTI Notification of answer from the soft switch to the origination Terminating network initiated call termination 13 NOTI Notify the soft switch of hang up 14 RCR Request release of the call on the originating access server 15 ACR Release call complete from the originating access server 16 RCR Request release of the call on the terminating access server 17 ACR Release call complete from the terminating access server (c) Voice Over Packet Call Flow (Inbound SS7 Signaling, Outbound SS7 Signaling, IP Network with Access Server Managed RTP Ports) Table 181 below provides an illustration of a Voice over packet call flow having (inbound SS7 signaling, outbound SS7 signaling, IP network with access server managed RTP ports), including the step, the control message source (i.e. soft switch 204, originating access server 254, SS7 signaling network 114 and terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The reader is also directed to FIG. 63 depicting a flowchart illustrating an Access Server inbound call handling state diagram. The reader is also directed to FIG. 23A which depicts an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 181 Originating Terminating Soft Access Access Step Switch Server Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call 2 IAM Send IAM to terminating switch 3 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call 4 ACON Accept the incoming call and allocate transmit RTP port 5 RCON Request the terminating access server to accept the call 6 ACON Accept the call and allocate a transmit RTP port 7 MCON Modify the call on the originating access server to update the listen port 8 AMNC Accept modification of listen port 9 ACM Inbound address complete message from terminating network 10 ANM Inbound answer message from terminating network 11 ANM Forward answer message to the originating network SS7 network initiated termination from this side of the call 12 REL Incoming release message from SS7 network 13 REL Forward release message to the originating network 14 RCR Release call on the access server 15 ACR Release complete from originating access server 16 RCR Release call on the terminating access server 17 ACR Release complete from terminating access server (d) Unattended Call Transfers Call Flow Table 183 below provides an unattended call transfer call flow including the step, the control message source (i.e. soft switch 204, originating access server 254, operator services access server (e.g. operator services platform 628) SS7 signaling network 114, and terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The call flow in Table 183 shows the IPDC protocol can be used to transfer a call to another destination. The example call flow assumes that the person performing the transfer is at an operator services workstation that has the ability to signal soft switch 204 to perform the transfer. The operator services platform interaction is not shown since this would be covered in another protocol, but the resulting messages to access servers 254 and 256 are shown. The operator services platform 628 is connected with dedicated access trunks such as, for example, a DAL or ISDN PRI, or dedicated SS7 signaled trunk. Note that throughout this call flow the same transaction ID can be used to indicate that the new RCCP commands to ports that are already in use indicates a re-connection, or a call transfer. In this example call flow, the originating caller, i.e. calling party 102, is serviced by an SS7 signaled trunk, the operator services platform 628 is on a dedicated trunk and the termination is accessed via an access server 254 and 256 signaled trunk. The reader is also directed to FIG. 63 illustrating a flowchart depicting an access server inbound call handling state diagram. The reader is also directed to FIG. 6D depicting an operator services platform 628. TABLE 183 Operator Originating Services Terminating Soft Access Access Access Step Switch Server Server Server SS7 Comment 1 IAM Inbound request for new call. The call is identified as an operator services call and is routed to an operator services workstations. The soft switch could perform ACD functions and select the actual workstation, but that logic is not shown here. 2 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call. And terminate to the operator services access server. 3 ACON Accept the incoming call. 4 RCON Request the operator services access server to accept the call. 5 ACON Accept the call. It is assumed here that the soft switch has the capability to signal the operator services platform to indicate that the call has been terminated to one of their ports. Another option would be to initiate an outbound call with RCSO. 6 NOTI Notification of ringing. 7 ACM Address complete message to terminating network 8 NOTI Notification answer 9 ANM Answer message to the originating SS7 network Originator is connected to the operator services platform, the originator and operator interact and determine the actual termination. 10 RCON The operator services platform signals the call transfer to the soft switch (not shown) and the soft switch uses the same transaction ID to send a new RCCP command to the originating access server to connect to a multicast port playing music on hold. 11 ACON Originating access server accepts the new termination 12 RCON Request the operator services access server to be connected to the target of the transfer 13 ACON Accept connection to the target of the transfer 14 RCON Request the new terminating access server to accept the call from the operator services platform 15 ACON Terminating access server accepts the call 16 NOTI Notification of ringing 17 STN Apply ringing to operator services access server 18 NOTI Notification of answer 19 STN Remove ringing from operator services access server Operator Services platform is connected to the called party, interacts briefly and connects to originator and termination. 22 RCON After the operator services platform decides to connect the two callers, the soft switch is signaled and request the originating access server to connect to the termination 23 ACON Accept connection to the new termination 24 RCON Request that the termination now connects to the originating access server 25 ACON Accept connection to originating access server 26 STN Send a connect tone to origination indicating that the termination is on the line. 27 STN Send a connect tone to the termination indicating that the originator is on the line 28 RCR Release call on operator services access server 29 ACR Accept call release. (e) Attended Call Transfer Call Flow Table 184 below provides an illustration of an Attended Call Transfer calf flow, including a step, a control message source (i.e. soft switch 204, originating access server 254, operator services access server, SS7 signaling network 114 and terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The call flow of Table 184 is similar to the unattended call flow of Table 183, except that rather than blindly transferring the call, the original caller is placed on hold and the operator services workstations connected to the termination. Once the operator services workstation announces the caller, the two parties are connected. As with Table 183, the message interaction with the operator services platform is not shown. Note that throughout this call flow the same transaction ID is used to indicate that the new RCCP commands to ports that are already in use indicates a re-connection, or a call transfer. In the example call flow of Table 184, the originating caller is serviced by an SS7 signaled trunk, the operator services platform is on a dedicated trunk and the termination is accessed via an access server 254 signaled trunk. TABLE 184 Operator Originating Services Terminating Soft Access Access Access Step Switch Server Server Server SS7 Comment 1 IAM Inbound request for new call. The call is identified as an operator services call and is routed to an operator services workstations. The soft switch could perform ACD functions and select the actual workstation, but that logic is not shown here. 2 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call. And terminate to the operator services access server. 3 ACON Accept the incoming call. 4 RCON Request the operator services access server to accept the call. 5 ACON Accept the call. It is assumed here that the soft switch has the capability to signal the operator services platform to indicate that the call has been terminated to one of their ports. Another option would be to initiate an outbound call with RCSO. 6 NOTI Notification of ringing. 7 NOTI Notification of answer. 8 ANM Answer message to the originating SS7 network. 9 RCON The operator services platform signals the call transfer to the soft switch (not shown) and the soft switch uses the same transaction ID to send a new RCCP command to the originating access server to connect to a different termination. 10 ACON Originating access server accepts the new termination. 11 RCON Request the new terminating access server to accept the call. 12 ACON Terminating access server accepts the call. 13 NOTI Notification of ringing 14 STN Apply ringing to origination 15 NOTI Notification of answer 16 STN Remove ringing from origination 17 RCR Release call on operator services access server 18 ACR Accept call release. (f) Call Termination with a Message Announcement Call Flow Table 185 below provides an illustration of a Call termination with a message announcement, including a step, a control message source (i.e. soft switch 204, originating access server 254, SS7 signaling network 114 and one of announcement servers 246 and 248), and relevant comments The call flow of Table 185 shows the use of announcement servers (ANSs) 246 and 248, to play call termination announcements as final treatment to a call. The call flow assumes announcement server, (ANSs) 246 and 248 have pre-recorded announcements. Soft switch 204 signals ANSs 246 and 248 with the appropriate announcement ID using the fields in the RCCP command. One of ANSs 246 and 248 plays the announcement and notifies soft switch 204 that it has completed its task. In the example call flow, the originating caller is connected via SS7 signaled trunks and one of ANSs 246 and 248 is connected to soft switch 204 via IP data network 114. The reader is directed to FIG. 23D depicting an exemplary call path flow. TABLE 185 Soft Originating Announcement Step Switch Access Server Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call. The call is identified as needing a disconnect message and is sent to the announcement server. 2 ACM Address complete to the originating SS7 network. (Note- may need to answer the call depending upon originating network implementation) 3 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call, and terminate to the announcement server. 4 ACON Accept the incoming call 5 RCON Request the announcement server to accept the call. The announcement ID is included in this message and it is implied that the announcement server will notify when complete. 6 ACON Accept the call 7 NOTI Notification of operation complete 8 REL Release the call in the originating SS7 network 9 RCR Release the call on the originating access server 10 ACR Accept release 11 RCR Release call on the announcement server 12 ACR Accept release (g) Wiretap Table 186 below provides an illustration of a wiretap call for listening to a call, including the step, the control message source (i.e. soft switch 204, originating access server 254, wiretap server (a specialized access server 254), SS7 signaling network 114 and a terminating access server 256), and relevant comments. The example call flow of Table 186 shows the use of a wiretap server to listen to a call. The wiretap server allows the originator and the intended terminator to participate in a normal call with a third party listening to the conversation, but not transmitting the third party's voice. The wiretap server can be an IPDC specialized access server, similar to a conference bridge, but that does not permit transmission of voice from a connected wiretap workstation. TABLE 186 Soft Originating Wiretap Terminating Step Switch Access Server Server Access Server SS7 Comments 1 IAM Inbound request for new call. The call is identified as an operator services call and is routed to operator services workstations. The soft switch could perform ACD functions and select the actual workstation, but that logic is not shown here. 2 RCON Request the originating access server to accept the call. And terminate to the wiretap server. 3 ACON Accept the incoming call. 4 RCON Using the same transaction ID, request the wiretap server to accept the inbound call. 5 ACON Accept the call. RCON Request the terminating gateway to connect to the wiretap server, again using the same transaction ID. This is the key used by the wiretap server to bridge calls. ACON Accept connection of the termination to the wiretap server. RCON Request the wiretap server to accept the connection from the termination, again using the same transaction ID. ACON Accept the call. 6 ANM Answer message to the originating SS7 network. B. Operational Description 1. Voice Call Originating and Terminating Via SS7 Signaling on a Trunking Gateway FIG. 23A depicts a voice call originating and terminating via SS7 signaling on a trunking gateway. The reader is directed also to Table 181 shown above, which details control message flow for a voice over packet call flow having inbound SS7 signaling, outbound SS7 signaling, and an IP network with access server managed RTP ports. FIG. 23A depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2300. Call path 2300 is originated via a SS7 signaling message 2302, sent from carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with TG 232, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2304. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message 2302. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120. Soft switch 204 can then query RS 212 to perform further processing. Route logic 294 of RS 212 can be processed to determine a termination using least cost routing. The termination can be through data network 112. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a DS0 circuit is available for termination and in which TG. Having determined a free circuit is available on TG 234, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2308 between TG 234 and carrier facility 130 for termination to called party 120. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to establish connection 2312, between TG 234 and TG 232. Soft switch 304 can provide the IP address for TG 234 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to TG 232. TG 232 sets up a real-time transport protocol (RTP) connection 2312 with TG 234 to complete the call path. a. Voice Call on a TG Sequence Diagrams of Component Intercommunication FIG. 26A depicts a detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary voice call over a NAS, similar to FIG. 23A. FIGS. 27-39 depict detailed sequence diagrams demonstrating component intercommunication for a voice call using the interaction of two soft switch sites, i.e. an originating and a terminating soft switch site, similar to FIG. 2B, FIG. 23A and Table 181. FIGS. 40-45 depict call teardown for the voice call. FIG. 27 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch accepting a signaling message from an SS7 gateway sequencing diagram 2700, including message flows 2701-2706. FIG. 28 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch getting a call context message from an IAM signaling message sequencing diagram 2800, including message flows 2801-2806. FIG. 29A depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch receiving and processing an IAM signaling message including sending a request to a route server sequencing diagram 2900, including message flows 2901-2908. FIG. 29B depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch starting to process a route request sequencing diagram 2950, including message flows 2908, and 2952-2956. FIG. 30 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server determining a domestic route sequencing diagram 3000, including message flows 2908 and 3002-3013. FIG. 31 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server checking availability of potential terminations sequencing diagram 3100, including message flows 3008 and 3102-3103. FIG. 32 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server getting an originating route node sequencing diagram 3200, including message flows 3009 and 3201-3207. FIGS. 33A and 33B depict block diagrams of a call flow showing a route server calculating a domestic route for a voice call on a trunking gateway sequencing diagram 3300, including message flows 3301-3312 and sequencing diagram 3320, including message flows 3321-3345, respectively. FIG. 34 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch getting a call context from a route response from a route server sequencing diagram 3400, including message flows 3401-3404. FIG. 35 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch processing an IAM message including sending an IAM to a terminating network sequencing diagram 3500, including message flows 3501-3508. FIG. 36 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including sending an ACM to an originating network sequencing diagram 3600, including message flows 3601-3611. FIG. 37 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including the setup of access servers sequencing diagram 3700, including message flows 3701-3705. FIG. 38 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an example of how a soft switch can process an ACM message to send an RTP connection message to the originating access server sequencing diagram 3800, including message flows 3801-3814. FIG. 39 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ANM message sending the ANM message to the originating SS7 GW sequencing diagram 3900, including message flows 3901-3911. FIG. 40 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message where the terminating end initiates call teardown sequencing diagram 4000, including message flows 4001-4011. FIG. 41 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message to tear down all nodes sequencing diagram 4100, including message flows 4101-4107. FIG. 42 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RLC message where the terminating end initiates teardown sequencing diagram 4200, including message flows 4201-4211. FIG. 43 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch sending an unallocate message to route server for call teardown sequencing diagram 4300, including message flows 4301-4305. FIG. 44 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch instructing a route server to unallocate route nodes sequencing diagram 4400, including message flows 4305, 4401-4410. FIG. 45 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing call teardown including deleting call context sequencing diagram 4500, including message flows 4409, 4502 and 4503. 2. Data Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk on a Trunking Gateway FIG. 23B illustrates termination of a data call arriving on TG 232. The reader is also directed to Table 170 shown above, which depicts a voice over packet call flow having an inbound data call using SS7 signaling. Tables 177 and 178 are also relevant and describe TDM passthrough switching. FIG. 23B depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2314. Call path 2314 is originated via an SS7 signal from the carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with TG 232, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2316. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in the signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120. As part of the query performed on CS 206, soft switch 204 can determine that the called party corresponds to a data modem, representing a data call. Soft switch 204 can then communicate with network access server (NAS) 228 to determine whether a modem is available for termination in NAS 228. If soft switch 204 determines that a terminating modem is available, then soft switch 204 can set up connections 2318 and 2322 via TDM switching to terminate the data call in a modem included in NAS 228. Connections 2316 and 2322 are DS0 circuits. Connection 2318 represents a TDM bus. TDM pass-through switching is described further with respect to Tables 177 and 178, above. If soft switch 204 determines that a terminating modem is available, then soft switch 204 terminates the call to that modem. 3. Voice Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk on a Trunking Gateway and Terminating Via Access Server Signaling on an Access Gateway FIG. 23C depicts a voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a TG 232 and terminating via access server signaling on an AG 240. The reader is directed to Table 179 above, which illustrates a voice over packet call flow having inbound SS7 signaling, outbound access server signaling, and soft switched managed RTP ports. FIG. 23C depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2324. Call path 2324 is originated via SS7 signaling IAM messages from carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204, Soft switch 204 can communicate with TG 232, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2326 from carrier facility 126. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 can require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 124. Soft switch 204 can then query RS 212 to perform further processing. Route logic 294 of RS 212 can be processed to determine a least cost routing termination. The termination can be through data network 112. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a DS0 or DS1 circuit is available for termination and in which AG. Having determined a free circuit is available on AG 240, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2330 between AG 240 and customer facility 132 for termination to called party 124. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to establish connection 2334, between TG 232 and AG 240. Soft switch 304 can provide the IP address for TG 240 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to TG 232. TG 232 sets up a real-time transport protocol (RTP) connection 2334 with AG 240 (based upon the IP addresses provided by the soft switch) to complete the call path. 4. Voice Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk on a Trunking Gateway and Terminating on an Announcement Server FIG. 23D depicts a voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a TG and terminating with a message announcement on an ANS. The reader is directed to Table 185 above which shows a call termination with a message announcement call flow. FIG. 23D includes a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2336. Call path 2336 is originated via a signal from carrier facility 126 of calling party 102, to soft switch 204 through SS7 GW 208. Soft switch 204 can communicate with TG 232, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2338 between customer facility 126 and TG 232. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message 2302. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120. Soft switch 204 can then query RS 212 to perform further processing. Route logic 294 of RS 212 can be processed to determine a least cost routing termination. RS 212 determines an optimal termination from data network 112, or least cost routing with data network 112 terminations as exemplary choices. Off network routing can be considered as well. The termination can be through data network 112. If a route termination cannot be found, the call is “treated” by the announcement server 246. Treating refers to processing done on a call. For example, assuming a TG 232 to TG 234 call, the soft switches can communicate and soft switch 304 can check port status of RS 314 to determine whether a DS0 circuit is available for termination on a TG and the IP address of the TG. Assuming, for this call flow, that no DS0 circuits are determined to be free on TG 234, soft switch 204 communicates with TG 232, including providing the IP address of ANS 246 to TG 232. Soft switch 204 can also communicate with ANS 246, via the IPDC protocol, to cause ANS 246 to perform functions. TG 232 can set up an RTP connection 2342 with ANS 246 to perform announcement processing, and to deliver an announcement to calling party 102. 5. Voice Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk on a Network Access Server and Terminating on a Trunking Gateway Via SS7 Signaling FIG. 24A depicts a voice call originating on a SS7 trunk on a NAS and terminating on a TG via SS7 signaling. The reader is directed to Tables 177 and 178 above, which show a TDM switching connection setup flow and the routing of calls to an appropriate access server using TDM connections. The reader is directed also to Table 181 shown above, which details control message flow for a voice over packet call flow having inbound SS7 signaling, outbound SS7 signaling, and an IP network with access server managed RTP ports. FIG. 24A depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2400. Call path 2400 is originated via a SS7 signaling message, sent from carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with NAS 228, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2402 between carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 and NAS 228. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message 2302. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120. In one embodiment, soft switch 204 determines from the dialed number in the IAM message, that the call is a voice or VPOP call and thus needs a trunking gateway to handle the voice call. Soft switch 204 sends an IPDC message to the NAS to TDM pass-through the call to the TG. To determine the type of call, soft switch 204 can also perform further processing to determine, e.g., whether the call is to a destination known as a data modem termination dialed number. If the dialed number is not to a data number, then soft switch 204 determines that the call is a voice call. Soft switch 204 can now determine whether a TG 232 has any ports available for termination by querying port status 292 of route server 212, and if so, can allocate the available port and set up a TDM bus connection 2404 in the NAS via TDM switching, and DS0 circuit 2406 to TG 232. Soft switch 204 can also query routing logic 294 of RS 212 to determine a least cost route termination to the called destination. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a port is available for termination and in which TG. Having determined a free circuit is available on TG 234, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2410 between TG 234 and carrier facility 130 for termination to called party 120. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to establish connection 2414, between TG 234 and TG 232. Soft switch 304 can provide the IP address for TG 234 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to TG 232. TG 232 sets up an real-time transport protocol (RTP) connection 2414 with TG 234 to complete the call path. a. Voice Call on a NAS Sequence Diagrams of Component Intercommunication FIG. 26B depicts a detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary voice call over a NAS, similar to FIG. 24A. FIGS. 27-39 and 46-48 depict detailed sequence diagrams demonstrating component intercommunication for a voice call using the interaction of two soft switch sites, i.e. an originating and a terminating soft switch site, similar to FIG. 213, FIG. 24A and Table 181. FIGS. 40-45 depict call teardown for the voice call. FIG. 27 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch accepting a signaling message from an SS7 gateway sequencing diagram 2700, including message flows 2701-2706. FIG. 28 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch getting a call context message from an IAM signaling message sequencing diagram 2800, including message flows 2801-2806. FIG. 29A depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch receiving and processing an IAM signaling message including sending a request to a route server sequencing diagram 2900, including message flows 2901-2908. FIG. 29B depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch starting to process a route request sequencing diagram 2950, including message flows 2908, and 2952-2956. FIG. 30 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server determining a domestic route sequencing diagram 3000, including message flows 2908 and 3002-3013. FIG. 31 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server checking availability of potential terminations sequencing diagram 3100, including message flows 3008 and 3102-3103. FIG. 32 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server getting an originating route node sequencing diagram 3200, including message flows 3009 and 3201-3207. FIGS. 33A and 33B depict block diagrams of a call flow showing a route server calculating a domestic route for a voice call on a trunking gateway sequencing diagram 3300, including message flows 3301-3312 and sequencing diagram 3320, including message flows 3321-3345, respectively. FIG. 34 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch getting a call context from a route response from a route server sequencing diagram 3400, including message flows 3401-3404. FIG. 35 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch processing an IAM message including sending an IAM to a terminating network sequencing diagram 3500, including message flows 3501-3508. FIG. 36 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including sending an ACM to an originating network sequencing diagram 3600, including message flows 3601-3611. FIG. 37 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message including the setup of access servers sequencing diagram 3700, including message flows 3701-3705. FIG. 38 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an example of how a soft switch can process an ACM message to send an RTP connection message to the originating access server sequencing diagram 3800, including message flows 3801-3814. FIG. 39 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ANM message sending the ANM message to the originating SS7 GW sequencing diagram 3900, including message flows 3901-3911. FIG. 46 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an exemplary calculation of a route termination sequencing diagram 4600, including message flows 4601-4625. FIG. 47 depicts a block diagram of a soft switch getting call context from route response sequenced diagram 4700, including message flows 4701-4704. FIG. 48 includes a soft switch processing an IAM sending the IAM to the terminating network sequencing diagram 4800, including message flows 4801-4808. FIG. 40 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message where the terminating end initiates call teardown sequencing diagram 4000, including message flows 4001-4011. FIG. 41 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an REL message to tear down all nodes sequencing diagram 4100, including message flows 4101-4107. FIG. 42 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RLC message where the terminating end initiates teardown sequencing diagram 4200, including message flows 4201-4211. FIG. 43 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch sending an unallocate message to route server for call teardown sequencing diagram 4300, including message flows 4301-4305. FIG. 44 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch instructing a route server to unallocate route nodes sequencing diagram 4400, including message flows 4305, 4401-4410. FIG. 45 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing call teardown including deleting call context sequencing diagram 4500, including message flows 4409, 4502 and 4503. 6. Voice Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk on a NAS and Terminating Via Access Server Signaling on an Access Gateway FIG. 24C depicts a voice call originating on an SS7 trunk on a NAS 228 and terminating via access server signaling on an AG 240. The reader is directed to Table 179 above, which illustrates a voice over packet call flow having inbound SS7 signaling, outbound access server signaling, and soft switched managed RTP ports. The reader is also directed to Tables 177 and 178 which show TDM switching connections. FIG. 24C depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2422. Call path 2422 is initiated via SS7 signaling IAM messages from carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with NAS 228, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2424 from carrier facility 126. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 can require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide to soft switch 204 a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 124 to soft switch 204. In one embodiment, soft switch 204 determines from the dialed number in the IAM message, that the call is a voice or virtual point of presence (VPOP) call and in this scenario needs an access gateway to handle the voice call. Soft switch 204 sends an IPDC message to the NAS to TDM pass-through the call to the AG. To determine the type of call, soft switch 204 can also perform further processing to determine, e.g., whether the call is to a destination known as a data modem termination dialed number. If the dialed number is not to a data number, then soft switch 204 determines that the call is a voice call. Soft switch 204 can now determine whether an AG 238 has any circuits available for termination by querying port status 292 of route server 212, and if so, can allocate the available port and set up a TDM bus connection 2426 in the NAS via TDM switching, and DS0 circuit 2428 to AG 238. Soft switch 204 can also query routing logic 294 of RS 212 to determine a least cost route termination. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a port is available for termination and in which AG. Having determined a free circuit is available on AG 240, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2432 between AG 240 and customer facility 132 for termination to called party 124. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to establish connection 2436, between AG 238 and AG 240. Soft switch 304 can provide the IP address for AG 240 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to AG 238. AG 238 sets up a real-time transport protocol (RTP) connection 2436 with AG 240 to complete the call path. 7. Data Call Originating on an SS7 Trunk and Terminating on a NAS FIG. 24 B illustrates termination of a data call arriving on NAS 228. The reader is also directed to Table 170 shown above, which depicts an inbound data call using SS7 signaling. FIG. 24B depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2416. Call path 2416 is originated via an SS7 signal from the carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with NAS, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2418. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer—trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in the signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120 to soft switch 204. As part of the query performed on CS 206, or based on a query to RS 212, soft switch 204 can determine that the called party corresponds to a data modem, representing a data call. Soft switch 204 can then communicate with network access server (NAS) 228 to determine whether a modem is available for termination in NAS 228. If soft switch 204 determines that a terminating modem is available, then soft switch 204 terminates the call to that modem. a. Data Call on a NAS Sequence Diagrams of Component intercommunication FIG. 26C depicts a more detailed diagram of message flow for an exemplary data call over a NAS, similar to FIG. 24B. FIGS. 27-32 and 49-53 depict detailed sequence diagrams demonstrating component intercommunication during a data call received and terminated on a NAS. FIGS. 43-45, and 54-57. FIG. 27 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch accepting a signaling message from an SS7 gateway sequencing diagram 2700, including message flows 2701-2706. FIG. 28 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch getting a call context message from an IAM signaling message sequencing diagram 2800, including message flows 2801-2806. FIG. 29A depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing an originating soft switch receiving and processing an IAM signaling message including sending a request to a route server sequencing diagram 2900, including message flows 2901-2908. FIG. 29B depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch starting to process a route request sequencing diagram 2950, including message flows 2908, and 2952-2956. FIG. 30 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server determining a domestic route sequencing diagram 3000, including message flows 2908 and 3002-3013. FIG. 31 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server checking availability of potential terminations sequencing diagram 3100, including message flows 3008 and 3102-3103. FIG. 32 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a route server getting an originating route node sequencing diagram 3200, including message flows 3009 and 3201-3207. FIG. 49 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing calculation of a domestic route including a modem pool route node sequencing diagram 4900, including message flows 4901-4904. FIG. 50 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch getting call context from route response sequencing diagram 5000, including message flows 5001-5004. FIG. 51 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM message, connecting a data call sequencing diagram 5100, including message flows 5101-5114. FIG. 52 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message, sending an ACM to originating LEC sequencing diagram 5200, including message flows 5201-5210. FIG. 53 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ANM message, sending an ANM to the originating LEC sequencing diagram 5300, including message flows 5301-5310. FIG. 43 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch sending an unallocate message to route server for call teardown sequencing diagram 4300, including message flows 4301-4305. FIG. 44 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch instructing a route server to unallocate route nodes sequencing diagram 4400, including message flows 4305, 4401-4410. FIG. 45 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing call teardown including deleting call context sequencing diagram 4500, including message flows 4409, 4502 and 4503. FIG. 54 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RCR message where teardown is initiated by the terminating modem sequencing diagram 5400, including message flows 5401-5412. FIG. 55 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an RLC message sequencing diagram 4100, including message flows 5501-5506. FIG. 56 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an ACM message sending the ACM to the originating network sequencing diagram 5600, including message flows 5601-5611. FIG. 57 depicts a block diagram of a call flow showing a soft switch processing an IAM message setting up access servers sequencing diagram 5700, including message flows 5701-5705. 8. Data Call on NAS with Callback Authentication FIG. 24 D illustrates termination of an alternate authentication data call arriving on NAS 228 incorporating call back. The reader is also directed to Table 172 shown above, which depicts an inbound data call using SS7 signaling with call-back, and to Table 174 which depicts an outbound data call flow via SS7 signaling. FIG. 24D depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2438. Call path 2438 is originated via an SS7 signal from the carrier facility 126 of calling party 102 through SS7 GW 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with NAS 228, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2440 for the purpose of authenticating calling party 102. Soft switch 204 can then perform a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 102. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 may require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in the signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120 to soft switch 204. As part of the query performed on CS 206, soft switch 204 can determine that the called party corresponds to a data modem, representing a data call, and that calling party 102 gains access to network resources via an outbound call-back following authentication. Soft switch 204 can then request that authenticating information from calling party 102 be entered at NAS 228. Upon verification of the authentication information, soft switch 204 can release the call and reoriginate an outbound callback from NAS 228. Soft switch 204 communicates with network access server (NAS) 228 to determine whether a modem is available for termination of a data call on NAS 228. If soft switch 204 determines that a terminating modem is available, then soft switch 204 can call calling party 102 via signaling through SS7 GW 208 to carrier facility 126 of calling party 102, to set up connection 2442 between carrier facility 126 and NAS 228. Soft switch 204 terminates the call to a modem in NAS 228. 9. Voice Call Originating on Access Server Dedicated Line on an Access Gateway and Terminating on an Access Server Dedicated Line on an Access Gateway FIG. 25A depicts a voice call originating on an access server dedicated line (such as a DAL or an ISDN PRI) on an AG 238 and terminating via access server signaling on an AG 240. The reader is directed to Table 180 above, which illustrates a voice over packet call flow having inbound access server signaling, outbound access server signaling, and soft switched managed RTP ports. FIG. 25A depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2500. Call path 2500 is originated via a call setup message, such as, for example through data D-channel signaling on an ISDN PRI line, from customer facility 128 of calling party 122 to AG 238. AG 238 encapsulates call control messages, such as Q.931 messages, into IPDC messages that AG 238 sends to soft switch 204 over data network 112. In-band MF DALs are handled similarly. Soft switch 204 can communicate with AG 238, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2502 from carrier facility 128. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 122. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 can require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 124 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can then query RS 212 to perform further processing. Route logic 294 of RS 212 can be processed to determine least cost routing. The termination can be through data network 112. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a DS0 circuit is available for termination and in which AG. Having determined a free circuit is available on AG 240, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2506 between AG 240 and customer facility 132 for termination to called party 124. AG 238 and AG 340 establish an RTP connection based on IP addresses provided by soft switches 204 and 304. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to establish connection 2510, between AG 238 and AG 240. Soft switch 304 provides the IP address for AG 240 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to AG 238. AG 238 can set up a real-time transport protocol RTP connection 2510 with AG 240, to complete the call path. 10. Voice Call Originating on Access Server Signaled Private Line on an Access Gateway and Terminating on SS7 Signaled Trunks on a Trunking Gateway FIG. 25C depicts a voice call originating on an access server dedicated line (such as a DAL or an ISDN PRI) on an AG 238 and terminating via SS7 signaling on a TG 234. FIG. 25C depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2522. Call path 2522 is originated via a call setup message, such as, for example through data D-channel signaling on an ISDN PRI line, from customer facility 128 of calling party 122 to AG 238. AG 238 encapsulates call control messages, such as Q.931 messages, into IPDC messages that AG 238 sends to soft switch 204 over data network 112. In-band MF DALs are handled similarly. Soft switch 204 can communicate with AG 238, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2524 from carrier facility 128. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 122. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 can require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 120 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can then query RS 212 to perform further processing. Route logic 294 of RS 212 can be processed to determine least cost routing. The termination can be through data network 112. Soft switch 204, i.e., the originating soft switch, can then communicate with terminating soft switch 304 to set up the other half of the call. Terminating soft switch 304 can then communicate with port status (PS) 298 of RS 314 to determine whether a DS0 circuit is available for termination and in which TG. Having determined a free circuit is available on TG 2340, soft switch 304 can allocate a connection 2528 between TG 234 and customer facility 130 for termination to called party 120. Soft switch 304 can then communicate with soft switch 204 to have AG 238 establish connection 2532, between AG 238 and TG 234. Soft switch 304 can provide the IP address for TG 234 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 provides this address to AG 238. AG 238 can set up a real-time transport protocol RTP connection 2532 with TG 234, to complete the call path. 11. Data Call on an Access Gateway FIG. 25B depicts a data call originating on an access server dedicated line (such as a DAL or an ISDN PRI) on an AG 238 and terminating at a data modem in a NAS 228. The reader is directed to Table 171 above, which illustrates an inbound data call flow via access server signaling. FIG. 25B depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2512. Call path 2512 is originated via an access server signaling message, such as, for example through data D-channel signaling on an ISDN PRI line, from customer facility 128 of calling party 122 to AG 238 and through signaling packets sent over data network 112 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 can communicate with AG 238, via the IPDC protocol, to determine if an incoming DS0 circuit (on a DS1 port on a telephone PSTN interface) is free, and if so, to allocate that circuit to set up a connection 2514 from customer facility 128. Soft switch 204 then performs a query to CS 206 to access a customer trigger plan 290 of calling party 122. Depending on the contents of customer trigger plan 290, soft switch 204 can require other call processing, such as, for example, an 800 call translation table lookup from SCP 214a based on information in signaling message. SCP 214a can then provide a translated destination number, i.e. the number of called party 124 to soft switch 204. As part of the query performed on CS 206 or to RS 212, soft switch 204 can determine that the called party corresponds to a data modem, representing a data call. If the incoming call is determined to be a data call, then the incoming circuit 2514 is connected to TDM bus 2516 which is in turn connected to circuit 2518 which terminates the data call to a modem in NAS 228. Soft switch 204 can then communicate with network access server (NAS) 228 to determine whether a modem is available for termination in NAS 228. If soft switch 204 determines that a terminating modem is available, then soft switch 204 can terminate the call to the modem. 12. Outbound Data Call from a NAS Via Access Server Signaling from an Access Gateway FIG. 25D depicts an outbound data call originating from a data modem in NAS 228 via access server signaling from an Access Gateway on an access server dedicated line (such as a DAL or an ISDN PRI) between AG 238 and carrier facility 128 of calling party 122. The reader is directed to Table 175 above, which illustrates an outbound data call flow via access server signaling. FIG. 25D depicts a block diagram of an exemplary call path 2534. Call path 2534 is originated by soft switch 204 communicating with NAS 228 to determine whether a data modem is available. If a data modem is available in NAS 228, the call is terminated at one end to the modem. Soft switch can then determine whether via communication with AG 238, via IPDC protocol communication, whether a circuit is available for the outbound data call. If AG 238 has an available circuit, then soft switch 204 can use TDM bus 2540 to connect circuit 2542 to circuit 2538 (which is in turn terminated to a modem in NAS 228). TDM bus 2540 can then be connected to circuit 2542, i.e., an access server signaled dedicated access line to carrier facility 128, using, for example D-channel signaling of an ISDN PRI line. TDM pass-through switching is described further with respect to Tables 177 and 178, above. 13. Voice Services Telecommunications voice network services supported by the present invention include, for example, origination and termination of intralata, interlata and international calls seamlessly between the PSTN and Telecommunications network 200. Access can be achieved by switched or dedicated access lines. Call origination can be provided via Feature Group D (FGD) and direct access line (DAL) (T-1/PRI) access to access servers 254,256. Local access can be provisioned via the PSTN with FGD and co-carrier termination to trunking gateways 232, 234. Dedicated DS0s, T-1s and T-3s can connect an end user's CPE directly to AGs 238,240. In one embodiment, a standard unit of measurement for usage charges can be a rate per minute (RPM). Where telecommunications network 200 provides the DS0s, T-1s, and T-3s, there can be an additional monthly recurring charge (MRC) for access. In one embodiment, ingress and egress can be via the PSTN. In another embodiment, native IP devices can originate and terminate calls over data network 112 over the IP protocol. In such an environment, flat rated calling plans are possible. a. Private Voice Network (PVN) Services Private voice network (PVN) services can be a customer-defined calling network that allows companies to communicate “on-net” at discounted prices. The backbone of the product can be dedicated access connectivity, such as, for example, using a DAL or ISDN PRI for access to telecommunications network 200. Using a capability called dedicated termination service (DTS), calls that originate either by PIC or a dedicated access method can terminate on dedicated facilities when possible. For example, assume a customer with five locations across the country (e.g., in on-net cities) has T-1s deployed at each site. Calls between those five sites can be significantly discounted due to the fact that the carrier owning telecommunications network 200 originates and terminates the calls on dedicated facilities at little cost. Additionally, customers will be able to add others to their PVN, such as, for example, business partners, vendors, and customers, enabling the customer (as well as the others) to further reduce their communications costs. In one embodiment, service can be provided to customers for a MRC, with no additional charge for on-net calls, and with a charge on a rate per minute basis for all other types of calls. In another embodiment, no MRC can be required, and all calls can be charged on a RPM basis. In another embodiment, the RPM may vary according to the type of call placed. Network requirements can include use of dedicated termination service (DTS). DTS can allow long distance calls that originate from a FGD or DAL to terminate on a DAL. Traditionally, these calls are routed to POTS lines. This functionality can enable the network to determine if the call can be terminated over its own facilities and, if so, rate it appropriately. DTS is the backbone functionality of PVN. A routing table can allow the network to identify calls that originate from either an ANI or Trunk Group that has been assigned an associated terminating Trunk Group. In one embodiment, 700, 800, and 900 type calls can not originate over DALs. Customer premises equipment (CPE) requirements can include a CSU/DSU with a router for Multiple Service T-1 with dedicated access, and a customer can have an option to lease or buy them. b. Long Distance or 1+ Services Long distance (1+) service can allow a customer to place long distance calls to anywhere in the U.S., Canada, USVI, and Puerto Rico by dialing 1 plus an area code (NPA), plus a 7-digit phone number. International calls can be placed by dialing 011 plus a country code (CC), plus a city code, plus a number. Both switched and dedicated access can be available from on-net cities or from off-net cities (i.e., through a designated off-net carrier). (1) Project Account Codes (PAC) Project Access Codes (PACs) can be, for example, two to twelve digits. PACs, can be end user defined or predefined codes that are assigned to, for example, employees, projects, teams, and departments. PACs can be used, for example, by a customer to track such things as intralata, interlata, and international calls. An example benefit to a customer of using PACs is that PACs can allow businesses to allocate and track costs of specific projects. Additionally, they can be used to track employee or department calls and expenditures. PACs can also be used to prevent unauthorized long distance calling. In one embodiment, an invoice can track account codes individually and can then group the codes in a hierarchical fashion as well. Operationally, PACS can be entered by a calling party after dialing, e.g., a local, long distance, or international phone number. The calling party can hear a network-generated tone prompting the calling party to enter the PAC code. Once the PAC code has been entered and authorized, the call can be connected as usual. All types of PACs can be translated on the invoice from code to text, i.e., PAC number “1234” could be translated to a “Marketing Department” and PAC number “4567” could be translated to “John Doe.” An example invoice could show call detail records (CDR) and total expenditures for each PAC. If an invalid code is entered, a voice prompt can immediately respond with a message such as, for example, “Invalid code, please try again.” A second invalid entry can prompt the same message. A third can prompt another message, such as, e.g., “Goodbye.” PAC Translation would not occur in this instance. If a user fails to enter any account code, the same prompting for receipt of an incorrect account code entry, can take place. A time out can occur after, for example, 3.5 seconds of no activity. PAC Translation would not occur in this instance. Customers with PIC access can be required to wait for a tone before entering a PAC. Customers with dedicated access can complete the entire dialing sequence (phone number and PAC) without waiting for the tone and be connected without even hearing the tone. If, however, the customer (using dedicated access) pauses after dialing the phone number, the network can still generate a tone prompting the user for the PAC. Business customers can have the ability to modify their PAC tables via a world wide web Internet interface. The modification functions can include, for example, additions, deletions, changes, and modifications of verbal translations. These changes can take effect within, e.g., 60 minutes or less. Customers that choose PAC Translation can have the translation, not the actual account code, presented on an invoice. Customers that do not use PAC Translation can have the account code presented on the invoice. PAC tables can be associated to any type of resource (e.g., Master Account, ANI, Trunk Group, Location Account, and/or Authcode). Multiple PAC tables, in one embodiment, cannot be associated with a single resource. (a) PAC Variations Verified Forced PACs enable a customer to assign PACs to, e.g., employees, teams and departments, that force the end-user to enter the PAC prior to completing a long distance call. Unverified Forced PACs can require that a PAC (of the chosen digit length, e.g., four digits) be entered to complete a call, however the digits are not pre-determined and the customer can have the ability to use all PACs in a given digit length. For example, with four-digit PACs, the customer could use any code from 0001-9999. Unverified Unforced PACs are the same as Unverified Forced PACs, but do not require a caller to enter the PAC to complete the long distance call. Unforced PACs can have, for example, a # override feature allowing calls to be connected quickly without relying on a network timeout to connect the call. If after, e.g., 3.5 seconds a PAC is not entered, the call can connect as usual. If a user enters a lower number of digits than the PAC table indicates, a prompt “Invalid code, please try again” can be announced. At this point, the pound override feature can be used or the user can try again. A second wrong entry can produce the same prompt and a third can prompt “Goodbye.” If a user enters more digits than has been setup on the PAC table, the first digits that comprise the correct PAC length can be used and the remaining digits ignored. Translation can occur (if activated) for the digits that correspond to the PAC table only. Billing presentation can also show the correct digit length. Partially Verified Forced PACs can range from, for example, 4 to 12 digits. A portion of the PAC can be verified while the remaining portion is not; however, the entire digit stream can be forced. The customer can choose the digit length for user authentication as well as determine the digit length project accounting portion. A minimum of, e.g., 2 digits can be verified and can occur before the unverified portion of the digit stream. For example, a customer can choose a 5-digit PAC and the first two digits would authenticate the user and the remaining digits would be used for accounting purposes. Additionally, each portion of the PAC can have the option to be translated by the customer for invoice and web presentation, i.e., PAC “12345” could be translated to “12”=John Doe and “345” could translate to “Project X.” Department summary by PAC group enables a customer to choose any given set of PACs associated with a single table and group them under a customer chosen heading. For example, the header “Marketing” can contain codes 123, 234 and 456, and the header “Customer Care” can contain codes 789, 987 and 678. The invoice can present summaries under each header. (2) Class of Service Restrictions (COSR) Class of Service Restrictions (COSR) can allow a customer to restrict outbound calling by certain jurisdictions. Restrictions can be set at, e.g., the account, ANI, Trunk Group, Authcode, or PAC level. The customer can be able to modify the COSR through, e.g., a web interface. Alternatively, some destinations, such as, e.g., international destinations, could not be modified by a customer directly and the customer could be required to contact customer care for approval. Exemplary COSRs include, for example, interlata COSRs restricting calls to a customer's LATA only; intrastate calls restricting calls to the customer's originating state; interstate calls, allowing end-users to place domestic calls only anywhere in the U.S. whether local, intralata, intrastate, or interstate; domestic and dedicated international destinations allowing domestic calling as well as international calling to selected countries (based on country code) as determined by the customer; and domestic and selected international (i.e., can exclude high-risk countries) that allows callers to place all types of domestic and international calls. Domestic and international can be the default, unless otherwise specified by the customer. A list of high risk countries can be unavailable unless otherwise requested by the customer. These high risk countries can have an increased probability of fraud and can require proper credit and sales approval. In an example embodiment, PACs can be the first service restriction look-up followed by restrictions set up at the account level. High risk countries can always be blocked unless otherwise requested by the customer. (3) Origination and Termination A plurality of forms of access can be provided including, for example, primary interexchange carrier (PIC), dedicated (T-1/T-3/PRI), and 101-XXXX. Customers pre-subscribed to the telecommunications carrier owning telecommunications network 200 can have PIC access to the network via FGD trunks from an LEC. This access method can allow for, e.g., intralata, intrastate, interstate, and international calling. Dedicated customers can originate calls using local facilities such as T-1/T-3 on telecommunications network 200. 101-XXXX customers with an established account and ANIs loaded into the billing system can access telecommunications network 200. In this instance, customers do not have to have PIC access. If an end-user dials 101-XXXX without first establishing an account with the respective ANIs, calls can be blocked at the network level and the end-user can hear a recording explaining the call cannot be completed and to contact the operator for further assistance. The order entry (OE) portion of the order management system (OSS) supports non-PICd ANIs. This system can load the ANIs into a soft switch, e.g., as subscribed “non-PICd” ANIs which allows calls to be placed via 101-XXXX. These ANIs can stay non-PICd until the customer has requested a change to the PIC. Regular system maintenance does not PIC these designated ANIs to telecommunications network 200 carrier and identifies these ANIs as Subscribed Non-PICd. Because 101-XXXX can only allowed for customers of telecommunications network 200, LEC billing (CABS) will not be necessary for direct customers. Casual calling can be allowed through resale and wholesale customers, if requested. The customer can be required to have its own CIC code to do so. Call treatment discrimination can be necessary for Resale and Wholesale customers in this instance. The network can identify the customer type by the CIC and allow or disallow casual access. In this instance, LEC billing arrangements can be necessary. CIC code billing can be available as an option for wholesale and resale customers. (4) Call Rating For domestic calls, example call ratings of 1-second increments with, for example, 18-second minimums per call, can be supported. For international calls, example call ratings of 1-second increments with 1-minute minimums per call, can be supported. Example times of day (TOD) and days of week (DOW), etc., can be rated differently. For example, 8 am-5 pm Monday through Friday can be rated differently than 5:01 pm-7:59 am Monday through Friday and all day Saturday and Sunday. Term discounts can be provided for long-term service contract commitments. (5) Multiple-Service T-1 1+ toll-free, internet access, private line and dedicated access lines can be provisioned over the same multiple service T-1. Multiple service T-1 can support two-way trunks. (6) Monthly Recurring Charges (MRCs) MRCs can be charged for any combination of enhanced or basic services either as a group or stand-alone. (7) PVN Private Dialing Plan PVN Private dialing plan services can also be offered on a customized basis. (8) Three-Way Conferencing A 3-way conferencing bridge can be created by the end-user by choosing the conferencing feature from the enhanced services menu. The end-user enters up to, e.g., two additional phone numbers and is then connected by a bridge. (9) Network Hold with Message Delivery A service which places the caller on hold while playing an announcement message can be offered as a service to customers. c. 8XX Toll Free Services Toll-free service can allow calling parties to dial an 8XX number and terminate the call to either a POTS line or DAL. The person or company receiving the call is responsible for the cost of the transaction. Termination can be available to both on-net and off-net areas in the U.S. Off-net can be handled CB. Calls can originate anywhere in the U.S. plus, e.g., Canada, USVI, and Puerto Rico. Real-time ANI network-based feature can pass the originating ANI to the customer answering the call. The number is viewed by the operator of the answering end using CPE. This can be used by call centers wishing to pull customer records based on the customer's phone number. This can be a DAL-only service. Default delivery can provide an entire ANI. Customers can add up to 2 delimiters. Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS) is a network-based feature that can provide the answering party with the toll-free (or customer delivered) number dialed. Customer-owned computer telephony equipment can provide the display. DMS allows multiple toll-free numbers to be used on a single trunk group in a call-center setting because of its ability to display which number has been dialed enabling the calls to be handled uniquely. This can be a DAL-only service. Customers can order DNIS in a variety of numbering format schemes from, for example, 4-10 digits. DNIS can be the entire toll-free number. DNIS can be any portion of the toll-free number. DNIS can be any customer defined number from, for example, 4-10 digits. Default delivery can include the entire toll-free number. Customer can define the number with up to two delimiters. (1) Enhanced Routing Features Time of Day (TOD) routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on the time of day. Routing can be determined by the customer in one-minute increments. The time of day can be determined by the terminating location's time zone. A day can be equal to 12:00 am to 11:59 pm. Day of Week (DOW) routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on the day of week. The time of day is determined by the terminating location's time zone. A day can be equal to 12:00 am to 11:59 pm. Area Code ((NPA) routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on the area code the originating phone call came from. NPA-NXX routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on the area code and prefix of the originating ANI. Geographic routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on the state the originating phone call came from. Multi-carrier routing routes pre-determined percentages of toll-free calls over a single toll-free number to alternate carriers defined by the customer. This is a function of the SMS database. Percentage Allocation routing routes toll-free calls to alternate, customer-defined destinations based on call distribution percentages. Percentages can be defined down to the nearest 1%. Day of Year (DOY) routing routes callsed based on days of the year that are determined by the customer. Extension routing routes calls based on end-user DTMF input. These extensions are pre-defined by the customer and can range from 2 to 12 digits. A table can be built that associates a terminating point, e.g., an ANI or Trunk Group, with an extension. A network prompt such as, for example, a “bong tone,” can be used. A time out of, for example, 3.5 seconds can be used. An invalid entry prompt, such as “Invalid Code, Please Try Again,” can be used. A two “invalid entry” maximum and then a “Goodbye” and a network disconnect can be used. A no entry warning, such as “Invalid Code, Please Try Again,” can be used. A two “no entry” maximum and then a “Goodbye” and a network disconnect, can be used. An Invoice Presentation, including a summary of # calls, # minutes, taxes, and total cost, can be the standard when customer utilizes Extension Routing. An extension translation can be used such that each extension can be translated to text with a maximum character length of, for example, 35. Call blocking does not allow toll-free calls to originate from a state, an area code (including Canada, USVI, Puerto Rico), NPA NXX, and/or an ANI, as defined by the customer. Blocked calls by default can hear a network busy signal. In another embodiment, a call blocking announcement can be used. This is a customer option that enables blocked calls to hear either a network-generated or a custom, customer-defined prompt. The network prompt can read, “Your call cannot be completed from your calling area.” The customer can define its own prompt to last no more than, for example, 10 seconds. Additional charges can apply to this service. Calls can also be blocked by time of day, day of week, and day of year. Direct Termination Overflow (DTO) allows a customer to pre-define termination points for calls that exceed the capacity of the customers network. Terminating points can include ANIs and/or Trunk Groups. Overflow traffic can be sent to any customer site whether or out of a serving area. The customer can assign up to five terminating points that can hunt in a sequence as defined by the customer. Routing Feature Combination allows the customer to route calls based on any grouping of routing features listed above. (2) Info-Digit Blocking Info-Digit Blocking selectively blocks calls based on the info-digit that is passed through. Examples of info-digits that include 07, 27, 29 and 70 calls can be blocked at a customer's request. The default can permit calls to pass regardless of info-digit. Payphone Blocking can be an option to a customer. In one embodiment, calls that originate from payphones can be blocked. Payphone-originated calls that are not blocked can incur a per-call surcharge that can be marked up and passed to the customer. (3) Toll-Free Number Portability (TFNP) Toll-Free Number Portability (TFNP) allows customers to change RespOrg on their toll-free number and “port” the number to a different carrier, Toll-Free Reservation allows reservation of vanity or customer-requested toll-free numbers for later use. This is a function of the national SMS database. (4) Multiple-Server T-1 Toll-free, 1+, internet access, private line and dedicated access line services can be able to be provisioned over the same T-1. The service also supports two-way trunks. (5) Call Rating Different call rates can be charged to a customer based upon criteria such as, for example, the type of call placed, i.e., the type of origination and termination. Time of day and day of week pricing can permit calls placed 8 am-5 pm, Monday through Friday and all day Saturday and Sunday. Cross-contribution permits volume from other services to contribute to monthly commitment levels for toll-free and vice-versa. A customer can commit to monthly revenue levels based upon volume thresholds. Rates can be set according to the thresholds. Term discounts can permit customers committing to service contracts such as, for example, 1-, 2- and 3-year terms, to achieve higher discounts than those customers which are scheduled on monthly terms. Term discounts can effect net rates after all other discounts are applied. Monthly recurring charges (MRCs) can be charged for any individual or combination of enhanced or basic services either as a group or stand-alone. (6) Project Account Codes Project Account Codes (PACs) (forced versions) can be available on toll-free service. (7) Toll-Free Directory Listings A directory listing in the toll-free information service provided by AT&T can be provided at a customer's request. This service may or may not require a one-time or monthly service charge. (8) Menu Routing Interactive voice response (IVR) routing services can be offered to customers over telecommunications network 200. (9) Network ACD Automatic call distribution (ACD) services can be offered to customers over telecommunications network 200. (10) Network Transfer (TBX) Network transfer services can be provided by telecommunications network 200. (11) Quota Routing Quota Routing can allow the customer to define a minimum and maximum number of calls that are routed to a particular termination point. The call thresholds can be based on, e.g., 15 minute, half-hour, one hour, and 24-hour increments. (12) Toll-Free Valet (Call Park) Toll-free valet call parking services can hold calls in network queue until the customer has an open Trunk for the call to terminate to. This benefits a customer in that it does not have to over-trunk for busy periods. Music on-hold can be available as a standard feature of toll-free valet. A custom greeting or announcement is an enhanced feature of Toll-Free Valet allowing callers to hear a customized greeting developed by the customer. Additional charges can apply for a custom greeting. d. Operator Services Operator Services are services which can handle a customer request for, for example, collect calls, third-party billed calls, directory assistance (DA), and person-to-person calls. Operator Services can be available to any customer using, for example, 1+ long distance service, calling card service, and prepaid calling card service of the carrier of telecommunications network 200. An operator can be accessed by dialing “00” or 101-XXXX-0. Access to an operator can be accomplished through switched or dedicated access. FIG. 6B illustrates an operator services call 622. A call coming in from LEC 624 or from IXC 626 into gateway site 110 has signaling come in through STP 250 through SS7 gateway 208 to soft switch 204. Soft switch 204 is in communication with gateway site 110 via data network 112 using H.323 protocol or IPDC 602 protocol. H.323 is a gatekeeper protocol from the international telecommunications union (ITU) discussed further in the IPDC portion of the disclosure. Soft switch 204 can analyze the dialed number and determine that it is an operator call, i.e., if the call begins with a “0” or a “00,” upon determining that a call requires operator services, soft switch 204 can then route the call to off-switch operator services service bureau 628. Operator services 628 can handle the call at that time. Operator services 628 can also perform whatever additional call routing is required in order to terminate the call. (1) Domestic Operator Services Features A plurality of operator services are supported, including, for example, collect calling service by this the caller requests that the called party be billed for the call; third party billing service allowing the caller to bill calls to another number other than the originating phone number; directory assistance (DA) service allowing customer to retrieve phone number outside of its area code by 1+ Area Code+555-1212 and making the requests through an operator; person to person calling service allowing a customer to contact an operator and request that the operator call a specific number and complete the call for the user (i.e. an operator connects the call by creating a bridge, ensuring a connection, and then bowing out of the connection); credit for call service by which, in instances where line quality is poor or a connection is lost, an operator can give an appropriate credit; branded service by which reseal and wholesale customers can opt to use carrier-owned Operator Services and have the services branded to their preference; and service performance levels can be promised and enforced by which operators answer a call within a given number of rings such as, for example, four. Non-Published Numbers service allows customers to keep their ANI(s) and toll-free numbers non-published. Non-Listed Numbers allows a customer to have its ANI(s) and toll-free numbers non-listed. Listed Number allows customers to list their ANI(s) and toll-free numbers. Published Numbers allows customers to publish their ANI(s) and toll-free numbers. Billed Number Screening allows a customer to establish who and who cannot charge calls to their phone number. Charge Quotation Service permits an operator to quote the customer the cost of service being provided before the service is complete. Line Status Verification service permits an operator to check the status of a line (idle, busy, off-hook) per customer request. Busy Line Interrupt service permits an operator to interrupt the called party's call in progress and request an emergency connection with the calling party. Telephone Relay Service (TRS) is a service provided for the hearing impaired. An operator assists the caller by typing the message and sends the message to the terminating party via TTD. (2) International Operator Services International operator services can be provided which provide similar features to domestic operator services with the addition of multiple language support. Internation operator services can be reached by dialing “00.” e. Calling Card Calling card service can include a credit card issued by a carrier that can allow a customer to place, for example, local, long distance, and international calls. The calling card can act as a stand-alone service or as part of the PVN product. Calling card service can be available anywhere in the US, Puerto Rico, USVI, and Canada via toll free origination. Additionally, access can be from foreign countries via ITFS service through an off-net provider. A customer can have a domestic physical address and billing location to obtain a calling card. Operationally, a customer can dial a toll-free access number, or and ITFS access number, that prompts the user to enter an authorization and pin number. The customer can then be prompted to enter a ten-digit phone number the customer is attempting to call. The call is then connected. Calling cards can allow customers to make long distance, international, and local calls while away from their home or office. These calls are billed monthly on the same invoice with other telecommunications services. (1) Calling Card Features Calling card services can include a plurality of features such as, for example, universal toll-free access number (UAN); UAN authorization code; class of service (COS) restrictions; reorigination; usage cap; authorization code (authcode) translation; invoice presentation; project account codes (PACs); dial correction; 3-way conferencing; and dedicated termination service. Universal Toll-Free Access Number (UAN) is the toll-free number that accesses the calling card platform from anywhere in the US, Puerto Rico, USVI, and Canada. The UAN serves all customers that choose the UAN. UAN Authorization Code authenticates the end user. For UAN customers, the code consist, for example, of 10 digits followed by a PIN number, totaling 14 digits in length. The 10 digits can either be randomly generated or can be requested by the customer as the customers Billing Telephone Number (or any other phone or number sequence). The PIN can also either be randomly generated or can be requested by the customer. The default can be random generation for both Authcode and PIN numbers. No more than 10 PIN numbers can be assigned to a single Authcode. An additional 6-digit international PIN can be generated for customer use when originating calls from an international destination. This PIN can be entered in lieu of the 4-digit domestic PIN. The customer can limit calling card use based on Class of Service Restrictions (COS) restrictions. Cards can as a default have domestic (all 50 states, Canada, USVI, PR) origination and termination only. International origination and termination can be made available upon request by the customer. Re-Origination will allow customers to place multiple calling card calls without having to hang up, dial the access number, and enter the authorization code again. The feature can be initiated by depressing for 2 full seconds. Usage Cap limits any given authcode to a customer determined usage limit. Once the maximum dollar limit is hit the card ceases working and prompts the customer to contact customer service. Usage limits can be set in $10 increments and at daily, weekly, or monthly thresholds. When a customer is approaching its maximum, a prompt can be announced stating “your usage limit is near its maximum, you have X minutes remaining, please contact customer service.” The prompt can begin when the user reaches 90% of its allowance based on dollars. In the even the customer is in the middle of a connection, only the card owner will hear the prompt. If a new call is placed and the en-user is already within the 90% threshold, a prompt will notify the customer of the number of minutes that are available after the terminating number is entered. The number of minutes will be based on the termination point and the rating associated with it. Authcode translation allows a customer to translate authorization codes to, for example, a user name or department name up to a 25 character maximum. An invoice can by default show 10 digits of the 14 digits and associate each authcode with expenditures. If the customer chooses Authcode Translation, the invoice can automatically present the translation and not the authcode. A customer can associate a PAC Table with the customer's Authcodes. PAC table rules apply. An end-user can be prompted as usual after entering in the authcode and terminating ANI. The prompts apply to PACs on calling card as an long distance service. If a phone number is mis-dialed, dial correction allows the user to hit the * key to delete the current entry and being to re-enter the phone number in its entirety. Personal Toll-Free Access Number (PAN) service provides a toll-free number that accesses the calling card platform from anywhere in the US, Puerto Rico, USVI, and Canada. A PAN can be unique to individual users. PAN Authorization Code authenticates the end user. For PAN customers, the code can consist of, e.g., 4 digits either defined by the customer or randomly generated. Corporate Toll-Free Access Number (CAN) service provides a toll-free number that accesses the calling card platform from anywhere in the US, Puerto Rico, USVI, and Canada. This number can be unique to a corporate customer and can only be used by those end-users with the corporate customer. CAN Authorization Code authenticates the end user. For CAN customers, the code can consist of, e.g., 7 digits either defined by the customer or randomly generated. Customized Greeting service allows a customer to customize the network-generated greeting at the time of provisioning. This service can be available to CAN customers only. Call Transfer service allows the calling card customer to connect two parties and attend the conference or drop the bridge and establish the connection between the two called parties. (2) Call Rating Domestic Calls can be priced using, for example, 1-second increments with for example, an 18-second minimum per call. International Calls can be priced using, for example, 1-second increments with, for example, a 1-minute minimum per call. The first minute can be rated differently than additional minutes. PVN Gold and Platinum Calls can be rated based on discounts associated with the PVN product group. Rating can be based on originating and terminating points. On-PVN Calls can be identified and rated appropriately. A connection surcharge can be charged per call. The charge can differ based on the originating and terminating point of the call. These combinations include Domestic to Domestic, Domestic to International, and International to International. Time of Day and Day of Week pricing can permit calls placed 8 am-5 pm Monday through Friday to be rated differently than those placed 5:01 pm-7:59 am Monday through Friday and all day Saturday and Sunday. Cross-Contribution permits volume from other services to contribute to volume discounts for calling card and vice versa. A customer can commit to monthly revenue levels based upon Volume Thresholds. Rates can be set according to the thresholds. Term Discounts can permit customers committing to service contracts such as, for example, 1, 2, and 3-year terms, to achieve higher discounts than those customers who have subscribed on monthly terms. Term discounts can effect net rates after all other discounts are applied. Monthly Recurring Charges (MRCs) can be charged for any combination of enhanced or basic services either as a group or stand-alone. Pre-Paid Calling Card services can be offered, f. One-Number Services One Number service is an enhanced call forwarding service that uses the intelligence of telecommunications network 200 network to re-route calls from a customers POTS/DID to an alternate termination point. One Number allows customers to receive calls regardless of where they are located. A simple WEB interface enables customers to define which phone number they want to receive calls on and for which days and what periods of time. One Number can be available to any customer telecommunications network 200 local and long distance voice services. The service allows the customer to choose termination points anywhere in the world. Security can be necessary to prevent fraud and authenticate users. Calls or faces can terminate to multiple services including, e.g., POTS lines, fax machines, voice mail, pagers, e-mail (fax), and cellular phones. Forwarded calls can be filtered, e.g., by soft switch 204 and can be forwarded to the appropriate terminating number. Multiple termination points can be specified by the customer enabling calls to “follow” them. When a call is forwarded to the next number a network prompt could inform the caller that their call is being forwarded. The caller could hear, e.g., “Please hold while we attempt to locate John Doe (Subscriber's Name). If you would like to leave a voice message please press the pound sign now.” Selective Forward allows the customer to forward only selected calls by originating ANI. All other calls could terminate normally. (1) One-Number Features # Override service allows a caller to # out to the subscriber's main number which can have voice messaging capability. Fax Detect allows the customer to have all calls including fax calls come in to a single number only to be forwarded to an actual fax machine ANI. The network could be required to detect T.30 protocol and respond appropriately. Fax to E-mail allows faxes to be forwarded to an e-mail address. Call Statistics allows a customer to enter a WEB interface and look at all calls that have terminated to their ANI and which have been forwarded to corresponding termination points. Termination Preferences Lists allow a customer to define up to three terminating numbers. If the first is busy, for example, the call would be sent to the next number in the list. If the call reached the end of the list, the call could disconnect or terminate into whatever type of messaging service that might be available. These lists can be toggled on or off via a web or IVR interface. Up to 5 lists can be created. Busy Detection re-routes busy calls to an alternate destination. In the case of fax, the web interface shows when and where the fax was delivered. IVR Interface permits a customer to change termination points and toggle on or off Termination preference lists via DTMF tones. A customer could be prompted for a pass-code for security purposes. Dedicated Termination Service (DTS) allows forwarded calls to terminate On-PVN over dedicated facilities. User Authentication ensures that a user authorized routing modifications by, e.g., entry of a code or PIN. g. Debit Card/Credit Card Call Services Debit card and credit card calls are permitted and are similar to calling card services calls with the addition of third-party credit check processing. Customers have access to a web interface that manages, e.g., names, phone numbers, e-mail addresses, company names, addresses, and scheduling. Customers can enter and maintain their own contacts. By selecting names and a meeting time, customers can easily administer their own conference from the desktop. Additionally, the moderator can view the participants that have and have not connected. Participants can be notified of, e.g., the conference time, dial-in number (if applicable), subject, and participants by, e.g., e-mail, pager, fax, or voice message. Network Dial-Out service allows the conference moderator to direct-dial each participant at the phone number of choice. When a participant answers the phone a bridge is created. The moderator is always bridged to the call by being dialed directly. 800 Dial-In allows the conference moderator to offer a means for participants unable to be dialed directly to participate via a toll-free number. Point & Talk service creates a bridge between two parties by simply clicking on a phone number. Music On-Hold permits a selection of music to be available for the moderator to choose while participants join the bridge. Once all participants have joined, the music can automatically turn off. Cancel Music On-Hold can disengage music on-hold. Selective Caller Dis-Connect allows a moderator to disconnect any participant at any time. Selective Caller Mute allows a moderator to mute any participant at any time. Other attendees could, e.g., not be able to hear the muted person, nor, e.g., could the muted person be able to hear other participants in the conference. Customized Greeting permits customers to generate and load their own greeting that a caller will hear before being connected to the bridge. Code Access permits a participant to hear a prompt asking for a code (determined by moderator) that could allow access to the conference. The code can be entered, e.g., via dual tone multiple frequencies (DTMF) tones. h. Local Local Voice can comprise two separate elements. The first element of Local Voice, which is also the foundation of the service, is commonly referred to as “Dial Tone”. The other element is referred to as Local Calling/Traffic, which is the usage that is generated on the Dial Tone. Each element is addressed separately below. (1) Local Voice/Dial Tone (LV/DT) Local Services deliver services comparable to what incumbent ILECs provide. LV/DT provides, in its basic form, 10 digits phone numbers and/or services that can access the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). LV/DT provides the customer the ability to place and receive calls on their LV/DT, whether the calls are local, long distance, international, toll-free or service (611, 411, 911, 0, 00) types of calls. Call types can be from an on network customer or from an off network caller. Two types of digital/trunking protocols currently in use today are PBX Digital Trunking and ISDN/PRI. Analog services can be provided as well. Digital trunks interface with Hybrid and PBX CPE equipment. LD/VT adheres to the tariffs and regulations that govern Local Service providers in each market that the service is launched. For example, federal, state and local taxes can apply where applicable. Local access can be available in those cities where the owner of telecommunications network 200 has co-carrier status and a POP within the serving wire center. The two prevalent protocols that LD/VT emulates are Digital PBX Trunking and ISDN/PRI. Only one Rate Center that is generic to the customers physical address is allowed with each delivery. Foreign Exchange service is another option but not in combination with a customer's designated Rate Center. Digital PBX Trunking (Digital PBX) or (DPbx) trunking uses a DS-1 4-wire (1.544 Mbit) for the underlying transmission facility. Line Code options of AMI or B8ZS, and framing options of Super-Frame (SF) or Extended SuperFrame (ESF) can be offered. Service provides 24 digital channels at 56K per DS0. Fractional DS-1s can also be available with a minimum of 12 DSOs ordered. Each DS0 channel carries the signaling overhead. DPbx can be channelized as one-way inbound, one-way outbound or two-way trunk groups. Incoming calls hunt to an idle channel within a trunk group, low to high, while the customer hunts high to low. Customer must yield to a carrier under “glare” conditions. Calls are initiated with trunk seizure and confirmed by a receiving end via “wink” signaling. Addressing can be selected as, e.g., Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) or Multi-Frequency (typically used for interoffice communications). Answer Supervision is provided on outbound calls. ISDN also can use a DS-1 4-wire transmission facility. Configurations of PRI can be 23B+D or 24B channels. Each B (bearer) channel transmission is at 64 kpbs “clear channel” since the signaling is handled on the “D” or data channel for the circuit. In order for a customer to order a 24B circuit, they must have at a minimum one 23B+D configuration. In a preferred embodiment, customers can have a back up D channel when ordering multiple PRIs with a 24B configuration. Customers can also preferably order PRI with a line coding of B8ZS and framing of ESE. ANI delivery can be standard with PRI service. When customers order either a DPBX or ISDN/PRI service, each inbound only or two-way trunk group can automatically be provisioned with one phone number. If more than one phone number is needed per trunk group, DID services can be ordered. Direct Inward Dial (DID) service can be delivered to a customer's CPE equipment via inbound only or two-way trunks. The switch can deliver the dialed telephone number (up to 7 digits), sometimes referred to as DNIS, to the premise switch. Number blocks are ordered in blocks of 20 consecutive numbers i.e. 555-1230 thru 555-1249. (2) Call Handling Features (a) Line Hunting There are several different forms of line hunting. There is no additional charge, regardless of which hunting method is utilized. The form a customer selects will depend on their business application. Series completion hunting allows calls made to a busy directory number to be routed to another specified directory number. Series completion hunting begins with the originally dialed member of the series completion group, and searches sequential for an idle directory number from the list of directory numbers. A telephone number is assigned to each member of the series completion hunt. When hunting reaches the last number in the group without finding an idle station, a busy signal can occur. Multi-line hunting provides a sequential hunt over the members in the multi-line hunt group. A phone number is assigned to the main number, but each line in the hunt group can have a phone number or a “Ter” (Terminal) identifier assigned to it. Circular hunting allows all lines in a multi-line hunt group to be tested for busy, regardless of the point of entry into the group. When a call is made to a line in a multi-line hunt group, a regular hunt is performed starting at the station associated with the dialed number. The hunt continues to the last station in the group, then proceeds to the first station in the group and continues sequentially through the remaining lines in the group. Busy tone can be returned if hunting returns to the called station without finding an alternative station that is idle. Usually in this situation, all members of the multi-line hunt group can be identified with a phone number. Uniform Call Distribution (UCD) hunting, an enhanced form, has specific uses for customers. (UCD is not to be confused with Automatic Call Distribution (ACD), which is an enhanced version of UCD.) The UCD feature is a hunting arrangement that provides uniform distribution of terminated calls to members of a multi-line hunt group. UCD does a pre-hunt for the next call, searches for the next idle member and can set the member as the start hunt position for the next call. If no idle member is found, the start hunt position can be the last called member plus 1. (b) Call Forward Busy Call Forwarding Busy Line can automatically redirect incoming calls to a pre-designated telephone number when the line is busy. This service can establish a fixed forward-to telephone number. In one embodiment, it is not a customer changeable number. An order is issued by a carrier to change the forward-to number. When Call Forward Busy line is activated, the customer can pay for the local and/or toll usage charges. This feature can carry a flat monthly rate. (c) Call Forwarding Don't Answer Call Forwarding Don't Answer can automatically redirect all calls to another telephone number when a telephone is not answered within a specified amount of time. This service can establish a fixed forward-to telephone number. In one embodiment, it is not a customer changeable number. An order can be issued to change the forward-to number. The customer can choose the number of rings before the line forwards the call. When Call Forwarding Don't Answer is activated, the customer can pay for the local and/or toll usage charges. This feature can carry a flat monthly rate. (d) Call Forward Variable Call Forwarding Variable allows the user to redirect all incoming calls to another telephone number. This service can use a courtesy call that allows the customer to notify a party at the “forward-to-number” that the customer's calls will be forwarded to the second party's number. Activating the service also returns a confirmation tone to the originator. Call Forwarding Variable can take precedence over other features and services such as Call Forwarding Busy/Don't Answer, Call Waiting and Hunting. When this feature is activated, the customer can pay for any local and/or toll usage charges. This feature can carry a flat monthly rate. (e) Call Hold Call Hold can enable a user to put any in-progress call on hold by flashing the switchhook and dialing a code. This frees the line to originate another call. Only one call per line can be held at a time. The held call cannot be added to the originated call. This feature is not to be confused with the hold button on a telephone set. The party placed on hold will not hear anything (unless customer subscribes to Music-On Hold service). This feature carries a flat monthly rate. (f) Three-Way Calling Three-way Calling service can allow a line in the talking state to add a third party to the call without operator assistance. To add a third party, the user flashes the switchhook once to place the first party on hold, receives recall dial tone, dials the second party's telephone number, then flashes the switchhook again to establish the three-way connection. The second switchhook flash can occur any time after the completion of dialing, i.e., when the second party answers, a two-way conversation can be held before adding the original party for a three-way conference. (g) Call Transfer Call Transfer can conference and transfer an established inbound call to another number. When this feature is used to transfer a call to a local or toll number, the customer initiating the feature can pay for the resulting call charges. Call Transfer can be used in conjunction with Three-way calling. (h) Call Waiting/Cancel Call Waiting Call Waiting Terminating service can alert the user to an incoming call while the phone is already in use. The service signals the customer with two separate tones or tone patterns. The calling party can hear ringing or a tone/ring combination. Call Waiting Terminating can take precedence over Call Forwarding Busy Line. Call Waiting Terminating service can be canceled on a per call basis. This can be done by entering a code prior to placing a call or during a call. Call Waiting Originating service can allow a customer to send, to another line within a group, a Call Waiting tone if the other line is busy. (i) Extension or Station-to-Station Calling Station-to-Station (or “abbreviated”) dialing can allow one station line to call another station line without having to go through the public network, Calls of this nature are usually classified as an intercom call. Intercom calls do not carry any type of local or toll charges because they occur within a common group of numbers. A station-to-station call can be dialed by using 2-6 digits. An example would be placing a call to an internal station having the phone number 667-2345. If the dialing sequence is set at 4 digits, the call could be completed simply by dialing 2-3-4-5. If the common group is set for 3-digit station-to-station dialing, all other station lines can also then set to 3-digit dialing. (j) Direct Connect Hotline/Ring Down Line Direct Connect service automatically dials a pre-selected number. Simply taking the receiver off-hook can activate this service. No access codes or telephone numbers need to be dialed. The Direct Connect number can be selected when service is ordered and can be changed by placement of an order, such as, for example, via a web interface. The Direct Connect number can be, e.g., an internal line number, a local number or a long distance number. If the call is sent to another local or long distance number, the customer can pay for the usage charges. (k) Message Waiting Indicator Message Waiting Indication can come in two forms and is used primarily with Voice Mail. A first form of this feature can provide the station line user with an audible indication that Voice Mail has been activated. The stutter tone can be heard when the user goes off-hook, alerting the user that a message has been left in the voice mailbox. When the message has been retrieved, the stutter tone can disappear. A second form of message waiting indication can be a visual prompt. The visual prompt can operate the same way as the stutter dial tone except that it can use a signal to light a lamp on the customer's phone. (1) Distinctive Ringing This feature can enable a user to determine the source of an incoming call from a distinctive ring. The pattern can be based on whether the call (1) originates from within a group, (2) originates external to the group, (3) is forwarded from the attendant position, or (4) originates from a line with a Call Waiting Originating feature. Distinctive Ringing can comprise two call processing components: Party Filtering and Calling Party Filtering. The distinctive ringing components can provide for distinctive ringing patterns to be applied to a terminating line based on the originating line. Each component can have a list of multiple options that can be chosen from to customize the distinctive ringing. When Distinctive Ringing is assigned to a line, it can be immediately active. The station user cannot deactivate the feature in one embodiment. An order can be placed to have Distinctive Ringing deactivated. (m) Six-Way Conference Calling Six-way conference calling can allow a non-attendant station to sequentially call up to five (5) other parties after dialing the access code. The non-attendant station can add parties together to make an, e.g., six-way call. The originator of the six-way call can be billed for the usage charges. There are no limitations on the number of stations that can be assigned a Six-way Conference calling group. (n) Speed Calling Speed calling can allow user to dial selected numbers using fewer digits than are normally required. One- and two-digit abbreviated dialing codes can be offered. Speed calling can be, e.g., available as an eight-number list (Speed Calling 8), and a thirty-number list (Speed Calling 30). Speed Calling 8 can use codes 2 through 9. Speed Calling 30 can use codes 20 through 49. Customers can order both options on one station line for a total of 38 speed calling codes. Any combination of local and long distance numbers, service access codes and 3-digit numbers (such a 9-1-1) can be entered into the Speed Calling list. The number of digits stored within each code can be limited to, e.g., 16. (o) Selective Call Rejection Call Rejection can allow a customer to pre-select up to a set number of phone numbers to reject any incoming calls from those numbers. If the number is not known, this feature can also be activated via a code after the call has been completed. A code can be entered to cancel Call Rejection at any time. (p) Remote Activation of Call Forward Variable This feature can enable a customer to activate or deactivate Call Forwarding Variable from a remote site. To activate or deactivate the feature from a remote site, a Touch Tone service and a Pin Code can be used, for example. The Pin Code can be required for security reasons. (3) Enhanced Services (a) Remote Call Forward (RCF) Remote Call Forward (RCF) service can allow a business to establish a local presence in other areas without having to invest in a hardwired solution. RCF can create a virtual inbound only service, e.g., via software programming. A customer can make a request from the local service provider for a phone number that can be with a rate center that is not associated with the address to where the calls are to terminate. The RCF can be provisioned to forward all incoming calls to a customer specific phone number. This can in one embodiment, be a non-customer changeable number except via an order. Depending upon the locality of the service, the forwarding of calls can generate a local call, a local toll call or a long distance call, which can be invoiced to the RCF customer. Calls can be forwarded to a toll free service and in one embodiment do not carry a per call charge. RCF can carry a flat MRC. When a customer requests multiple calls to be terminated at one time, RCF paths can be ordered. Depending upon the number of paths ordered, the number of calls that can be terminated simultaneously can be determined. Each path can carry a flat MRC. (b) Voice Messaging Services Voice Messaging services can provide a customer the control of determining how communications are to be handled at their business. Voice messaging combined with local service can create a total business solution. Voice messaging can provide the customer with flexibility and total call coverage. The foundation of voice messaging can be the voice mailbox, which can provide for the repository of messages. These messages can be, for example, voice or fax. The voice mailbox can be configured according to the customer's needs with various levels or grades of service. Retrieval of messages can be performed through various methods that can range, e.g., from a local, to a remote and toll free access. Voice messaging components take a basic voice mailbox and enhances it. Enhancements can include such features as, for example: broadcast services; one number location services; pseudo auto attendant; dial out capabilities; revert to operator; fax on demand; and informational services. Voice messaging services can be broken down into three categories. The categories of voice messaging services can include, integrated voice messaging, stand-alone voice messaging, and enhanced voice messaging. (c) Integrated Voice Messaging Integrated voice messaging can tie the customer's phone number with the voice messaging platform. The customer's caller needs to dial only one number in order to contact the customer. The integration can be accomplished via call handling features to the voice-messaging platform such as call forwarding busy, call forwarding no answer, call forwarding variable and message waiting indication. Basic applications for this type of service can include private/individual lines and multi-lines and multi-line hunt arrangements that can require call coverage. By using an integrated version of voice messaging, the customer can also receive a “revert to operator” feature as part of the package. This type of service can be application specific. A customer gives out only one number to its customers for them to reach it. If a customer does not what to answer the phone, when a call is transferred, it can still ring according to parameters set up by the call handling features, in one embodiment. (d) Stand-Alone Voice Messaging Stand-alone voice messaging can provide customers with individual voice mailboxes. These mailboxes can be set up with their own phone numbers and need not be tied to a customer's phone number. Therefore, in one embodiment, they do not have “revert to operator” services and message waiting indication. These mailboxes can be useful to, e.g., a sales organization which has employees which do not have an office with phone services. Depending upon the application, a pseudo-integration type of service can be set up. By using call-handling features, calls can be forwarded to the phone number assigned to a voice mailbox. (4) Class Services A name and number display can be provided. An automatic call back/ring again service can allow automatic return of the last incoming call (i.e., whether answered or missed). If the number called back is busy, automatic call back service can alert the user with a special ring when the user's line and the line the user is calling back are both idle. This feature can be assigned on an individual line basis. The ringback alerting interval can be varied from, e.g., 24 to 48 seconds, inclusive in, e.g., 6-second increments. Automatic callback service can be activated before receiving another incoming call. Outgoing calls can be placed before activating automatic callback on the last incoming call. This service can work well with call waiting. (5) Class of Service Restrictions A local only COS restriction restricts all calls to locally terminated ones. (6) Local Voice/Local Calling (LV/LC) This second segment of Local voice is referred to as local calling. Local calling is the traffic that is within a LATA but does not constitute a long distance call. Depending upon the market that the service is being provided in, local calling can be a for fee or free service. i. Conferencing Services (1) Audio Conferencing A 3-way conferencing bridge can be created by the end-user by choosing the conferencing feature from the enhanced services menu. The end-user enters up to, e.g., two additional phone numbers and is then connected by the bridge. Dedicated Termination Service (DTS) allows long distance calls from the calling card to terminate to a Dedicated PVN site if applicable. Non-PVN calls could terminate regularly over FGD trunks. The network can determine if the call can be terminated over its own facilities and if so, rate it appropriately. DTS calls can be priced less than calls that terminate over FGD. A routing table allows the network to identify calls that originate from a calling card that has been assigned an associated terminating Trunk Group. (a) Audio Conferencing Features Audio conferencing can allow a customer to setup a call with two or more participants. The customer, through an easy to use web interface, can create a conferencing bridge. This service can be available to all customers who sign up for the service. Because the call is being setup through a web interface, conferences can be setup anywhere access to the Internet is available. (2) Video Conferencing Video conferencing can be provided over telecommunications network 200. 14. Data Services a. Internet Hosting Internet hosting services can be provided over the network of the claimed invention. An Internet Services Provider (ISP) can use server and communications services including Internet access from the telecommunications network and can be billed for the usage. High speed connectivity can be provided as well as World Wide Web, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Gopher and other Internet hosting services. b. Managed Modem Services Managed modem service is a service provided to users of communications services, such as an ISP. Managed modem services provide modem services to subscribers of the ISP. As an ISP signs up new subscribers, access can be provided to the subscriber over modems provided by a networking services provider (NSP). Modems can be shared by a plurality of ISPs and economies of scale can be obtained by requiring a lower overall number of modems and associated communications network hardware. Other dialing services can be made available over the data network of the invention. c. Collocation Services Network services can be provided co-located with a customer. For example, the telecommunications network carrier can provide TG, AG, and NAS access at the customer premises for such purposes as high speed modem access. By placing telecommunications network components on site at a customer location, various advantages can be gained by the telecommunications provider and subscriber. d. IP Network Services Other Internet access services can be made available for a client, such as intranet and PVN services. e. Legacy Protocol Services—Systems Network Architecture (SNA) Access to IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA) services can be made available over data network 112 of the invention. f. Permanent Virtual Circuits Permanent Virtual Circuit services can be supported. For example, separate SNA PVCs can be provided. 15. Additional Products and Services Telecommunications network 200 can be used to deliver a plurality of new product and service offerings. For example, new services include, services can be configured via Internet worldwide web connection to telecommunications network 200. Additional service offerings include that billing options can be announced at the beginning of a call. Another new service enables the announcement of the cost of a call to be read at the conclusion of a telephone call. Telecommunications network 200 also supports connectivity of native IP devices, such as, for example, a SELSIUS phone. Additional new products and services include integration of native IP and unified PBX/file server devices into telecommunications network 200. See for example customer net 658 shown in FIG. 6D. Attached to network 658 are a variety or native IP devices 662. For example, IP Client 660 can be a personal computer capable of VOIP telephony communication, including voice digitizing, network interface card and transmission hardware and software. PBX/File Server 664 is a native IP device with hybrid data/voice functionality, such as, for example, PBX 666 functionality with optionally collocated access gateway (AG) 670 functionality for telephony access by phones 672, and data services functionality such as, for example, file server 668 functionality. Another new service enables messaging joined with find-me type services. In addition to the new services just described enabled by telecommunications network 200, it should be noted that telephone calls over telecommunications network 200 deliver call quality which is better than the standard PSTN. Telecommunications network 200 also permits read reporting of call statistics and call volumes and billing information to commercial clients, for example. Telecommunications network 200 also permits dynamic modification over the route traversed by traffic via worldwide web access. IV. DEFINITIONS Term Definition access tandem (AT) An AT is a class 3 or 3/4 switch used to switch calls between EOs in a LATA. An AT provides subscribers access to the IXCs, to provide long distance calling services. An access tandem is a network node. Other network nodes include, for example, a CLEC, or other enhanced service provider (ESP), an international gateway or global point-of-presence (GPOP), or an intelligent peripheral(IP). American National This organization develops and publishes voluntary Standards Institute standards for a wide range of industries for companies based (ANSI) in the U.S. Asynchronous Transfer Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high speed Mode (ATM) cell-based packet switching transmission technology. Automatic Call A specialized phone system that can handle volumes of Distributor (ACD) incoming calls or make outgoing calls. An ACD can recognize and answer an incoming call, look in its database for instructions on what to do with that call, send a recorded message to the caller (based on instructions from the database), and send the caller to a live operator as soon as the operator is free or as soon as the caller has heard the recorded message. bearer (B) channels Bearer (B) channels are digital channels used to carry both digital voice and digital data information. An ISDN bearer channel is 64,000 bits per second, which can carry PCM-digitized voice or data. Bellcore Bell Communications Research, formed at divestiture to provide centralized services to the seven regional Bell holding companies and their operating company subsidiaries. Also serves as a coordinating point for national security and emergency preparedness and communications matters of the U.S. federal government. called party The called party is the caller receiving a call sent over a network at the destination or termination end. calling party The calling party is the caller placing a call over any kind of network from the origination end. central office (CO) A CO is a facility that houses an EO homed. EOs are often called COs. centum call seconds Telephone call traffic is measured in terms of centum (CCS) call seconds (CCS) (i.e., one hundred call seconds of telephone conversations). 1/36 of an Erlang. class 5 switch A class 5 switching office is an end office (EO) or the lowest level of local and long distance switching, a local central office. The switch closest to the end subscriber. class 4 switch A class 4 switching office was a Toll Center (TC) if operators were present or else a Toll Point (TP); an access tandem (AT) has class 4 functionality. class 3 switch A class 3 switching office was a Primary Center (PC); an access tandem (AT) has class 3 functionality. class 1 switch A class 1 switching office, the Regional Center(RC), is the highest level of local and long distance switching, or “office of last resort” to complete a call. CODEC Coder/Decoder. Compression/decompression. An overall term used for the technology used in digital video and digital audio. competitive LEC CLECs are telecommunications services providers (CLEC) capable of providing local services that compete with ILECS. A CLEC may or may not handle IXC services as well. Computer Telephony Adding computer intelligence to the making, receiving, (CT) or Computer and managing of telephone calls. Telephony Integration (CTI) customer premises CPE refers to devices residing on the premises of a equipment (CPE) customer and used to connect to a telephone network, including ordinary telephones, key telephone systems, PBXs, video conferencing devices and modems. DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol digital access and cross- A DACS is a device providing digital routing and connect system (DACS) switching functions for T1 lines, as well as DS0 portions of lines, for a multiple of T1 ports. digitized data (or digital Digitized data refers to analog data that has been data) sampled into a binary representation (i.e., comprising sequences of 0's and 1's). Digitized data is less susceptible to noise and attenuation distortions because it is more easily regenerated to reconstruct the original signal. DTMF Dual Tone Multi Frequency Dual-Tone A way of signaling consisting of a push-button or Multifrequency (DTMF) touchtone dial that sends out a sound consisting of two discrete tones that are picked up and interpreted by telephone switches (either PBXs or central offices). egress EO The egress EO is the node or destination EO with a direct connection to the called party, the termination point. The called party is “homed” to the egress EO. egress Egress refers to the connection from a called party or termination at the destination end of a network, to the serving wire center (SWC). end office (EO) An EO is a class 5 switch used to switch local calls within a LATA. Subscribers of the LEC are connected (“homed”) to EOs, meaning that EOs are the last switches to which the subscribers are connected. Enhanced Service A network services provider. Provider (ESP) equal access 1+ dialing as used in US domestic calling for access to any long distance carrier as required under the terms of the modified final judgment (MFJ) requiring divestiture of the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) from their parent company, AT&T. Erlang An Erlang (named after a queuing theory engineer) is one hour of calling traffic, i.e. it is equal to 36 CCS (i.e., the product of 60 minutes per hour and 60 seconds per minute divided by 100). An Erlang is used to forecast trunking and TDM switching matrix capacity. A “non-blocking” matrix (i.e., the same number of lines and trunks) can theoretically switch 36 CCS of traffic. Numerically, traffic on a trunk group, when measured in Erlangs, is equal to the average number of trunks in use during the hour in question. Thus, if a group of trunks carries 20.25 Erlangs during an hour, a little more than 20 trunks were busy. Federal Communications The U.S. federal agency responsible for regulating Commission (FCC) interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. G.711 ITU-T Recommendation G.711 (1988) - Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies G.723.1 ITU-T Recommendation G.723.1 (03/96) - Dual rate speech coder for multimedia communications transmitting at 5.3 and 6.3 kbit/s G.729 Coding of speech at 8 kbit/s using conjugate structure algebraic-code-excited linear-prediction (CS-ACELP) - Annex A: Reduced complexity 8 kbit/s CS-ACELP speech codec G.729A ITU-T Annex A (11/96) to Recommendation Gateway An entrance into and out of a communications network. Technically, a gateway is an electronic repeater device that intercepts and steers electrical signals from one network to another. global point of presence A GPOP refers to the location where international (GPOP) telecommunications facilities and domestic facilities interface, an international gateway POP. GSM Global System for Mobile Communications H.245 ITU-T Recommendation H.245 (03/96) - Control protocol for multimedia communication H.261 ITU-T Recommendation H.261 (03/93) - Video codec for audiovisual services at p × 64 kbit/s H.263 ITU-T Recommendation H.263 (03/96) - Video coding for low bit rate communication H.323 ITU-T Recommendation H.323 (11/96) - Visual telephone systems and equipment for local area networks which provide a non-guaranteed quality of service. The specification that defines packet standards for terminals, equipment, and services for multimedia communications over LANs. Adopted by the IP telephony community as standard for communicating over any packet network, including the Internet. IETF Internet Engineering Task Force incumbent LEC (ILEC) ILECs are the traditional LECs, which include the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs). ingress EO The ingress EO is the node or serving wire center (SVC) with a direct connection to the calling party, the origination point. The calling party is “homed” to the ingress EO. ingress Ingress refers to the connection from a calling party or origination. integrated services ISDN is a network that provides a standard for digital network (ISDN) communications (voice, data and signaling), end-to-end digital transmission circuits, out-of-band signaling, and a features significant amount of bandwidth. A network designed to improve the world's telecommunications services by providing an internationally accepted standard for voice, data, and signaling; by making all transmission circuits end-to-end digital; by adopting a standard out-of-band signaling system; and by bringing more bandwidth to the desktop. integrated service digital An ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) line provides 2 network (ISDN) basic bearer B channels and I data D line (known as “2B + D” rate interface (BRI) line over one or two pairs) to a subscriber. intelligent peripheral(IP) An intelligent peripheral is a network system (e.g. a general purpose computer running application logic) in the Advanced Intelligent Network Release 1 (AIN) architecture. It contains a resource control execution environment (RCEE) functional group that enables flexible information interactions between a user and a network. An intelligent peripheral provides resource management of devices such as voice response units, voice announcers, and dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) sensors for caller-activated services. The intelligent peripheral is accessed by the service control point (SCP) when services demand its interaction. Intelligent peripherals provide an intelligent network with the functionality to allow customers to define their network needs themselves, without the use of telephone company personnel. An intelligent peripheral can provide a routing decision that it can terminate, but perhaps cannot regenerate. inter machine trunk An inter-machine trunk (IMT) is a circuit between two (IMT) commonly-connected switches. inter-exchange carrier IXCs are providers of US domestic long distance (IXC) telecommunications services. AT&T, Sprint and MCI are example IXCs. International Multimedia A non-profit organization dedicated to developing and Teleconferencing promoting standards for audiographics and video Consortium (IMTC) conferencing. International An organization established by the United Nations to set Telecommunications telecommunications standards, allocate frequencies to Union (ITU) various uses, and hold trade shows every four years. internet protocol (IP) IP is part of the TCP/IP protocols. It is used to recognize incoming messages, route outgoing messages, and keep track of Internet node addresses (using a number to specify a TCP/IP host on the Internet). IP corresponds to network layer of OSI. A unique, 32-bit number for a specific TCP/IP host on the Internet, normally printed in decimal form (for example, 128.122.40.227). Part of the TCP/IP family of protocols, it describes software that takes the Internet address of nodes, routes outgoing messages, and recognizes incoming messages. Internet service provider An ISP is a company that provides Internet access to (ISP) subscribers. A vendor who provides direct access to the Internet, the worldwide network of networks. Internet Engineering One of two technical working bodies of the Internet Task Force (IETF) Activities Board. It meets three times a year to set the technical standards that run the Internet. Internet Fax Routing Has published a specification letting companies Forum (IFRF) interconnect their Internet fax servers to let service providers deliver fax traffic from other companies. IP See Internet Protocol or Intelligent Peripheral IP Telephony Technology that lets you make voice phone calls over the Internet or other packet networks using your PC, via gateways and standard telephones. IPv6 Internet Protocol - version 6 IPX Internet Package eXchange ISDN primary rate An ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI) line provides the interface (PRI) ISDN equivalent of a T1 circuit. The PRI delivered to a customer's premises can provide 23B + D (in North America) or 30B + D (in Europe) channels running at 1.544 megabits per second and 2.048 megabits per second, respectively. ISO Ethernet An extension of the Ethernet LAN standard proposed by IBM and National Semiconductor. Has the potential to carry both live voice or video calls together with LAN packet data on the same cable. ISP See Internet Service Provider ITU See International Telecommunication Union local exchange carrier LECs are providers of local telecommunications (LEC) services. Can include subclasses including, for example, incumbent LECs (e.g. RBOCs), independent LECs (e.g. GTE), competitive LECs (e.g. Level 3 Communications, Inc.). local access and A LATA is a region in which a LEC offers services. transport area (LATA) There are 161 LATAs of these local geographical areas within the United States. local area network A LAN is a communications network providing (LAN) connections between computers and peripheral devices (e.g., printers and modems) over a relatively short distance (e.g., within a building) under standardized control. Local Exchange Carrier A company that provides local telephone service. (LEC) modified final judgment Modified final judgment (MFJ) was the decision (MFJ) requiring divestiture of the Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) from their parent company, AT&T. NAT Network Address Translation network node A network node is a generic term for the resources in a telecommunications network, including switches, DACS, regenerators, etc. Network nodes essentially include all non-circuit (transport) devices. Other network nodes can include, for example, equipment of a CLEC, or other enhanced service provider (ESP), a point-of-presence (POP), an international gateway or global point-of-presence (GPOP). number planning area NPA is an area code. NXX is an exchange, identifying (NPA); NXX the EO homed to the subscriber. (The homed EO is typically called a central office (CO).) packetized voice or voice One example of packetized voice is voice over internet over a backbone protocol (VOIP). Voice over packet refers to the carrying of telephony or voice traffic over a data network, e.g. voice over frame, voice over ATM, voice over Internet Protocol (IP), over virtual private networks (VPNs), voice over a backbone, etc. PIN Personal Identification Number Pipe or dedicated A pipe or dedicated communications facility connects an communications facility ISP to the internet. plain old telephone The plain old telephone system (POTS) line provides system (POTS) basic service supplying standard single line telephones, telephone lines and access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). All POTS lines work on loop start signaling. One “starts” (seizes) a phone line or trunk by giving a supervisory signal (e.g. taking the phone off hook). Loop start signaling involves seizing a line by bridging through a resistance the tip and ring (both wires) of a telephone line. point of presence (POP) A POP refers to the location within a LATA where the IXC and LEC facilities interface. point-to-point (PPP) PPP is a protocol permitting a computer to establish a protocol connection with the Internet using a modem. PPP supports high-quality graphical front ends, like Netscape. point-to-point tunneling A virtual private networking protocol, point-to-point protocol (PPTP) tunneling protocol (PPTP), can be used to create a “tunnel” between a remote user and a data network. A tunnel permits a network administrator to extend a virtual private network (VPN) from a server (e.g., a Windows NT server) to a data network (e.g., the Internet). PPP See Point-to-Point Protocol private branch exchange A PBX is a private switch located on the premises of a (PBX) user. The user is typically a private company which desires to provide switching locally. Private Line with a dial A private line is a direct channel specifically dedicated tone to a customer's use between two specified points. A private line with a dial tone can connect a PBX or an ISP's access concentrator to an end office (e.g. a channelized T1 or PRI). A private line can also be known as a leased line. Private Branch A small phone company central office that you (instead Exchange (PBX) of the phone company) own. public switched The PSTN is the worldwide switched voice network. telephone network (PSTN) Q.931 ITU-T Recommendation Q.931 (03/93) - Digital Subscriber Signaling System No. 1 (DSS 1) - ISDN user-network interface layer 3 specification for basic call control RADIUS Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service, an example of a proxy server which maintains a pool of IP addresses. RAS Registration/Admission/Status regional Bell operating RBOCs are the Bell operating companies providing companies (RBOCs) LEC services after being divested from AT&T. RSVP Resource Reservation Protocol RTCP Real-time Transport Control Protocol RTP Real-time Transport Protocol SCbus ™ The standard bus for communicating within a SIGNAL COMPUTING SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE ™ (SCSA ™) node. Its hybrid architecture consists of a serial message bus for control and signaling and a 16- wire TDM data bus. signaling system 7 (SS7) SS7 is a type of common channel interoffice signaling (CCIS) used widely throughout the world. The SS7 network provides the signaling functions of indicating the arrival of calls, transmitting routing and destination signals, and monitoring line and circuit status. SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol. SNMP is a standard protocol used for managing a network. SNMP agents can send network alerts or alarms to an SNMP manager. switching hierarchy or An office class is a functional ranking of a telephone office classification central office switch depending on transmission requirements and hierarchical relationship to other switching centers. Prior to divestiture, an office classification was the number assigned to offices according to their hierarchical function in the U.S. public switched network (PSTN). The following class numbers are used: class 1 - Regional Center(RC), class 2 - Sectional Center (SC), class 3 - Primary Center (PC), class 4 - Toll Center (TC) if operators are present or else Toll Point (TP), class 5 - End Office (EO) a local central office. Any one center handles traffic from one to two or more centers lower in the hierarchy. Since divestiture and with more intelligent software in switching offices, these designations have become less firm. The class 5 switch was the closest to the end subscriber. Technology has distributed technology closer to the end user, diffusing traditional definitions of network switching hierarchies and the class of switches. T.120 ITU-T Recommendation T.120 (07/96) - Data protocols for multimedia conferencing TAPI Telephony Application Programming Interface TCP Transport Control Protocol telecommunications A LEC, a CLEC, an IXC, an Enhanced Service carrier Provider (ESP), an intelligent peripheral (IP), an international/global point-of-presence (GPOP), i.e., any provider of telecommunications services. transmission control TCP/IP is a protocol that provides communications protocol/internet between interconnected networks. The TCP/IP protocol protocol (TCP/IP) is widely used on the Internet, which is a network comprising several large networks connected by high- speed connections. transmission control TCP is an end-to-end protocol that operates at the protocol (TCP) transport and sessions layers of OSI, providing delivery of data bytes between processes running in host computers via separation and sequencing of IP packets. trunk A trunk connects an access tandem (AT) to an end office (EO). UDP User Datagram Protocol Voice over Internet Founded in 1996 by Cisco, Dialogic, Microsoft, US Protocol (VoIP) Robotics, VocalTec, and several other leading firms, VoIP is working to develop and promote standards for IP telephony. The VoIP efforts consist primarily of building on and complementing existing standards, like H.323. wide area network A WAN is a data network that extends a LAN over the (WAN) circuits of a telecommunications carrier. The carrier is typically a common carrier. A bridging switch or a router is used to connect the LAN to the WAN. V. CONCLUSION While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.
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US20090219943A1-20090903
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INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM, INFORMATION PROCESSOR, SERVER, INFORMATION PROCESSING METHOD AND PROGRAM
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ACCEPTED
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20090819
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20090903
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[]
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H04L1256
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["H04L1256"]
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7979586
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20070823
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20110712
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709
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230000
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97207.0
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BHATIA
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AJAY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Gobara", "inventor_name_first": "Kunio", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Maekawa", "inventor_name_first": "Hajime", "inventor_city": "Osaka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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An information processor (1) comprises: a history packet transmitter (11) for transmitting a history packet; a request packet transmitter (12) for transmitting a request packet requesting transmission of a return packet; a packet transmission controller (13) for controlling transmission of a request packet by using a binary search method; a return packet receiver (14) for receiving a return packet transmitted from a server (3); and a port keeping time detector (15) for detecting the port keeping time of a communication processor (2) based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver (14). The server (3) includes: a request packet receiver (31) for receiving a request packet; and a return packet transmitter (32) for transmitting a return packet to a port of the communication processor (2) where a history packet passed when the request packet receiver (31) received a request packet. This configuration provides an information processing system for detecting the port keeping time of the communication processor.
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1-35. (canceled) 36. An information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing on communications between said information processor and said server; said information processor including: a history packet transmitter for transmitting via a port of said communication processor a history packet as a packet for leaving a transmission history in said communication processor; a request packet transmitter for transmitting to said server, via a port different from a history port as the port of a communication processor where said history packet has passed, one or more request packets as packets for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from said server; a return packet receiver for receiving a return packet transmitted from said server via said history port; a packet transmission controller for controlling transmission of a request packet by said request packet transmitter by using a binary search method based on reception of a return packet by said return packet receiver; and a port keeping time detector for detecting the port keeping time of said communication processor based on reception of a return packet by said return packet receiver; said server including: a request packet receiver for receiving said request packet; and a return packet transmitter for transmitting said return packet to said history port upon reception of a request packet by said request packet receiver. 37. The information processing system according to claim 36, said server further including: a history packet receiver for receiving said history packet; and a destination information storage for storing destination information as information concerning the destination of said return packet based on a history packet received by said history packet receiver; wherein said return packet transmitter transmits said return packet based on the destination information stored by said destination information storage. 38. The information processing system according to claim 36, wherein said request packet includes destination information as information concerning the destination of said return packet and said return packet transmitter transmits said return packet based on the destination information included in a request packet received by said request packet receiver. 39. The information processing system according to claim 36, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time based on a wait time during which said return packet receiver has successfully received a return packet that reached said communication processor at the end of a wait time among the wait times as times from a point in time a return packet reached said communication processor to a point in time a packet passed through said history port just before. 40. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time based on a wait time during which said return packet receiver has successfully received a return packet that reached said communication processor at the end of the wait time and which is the longest wait time of said wait times. 41. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet and said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter at the beginning of said wait time, wherein said port keeping time detector detects the port keeping time of said communication processor also based on transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter, and wherein in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted. 42. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet or said return packet, wherein said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls said history packet transmitter to engage the history packet transmitter to transmit a history packet at the beginning of a next wait time in case said return packet receiver has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet, wherein said port keeping time detector detects the port keeping time of said communication processor also based on transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter, and wherein, in said port keeping time detector, in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted, and in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said return packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said return packet was received. 43. The information processing system according to claim 38, said server further including a history packet receiver for receiving said history packet, wherein in case said packet receiver has received a history packet, said return packet transmitter transmits a return packet including at least information indicating the position of said history port, and wherein said destination information includes information indicating the position of said history port. 44. The information processing system according to claim 43, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time based on a wait time during which said return packet receiver has successfully received a return packet that reached said communication processor at the end of a wait time among the wait times as times from a point in time a return packet reached said communication processor to a point in time a packet passed through said history port just before. 45. The information processing system according to claim 44, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time based on a wait time during which said return packet receiver has successfully received a return packet that reached said communication processor at the end of the wait time and which is the longest wait time of said wait times. 46. The information processing system according to claim 44, wherein a return packet corresponding to said history packet is transmitted while bypassing said history port, wherein a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet and said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter at the beginning of said wait time, wherein said port keeping time detector detects the port keeping time of said communication processor also based on transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter, and wherein, in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted. 47. The information processing system according to claim 44, wherein a return packet corresponding to said history packet is transmitted while bypassing said history port and a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet or a return packet corresponding to said request packet, wherein said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls said history packet transmitter to engage the history packet transmitter to transmit a history packet at the beginning of a next wait time in case said return packet receiver has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet, wherein said port keeping time detector detects the port keeping time of said communication processor also based on transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter, and wherein, in said port keeping time detector, in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said history packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted, and in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is said return packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said return packet was received. 48. The information processing system according to claim 44, wherein a return packet corresponding to said history packet is transmitted via said history port, wherein a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is a return packet corresponding to said history packet, wherein said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls transmission of a history packet by said history packet transmitter at the beginning of said wait time, wherein, in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to said history packet was received. 49. The information processing system according to claim 44, wherein a return packet corresponding to said history packet is transmitted via said history port, wherein a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is a return packet corresponding to said history packet or a return packet corresponding to said request packet, wherein said packet transmission controller controls transmission of said request packet as well as controls said history packet transmitter to engage the history packet transmitter to transmit a history packet at the beginning of a next wait time in case said return packet receiver has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet, wherein, in said port keeping time detector, in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is a return packet corresponding to said history packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time said history packet was transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to said history packet was received, and in case a packet that passes through said history port at the beginning of said wait time is a return packet corresponding to said request packet, a point in time a packet passed through said history port as the beginning of said wait time is a point in time a return packet corresponding to said request packet was received. 50. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein said packet transmitter uses a binary search method to determine a wait time based on whether a return packet has been received by said return packet receiver and controls said request packet transmitter to engage the request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet to implement the wait time. 51. The information processing system according to claim 50, wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver and a return packet corresponding to one or more request packets has been successfully received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has not been received and the longest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet that has been successfully received by said return packet receiver so far, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined and wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has been successfully received by said return packet receiver, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has been successfully received and the shortest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet, that has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. 52. The information processing system according to claim 50, wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver and a return packet corresponding to one or more request packets has been successfully received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has not been received and the longest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet that has been successfully received by said return packet receiver so far, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined and wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has been successfully received by said return packet receiver, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has been successfully received and the shortest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet, that has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. 53. The information processing system according to claim 50, wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver and a return packet corresponding to a request packets has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a wait time shorter than a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has not been received, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. 54. The information processing system according to claim 50, wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by said return packet receiver and a return packet corresponding to a request packets has not been received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be half a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has not been received, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. 55. The information processing system according to claim 50, wherein said packet transmission controller determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has been successfully received by said return packet receiver and a return packet corresponding to a request packets has always been successfully received by said return packet receiver so far, a wait time will be a wait time longer than a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has been successfully received, and controls said request packet transmitter to engage said request packet transmitter to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. 56. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a return packet reached said communication processor as the end of said wait time is a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of said return packet was transmitted. 57. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a return packet reached said communication processor as the end of said wait time is a point in time said return packet was received. 58. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein in said port keeping time detector, a point in time a return packet reached the history port of said communication processor as the end of said wait time is a point in time said return packet was received in case said return packet was successfully received, and a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of the return packet was transmitted in case said return packet was not received. 59. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein, in said packet transmission controller, a point in time a return packet reached the history port of said communication processor as the end of said wait time is a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of said return packet was transmitted. 60. The information processing system according to claim 39, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time in case the difference between a wait time corresponding to a request packet transmitted by said request packet transmitter and a wait time corresponding to a request packet transmitted immediately before the request packet has become smaller than a predetermined value. 61. The information processing system according to any one of claims 36 to 38, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time in case said return packet receiver has received a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission by said request packet transmitter. 62. The information processing system according to any one of claims 36 to 38, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time in case a request packet has been transmitted a predetermined number of times. 63. The information processing system according to claim 36, wherein said port keeping time detector detects said port keeping time when a predetermined time has elapsed since processing concerning detection of a port keeping time started. 64. The information processing system according to claim 36, wherein said history port is assigned anew to said communication processor each time a first history packet passes through the port. 65. An information processor composing the information processing system according to claim 36. 66. A server composing the information processing system according to claim 36. 67. An information processing method used in said information processor composing an information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between said information processor and said server; said method including: a history packet transmitting step of transmitting via a port of said communication processor a history packet as a packet for leaving a transmission history in said communication processor; a request packet transmitting step of transmitting to said server, via a port different from the history port as the port of said communication processor where said history packet has passed, a request packet as a packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from said server; a return packet receiving step of receiving a return packet transmitted from said server via said history port; and a port keeping time detecting step of detecting the port keeping time of said communication processor based on reception of a return packet in said return packet receiving step; wherein said method transmits a request packet in said request packet transmitting step by using a binary search method based on reception of a return packet by said return packet receiving step. 68. An information processing method used in said information processor composing an information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between said information processor and said server; wherein said information processor uses a binary search method to transmit to said server a request packet as a packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from said server to said information processor via said communication processor; said method including: a request packet receiving step of receiving said request packet; and a return packet transmitting step of transmitting said return packet to a history port as a port of said communication processor where a history packet transmitted from said information processor in order to leave a transmission history in said communication processor upon reception of a request packet in said request packet receiving step. 69. A computer program product embodied on a computer readable medium which, when executed by a computer, cause the computer to perform data processing in an information processor composing an information processing system comprising an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between said information processor and said server; said processing comprising: a history packet transmitting step of transmitting via a port of said communication processor a history packet as a packet for leaving a transmission history in said communication processor; a request packet transmitting step of transmitting to said server, via a port different from the history port as the port of said communication processor where said history packet has passed, a request packet as a packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from said server; a return packet receiving step of receiving a return packet transmitted from said server via said history port; and a port keeping time detecting step of detecting the port keeping time of said communication processor based on reception of a return packet in said return packet receiving step; wherein said program transmits a request packet in said request packet transmitting step by using a binary search method based on reception of a return packet by said return packet receiving step. 70. A computer program product embodied on a computer readable medium which, when executed by a computer, cause the computer to perform data processing in an information processor composing an information processing system comprising an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between said information processor and said server; wherein said information processor uses a binary search method to transmit to said server a request packet as a packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from said server to said information processor via said communication processor; and said processing comprises: a request packet receiving step of receiving said request packet; and a return packet transmitting step of transmitting said return packet to a history port as a port of said communication processor where a history packet transmitted from said information processor in order to leave a transmission history in said communication processor upon reception of a request packet in said request packet receiving step.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In an information processing system including an information processor, a communication processor and a server, for example a predetermined packet is periodically transmitted to a server from an information processor such as a PC (Personal Computer) for home use or a home appliance via a communication processor. Details of this technique are disclosed for example in the pamphlet (Page 1, FIG. 1 and the like) of the International Publication 2004/030292. The communication processor may be a router including the NAT (Network Address Translation) feature. The predetermined packet is periodically transmitted to maintain a port of a communication processor (to keep a packet from a WAN being transmitted to an information processor via a communication processor) in order to detect whether the IP address of the WAN (Wide Area Network) of the communication processor has changed or to make an access to the information processor from an external device such as a cell phone via a server. In a communication processor including the NAT feature such as a router, the private IP address and the port number of a LAN (Local Area Network) are converted to the global IP address and the port number of a WAN when a packet is transmitted from the LAN to the WAN. In case a return packet is received from the WAN, reverse conversion is made and a resulting packet is passed to an information processor. The communication processor has time for such address conversion set therein. To be more precise, when a predetermined time has elapsed since an address conversion was last performed between a WAN and a LAN, the address conversion on a packet received from the WAN is no longer performed (address conversion is performed anew on a packet received from the LAN). That is, the packet from the WAN is not received by the information processor. This means that an external device such as a cell phone cannot access the information processor via a server. The predetermined period is hereinafter called the port keeping time. In the above information processing system, the communication processor must be always ready to perform address conversion on a packet received from a server (from a WAN) in order for the information processor to receive information from the server. Thus, even in case it is unnecessary to exchange information between an information processor and a server, packets must be periodically transmitted from information processor to the server via a communication processor so as to enable the communication processor to perform address conversion on a packet transmitted from the server. A demand accompanies this practice that the transmission period of a packet to be periodically transmitted by the information processor should be as long as possible. This is to reduce transmission of unnecessary packets and the processing load on the information processor caused by transmission of packets. In particular, it suffices to shorten the transmission period of packets to be periodically transmitted by the information processor by a small amount (for example one or two seconds) with respect to the port keeping time of the communication processor to which the information processor is connected. It is not known what type of communication processor the information processor will be connected to. In general, the period corresponding to the shortest port keeping time among those of the variety of communication processors available from manufacturers is set to the information processor and packets are transmitted using this period. In this case, even with the information processor connected to the communication processor having a long port keeping time, packets are transmitted in a preset short period, which results in transmission of numerous unnecessary packets.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to Embodiment 1 of the invention. FIG. 2 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 3A explains a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 3B explains a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4A explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4B explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4C explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5A explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5B explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5C explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing the operation of a server according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9A shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9B shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9C shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 11 shows an example of destination information according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 12 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 13 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 14 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 15 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to Embodiment 2 of the invention. FIG. 17 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18A explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18B explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18C explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 19 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 20 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 21 is a flowchart showing the operation of a server according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22A shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22B shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22C shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22D shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 23 explains setting of a wait time. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an information processing system or the like for detecting the port keeping time of a communication processor. BACKGROUND ART In an information processing system including an information processor, a communication processor and a server, for example a predetermined packet is periodically transmitted to a server from an information processor such as a PC (Personal Computer) for home use or a home appliance via a communication processor. Details of this technique are disclosed for example in the pamphlet (Page 1, FIG. 1 and the like) of the International Publication 2004/030292. The communication processor may be a router including the NAT (Network Address Translation) feature. The predetermined packet is periodically transmitted to maintain a port of a communication processor (to keep a packet from a WAN being transmitted to an information processor via a communication processor) in order to detect whether the IP address of the WAN (Wide Area Network) of the communication processor has changed or to make an access to the information processor from an external device such as a cell phone via a server. In a communication processor including the NAT feature such as a router, the private IP address and the port number of a LAN (Local Area Network) are converted to the global IP address and the port number of a WAN when a packet is transmitted from the LAN to the WAN. In case a return packet is received from the WAN, reverse conversion is made and a resulting packet is passed to an information processor. The communication processor has time for such address conversion set therein. To be more precise, when a predetermined time has elapsed since an address conversion was last performed between a WAN and a LAN, the address conversion on a packet received from the WAN is no longer performed (address conversion is performed anew on a packet received from the LAN). That is, the packet from the WAN is not received by the information processor. This means that an external device such as a cell phone cannot access the information processor via a server. The predetermined period is hereinafter called the port keeping time. In the above information processing system, the communication processor must be always ready to perform address conversion on a packet received from a server (from a WAN) in order for the information processor to receive information from the server. Thus, even in case it is unnecessary to exchange information between an information processor and a server, packets must be periodically transmitted from information processor to the server via a communication processor so as to enable the communication processor to perform address conversion on a packet transmitted from the server. A demand accompanies this practice that the transmission period of a packet to be periodically transmitted by the information processor should be as long as possible. This is to reduce transmission of unnecessary packets and the processing load on the information processor caused by transmission of packets. In particular, it suffices to shorten the transmission period of packets to be periodically transmitted by the information processor by a small amount (for example one or two seconds) with respect to the port keeping time of the communication processor to which the information processor is connected. It is not known what type of communication processor the information processor will be connected to. In general, the period corresponding to the shortest port keeping time among those of the variety of communication processors available from manufacturers is set to the information processor and packets are transmitted using this period. In this case, even with the information processor connected to the communication processor having a long port keeping time, packets are transmitted in a preset short period, which results in transmission of numerous unnecessary packets. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The invention has been accomplished in view of the above problems. An object of the invention is to provide an information processing system capable of detecting the port keeping time of a communication processor to which an information processor is connected. In order to attain the object, the invention provides an information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing on communications between the information processor and the server; the information processor including: a history packet transmitter for transmitting via one port of the communication processor a plurality of history packets as packets for leaving a transmission history in the communication processor; a request packet transmitter for transmitting to the server, via a port different from a history port as the port of a communication processor where the history packets have passed, one or more request packets as packets for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from the server; a return packet receiver for receiving a return packet transmitted from the server via the history port; a packet transmission controller for controlling transmission of a request packet by the request packet transmitter by using a binary search method based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver; and a port keeping time detector for detecting the port keeping time of the communication processor based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver; the server including: a request packet receiver for receiving the request packet; and a return packet transmitter for transmitting the return packet to the history port upon reception of a request packet by the request packet receiver. With this configuration, it is possible to detect the port keeping time of a communication processor based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver transmitted in response to a request packet. It is thus possible to efficiently transmit a request packet by using the binary search method and thus efficiently detect a port keeping time. For example, by using the detected port keeping time, it is possible to periodically transmit a packet. As a result, for example, it is possible to avoid transmitting an unnecessary packet. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to Embodiment 1 of the invention. FIG. 2 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 3A explains a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 3B explains a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4A explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4B explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 4C explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5A explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5B explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 5C explains the end of a wait time according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing the operation of a server according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9A shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9B shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 9C shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 11 shows an example of destination information according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 12 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 13 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 14 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 15 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to Embodiment 2 of the invention. FIG. 17 explains transmission/reception of packets according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18A explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18B explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 18C explains the beginning of a wait time according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 19 is a flowchart showing the operation of an information processor according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 20 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 21 is a flowchart showing the operation of a server according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22A shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22B shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22C shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 22D shows an example of packet structure according to Embodiment 2. FIG. 23 explains setting of a wait time. DESCRIPTION OF THE REFERENCE NUMERALS AND SIGNS 1, 4: Information processor 2: Communication processor 3, 5: Server 11: History packet transmitter 12, 41: Request packet transmitter 13: Packet transmission controller 14, 42: Return packet receiver 15: Port keeping time detector 31: Request packet receiver 32: Return packet transmitter 33: History packet receiver 34: Destination information storage 51: Return packet transmitter BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Embodiments of the invention will be detailed below using embodiments of the invention. In the following embodiments, components having a same sign are identical or correspond to each other so that repetitive description may be omitted. Embodiment 1 An information processing system according to Embodiment 1 of the invention will be described referring to drawings. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to this embodiment. In FIG. 1, the information processing system according to this embodiment comprises an information processor 1, a communication processor 2 and a server 3. While a single information processor 1 is connected to a communication processor 2 in FIG. 1, two or more information processors may be connected to the communication processor 2. The information processor 1 may be a computer, an electronic oven, a telephone set, a printer, a facsimile, a refrigerator, a washing machine, an air-conditioner, a television, a video recorder, or a set-top box. The communication processor 2 and the server 3 are interconnected via a wired or wireless communication circuit 100. The communication circuit 100 is for example the Internet, an intranet, or a public switched telephone network (PSTN). The information processor 1 includes a history packet transmitter 11, a request packet transmitter 12, a packet transmission controller 13, a return packet receiver 14 and a port keeping time detector 15. The history packet transmitter 11 transmits a plurality of history packets to the server 3. The history packets are transmitted via one port of the communication processor 2. The history packet refers to a packet used to leave a transmission history in the communication processor 2. The history packet is transmitted in order to determine the reference time of measuring the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 or to determine the destination of a return packet described later. The history packet is for example a UDP packet. The payload of the history packet includes or does not include some information. The port of the communication processor 2 to connect to the communication circuit 100 where a history packet passed is hereinafter referred to as a history port. The history packet transmitter 11 may include a transmitting device for packet transmission such as a modem or a network card. In case the history packet transmitter 11 does not include a transmitting device, a transmitting device (not shown) should be arranged between the history packet transmitter 11 and the communication processor 2. The history packet transmitter 11 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a transmitting device. The request packet transmitter 12 transmits one or more request packets to the server 3. The request packet transmitter 12 transmits a request packet via a port of the communication processor 2 separate from the history port. The return packet is a packet transmitted from the server 3 to the history port of the communication processor 2. The request packet is a packet that requests transmission of a return packet. The request packet is for example a UDP packet. The payload of the request packet includes or does not include some information. The request packet may include a notice that the packet is a request packet instead of an instruction or a command to transmit a return packet so as to allow the server 3 to determine that it is a request packet. The request packet transmitter 12 may include a transmitting device for packet transmission such as a modem or a network card. In case the request packet transmitter 12 does not include a transmitting device, a transmitting device (not shown) should be arranged between the request packet transmitter 12 and the communication processor 2. The request packet transmitter 12 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a transmitting device. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet by the request packet transmitter 12. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver 14 mentioned later. “Based on reception of a return packet” means “based on whether a return packet is received by the return packet receiver 14. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet by using the binary search method. The binary search method will be described later. Control of transmission of a request packet includes control of the transmit timing of a request packet by the request packet transmitter 12. Details of this processing will be described later. The return packet receiver 14 receives a return packet transmitted from the server 3. The return packet is transmitted via the history port of the communication processor 2. As described later, the return packet receiver 14 does not receive all return packets transmitted from the server 3. This is because a return packet that has reached the communication processor 2 after the port keeping time of a history port that has elapsed among the return packets transmitted from the server 3 is not transmitted from the communication processor 2 to the information processor 1. The return packet receiver 14 may include a receiving device for reception such as a modem or a network card. In case the history packet transmitter 11 does not include a receiving device, a receiving device (not shown) should be arranged between the return packet receiver 14 and the communication processor 2. The return packet receiver 14 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a receiving device. The port keeping time detector 15 detects the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver 14. “Based on reception of a return packet” means “based on whether a return packet is received or by using the timing a return packet is received.” Specific operation of the port keeping time detector 15 will be described later. The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time based on transmission of a history packet as well as reception of a return packet. The port keeping time detector 15 may detect the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 or a port keeping time shorter than the port keeping time of the communication processor 2. For example, in case the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “2 minutes”, the port keeping time detector 15 may detect the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 as “2 minutes” or “1 minute”. Detection of a port keeping time by the port keeping time detector 15 will be described later. In the following description, the “port keeping time” may refer to information indicating the port keeping time detected by the port keeping time detector 15. In case two or more components of the history packet transmitter 11, request packet transmitter 12 and return packet receiver 14 each has a device related to communications, the devices may be the same means or separate means. The communication processor 2 performs processing related to communications between the information processor 1 and the server 3. The communication processor 2 according to this embodiment has the NAT feature and is called a router or the like. The communication processor 2 according to this embodiment converts the address information of a sending party included in a packet transmitted from the information processor 1 (that is address information of the information processor 1) to the address information of the communication processor 2 on the WAN side. To be more specific, the communication processor 2 converts a source (sending party) address (Address A as a private IP address) and a source (sending party) port number (Port number B) included in a packet transmitted from the information processor 1 to the global IP address (Address X) and the port number (Port number Y) of the communication processor 2 on the WAN side. A packet transmitted from the server 3 to Address X and Port Number Y of the communication processor 2 on the WAN side has its destination Address X and Port Number Y converted to Address A and Port Number B of the information processor 1 before it is transmitted to the information processor 1. The global IP address is an address used by an information processor to communicate with an external device such as an external device connected to a WAN including the Internet. In general, the global IP address is an address used in a WAN environment. In case an electronic device communicates with a device connected to a LAN such as an intranet via a router having the NAT feature, the global IP address may be an address used on the LAN. The IP address may be a current so-called IPv4 address or an address of another version such as an IPv6 address. In case a reception filter rule is set to the communication processor 2, packet reception takes place in accordance with the reception filter rule. Assuming that the address and port number of the destination of a packet as Address P and Port Number Q respectively, the reception filter rules include, in a case where a packet destined to Address P and Port Number Q as the destination address and port number is transmitted from the LAN side of the communication processor 2 to the WAN side, an Address Sensitive filter that receives only a packet from Address P, a Port Sensitive filter that receives only a packet from Port Number Q, and a No filter as an non-existent filter (that receives any packet from any address or any port number) are available. The process of the communication processor 2 receiving a packet means a process where the communication processor 2 accepts a packet from the WAN at a port of the communication processor 2 assigned to a packet transmitted from the information processor 1 on the LAN side, performs address conversion on the packet, and transmits the resulting packet to the information processor 1 on the LAN side. As described in the above related art example, the period when the address conversion in the communication processor 2 takes place has a predetermined restriction. That is, address conversion between Address A and Port Number B and Address X and Port Number Y is no longer made at a point in time the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 has elapsed since address conversion was last performed between both parties. Even in case a packet is transmitted to Address X and Port Number Y via the communication circuit 100 after the port keeping time has elapsed, address conversion does not take place in the communication processor 2 and thus the information processor 1 does not receive the packet. The server 3 includes a request packet receiver 31, a return packet transmitter 32, a history packet receiver 33 and a destination information storage 34. The request packet receiver 31 receives a request packet transmitted from the information processor 1. The request packet receiver 31 may include a receiving device for packet reception such as a modem or a network card. In case the request packet receiver 31 does not include a receiving device, a receiving device (not shown) should be arranged between the request packet receiver 31 and the communication circuit 100. The request packet receiver 31 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a receiving device. When the request packet receiver 31 receives a request packet, the return packet transmitter 32 transmits a return packet to a history port of the communication processor 2. The return packet transmitter 32 transmits a return packet based on the destination information stored by the destination information storage 34 described later. That is, the return packet transmitter 32 transmits a return packet to the address and port number indicated by the destination information. The return packet is for example a UDP packet. The payload of the request packet may include some information. The return packet transmitter 32 may include a transmitting device for packet transmission such as a modem or a network card. In case the return packet transmitter 32 does not include a transmitting device, a transmitting device (not shown) should be arranged between the return packet transmitter 32 and the communication circuit 100. The return packet transmitter 32 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a transmitting device. The history packet receiver 33 receives a history packet transmitted from the information processor 1. The history packet receiver 33 may include a receiving device for packet reception such as a modem or a network card. In case the history packet receiver 33 does not include a receiving device, a receiving device (not shown) should be arranged between the history packet receiver 33 and the communication circuit 100. The history packet receiver 33 may be implemented by hardware or software such as a driver for driving a receiving device. The destination information storage 34 stores the destination information onto a predetermined storage medium based on a history packet received by the history packet receiver 33. The destination information refers to information concerning the destination of a return packet. To be more precise, the destination information storage 34 reads a source address and a source port number included in the header of the history packet received by the history packet receiver 33 and stores destination information including the source address and the source port number. The source address of the history packet is the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 and the source port number of the history packet is the port of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100, that is, the port number indicating the position of the history port. The predetermined storage medium onto which the destination information is stored may be a semiconductor memory, an optical disk or a magnetic disk that is included in the destination information storage 34 or provided outside the destination information storage 34. In case two or more components of The request packet receiver 31, the return packet transmitter 32, and the history packet receiver 33 each has a device related to communications, the devices may be the same means or separate means. The ports where a history packet, a request packet and a return packet pass will be described in detail. FIG. 2 explains the ports a history packet, a request packet and a return packet pass through. As shown in FIG. 2, a history packet transmitted from the information processor 1 is transmitted from Port P1. The history packet passes through Port P2 of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 and is received at Port P3 of the server 3. Port P2 is the history port. Port P2 of the communication processor 2 a history packet passes through is assigned anew by the communication processor 2 when the first history packet passes through Port P2. That is, it is important to transmit a history packet by using a port of the communication processor 2 not used by communications to another information processor or a server. For example, in case Port P2 is used for another purpose till then and other communications were made via Port P2 from transmission of a history packet to transmission of a return packet, it is impossible to detect a precise port keeping time. In order for Port P2 to be assigned anew by the communication processor 2 when the first history packet passes, a new port, that is, a port that has not been used in other communications may be used as Port P1 of the information processor 1. After that, a request packet is transmitted from Port P4 of the information processor 1. The request packet is transmitted to Port P6 of the server 3 via Port P5 of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. Port P2 must be different from Ports P5. This is because a precise port keeping time cannot be detected in case a request packet is transmitted via Port P2 from transmission of a history packet to transmission of a return packet. In order for Port P2 to be different from Port P5, Port P1 and Port P4 of the information processor 1 should be different from each other, for example. Or, depending on the type of the port assignment rule of the communication processor 2, Port P3 and Port P6 should be only different from each other even in case Port P1 and Port P4 are identical. In case Port P1 and Port P4 are different from each other, Port P2 is different from Port P5 even in case Port P3 and Port P6 are identical. A return packet is transmitted from Port P3 that has received a history packet. In case a port keeping time has not yet elapsed, the return packet is received by Port P1 of the information processor 1 via Port P2 of the communication processor 2. In case a port keeping time has elapsed, a return packet is not transmitted from the communication processor 2 to the information processor 1. As understood from FIG. 2, in the information processing system according to this embodiment, a history packet and a return packet pass through the single Port P2 of the communication processor 2. In case a history packet is transmitted from Port 1 to Port 3 after the port keeping time related to Port P2 has elapsed, a new port may be assigned to the communication processor 2 such as Port P7 different from Port P2, or Port P2 may be used again. This depends on the specifications of the communication processor 2. In any case, processing is almost the same with Port P2 changed to Port P7 or the like. It is thus assumed that Port P2 is assigned for a history packet transmitted from Port P1 of the information processor 1 after the port keeping time has elapsed for ease of explanation. While in the above case a return packet is transmitted from Port P3 that has received a history packet, a return packet need not be transmitted from Port P3 depending on the receiving filter rule of the communication processor 2. While a history packet is transmitted to the server 3 in the above description, a history packet may be transmitted to another server instead of the server 3 depending on the type of the communication processor 2. In such a case, information concerning the position of a history port may be passed to the server 3 from a server that has received the history packet. Next, detection of a port keeping time will be described. First, the “wait time” is defined. The wait time is a time from a point in time a return packet reached the communication processor 2 to a point in time a packet passed through a history port just before. As processing on the communication processor 2 assumed after a return packet has reached the communication processor 2, there may be a case where the return packet undergoes address conversion on the communication processor 2 and is transmitted to the information processor 1 and a case where the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 has elapsed and the return packet does not undergo address conversion on the communication processor 2. Roughly speaking, the wait time has two patterns. Pattern 1 corresponds to a case where a history packet passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. Pattern 2 corresponds to a case where a return packet passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. The beginning of a wait time refers to the point in time at the beginning of a wait time. First, Pattern 1 will be described, FIG. 3A illustrates Pattern 1. When a history packet is transmitted from the information processor 1, the history packet passes through the history port of the communication processor 2. When a request packet is transmitted from the information processor 1 after a while, the request packet is received by the server 3, from which a return packet is transmitted from the server 3 to the history port of the communication processor 2. The return packet reaches the history port of the communication processor 2 and is transmitted to the information processor 1 in case the port keeping time has not yet elapsed. The return packet is not transmitted to the information processor 1 in case the port keeping time has elapsed. In this way, the period from when a history packet passes through the communication processor 2 to when a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 is called a wait time. Next, Pattern 2 will be described. FIG. 3B illustrates Pattern 2. A return packet is transmitted from the server 3 in response to a request packet transmitted from the information processor 1. In case the port keeping time related to the history port has not yet elapsed, the return packet passes through the history port of the communication processor 2 and is received by the information processor 1. A request packet is transmitted from the information processor 1 after a while, and a return packet is transmitted from the server 3 in response to the request packet. This processing is the same as that in Pattern 1. In this case, the time from when the return packet passes through the communication processor 2 to when the next return packet reaches the communication processor 2 is a wait time. At the beginning of the wait time of Pattern 2, the return packet must reach the communication processor 2 as well as the return packet must be transmitted from the communication processors 2 to the information processor 1. In case the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet reaching the history port of the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time, the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is longer than the wait time. In case the information processor 1 has failed to receive a return packet reaching the history port of the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time, the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is shorter than the wait time. The end of a wait time refers to the end point in time of the wait time. In this way, by measuring a wait time and determining whether the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet reaching the history port of the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time, it is possible to measure the port keeping time of the communication processor 2. Thus, the port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time based on a wait time during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time among one or more wait times. For example, the port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time based on a wait time during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time and whichever is the longest wait time of one or more wait times. The expression “detect a port keeping time based on a wait time during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time” means that the wait time may be detected as a port keeping time or a time different from the wait time may be detected as a port keeping time. In the latter case, a wait time obtained by subtracting a predetermined time such as two or three seconds from the original wait time may be detected as a port keeping time. The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time based on a wait time which is not the longest wait time of the wait times during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time. For example, the port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time based on a wait time which is the second longest wait time of the wait times during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time. As long as the port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time based on any wait time among those wait times of 1 or more during which the return packet receiver 14 has successfully received a return packet reaching the communication processor 2 at the end of a wait time, any detection method may be used. Next, the beginning of a wait time will be described. Packets that pass through a history port at the beginning of a wait time include a history packet and a return packet as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. There may be two patterns in measuring a wait time. In the first pattern, a history packet exclusively passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time (Pattern A). In the second pattern, in case the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet, the return packet is assumed as a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time, and in case the information processor 1 has failed to receive a return packet, a new history packet is transmitted and the history packet is assumed as a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time (Pattern. B). In the following description, the two patterns will be discussed. Note that any other pattern may be used and the invention is not limited to the two patterns. [Pattern A] FIG. 4A explains Pattern A. In Pattern A, as shown in FIG. 4A, the information processor 1 transmits a history packet at the beginning of a wait time irrespective of whether the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet. Thus, a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a history packet A history packet is transmitted at the beginning of the first wait time as well. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet as well as transmission of a history packet by the history packet transmitter 11 at the beginning of a wait time. In other words, the packet transmission controller 13 controls the history packet transmitter 11 so that a history packet will be transmitted at the beginning of a wait time. In Pattern A, the port keeping time detector 15 detects the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver 14 as well as transmission of a history packet by the history packet transmitter 11. Strictly speaking, as shown in FIG. 3A, the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a history packet passes through the communication processor 2 although it is difficult for the information processor 1 to know the point in time a history packet passes through the communication processor 2. Thus, as shown in FIG. 4A, in the port keeping time detector 15, a point in time a history packet passes through the communication processor 2 as the beginning of a wait time is a point in time the history packet is transmitted. While two or more request packets are transmitted in FIG. 4A, a single request packet may be transmitted by the information processor 1. [Pattern B] FIGS. 4B and 4C explain Pattern B. In Pattern B, a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a history packet or a return packet. In case the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet, the information processor 1 does not transmit a history packet at the beginning of a wait time as shown in FIG. 4B and the return packet is a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. In case the information processor 1 has failed to receive a return packet, the information processor 1 transmits a history packet at the beginning of a wait time as shown in FIG. 4C and the history packet is a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. It is assumed that a history packet is transmitted at the beginning of a first wait time. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet as well as controls the history packet transmitter 11 to engage the history packet transmitter 11 to transmit a history packet at the beginning of a next wait time in case the return packet receiver 14 has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet. “A return packet corresponding to a request packet” refers to a return packet transmitted in case a request packet is received. In Pattern B, the port keeping time detector 15 detects the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiver 14 as well as transmission of a history packet by the history packet transmitter 11. Strictly speaking, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a history packet or a return packet passes through the communication processor 2 although it is difficult for the information processor 1 to know the point in time a history packet or a return packet passes through the communication processor 2. Thus, as shown in FIGS. 4B and 4C, in the port keeping time detector 15, in case a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a history packet, a point in time a packet passes through a history port as the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a history packet is transmitted, and in case a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a return packet, a point in time a packet passes through a history port as the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a return packet is received. Next, the end of a wait time will be described. The end of a wait time is a point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. It is however difficult for the information processor 1 to know the point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2. Thus, in measuring a wait time, the port keeping time detector 15 may assume that a point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 as the end of a wait time is a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of the return packet is transmitted as shown in FIG. 5A (This pattern is called Pattern C). In measuring a wait time, the port keeping time detector 15 may assume that a point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 as the end of a wait time is a point in time the return packet is received by the information processor 1 as shown in FIG. 5B (this pattern is called Pattern D). In measuring a wait time, in case the information processor 1 has successfully received a return packet, the port keeping time detector 15 may assume that a point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 as the end of a wait time is a point in time the return packet is received as shown in FIG. 5B, and in case the information processor 1 has failed to receive a return packet, the port keeping time detector 15 may assume that a point in time a return packet reaches the history port of the communication processor 2 as the end of a wait time is a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of the return packet is transmitted as shown in FIG. 5C (this pattern is called Pattern E). Note that any other pattern may be used and the invention is not limited to these three patterns. Port keeping time is detected based on a wait time during which a return packet transmitted at its end is received. Thus, the same port keeping time is detected in Pattern D and Pattern E. Next, control of transmission of a request packet by the packet transmission controller 13 will be described. The packet transmission controller 13 uses the binary search method to determine a wait time based on whether a return packet has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 and controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet to implement the wait time. Setting a wait time using the binary search method that is based on whether a return packet has been successfully received refers to setting, as the wait time of the next packet to be transmitted, a middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to a return packet successfully received by the information processor 1 and a wait time corresponding to a return packet not received by the information processor 1. The packet transmission controller 13 controls the transmission timing of a request packet so as to implement the wait time. The wait time corresponding to a return packet successfully received by the information processor 1 refers to a wait time a return packet transmitted at the end of which was successfully received by the information processor 1. The wait time corresponding to a return packet not received by the information processor 1 refers to a wait time a return packet transmitted at the end of which was not received by the information processor 1. In this way, by setting a wait time using the binary search method, it is possible to search for the longest wait time (port keeping time) at high speed among the wait times corresponding to return packets that may be received by the information processor 1. For setting of a wait time using the binary search method, in case a return packet corresponding to a first wait time was not received and a return packet corresponding to a second wait time (a time shorter than the first wait time) was not received, a middle wait time (a third wait time) between the first wait time and the second wait time is set as a wait time of the next request packet to be transmitted. In case the return packet corresponding to the third wait time has been successfully received, the middle wait time between the third wait time and the first wait time is set as the wait time of the next request packet to be transmitted. In case the return packet corresponding to the third wait time has not been received, the middle wait time between the third wait time and the second wait time is set as the wait time of the next request packet to be transmitted. The above processing is repeated thereafter. Details of the setting will be described later. While the beginning of a wait time used by the packet transmission controller 13 is the same as the beginning of a wait time used by the port keeping time detector 15, the end of a wait time used by the packet transmission controller 13 may be a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of a return packet is transmitted. That it, in the packet transmission controller 13, a point in time a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 as the end of a wait time may be a point in time a request packet requesting transmission of the return packet is transmitted. This is because it is not known whether the information processor 1 will receive a return packet transmitted in response to a request packet in a stage where the packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of the request packet, and it is impossible to know the point in time the return packet is received. As described above, the wait time used by the packet transmission controller 13 may be different from the wait time used by the port keeping time detector 15. Next, the timing the port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time will be described. The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time in case the difference between a wait time corresponding to a request packet transmitted by the request packet transmitter 12 and a wait time corresponding to a request packet transmitted immediately before the request packet is smaller than a predetermined value (such as 10 seconds or 5 seconds). The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time in case a return packet receiver 14 has received a return packet corresponding to a request packet first transmitted by the request packet transmitter 12. The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time in case a wait time is transmitted a predetermined number of times (for example four times). The port keeping time detector 15 may detect a port keeping time when a predetermined time (for example 10 minutes) has elapsed since the processing related to detection of a port keeping time started. The point in time the processing related to detection of a port keeping time started may be when the first history packet was transmitted. Next, operation of the information processor 1 according to this embodiment will be described using a flowchart. In this embodiment, the flowchart used depends on the pattern of the beginning of a wait time. Thus, respective flowcharts for Patterns A and B will be described. FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor 1 according to this embodiment in Pattern A. (Step S101) The packet transmission controller 13 sets a wait time as a time from when a history packet is transmitted to when a request packet is received. Setting of a wait time may be recording of a wait time into a predetermined memory or the like. In setting of the first wait time, a set time may be previously determined. (Step S102) The packet transmission controller 13 controls the history packet transmitter 11 to engage the history packet transmitter 11 to transmit a history packet to the server 3. As a result, the history packet is transmitted from the history packet transmitter 11 to the server 3 via the communication processor 2. (Step S103) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether timing is met for transmitting a request packet. In case timing is met for transmitting a request packet, execution proceeds to step S104. Otherwise, processing in step S103 is repeated until timing is met for transmitting a request packet. Whether timing is met for transmitting a request packet is determined based on whether a wait time set in step S101 or step S110 since a history packet was transmitted has elapsed. (Step S104) The packet transmission controller 13 controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet to the server 3. As a result, a request packet is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 12 to the server 3. (Step S105) The return packet receiver 14 determines whether it has received a return packet transmitted from the server 3 in response to the request packet transmitted in step S104. In case the return packet receiver 14 has received a return packet, execution proceeds to step S107. Otherwise, execution proceeds to step S106. (Step S106) The return packet receiver 14 determines whether a time-out has occurred. The time-out refers to elapse of a predetermined period such as 10 seconds since the request packet transmitter 12 transmitted a request packet. In case a time-out has occurred, execution proceeds to step S108. Otherwise, execution returns to step S105. (Step S107) The port keeping time detector 15 performs predetermined reception processing based on a received return packet. The predetermined reception processing may be storing as a wait time into a predetermined memory the period from a point in time a history packet was transmitted to a point in time a return packet was received. (Step S108) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether to detect a port keeping time. An example of a case under what conditions it is determined to detect a port keeping time has been described above. In case a port keeping time is to be detected, execution proceeds to step S109. Otherwise, execution proceeds to step S110. (Step S109) The port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time based on a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. This is the end of a series of processing to detect the port keeping time of the communication processor 2. (Step S110) The packet transmission controller 13 sets a wait time using the binary search method based on whether a return packet has been received. Execution returns to step S102. While a history packet in the first transmission and a history packet in the second transmission or later are transmitted under the control of the packet transmission controller 13 in the description of the flowchart of FIG. 6, a history packet in the first transmission may be transmitted based on the determination made by the history packet transmitter 11 rather than under the control of the packet transmission controller 13. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor 1 according to this embodiment in Pattern B. Processing other than steps S201 and S202 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 6 so that the corresponding description is omitted. The predetermined reception processing in step S107 may be storing as a wait time into a predetermined memory the period from a point in time a return packet was received to a point in time a next return packet was received in case the beginning of a wait time is reception of a return packet. (Step S201) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether timing is met for transmitting a request packet. In case timing is met for transmitting a request packet, execution proceeds to step S104. Otherwise, processing in step S201 is repeated until timing is met for transmitting a request packet. Whether timing is met for transmitting a request packet is determined based on whether a wait time set in step S101 or step S110 has elapsed since a history packet was transmitted in step S102 in case execution has proceeded from step S102 to step S201, or based on whether a wait time set in step S110 has elapsed since a return packet was received in step S105 in case execution has proceeded from step S202 to step S201. (Step S202) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether a return packet was received in step S105 or a time-out occurred in step S106. In case a return packet was received, execution proceeds to step S201. In case a time-out occurred, execution proceeds to step S102. In case it is determined that a time-out has occurred in step S106 in the flowcharts of FIGS. 6 and 7, for example, the port keeping time detector 15 may perform some processing upon time-out. Operation of the server 3 according to this embodiment will be described using the flowchart of FIG. 8. (Step S301) The history packet receiver 33 determines whether it has received a history packet transmitted from the information processor 1. In case the history packet receiver 33 has received a history packet, execution proceeds to step S302. Otherwise, execution proceeds to step S303. (Step S302) The destination information storage 34 reads a source address and a source port number from the header of the history packet received by the history packet receiver 33 and stores the destination information including the source address and the source port number onto a predetermined medium. Execution then returns to step S301. (Step S303) The request packet receiver 31 determines whether it has received a request packet. In case the request packet receiver 31 has received a request packet, execution proceeds to step S304. Otherwise, execution returns to step S301. (Step S304) The return packet transmitter 32 reads the destination information stored by the destination information storage 34. (Step S305) The return packet transmitter 32 transmits a request packet based on the destination information read in step S304. The destination of this return packet is an address and a port number indicated by the readout destination information. Execution then returns to step S301. In the flowchart of FIG. 8, processing is terminated by power off or a processing termination interrupt. Operation of the information processing system according to this embodiment will be described using specific examples. The examples include: a case where the beginning of a wait time is Pattern A and the end of a wait time is Pattern C (Example 1); a case where the beginning of a wait time is Pattern A and the end of a wait time is Pattern D (Example 2); and a case where the beginning of a wait time is Pattern B and the end of a wait time is Pattern E (Example 3). The examples will be described below. In the following examples, it is assumed that a port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time after a request packet is transmitted four times. In Example 1 and Example 2, it is assumed that the port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time in case the return packet receiver 14 has received a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission. In Example 3, it is assumed that, in case the return packet receiver 14 has received for the first time a return packet corresponding to a transmitted, the packet transmission controller 13 determines the timing for transmitting a return packet so that a wait time will be longer than a wait time corresponding to the received return packet and controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a return packet with the determined timing. In case a return packet is not received after 10 seconds have elapsed from a time point a request packet was transmitted, it is assumed that a time-out has occurred. The IP addresses of the information processor 1, communication processor 2 and server 3 are as follows. The IP address of the communication processor 2 is an address on the side of the communication circuit 100. Information processor 1: 192.168.0.1 Communication processor 2: 202.224.135.10 Server 3: 155.32.10.10 FIGS. 9A to 9C show the structure of a history packet, a request packet and a return packet in the following examples. Each of the history packet, request packet and return packet has a UDP header and includes packet type identification information in its payload. The packet type identification information is information to identify the packet type. The information processor 1 and the server 3 identify a packet as a history packet, a request packet or a return packet based on the packet type identification information. The payload of a history packet or a request packet includes device identification information. The device identification information is information to identify an information processor transmitting these packets. Based on the device identification information included in a history packet, the destination information storage 34 of the server 3 stores destination information in association with the device identification information. Based on the device identification information included in a request packet, the return packet transmitter 32 of the server 3 reads the destination information corresponding to the device identification information included in the request packet as well as transmit a return packet to a history port where a history packet transmitted from an information processor that transmitted the request packet. Example 1 FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing the processing in step S110 of the flowchart of FIG. 6 according to this example. (Step S401) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted just before has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14. That is, the packet transmission controller 13 determines whether a return packet has been received in the preceding step S105 or a time-out has occurred in step S106. In case a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14, execution proceeds to step S402. In case a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted has not been received by the return packet receiver 14, execution proceeds to step S403. (Step S402) The packet transmission controller 13 sets, as the wait time of a request packet to be transmitted next a wait time corresponding to the middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to a return packet successfully received just before and the shortest wait time of the wait times corresponding to return packets that have not been received by the return packet receiver 14. This is the end of the processing in step S110. In this example, in case a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission is successfully received, a port keeping time is detected. Thus, in case it is determined that a return packet has been successfully received in the determination in step S110 (flowchart of FIG. 10), it is assumed that a return packet has not been received before. Thus, step S402 is followed without determining whether a return packet has not been received before (refer to the flowchart of FIG. 14 in Example 3). (Step S403) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether a return packet corresponding to a request packet has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, that is, from when a first request packet was successfully received until the determination (the then determination in step S403). In case one or more return packets have been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, execution proceeds to step S404. Otherwise, execution proceeds to S405. (Step S404) The packet transmission controller 13 sets, as the wait time of a request packet to be transmitted next, a middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to a return packet not received just before and the longest wait time of the wait times corresponding to return packets that have been received by the return packet receiver 14. This is the end of the processing in step S110. (Step S405) The packet transmission controller 13 sets, as the wait time of a request packet to be transmitted next, a wait time half the wait time corresponding to a return packet that has not been received just before. This is the end of the processing in step S110. The middle wait time between a wait time and another wait time may be the middle wait time between both wait times in a strict sense or a wait time in the neighborhood of the middle of both wait times. The latter case may be a wait time obtained by rounding the middle wait time between both wait times to the nearest integer in seconds. Through setting of a wait time in the flowchart of FIG. 10, the packet transmission controller 13 performs the following control. The packet transmission controller 13 determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14, and a return packet corresponding to one or more request packets has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, a wait time will be a middle wait time between a wait time, corresponding to the return packet, that has not been received and the longest wait time of a return packet corresponding to a request packet that has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, and controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. The packet transmission controller 13 determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, a wait time will be a middle wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has been successfully received and the shortest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet, that has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, and controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. The packet transmission controller 13 determines the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 so far, a wait time will be a wait time half the wait time corresponding to the return packet that has not been received, and controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. In this example, it is assumed that the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is 1 minute 20 seconds. Determining that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time (for example the first activation of the information processor 1 or a reset caused by replacement of the communication processor 2), the packet transmission controller 13 of the information processor 1 sets a wait time to 2 minutes (step S101). After that, under the control of the packet transmission controller 13, the history packet transmitter 11 transmits a history packet having the structure shown in FIG. 9A to the IP address “155.32.10.10” of the server 3 (step S102). It is assumed that the payload of the history packet includes the device identification information “AAA”. It is assumed that the history packet is transmitted to the server 3 via a port having the port number “12345” of the communication processor 2 (hereinafter referred to as “Port 12345”, the same applies to other port numbers). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers from a point in time a history packet is transmitted. The history packet receiver 33 of the server 3 receives the history packet and passes the history packet to the destination information storage 34 (step S301). The destination information storage 34 reads the device identification information “AAA” from the payload of the history packet and the source address “202.224.135.10” and the destination port number “12345” from the header of the history packet. The destination information storage 34 stores the destination information including the source address and the source port number in association with the device identification information “AAA” (Step S302). FIG. 11 shows the correspondence between device identification information and destination information stored by the destination information storage 34. The first record in FIG. 11 includes device identification information and destination information corresponding to information processor 1. After that, the packet transmission controller 13 determines whether the preset wait time “2 minutes” has elapsed since time counting started, and at the point in time the timer has indicated 2 minutes, determines that timing is met for transmitting a request packet (step S103). The packet transmission controller 13 then controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet. As a result, a request packet having the structure shown in FIG. 9B is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 12 to the server 3 (step S104). The device identification information included in the request packet is “AAA”. As mentioned earlier, the request packet is transmitted from a port different from the port of the information processor 1 from which a history packet was transmitted. It is assumed that the request packet was transmitted via the port 12355 of the communication processor 2. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 stops time counting with the timing a request packet is transmitted and retains the then timer value “2 minutes” as a wait time. The request packet is received by the request packet receiver 31 of the server 3 and passed to the return packet transmitter 32 (step S303). The return packet transmitter 32 reads the device identification information “AAA” included in the payload of the request packet and also reads the destination information stored in association with the device identification information, that is, the IP address “202.224.135.10” and the port number “12345” (step S304). The return packet transmitter 32 transmits a return packet having the structure shown in FIG. 9C to the readout IP address and port number (step S305). The return packet reaches port 12345 of the communication processor 2 and the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” related to the port has elapsed so that the return packet is not transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet receiver 14 of the information processor 1 determines that a time-out has occurred at the point in time 10 seconds have elapsed since a request packet was transmitted (step S106) and passes a notice to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has not been received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 retain the notice that a return packet related to the wait time “2 minutes” has not been received. In this case, a request packet has not been transmitted four times and a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission has not been received. Thus, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that a port keeping time will not be detected (step S108). A return packet corresponding to the transmitted request packet was not received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S401) and a return packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 so far (step S403), so that the packet transmission controller 13 controls the request packet transmitter 12 to engage the request packet transmitter 12 to transmit a request packet having time information indicating the wait time “1 minute” that is half the wait time “2 minutes” corresponding to the return packet that has not been received. To be more precise, the packet transmission controller 13 set a wait time of 1 minute (steps S405, S110). Same as the above description, a history packet including the device identification information “AAA” in its payload is transmitted to the server 3 under the control of the packet transmission controller 13 (step S102). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers from a point in time the history packet is transmitted. In this case, the destination information is overwritten to the destination information in the server 3 corresponding to the device identification information “AAA” already stored therein. It is assumed that the destination information stored by way of overwriting is the same as the first record in FIG. 11. When the wait time “1 minute” has elapsed since a history packet was transmitted, a request packet is transmitted (step S103, S104). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 stop time counting with the timing in which the request packet is transmitted and retains the then timer value “1 minute” as a wait time. In response to the transmission of the request packet, a return packet is transmitted from the server 3 to the communication processors as described above (steps S303 to S305). In this case, the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has not elapsed so that the return packet is received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S105). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 retains a notice that a return packet related to the wait time “1 minute” has been successfully received (step S107). In this case also, a request packet is not transmitted four times so that it is determined that a port keeping time will not be detected (step S108). In this case, a return packet corresponding to a wait time of one minute is received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S401) and a return packet corresponding to a wait time of two minutes has not been received. Thus a middle wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” between the wait time “1 minute” corresponding to the received return packet and the wait time “2 minutes” corresponding to a return packet that has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 is set as a wait time (steps S402, S110). Same as the above processing, a history packet including the device identification information “AAA” in its payload is transmitted to the server 3 under the control of the packet transmission controller 13 (step S102). When the wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” has elapsed since a history packet was transmitted, a request packet is transmitted (step S103, S104). Same as the above description, a return packet is transmitted from the server 3 to the communication processor 2 in response to the transmission of the request packet (steps S303 to S305). In this case, the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has elapsed so that the return packet receiver 14 of the information processor 1 determines that a time-out has occurred when 10 seconds have elapsed since a request packet was transmitted (step S106) and passes a notice to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has not been received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 retain a notice that a return packet related to the wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” has not been received. In this case also, a request packet is not transmitted four times so that it is determined that a port keeping time will not be detected (step S108). In this case, a return packet corresponding to a wait time of one minute 30 seconds is not received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S401) and one or more return packets have been received by the return packet receiver 14 so far (step S403). Thus, a middle wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” between the wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” corresponding to the return packet that has not been received and the longest wait time “one minute” of the wait times corresponding to return packets received by the return packet receiver 14 so far is set as a wait time (steps S404, S110). Same as the above processing, a history packet and a request packet are transmitted (steps S102 to S104). The port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “1 minute 20 seconds” so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 in response to a request packet undergoes address conversion in the communication processor 2 and is then transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet is successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S105) and a notice is passed to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 retain the notice that a return packet related to the wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” has been successfully received (step S107). A request packet having been transmitted four times, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time (step S108) and passes an indication to detect a port keeping time to the port keeping time detector 15. The port keeping time detector 15 sets as the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 the longer wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” of the wait times “1 minute” and “1 minute 15 seconds” during which a return packet has been successfully received, in response to the instruction (step S109). After that, the detected port keeping time is used for example in the processing by a predetermined processor (not shown) of the information processor 1. The processing made by the processor may be storing the detected port keeping time onto a predetermined recording medium (not shown), using the detected port keeping time as a periodical packet transmission period to periodically transmit a packet to the server 3 or the like, transmitting the detected port keeping time to a device connected to the local network side of the communication processor 2 in case the device periodically transmits a packet, or any other processing. In this way, the detected port keeping time may be used by the information processor 1 or by another information processor connected to the local network side of the communication processor 2. A packet periodically transmitted using the port keeping time may be destined to the server 3 or another server. A period shorter than the detected port keeping time may be used as the transmission period of a packet to be periodically transmitted. FIG. 12 explains transmission of a history packet, transmission of a request packet, and reception (or non-reception) of a return packet in this example. While return packets corresponding to wait times of 1 minute and 1 minute 15 seconds were successfully received in this case, return packets corresponding to wait times of 2 minutes and 1 minute 30 seconds were not received, so that the port keeping time detected was 1 minute 15 seconds. While destination information corresponding to device identification information is stored by way of overwriting in case a history packet is received by the server 3 in this example, storage of destination information by way of overwriting is not necessary in case the destination information is unchanged. While the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “1 minute 20 seconds” in this example, a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission is received by the information processor 1 in case the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “5 minutes”. In such a case, it is determined that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time at the point in time a first return packet is received (step S108) and the port keeping time detected is 2 minutes (step S109). FIG. 13 explains transmission of a request packet and reception of a return packet in that case. Example 2 This example is the same as Example 1 except that the end of await time is Pattern D. Thus, detailed description is omitted except for description of the end of a wait time. In this example also, FIG. 12 explains transmission of a history packet, transmission of a request packet, and reception (or non-reception) of a return packet. A wait time of two minutes is set (step S101) and a history packet is transmitted to the server 3 (step S102). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers from the point in time a history packet is transmitted. After that, when the timer values has indicated 2 minutes, it is determined that timing is met for transmitting a request packet by the packet transmission controller 13 (step S103) and a request packet is transmitted to the server 3 (step S104). In this case, the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has elapsed so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 does not undergo address conversion in the communication processor and is not transmitted to the information processor 1. It is determined that a time-out has occurred and the wait time “1 minute” is set (step S110). In this case, a return packet is not received so that the port keeping time detector 15 does not retain a wait time. The packet transmission controller 13 retains a wait time, same as Example 1. Same as the above description, a history packet is transmitted and a request packet is transmitted when 1 minute has elapsed since transmission of the history packet (steps S102 to S104). In this case, the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has not yet elapsed so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 undergoes address conversion in the communication processor 2 and is then transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet receiver 14 of the information processor 1 receives the return packet (step S105) and passes a notice to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received. The packet transmission controller 13 retains the wait time “1 minute” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 terminates time counting on a timer at the point in time and retains the then timer value “1 minute 1 second” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. While in this example the period from when a request packet is received to when a return packet is received is “1 second”, the period varies to 0.5 seconds, 2 seconds, 3 seconds or the like depending on the state of the information processor 100 or processing speed of the server 3. In the following examples also, it is assumed that the period from when a request packet is received to when a return packet is received is “1 second”. The wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” is set by the packet transmission controller 13 (step S110 and transmission of a history packet and transmission of a request packet are repeated (steps S102 to S104). In this case, the wait time is longer than the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 does not undergo address conversion in the communication processor 2 and is not transmitted to the information processor 1. It is determined that a time-out has occurred by the return packet receiver 14 (step S106) and a new wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” is set (step S110). Then transmission of a history packet and transmission of a request packet are repeated (steps S102 to S104). In this case, the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has not yet elapsed so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 undergoes address conversion in the communication processor 2 and is then transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet receiver 14 of the information processor 1 receives the return packet (step S105) and passes a notice to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received. The packet transmission controller 13 retains the wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 terminates time counting on a timer at the point in time and retains the then timer value “1 minute 16 seconds” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. A request packet having been transmitted four times, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time (step S108) and passes an indication to detect a port keeping time to the port keeping time detector 15. The port keeping time detector 15 sets as the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 the longer wait time “1 minute 16 seconds” of the wait times “1 minute 1 second” and “1 minute 16 seconds” during which a return packet has been successfully received, in response to the instruction (step S109). Example 3 FIG. 14 is a flowchart showing the processing in step S110 of the flowchart of FIG. 7 according to this, example. Processing other than steps S501 and S502 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 10 so that the corresponding description is omitted. (Step S501) The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether the return packet receiver 14 has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet so far, that is, from when it received a first request packet to the determination. In case the return packet receiver 14 has failed to receive a return packet so far, execution proceeds to step S402. In case the return packet receiver 14 has not failed to receive a return packet so far, execution proceeds to step S502. (Step S502) The packet transmission controller 13 sets, as the wait time of a next request packet to be transmitted, a wait time longer than the wait time corresponding to a return packet transmitted just before. This is the end of the processing in step S110. A wait time longer than a certain wait time may be a wait time obtained by adding a predetermined time such as 2 minutes to a certain time, or a time obtained by multiplying a certain wait time by a predetermined value that is greater than 1 (such as a time double a certain wait time). In this example, processing related to storage of destination information into the server 3 or processing related to transmission of a return packet corresponding to a request packet is the same as that in Example 1 or Example 2, so that detailed description of the processing is omitted. FIG. 15 explains transmission of a history packet, transmission of a request packet, and reception (or non-reception) of a return packet in this example. In this example, it is assumed that the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “5 minutes 30 seconds”. In this case, a case will be described where the packet transmission controller 13 controls the request packet transmitter 12 so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet is received by the return packet receiver 14 and a return packet has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 the next wait time will be a time obtained by adding 2 minutes to a wait time corresponding to the received return packet. In this example, as mentioned above, it is assumed that, in case a request packet has been transmitted four times, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time. Determining that hat timing is met for detecting a port keeping time, the packet transmission controller 13 of the information processor 1 sets the wait time to 2 minutes (step S101). After that, under the control of the packet transmission controller 13, a history packet is transmitted from the information processor 1 to the server 3 (step S102). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers from the point in time a history packet is transmitted. The packet transmission controller 13 determines whether the preset wait time “2 minutes” has elapsed since time counting started, and when the timer value has indicated 2 minutes, determines that timing is met for transmitting a request packet (step S201). A request packet is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 12 to the server 3 (step S104). The packet transmission controller 13 retains the then timer value “2 minutes” as a wait time with the timing a request packet is transmitted. The port keeping time detector 15 acquires the then timer value “2 minutes” with the timing a request packet is transmitted, and temporarily retains the timer value. It is assumed that time counting by the port keeping time detector 15 is under way. A return packet transmitted from the server 3 in response to the request packet reaches the history port of the communication processor 2. The port keeping time “5 minutes 30 seconds” has not elapsed so that the return packet undergoes address conversion and is transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet is received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S105) and a notice is passed to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 terminates time counting at the point in time and retains the then timer value “2 minutes 1 second” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 discards the wait time “2 minutes” temporarily stored at the time of transmission of a request packet (step S107). The packet transmission controller 13 retains the wait time “2 minutes” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting anew on respective timers when the return packet is received. A request packet having been transmitted once, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is not met for detecting a port keeping time (step S108). A return packet corresponding to the wait time “2 minutes” transmitted for the first time having been received, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that a return packet has not been received so far (steps S401, S501) and sets the wait time “4 minutes” obtained by adding 2 minutes to the wait time “2 minutes” during which a return packet has been successfully received (steps S502, S110). When the timer value has indicated 4 minutes, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for transmitting a request packet (steps S202, S201). A request packet is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 12 to the server 3 (step S104). The packet transmission controller 13 retains the then timer value “4 minutes” as a wait time with the timing a request packet is transmitted. The port keeping time detector 15 acquires the then timer value “4 minutes” with the timing a request packet is transmitted, and temporarily retains the timer value. It is assumed that time counting by the port keeping time detector 15 is under way. A return packet transmitted from the server 3 in response to the request packet reaches the history port of the communication processor 2. The port keeping time “5 minutes 30 seconds” has not elapsed so that the return packet undergoes address conversion and is transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet is received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S105) and a notice is passed to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port 15, keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 terminates time counting at the point in time and retains the then timer value “4 minutes 1 second” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The port keeping time detector 15 discards the wait time “4 minutes” temporarily stored at the time of transmission of a request packet (step S107). The packet transmission controller 13 retains the wait time “4 minutes” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting anew on respective timers when the return packet is received. After that, same as the above description, setting of the wait time “6 minutes” (steps S108, S110) and transmission of a request packet (steps S202, S201, S104) are repeated. A return packet transmitted from the server 3 in response to the request packet is not transmitted to the information processor 1 because the port keeping time “5 minutes 30 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has elapsed. As a result, the information processor 1 determines that a time-out has occurred (step S106). The port keeping time detector 15 retains the wait time “6 minutes” temporarily stored at the time of transmission of a request packet as a wait time during which a return packet has not been received. The packet transmission controller 13 retains the wait time “6 minutes” as a wait time during which a return packet has not been received. Three request packets having been transmitted, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that a port keeping time will not be detected (step S108). In this case, a return packet corresponding to the wait time of 6 minutes has not been received by the return packet receiver 14 (step S401) and one or more return packets have been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far (step S403), the middle wait time “5 minutes” between the wait time “6 minutes” corresponding to the return packet that has not been received and the longest wait time “4 minutes” of the wait times corresponding to the return packets that has been successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 so far is set (steps S404, S110). In this case, a return packet has not been received (step S202), so that a history packet is transmitted again and the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers at the point in time the history packet is transmitted (step S102). When the timer value has indicated “5 minutes”, it is determined that timing is met for transmitting a request packet and a request packet is transmitted (steps S201, S104). The port keeping time “5 minutes 30 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has not elapsed so that a return packet transmitted from the server 3 undergoes address conversion in the communication processor 2 and is then transmitted to the information processor 1. The return packet is successfully received by the return packet receiver 14 and a notice is passed to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has been successfully received (step S105). The port keeping time detector 15 retains the wait time “5 minutes 1 second” as a wait time during which a return packet has been successfully received (step S107). Four request packets having been transmitted, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time (step S108) and passes an indication to detect a port keeping time to the port keeping time detector 15. The port keeping time detector 15 sets as the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 the longest wait time “5 minutes 1 second” of the wait times “2 minutes 1 second”, “4 minutes 1 second” and “5 minutes 1 second” during which a return packet has been successfully received, in response to the instruction (step S109). While each of the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 has a timer in the above examples, the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 may perform time counting on a single timer. As mentioned above, with the information processing system according to this embodiment, the information processor 1 may determine whether the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is longer than its wait time and thus detect the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 by setting a wait time in the information processor 1 and requesting the server 3 to transmit a return packet at the end of the wait time. In the processing of detecting the port keeping time, the server 3 has only to store destination information based on a history packet and to transmit a return packet in response to reception of a request packet. This approach reduces the processing load on the server 3 compared with a case where control of the timing for transmitting a return packet based on a wait time is made by the server 3. As a result, it is possible to provide an information processing system that does not burden the server 3 with a heavy load. By using the binary search method to set a wait time in the information processor 1 it is possible to efficiently detect a port keeping time. To be more specific, in case the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is 5 minutes 30 seconds and the binary search method is used, it is possible to detect that the port keeping time is 5 minutes 1 second when approximately 17 minutes have elapsed since transmission of the first history packet as explained using FIG. 15. The error in the port keeping time in this case is 1 minute. This is because the difference between a wait time corresponding to the request packet transmitted last and a wait time corresponding to the request packet transmitted last but one is 1 minute. In case a port keeping time is detected at a time in point a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received while a return packet is being transmitted starting with the wait time of 2, minutes and in increments of 1 minute, total five packets whose wait times are 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes and 6 minutes. This takes 20 minutes until a port keeping time is detected. The error in the port keeping time is 1 minute in this case, since the wait time is added increments of 1 minute. In this way, it is understood that the port keeping time is efficiently detected by the use of the binary search method. By appropriately setting the timing for detecting a port keeping time, it is possible to detect a port keeping time with necessary and sufficient accuracy. For example, in case it is necessary to detect a precise port keeping time, the number of request packets to be transmitted before a port keeping time is detected should be set to a large value. To detect an approximate port keeping time, a smaller number of request packets may be transmitted before a port keeping time is detected. While the destination information stored by the destination information storage 34 includes the port number of a history port and the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 in this embodiment, the destination information may include the port number of a history port alone. In this case, the server 3 may acquire the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 from a source address included in the header of a request packet. Embodiment 2 An information processing system according to Embodiment 2 of the invention will be described referring to drawings. In the information processing system according to this embodiment, a request packet transmitted from an information processor to a server includes destination information as information on the destination of a return packet. FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an information processing system according to this embodiment. In FIG. 16, the information processing system according to this embodiment comprises an information processor 4, a communication processor 2 and a server 5. The information processing system according to this embodiment is the same as the information processing system according to Embodiment 1 except that the information processor 1 is replaced with the information processor 4 and the server 3 is replaced with the server 5. The information processor 4 includes a history packet transmitter 11, a request packet transmitter 41, a packet transmission controller 13, a return packet receiver 42 and a port keeping time detector 15. The history packet transmitter 11, the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 are same as those in Embodiment 1 and the corresponding description is omitted. The request packet transmitter 41 is similar to the request packet transmitter 12 according to Embodiment 1. Note that a request packet transmitted by the request packet transmitter 41 includes destination information as information on the destination of a return packet. The destination information is composed of information indicating the position of a history port included in a return packet received by the return packet receiver 42 described later and information indicating the address, of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. The return packet receiver 42 is similar to the return packet receiver 14 according to Embodiment 1. Note that the return packet receiver 42 receives a return packet including information indicating the position of a history port transmitted from the server 5 and information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. In case two or more components of the history packet transmitter 11 request packet transmitter 41 and return packet receiver 42 each has a device related to communications, the devices may be the same means or separate means. The server 5 includes a request packet receiver 31, a history packet receiver 33 and a return packet transmitter 51. The request packet receiver 31 and the history packet receiver 33 are same as those in Embodiment 1 and the corresponding description is omitted. The return packet transmitter 51 is similar to the return packet transmitter 32 according to Embodiment 1. Note that the return packet transmitter 51 transmits a return packet based on the destination information included in a request packet received by the request packet receiver 31. That is, the return packet transmitter 51 transmits a return packet to the address and the port number indicated by the destination information included in a request packet. In case the history packet receiver 33 has received a history packet, the return packet transmitter 51 transmits to the information processor 4 a return packet including information indicating the position of a history port as a port of the communication processor 2 where the history packet has passed and the information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. The return packet transmitter 51 may use the source address and the source port number included in the header of a history packet respectively as the information indicating the position of a history port and the information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. A return packet transmitted in case a request packet is received is called the “return packet corresponding to a request packet” same as Embodiment 1 and a return packet transmitted in case a history packet is received is called the “return packet corresponding to a history packet”. In case two or more components of The request packet receiver 31, the history packet receiver 33, and the return packet transmitter 51 each has a device related to communications, the devices may be the same means or separate means. The ports where a history packet, a request packet and a return packet pass will be described in detail. In this embodiment, there are two patterns a case where a return packet corresponding to a history packet passes through a history port and otherwise. A case where a return packet corresponding to a history packet passes through a history port is called Pattern X and a case where a return packet corresponding toga history packet does not pass through a history port is called Pattern Y. For Pattern X, ports where a history packet, a request packet and a return packet pass are same as those shown in FIG. 2 of Embodiment 1. For Pattern Y as shown in FIG. 17, a return packet corresponding to a history packet is transmitted to the information processor 4 via Port P12. Port P2 is different from Port P12. While Embodiment 1 explains a case where all return packets are transmitted to a history port, a return packet corresponding to a history packet may be transmitted or not transmitted to a history port in this embodiment. For the information processor 4 to receive a return packet corresponding to a history packet, a return packet transmitted from the server 5 to Port P12 must undergo address conversion in the communication processor 2. Thus, for example, the information processor 4 may transmit a predetermined packet to the server 5 via Port P12 to be ready for receiving a return packet corresponding to a history packet. The information processor 4 may use a feature such as the UPnP (Universal Plug and Play) feature to set port mapping on the communication processor 2 so that a packet transmitted to Port P12 will be routed to Port P11 of the information processor 4 or may use another method. The server 5 may use any method to know the information indicating the position of Port P12, for example the port number of Port P12. For example, the payload of a history packet may include the information indicating the position of Port P12. The information indicating the position of Port P12 may be previously set to the server 5. Or any other method may be used by the server 5 to know the position of Port P12. While a return packet corresponding to a history packet is transmitted to the information processor 4 via the communication processor 2 in FIG. 17, a return packet corresponding to a history packet may be transmitted to the information processor 4 not via the communication processor 2. For example, in case the information processor 4 and the server 5 are capable of communicating via a communication circuit other than the communication circuit 100, a return packet corresponding to a history packet may be transmitted to the information processor 4 via a communication circuit separate from the communication circuit 100 instead of via the communication processor 2. Next, detection of a port keeping time will be described focusing on a single history port. Definition of a port keeping time is the same as that in Embodiment 1. For Pattern X, a return packet is transmitted from the server 5 just after a history packet is transmitted from the information processor 4 so that the wait time is exclusively as shown in Pattern 2 in FIG. 3B. A return packet that passes through the communication processor 2 at the beginning of the wait time in Pattern 2 is not a return packet corresponding to a request packet but a return packet corresponding to a history packet. For pattern Y, a return packet corresponding to a history packet does not pass through a history port so that the wait time belongs to Pattern 1 shown in FIG. 3A or Pattern 2 shown in FIG. 3B. Next, the beginning of a wait time will be described. For Pattern Y shown in FIG. 17, a return packet corresponding to a history packet does not pass through a history port so that Patterns A and B described in Embodiment 1 may be used as a pattern of the beginning of a wait time. For Pattern X shown in FIG. 2, a return packet corresponding to a history packet also passes through a history port so that the pattern of the beginning of a wait time is different from Pattern A or B. There are two patterns. In the first pattern, a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is always a return packet corresponding to a history packet (“Pattern F”). In the second, when the information processor 4 has successfully received a return packet corresponding to a request packet, the return packet is assumed as a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time, and when the information processor 4 has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet, a new history packet is transmitted and a return packet corresponding to the history packet is assumed as a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time (“Pattern G”). Note that any other pattern may be used and the invention is not limited to these patterns. [Pattern F] FIG. 18A explains Pattern F. In Pattern F same as in FIG. 4A, the information processor 4 transmits a history packet at the beginning of a wait time irrespective of whether the information processor 4 has successfully received a return packet. In Pattern F, a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is return packet corresponding to the transmitted history packet. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet as well as transmission of a history packet by the history packet transmitter 11 at the beginning of a wait time. In other words, the packet transmission controller 13 controls the history packet transmitter 11 so that a history packet will be transmitted at the beginning of a wait time. Strictly speaking, as shown in FIG. 3B, the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet passes through the communication processor 2 although it is difficult for the information processor 4 to know the point in time a return packet passes through the communication processor 2. Thus, as shown in FIG. 18A, the port keeping time detector 15 may assume that a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet passes through the communication processor 2 as the beginning of a wait time is a point in time the history packet is transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to the history packet is received. While two or more request packets are transmitted in FIG. 18A, a single request packet may be transmitted by the information processor 4. [Pattern G] FIGS. 18B and 18C explain Pattern G In Pattern G, a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a return packet corresponding to a history packet or a return packet corresponding to a request packet. In case the information processor 4 has successfully received a return packet corresponding to a request packet, the information processor 4 does not transmit a history packet at the beginning of a wait time as shown in FIG. 18B and the return packet is a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. In case the information processor 4 has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet, the information processor 4 transmits a history packet at the beginning of a wait time as shown in FIG. 18C and a return packet corresponding to the history packet is a packet that passes through a history port at the beginning of a wait time. The packet transmission controller 13 controls transmission of a request packet as well as controls the history packet transmitter 11 to engage the history packet transmitter 11 to transmit a history packet at the beginning of a next wait time in case the return packet receiver 14 has failed to receive a return packet corresponding to a request packet. Strictly speaking, as shown in FIG. 3B, the beginning of a wait time is a point in time a return packet passes through the communication processor 2 although it is difficult for the information processor 4 to know the point in time a return packet passes through the communication processor 2. Thus, as shown in FIGS. 18B and 18C, in the port keeping time detector 15, in case a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a return packet corresponding to a history packet, a point in time a packet passes through a history port as the beginning of a wait time may be a point in time a history packet is transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet is received, and in case a packet passing through a history port at the beginning of a wait time is a return packet corresponding to a request packet, a point in time a packet passes through a history port as the beginning of a wait time may be a point in time a return packet corresponding to a request packet is received. For the end of a wait time, same as Embodiment 1, Patterns C to E may be used. These patters have been described in Embodiment 1 so that the corresponding description is omitted. Note that any other pattern may be used and the invention is not limited to these three patterns. Description of control of transmission of a request packet by the packet transmission controller 13, the timing with which the port keeping time detector 15 detects a port keeping time, and the binary search method is the same as that in Embodiment 1 so that the corresponding description is omitted. Next, operation of the information processor 4 according to this embodiment will be described using a flowchart. In this embodiment, same as Embodiment 1, the flowchart used depends on the pattern of the beginning of a wait time. Thus, respective flowcharts for Patterns A, B, F and G will be described. FIG. 19 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor 4 according to this embodiment in Pattern A or F. Processing except steps S601 to S603 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 6 according to Embodiment 1 so that the corresponding description is omitted. For Pattern F, the beginning of a wait time may be a point in time a history packet is transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet is received in the determination of timing for transmitting a request packet in step S103 or the processing of measuring the wait time by the port keeping time detector 15. (Step S601) The return packet receiver 42 determines whether a return packet corresponding to a history packet has been successfully received. In case a return packet has been received, execution proceeds to S602. Otherwise, processing in step A601 is repeated until a return packet is received. In case a return packet is not received because the server 5 is down or for other reasons, the return packet receiver 42 may determine that a time-out has occurred when a predetermined time such as 1 minute has elapsed since a history packet was transmitted and terminate a series of processing. (Step S602) The request packet transmitter 41 temporarily stores the information indicating the position of a history port and information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 included in a return packet received by the return packet receiver 42. In case the return packet receiver 42 has received a return packet corresponding to a history packet anew, the request packet transmitter 41 temporarily stores the information indicating the position of a history port and information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 in a way such information items are easily identified. For example, the request packet transmitter 41 may store such information by way of overwriting. (Step S63) The packet transmission controller 13 controls the request packet transmitter 41 to engage the request packet transmitter 41 to transmit a request packet to the server 5. As a result, a request packet is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 41 to the server 3. The request packet includes destination information such as information indicating the position of a history port temporarily stored by the request packet transmitter 41 and information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. While the information indicating the position of a history port and the information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 are temporarily stored in the request packet transmitter 41 in this flowchart, this is an example and such information may be stored elsewhere than the request packet transmitter 41. Note that the request packet transmitter 41 must have an access to such information before transmitting a request packet. FIG. 20 is a flowchart showing the operation of the information processor 4 according to this embodiment in Pattern B or G Processing except steps S601 to S603 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 7 according to Embodiment 1 so that the corresponding description is omitted. The processing of steps S601 to S603 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 19. For Pattern G, the beginning of a wait time may be a point in time a history packet is transmitted or a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet is received in the determination of timing for transmitting a request packet in step S201 after a history packet was transmitted at the beginning of a wait time or the processing of measuring the wait time by the port keeping time detector 15. Operation of the server 5 according to this embodiment will be described using the flowchart of FIG. 21. Processing in steps S301 and S303 is the same as that in the flowchart of FIG. 8 according to Embodiment 1 so that the corresponding description is omitted. (Step S701) The return packet transmitter 51 reads a source address and a source address port number included in the history packet received by the history packet receiver 33 and transmits a return packet including the source address and the source address port number to the information processor 4. Execution then returns to step S301. The return packet transmitter 51 transmits the return packet to a history port, that is, to the source port of the history packet for Pattern X and to the information processor 4 while bypassing a history port for Pattern Y (Step S702) The return packet transmitter 51 reads destination information from the payload of a request packet received by the request packet receiver 31. (Step S703) The return packet transmitter 51 transmits a return packet to the address and the port number indicated by the readout destination information. Execution then returns to step S301. In the flowchart of FIG. 21, processing is terminated by power off or a processing termination interrupt. Operation of the information processing system according to this embodiment will be described using a specific example. In this example, a case is described where Pattern C is used as the end of a wait time in Pattern F. The following example is the same as Example 1 in Embodiment 1, except that the transmission control of a packet is made using Pattern F and the destination of a return packet is communicated from the information processor 4 to the server 5. For example, the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 is “1 minute 20 seconds” and the packet transmission controller 13 set a wait time in accordance with the flowchart of FIG. 10. FIGS. 22A to 22D show the structure of a history packet, a return packet corresponding to a history packet, a request packet and a return packet corresponding to a request packet, respectively. Each of the history packet, request packet and return packet has a UDP header and includes packet type identification information. The payload of a return packet corresponding to a history packet includes information indicating the position of a history port and the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. The payload of a request packet includes destination information. In this example also, FIG. 12 explains transmission of a history packet, transmission of a request packet, and reception (or non-reception) of a return packet, the same as Example 1 of Embodiment 1. Determining that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time, the packet transmission controller 13 of the information processor 4 sets a wait time of 2 minutes (step S101). After that, under the control of the packet transmission controller 13, a history packet is transmitted from the information processor 4 to the server 5 (step S102). The history packet is received by the history packet receiver 33 of the server 5 and passed to the return packet transmitter 51 (step S301). The return packet transmitter 51 reads the reads the source address “202.224.135.10” and the source port number “12345” from the header of the history packet. The return packet transmitter 51 then assembles a return packet including the source address and the source port number in its payload and transmits the return packet to the source address and the source port (step S701). A return packet corresponding to the history packet reaches the history port of the communication processor 2 and undergoes address conversion, and is then transmitted to the information processor 4. The return packet receiver 42 of the information processor 4 receives the return packet and passes the return packet to the request packet transmitter 41 (step S601). The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 start time counting on respective timers when a return packet corresponding to the history packet is received. The request packet transmitter 41 reads the address “202.224.135.10” of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 and the port number “12345” of the history port from the payload of a return packet received from the return packet receiver 42i and temporarily stores the information into a memory (not shown) (step S602). After that, the packet transmission controller 13 determines whether the wait time “2 minutes” set in step S101 has elapsed. When the timer value has indicated 2 minutes, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for transmitting a request packet (step S103). The packet transmission controller 13 controls the request packet transmitter 41 to engage the request packet transmitter 41 to transmit a request packet. As a result, a request packet including destination information is transmitted from the request packet transmitter 41 to the server 5 (step S603). The destination information includes the address “202.224.135.10” of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 and the port number “12345” of the history port. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 stops time counting with the timing a request packet is transmitted and retain the then timer value “2 minutes” as a wait time. The request packet is received by the request packet receiver 31 of the server 5 and is passed to the return packet transmitter 51 (step S303). The return packet transmitter 51 reads destination information from the payload of the request packet (step S702) and transmits a return packet to the address “202.224.135.10” and the port number “12345” indicated by the destination information (step S703). The return packet reaches Port 12345 of the communication processor 2 and is not transmitted to the information processor 4 because the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” related to the port has elapsed. The information processor 42 of the information processor 4 determines that a time-out has occurred at the point in time 10 seconds have elapsed since a request packet was transmitted (step S106) and passes a notice to the packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 that a return packet has not been received. The packet transmission controller 13 and the port keeping time detector 15 retain the notice that a return packet related to the wait time “2 minutes” has not been received. A request packet has not been transmitted four times and a return packet corresponding to a request packet transmitted in the first transmission has not been received. Thus, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that transmission of a request packet will be continued (step S108) and sets the wait time “1 minute”, same as Example 1 in Embodiment 1 (step S101). After that same as the above description, transmission of a history packet, reception of a return packet corresponding to a history packet, and storage of the port number of a history port take place (steps S102, S601, S602). While in this case the same address and port number as those in the first transmission of a history packet are included in a return packet transmitted from the server 5, the request packet transmitter 41 stores the address and the like by way of overwriting. Then, transmission of a request packet and the like are repeated. In this example, a return packet transmitted at the end of the wait time “1 minute” in response to a request packet is received by the information processor 4. A return packet transmitted at the end of the wait time “1 minute 30 seconds” in response to a request packet does not undergo address conversion because the port keeping time “1 minute 20 seconds” of the communication processor 2 has elapsed. A return packet transmitted at the end of the wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” in response to a request packet is received by the information processor 4. A request packet having been transmitted four times, the packet transmission controller 13 determines that timing is met for detecting a port keeping time (step S108) and passes an indication to detect a port keeping time to the port keeping time detector 15. The port keeping time detector 15 sets as the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 the longer wait time “1 minute 15 seconds” of the wait times “1 minute” and “1 minute 15 seconds” during which a return packet has been successfully received, in response to the instruction (step S109). After that, the detected port keeping time is for example stored onto a predetermined storage medium (not shown) and is used as the transmission period of a packet to be periodically transmitted to the server 5, same as Embodiment 1. While only an example corresponding to Example 1 in Embodiment 1 is described, examples in this embodiment corresponding to Examples 2 and 3 in Embodiment 1 are the same as Examples 2 and 3 in Embodiment 1 except that destination information is included in a request packet and that the beginning of a wait time may be a point in time a return packet corresponding to a history packet is received. The corresponding description is thus omitted. As described above, the information processing system according to this embodiment is capable of detecting the port keeping time of the communication processor 2, same as Embodiment 1, without storing destination information in the server 5. While in this embodiment a return packet corresponding to a history packet includes information indicating the position of a history port and the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100, a return packet corresponding to a history packet may include information indicating the position of a history port alone. In such a case, the destination information included in a request packet may include or not include information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. In the former case, the server 5 knows the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 by acquiring a source address from the header of a request packet. In the latter case, the information processor 4 acquires the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100 by way of a method other than a return packet corresponding to a history packet. For example, the information processor 4 may acquire the address by using the UPnP feature. The information processor 4 may assemble a packet including in its payload the source address of a packet received, and transmit the packet to a predetermined server that transmits the packet to the source address of the packet received, if any, and receive the packet transmitted from the server in order to acquire the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. The predetermined server may be the server 5 or any other server. In the above embodiments, the packet transmission controller 13 may have a table shown in FIG. 23 and set a wait time by using the table. In the table shown in FIG. 23, information indicating a wait time is associated with a flag indicating whether the wait time is set and a next wait time. A wait time corresponding to the flag “1” is the preset wait time. In FIG. 23, the wait time “2 minutes” is set. In case a request packet transmitted from a server is received by an information processor at the end of the wait time “2 minutes”, the next wait time is “4 minutes”. Otherwise, the next wait time is “1 minute”. For example, in case the net wait time is not specified as in the case of the wait time “3 minutes”, a port keeping time is detected after it is determined whether a return packet transmitted at the end of the wait time has been successfully received. In this way, setting of a wait time may be made using a method other than those described in the foregoing embodiments. A method for setting a wait time is not limited to the method in above embodiments or a method described using FIG. 23. While it is difficult for an information processor to know the ideal beginning or end of a wait time in the above embodiments so that the beginning or end of a wait time is measured by way of approximation, the approximation method is not limited to the above description. For example, a configuration is possible where a return packet transmitted from a server includes information indicating the transmission time of the return packet and an information processor uses the transmission time as a point in time the return packet has reached the history port of the communication processor 2. In the above embodiments, the packet transmission controller 13 may control transmission of a request packet while considering the period from when a request packet is transmitted to when a return packet reaches the communication processor 2. Assuming the period from when a request packet is transmitted to when a return packet reaches the communication processor 2 as “T seconds” and the wait time is 30 seconds, the packet transmission controller 13 may make control to transmit a request packet when “30-T seconds” have elapsed since a history packet was transmitted. While in the above embodiments, a request packet includes destination information concerning the destination of a return packet in case destination information is stored into a server based on a history port, a server may acquire information concerning the destination of a return packet by another method. For example, the user may manually set to a server the information indicating the position of a history port and the information indicating the address of the communication processor 2 on the side of the communication circuit 100. In this case, a history packet need not reach a server. Thus, adjustment of the lifetime of a history packet, for example TTL (Time to Live) may keep a history packet from reaching a server. Note that a history packet reaches at least the communication circuit 100 because it is necessary to leave a transmission history on a history port based on transmission of a history packet. In case a history packet does not reach a server, a server need not include a history packet receiver. Or, a server may transmit return packets to a plurality of ports of the communication processor 2, without specifying the destination of a return packet so that any one of the return packets will reach a history port. A history packet, a request packet or a return packet transmitted/received in the communications according to the above embodiments may have any data capacity or structure. While a history packet is transmitted by using only Port P2 of the communication processor 2 as shown in FIG. 2 or FIG. 17 in the above embodiments, each time a history packet is transmitted, the history packet may pass through a different port of the communication processor 2. Transmission of a history packet via a single port of the communication processor 2 means that a single port of the communication processor 2 is used at the same time. To be more precise, all of a plurality of history packets may be transmitted via a single port of the communication processor 2. Or, a plurality of history packets may be transmitted via two or more port of the communication processor 2. Even in the latter case, only a single port is used at a time so that two or more history packets are not transmitted simultaneously by using two or more ports. While history packets, request packets and return packets are UDP packets in the above embodiments, these packets may be TCP packets or any other packets as long as it is possible to detect a port keeping time. While the transmission timing of a request packet is counted on a timer in the above embodiments, a clock or a clock signal may be used instead of a timer and any other time counting means may be used. While an information processor is connected to the communication circuit 100 via a single communication processor 2 in the above embodiments, an information processor may be connected to the communication circuit 100 via a plurality of communication processors (communication processors subjected to multistage connection may be configured). In this case, the shortest port keeping time is detected of all port keeping times of communication processors connected in multiple stages. While the communication processor 2 has the NAT feature (that is, performs address conversion) in the above embodiments, the communication processor 2 may have the Firewall feature of packet filtering instead of or on top of the NAT feature. Packet filtering may refer to selection of a received packet that is based on the receiving filter rule mentioned earlier. It is possible to detect the port keeping time of the communication processor 2 having such a Firewall feature by using a method according to each of the above embodiments. The port maintenance time assumed in case the communication processor 2 has the Firewall feature refers to a predetermined time in a case a packet transmitted from the WAN to the port has not been transmitted to the LAN side of the communication processor 2 after the predetermined time has elapsed since the last packet passes through a port of the communication processor 2. While a server may transmit a return packet when a predetermined time has elapsed since a request packet was transmitted in the above embodiments. For example, a server may transmit a return packet when 5 seconds have elapsed since a request packet was received. In this case, an information processor may set a wait time while considering the period from when the request packet is received by the server to when a return packet is transmitted. In this way, the return packet transmitter of a server may transmit a return packet after a predetermined time has elapsed since a request packet receiver received a request packet, or just after the request packet receiver has received a request packet as described in the above embodiments. In the above embodiments, the packet transmission controller 13 may determine the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by the return packet receivers 14, 42, and a return packet corresponding to one or more request packets has been successfully received by the return packet receivers 14, 42 so far, a wait time will be a wait time between a wait time (first wait time) corresponding to the return packet that has not been received and the longest wait time (second wait time) of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet, that has been successfully received by the return packet receivers 14, 42 so far, and control the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to engage the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. The packet transmission controller 13 may determine the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has been successfully received by the return packet receivers 14, 42, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by the return packet receivers 14, 42 so far, a wait time will be a wait time between a wait time corresponding to the return packet that has been successfully received and the shortest wait time of a return packet, corresponding to a request packet, that has not been received by the return packet receivers 14, 42 so far, and control the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to engage the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. The wait time between the first wait time and the second wait time may be a wait time obtained by adding a time obtained by multiplying the difference between the first wait time and the second wait time by ⅔ to the first wait time. In the above embodiments, setting of a wait time using the binary search method may be setting, as the wait time of the next request packet to be transmitted, a wait time between a wait time corresponding to a return packet that has been successfully received by the information processors 1, 4 and a wait time corresponding to a return packet that has not been received by the information processors 1, 4. In other words, the packet transmission controller 13 may determine the timing to transmit a request packet so that, in case a return packet corresponding to a transmitted request packet has not been received by the return packet receivers 14, 42, and a return packet corresponding to a request packet has not been received by the return packet receivers 14, 42 so far, a wait time will be shorter than a wait time (third wait time) corresponding to the return packet that has not been received, and control the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to engage the request packet transmitters 12, 41 to transmit a request packet with the timing determined. The wait time shorter than the third wait time refers to a time longer than 0 and shorter than the third wait time, and may be a time obtained by multiplying the third wait time by ⅔. In the above embodiments, some of the UDP history packets, request packets and return packets that have been transmitted may not reach the destination because UDP is based on connectionless communications. For example, in case it is determined that a time-out has occurred after the information processor received a request packet, a request packet may be transmitted once again to check for the time-out. For example, two or more packets may be transmitted almost simultaneously considering that a UDP history packet, request packet or return packet transmitted does not reach the destination. While a server is identified by an IP address in the above embodiments, a server may be identified by a domain name (such as server.pana.net). In this case, the server is identified because the domain name is converted to an IP address using a DNS server. In the above embodiments, each process (each feature) may be provided through concentrated processing on a single device (system) or may be provided through distributed processing on multiple devices. In the above embodiments, each component may be implemented by dedicated hardware. A component that may be implemented by software may be implemented by execution of a program. For example, each component may be implemented when a software program recorded in a recording medium such as a hard disk or a semiconductor memory may be read and executed by a program execution part such as a CPU. Software that implements an information processor in the above embodiments is the following program: A program for engaging a computer to perform processing in an information processor composing an information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between the information processor and the server; the program executing: a history packet transmitting step of transmitting via a port of the communication processor a history packet as a packet for leaving a transmission history in the communication processor; a request packet transmitting step of transmitting to the server, via a port different from the history port as the port of the communication processor where the history packet has passed, a request packet as a packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from the server; a return packet receiving step of receiving a return packet transmitted from the server via the history port; and a port keeping time detecting step of detecting the port keeping time of the communication processor based on reception of a return packet in the return packet receiving step; wherein the program transmits a request packet in the request packet transmitting step by using a binary search method based on reception of a return packet by the return packet receiving step. Software that implements a server in the above embodiments is the following program: A program for engaging a computer to perform processing in a server composing an information processing system comprising: an information processor; a server; and a communication processor for performing processing related to communications between the information processor and the server; wherein the information processor uses a binary search method to transmit to the server a request packet as a: packet for requesting transmission of a return packet as a packet to be transmitted from the server to the information processor via the communication processor; the program executing: a request packet receiving step of receiving the request packet; and a return packet transmitting step of transmitting the return packet to a history port as a port of the communication processor where a history packet transmitted from the information processor in order to leave a transmission history in the communication processor upon reception of a request packet in the request packet receiving step. In the above program, the transmitting step of transmitting information or receiving step of receiving information does not include processing performed by hardware such as processing performed in a modem or an interface card in the transmitting step (processing performed exclusively by hardware). The program may be executed by downloading the same from a server or reading the program recorded on a predetermined recording medium including an optical disk such as a CD-ROM, a magnetic disk or a semiconductor memory. A computer that executes this program may be a single or a plurality of computers. That is, concentrated processing or distributed processing may be performed. The invention may be changed in a variety of ways and is not limited to the above embodiments. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY As understood from the above, the information processing system or the like according to the invention is capable of detecting the port keeping time of a communication processor is useful as an information processor or the like comprising an information processor for transmitting a packet to a server or the like via the communication processor.
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US20080123758A1-20080529
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CHANNEL ESTIMATION METHOD AND APPARATUS IN ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING SYSTEM
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ACCEPTED
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20080514
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20080529
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[]
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H04L2728
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["H04L2728"]
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8165229
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20071119
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20120424
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375
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260000
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69101.0
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KASSA
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ZEWDU
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[{"inventor_name_last": "PAIK", "inventor_name_first": "Kyung-Hyun", "inventor_city": "Hwaseong-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Roh", "inventor_name_first": "Hee-Jin", "inventor_city": "Suwon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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Disclosed is a channel estimation method and apparatus in an OFDM system. The method includes performing channel estimation at a pilot position of a received symbol, thereby calculating a first channel estimate, performing diagonal interpolation between the first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from the first pilot position, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, performing time interpolation between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to the second pilot position, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position, and performing frequency interpolation by using the channel estimates for the pilot positions and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions.
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1. A channel estimation method using pilots in an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system, the channel estimation method comprising: performing a first channel estimation at a pilot position of a received symbol, thereby calculating a first channel estimate; performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between the first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from the pilot position of the first channel estimate when viewed in directions of time and frequency axes, thereby calculating a second channel estimation for a data position; performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to the pilot position of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, thereby calculating a third channel estimation for another data position; and performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates for the pilot positions and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions. 2. The channel estimation method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the second channel estimate is calculated by a following equation, Hn−1,k+3=(Hn,k+Hn−2,k+6)/2 where, n denotes an index of the received symbol, k denotes a sub-carrier index for the pilot position of the received symbol, and H denotes a channel estimate. 3. The channel estimation method as claimed in claim 2, wherein the third channel estimate is calculated by a following equation, Hn−2,k+3=(Hn−1,k+3+Hn−3,k+3)/2 4. The channel estimation method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the OFDM system includes at least one of a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Terrestrial (DVB-T) system and a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Handheld (DVB-H) system. 5. The channel estimation method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pilot position is determined on a frequency-time plane by at least one of a comb-type pilot arrangement scheme and a lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme. 6. A channel estimation apparatus using pilots in an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system, the channel estimation apparatus comprising: a pilot channel estimator for calculating channel estimates by performing channel estimation at pilot positions of a received symbol; a two-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between a first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from the pilot position of the first channel estimate when viewed from directions of time and frequency axes, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, and performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to the pilot position of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position; a one-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions; an output buffer for storing the received symbol; and a channel estimation buffer for storing the first and second channel estimates. 7. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the second channel estimate is calculated by a following equation, Hn−1,k+3=(Hn,k+Hn−2,k+6)/2 where, n denotes an index of the received symbol, k denotes a sub-carrier index for the pilot position of the received symbol, and H denotes a channel estimate. 8. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 7, wherein the third channel estimate is calculated in a following equation, Hn−2,k+3=(Hn−1,k+3+Hn−3,k+3)/2 9. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the output buffer stores at least 3 symbols including all sub-carriers. 10. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the channel estimation buffer stores at least 3 symbols including ⅓ of all sub-carriers. 11. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the OFDM system includes at least one of a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Terrestrial (DVB-T) system and a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Handheld (DVB-H) system. 12. The channel estimation apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the pilot position is determined on a frequency-time plane by at least one of a comb-type pilot arrangement scheme and a lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system, and more particularly to a channel estimation method and apparatus in an OFDM system. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventional methods for performing channel estimation in an OFDM system include pilot signal-based estimation and use of data decoded in a decision directed scheme. Usually, when coherent demodulation is used in a communication system, a transmitting end transmits pilot signals for channel estimation, and a receiving end for performing the coherent demodulation performs channel estimation based on the received pilot signals. In a conventional OFDM system, a scheme for arranging pilots on the frequency-time plane may be classified into such schemes as a comb-type pilot arrangement and a lattice-type pilot arrangement. The comb-type pilot arrangement scheme is used in a system in which a training symbol carrying pilots over the entire frequency axis is transmitted at the head, and data symbols uniformly carrying pilots through specific sub-carriers follow the training symbol in a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) where transmission/reception is performed in units of bursts without considering the mobility of a receiver. In this comb-type pilot arrangement, a channel value estimated in the training symbol is usually used in its entirety during a corresponding burst interval, and comb-type pilots are used for frequency tracking. In contrast, the lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme is used in a broadcasting system where transmission/reception operate continuously, and even reception under a high-speed mobile environment is considered. In this arrangement, pilot sub-carriers are sparsely arranged in a certain pattern on the frequency-time plane, and spacing between the pilot sub-carriers falls within a coherence time and a coherence bandwidth such that interpolation using estimated channel values is possible. In this manner, an OFDM receiver can constantly estimate and compensate for time-varying channel responses even during mobile reception through the aforementioned comb-type and lattice-type pilot arrangements, and consequently can continue to stably receive data. Reference will now be made to a two-dimensional interpolation method for estimating a channel value at a pilot sub-carrier from a channel estimate at another pilot sub-carrier, which has been estimated by any algorithm, with reference to the accompanying drawings. The following description will be given by exemplifying a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Terrestrial/Handheld (DVB-T/H) system among systems using an OFDM scheme for the convenience of explanation. FIG. 1 illustrates a pilot arrangement in a conventional DVB-T/H system. Referring to FIG. 1 , the DVB-T/H system uses a combination of the comb-type and lattice-type pilot arrangement schemes. Here, pilots arranged according to the comb-type scheme are referred to as continual pilots, and pilots arranged according to the lattice-type scheme are referred to as scattered pilots. Also, in the pilot arrangement diagram of FIG. 1 , the abscissa axis represents the frequency axis, and the ordinate axis represents the time axis. In the DVB-T/H system in FIG. 1 , interpolation is performed from channel values of the pilot sub-carriers arranged according to the lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme. An interpolation method includes a method of performing one-dimensional interpolation for each symbol in the direction of the frequency axis by using only pilot sub-carriers included in the same symbol and a method of performing two-dimensional interpolation at the sacrifice of many symbol delays. The one-dimensional interpolation method does not cause delays, requires minimal memory capacity, and involves minimal calculations necessary for the interpolation. However, when delay spread is substantial, reception performance may be lowered because spacing between pilot sub-carriers is wide in the direction of the frequency axis. Therefore, the two-dimensional interpolation method is mainly used so as to solve this problem with the one-dimensional interpolation method. In the conventional two-dimensional interpolation method, in order to minimize the effect of delay spread or Doppler spread, pilot spacing in the time axis is compared with that in the frequency axis, and linear interpolation begins with one axis where pilot spacing is narrower. Through the linear interpolation for the axis where pilot spacing is narrower, known values are obtained at positions between pilots in the other axis where pilot spacing is wider. Thus, since channel estimates at pilot sub-carriers, as well as the known values obtained from the linear interpolation, can be used together for interpolation to be applied to the other axis where pilot spacing is wider, the two-dimensional interpolation method can provide an effect of shortening an interpolation interval as compared to the initial pilot spacing. FIG. 2 illustrates a two-dimensional channel interpolation method in a conventional DVB-T/H system. Here, similar to FIG. 1 , the abscissa and ordinate axes represent the frequency and time axes, respectively, and symbol n denotes a currently received symbol. Thus, symbols n−1 to n−6 denote previously received symbols. Referring to FIG. 2 , in the DVB-T/H system, pilot spacing in the time axis is 4 symbols, and pilot spacing in the frequency axis is 12 sub-carriers. Thus, for channel estimates of sub-carriers, interpolation along the time axis with narrow pilot spacing is first performed as a first-time interpolation, with the result that channel estimates designated by circles 210 with left-oblique lines are obtained. If the interpolation along the time axis is repeated in the symbol n, all sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−3, corresponding to multiples of 3, are determined as known values designated by the circles 210 with left-oblique lines. Next, by performing a second-time interpolation along the frequency axis for the symbol n−3, remaining channel estimates designated by circles 220 with right-oblique lines can be calculated. In the aforementioned conventional two-dimensional interpolation method, since it takes a delay of 3 symbols to obtain channel estimates of one complete symbol and prepare them for use in compensation, a memory capacity that can store all complete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) outputs of previous 4 symbols including a current symbol is required. Further, the aforementioned conventional interpolation method has a limitation on ensuring performance in a wireless environment where a terminal moves at high speed. To be specific, although the coherence time of a time-varying fading channel gradually decreases as the moving speed of a receiver increases, the pilot spacing in the time axis is fixed. When a terminal moves at low speed, there may be no problem in performing the time-axis interpolation at intervals of 4 symbols. However, when a terminal moves at high speed, an interpolation interval between symbols becomes larger than a coherence time, which causes interpolation errors. Further, the frequency-axis interpolation is subsequently performed using inaccurate intermediate values including the interpolation errors, and thus interpolation for remaining sub-carriers also results in non-reliable values. In the end, a problem of deterioration of the overall reception performance is caused.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve at least the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior art, and the present invention provides a channel estimation method and apparatus, which can minimize performance deterioration and enhance reception performance at high speed in an OFDM system. Further, the present invention provides a channel estimation method and apparatus, which can reduce the size of a memory in an OFDM system. In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a channel estimation method using pilots in an OFDM system, including performing channel estimation at a pilot position of a received symbol, thereby calculating a first channel estimate, performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between the first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from that of the first channel estimate when viewed in directions of time and frequency axes, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to that of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position, and performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates for the pilot positions and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions. In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a channel estimation apparatus using pilots in an OFDM system, including a pilot channel estimator for calculating channel estimates by performing channel estimation at pilot positions of a received symbol, a two-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between a first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from that of the first channel estimate when viewed from directions of time and frequency axes, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, and performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to that of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position, a one-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions, an output buffer for storing the received symbol, and a channel estimation buffer for storing the first and second channel estimates.
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PRIORITY This application claims priority to an application entitled “Channel Estimation Method and Apparatus in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing System” filed in the Korean Industrial Property Office on Nov. 17, 2006 and assigned Serial No. 2006-114134, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system, and more particularly to a channel estimation method and apparatus in an OFDM system. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventional methods for performing channel estimation in an OFDM system include pilot signal-based estimation and use of data decoded in a decision directed scheme. Usually, when coherent demodulation is used in a communication system, a transmitting end transmits pilot signals for channel estimation, and a receiving end for performing the coherent demodulation performs channel estimation based on the received pilot signals. In a conventional OFDM system, a scheme for arranging pilots on the frequency-time plane may be classified into such schemes as a comb-type pilot arrangement and a lattice-type pilot arrangement. The comb-type pilot arrangement scheme is used in a system in which a training symbol carrying pilots over the entire frequency axis is transmitted at the head, and data symbols uniformly carrying pilots through specific sub-carriers follow the training symbol in a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) where transmission/reception is performed in units of bursts without considering the mobility of a receiver. In this comb-type pilot arrangement, a channel value estimated in the training symbol is usually used in its entirety during a corresponding burst interval, and comb-type pilots are used for frequency tracking. In contrast, the lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme is used in a broadcasting system where transmission/reception operate continuously, and even reception under a high-speed mobile environment is considered. In this arrangement, pilot sub-carriers are sparsely arranged in a certain pattern on the frequency-time plane, and spacing between the pilot sub-carriers falls within a coherence time and a coherence bandwidth such that interpolation using estimated channel values is possible. In this manner, an OFDM receiver can constantly estimate and compensate for time-varying channel responses even during mobile reception through the aforementioned comb-type and lattice-type pilot arrangements, and consequently can continue to stably receive data. Reference will now be made to a two-dimensional interpolation method for estimating a channel value at a pilot sub-carrier from a channel estimate at another pilot sub-carrier, which has been estimated by any algorithm, with reference to the accompanying drawings. The following description will be given by exemplifying a Digital Multimedia Broadcasting-Terrestrial/Handheld (DVB-T/H) system among systems using an OFDM scheme for the convenience of explanation. FIG. 1 illustrates a pilot arrangement in a conventional DVB-T/H system. Referring to FIG. 1, the DVB-T/H system uses a combination of the comb-type and lattice-type pilot arrangement schemes. Here, pilots arranged according to the comb-type scheme are referred to as continual pilots, and pilots arranged according to the lattice-type scheme are referred to as scattered pilots. Also, in the pilot arrangement diagram of FIG. 1, the abscissa axis represents the frequency axis, and the ordinate axis represents the time axis. In the DVB-T/H system in FIG. 1, interpolation is performed from channel values of the pilot sub-carriers arranged according to the lattice-type pilot arrangement scheme. An interpolation method includes a method of performing one-dimensional interpolation for each symbol in the direction of the frequency axis by using only pilot sub-carriers included in the same symbol and a method of performing two-dimensional interpolation at the sacrifice of many symbol delays. The one-dimensional interpolation method does not cause delays, requires minimal memory capacity, and involves minimal calculations necessary for the interpolation. However, when delay spread is substantial, reception performance may be lowered because spacing between pilot sub-carriers is wide in the direction of the frequency axis. Therefore, the two-dimensional interpolation method is mainly used so as to solve this problem with the one-dimensional interpolation method. In the conventional two-dimensional interpolation method, in order to minimize the effect of delay spread or Doppler spread, pilot spacing in the time axis is compared with that in the frequency axis, and linear interpolation begins with one axis where pilot spacing is narrower. Through the linear interpolation for the axis where pilot spacing is narrower, known values are obtained at positions between pilots in the other axis where pilot spacing is wider. Thus, since channel estimates at pilot sub-carriers, as well as the known values obtained from the linear interpolation, can be used together for interpolation to be applied to the other axis where pilot spacing is wider, the two-dimensional interpolation method can provide an effect of shortening an interpolation interval as compared to the initial pilot spacing. FIG. 2 illustrates a two-dimensional channel interpolation method in a conventional DVB-T/H system. Here, similar to FIG. 1, the abscissa and ordinate axes represent the frequency and time axes, respectively, and symbol n denotes a currently received symbol. Thus, symbols n−1 to n−6 denote previously received symbols. Referring to FIG. 2, in the DVB-T/H system, pilot spacing in the time axis is 4 symbols, and pilot spacing in the frequency axis is 12 sub-carriers. Thus, for channel estimates of sub-carriers, interpolation along the time axis with narrow pilot spacing is first performed as a first-time interpolation, with the result that channel estimates designated by circles 210 with left-oblique lines are obtained. If the interpolation along the time axis is repeated in the symbol n, all sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−3, corresponding to multiples of 3, are determined as known values designated by the circles 210 with left-oblique lines. Next, by performing a second-time interpolation along the frequency axis for the symbol n−3, remaining channel estimates designated by circles 220 with right-oblique lines can be calculated. In the aforementioned conventional two-dimensional interpolation method, since it takes a delay of 3 symbols to obtain channel estimates of one complete symbol and prepare them for use in compensation, a memory capacity that can store all complete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) outputs of previous 4 symbols including a current symbol is required. Further, the aforementioned conventional interpolation method has a limitation on ensuring performance in a wireless environment where a terminal moves at high speed. To be specific, although the coherence time of a time-varying fading channel gradually decreases as the moving speed of a receiver increases, the pilot spacing in the time axis is fixed. When a terminal moves at low speed, there may be no problem in performing the time-axis interpolation at intervals of 4 symbols. However, when a terminal moves at high speed, an interpolation interval between symbols becomes larger than a coherence time, which causes interpolation errors. Further, the frequency-axis interpolation is subsequently performed using inaccurate intermediate values including the interpolation errors, and thus interpolation for remaining sub-carriers also results in non-reliable values. In the end, a problem of deterioration of the overall reception performance is caused. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve at least the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior art, and the present invention provides a channel estimation method and apparatus, which can minimize performance deterioration and enhance reception performance at high speed in an OFDM system. Further, the present invention provides a channel estimation method and apparatus, which can reduce the size of a memory in an OFDM system. In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a channel estimation method using pilots in an OFDM system, including performing channel estimation at a pilot position of a received symbol, thereby calculating a first channel estimate, performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between the first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from that of the first channel estimate when viewed in directions of time and frequency axes, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to that of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position, and performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates for the pilot positions and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions. In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a channel estimation apparatus using pilots in an OFDM system, including a pilot channel estimator for calculating channel estimates by performing channel estimation at pilot positions of a received symbol, a two-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in a diagonal direction between a first channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is different from that of the first channel estimate when viewed from directions of time and frequency axes, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a second channel estimate for a data position, and performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis between the second channel estimate and a channel estimate for another pilot position that is identical to that of the second channel estimate when viewed in the direction of the time axis, among the channel estimates, thereby calculating a third channel estimate for another data position, a one-dimensional interpolator for performing interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis by using the channel estimates and the second and third channel estimates, thereby calculating channel estimates for remaining data positions, an output buffer for storing the received symbol, and a channel estimation buffer for storing the first and second channel estimates. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a pilot arrangement in a conventional common DVB-T/H system; FIG. 2 illustrates a two-dimensional channel interpolation method in a conventional DVB-T/H system; FIG. 3 illustrates a structure of a receiver that includes a channel estimation apparatus in an OFDM system according to the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates a method for performing channel estimation in an OFDM system according to the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a diagonal interpolation method according to the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates a channel estimation method according to the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates in detail a channel estimation method according to the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a structure of a channel estimation apparatus according to the present invention; and FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate reception performance test results of an OFDM receiver to which a channel estimation method according to the present invention is applied. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the following description, the same elements will be designated by the same reference numerals although they are shown in different drawings. Further, in the following description, only parts necessary for understanding operations of the present invention will described, and a detailed description of known functions and configurations incorporated herein will be omitted for the sake of clarity and conciseness. The present invention discloses a channel estimation method and apparatus capable of enhancing reception performance even in a high-speed environment, and particularly a method and apparatus for performing two-dimensional interpolation of channel estimates for pilot sub-carriers arranged in a certain pattern on the frequency-time plane, thereby estimating channel values for remaining data sub-carriers. In the present invention, it should be noted that since an interpolation method using channel estimation information, that is, an algorithm related to channel estimation for pilot sub-carriers, will not be discussed in detail because it is outside of the object of the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates a receiver including a channel estimation apparatus in an OFDM system according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 3, the channel estimation apparatus 300 includes common constituent elements, such as an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) 303 for converting an analog signal received through an antenna 301 into a digital signal, a Receive (Rx) filter 305 for extracting and filtering only a signal of a service band from the received signal, and a Fast Fourier Transformer (FFT) 307 for transforming the time-domain received signal into a frequency-domain signal. The channel estimation apparatus 300 further includes a pilot channel estimator 309a for estimating a channel (i.e., pilot channel) corresponding to each pilot of the converted received signal, a two-dimensional interpolator 309b for performing linear interpolation to be described below (hereinafter diagonal interpolation), which allows for simultaneous interpolation in the time and frequency axes, so as to estimate a channel corresponding to each data by using information on the estimated pilot channel according to the present invention, a channel compensator 311 for compensating for a signal of the estimated channel, and a decoder 313 for decoding the signal of the compensated channel into an original signal. Here, the pilot channel estimator 309a and the two-dimensional interpolator 309b constitute a channel estimator unit 309, and the two-dimensional interpolator 309b is provided with a memory (not shown) for an estimated channel value and a channel value interpolated through the estimated channel value. FIG. 4 illustrates a channel estimation method in an OFDM system according to the present invention, and corresponds to a flowchart illustrating operations in the channel estimation apparatus of FIG. 3. First, in step 401, the channel estimation apparatus 300 of FIG. 3 receives an analog Radio Frequency (RF) signal from the antenna 301. Subsequently, in step 403, the ADC quantizes the received analog signal into a digital signal, and transmits the digital signal to the Rx filter 305. In step 405, the Rx filter 305 filters the quantized signal. The filtered signal is serial-to-parallel converted, and then input into the FFT converter 307. In step 407, the FFT 307 converts the time-domain signal, transmitted from the Rx filter 305, into a frequency-domain signal, and outputs the frequency-domain signal to the pilot channel estimator 309a and the channel compensator 311. In step 409, the pilot channel estimator 309a estimates a channel value at a pilot sub-carrier position by using demodulation data of a sub-carrier corresponding to a pilot among the outputs from the FFT 307. Subsequently, in step 411, the two-dimensional interpolator 309b performs two-dimensional interpolation to thereby calculate channel values at remaining data sub-carriers. Here, the two-dimensional interpolator 309b performs the two-dimensional interpolation by using a diagonal interpolation method according to the present invention. The diagonal interpolation method will be described below in detail. Subsequently, in step 413, the channel compensator 311 equalizes the received signal by using the estimated channel values over the whole sub-carrier. In step 415, the decoder 313 receives the channel-compensated signal, and performs a decoding operation. Reference will now be made in detail to a diagonal interpolation method according to the present invention, as described above in step 413 of FIG. 4, with reference to the accompanying drawings. The present invention generally shortens an interpolation interval in the direction of the time axis in such a manner that known values are obtained between pilot sub-carriers arranged at intervals of 4 symbols by performing preceding diagonal interpolation between channel estimates at the pilot sub-carriers, and channel estimates between the obtained known values and the existing pilot sub-carriers are calculated again by performing interpolation in the direction of the time axis. FIG. 5 illustrates a diagonal interpolation method according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 5, it is first assumed that a currently received symbol is symbol n 501, and a channel estimate for the kth pilot sub-carrier capable of direct channel estimation is defined as Hn,k. If Hn,k is obtained, interpolation in direction is first performed. That is, a channel estimate Hn−1,k+3 at a mid-point between the kth pilot sub-carrier and the (k+6)th pilot sub-carrier can be obtained through interpolation between Hn,k and a channel estimate Hn−2,k+6 that is obtained at the (k+6)th pilot sub-carrier of symbol n−2 preceding by 2 symbols. Once diagonal interpolation (i.e., interpolation in direction ) is performed for all pilot sub-carriers on the frequency-time plane, known values 510 arranged at intervals of 2 symbols are obtained for all sub-carriers corresponding to multiples of 3. Next, channel values 520 between the known values 510 arranged at intervals of 2 symbols are calculated through interpolation in the direction of the time axis, that is, in direction . By performing up to this step, all channel estimates for the sub-carriers corresponding to multiples of 3 can be known, and channel estimates for remaining sub-carriers that are not multiples of 3 are finally obtained through interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis, that is, in direction . FIG. 6 illustrates a channel estimation method according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 6, the pilot channel estimator 309a inputs therein an FFT output of 1 symbol, output from the FFT 307, in step 601, and estimates channels of pilot sub-carriers in step 603. Subsequently, in steps 605 to 609, the two-dimensional interpolator 309b performs interpolation in each of the diagonal direction, and the time axis and the frequency axis directions, as described above. In step 611, the channel compensator 311 and the decoder 313 perform channel compensation and decoding by using the interpolated values. FIG. 7 illustrates a channel estimation method, and particularly a detail of an interpolation method according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 7, in step 701, the pilot channel estimator 309a of the channel estimator unit 309 receives an output of 1 symbol from the FFT 307. The FFT 307 outputs data in units of symbols. Also, let symbol n be a currently received symbol, and let k be a sub-carrier index for indicating any pilot sub-carrier in the symbol n. On receiving the symbol n from the FFT 307, in step 703, the pilot channel estimator 309a estimates a channel value Hn,k at pilot sub-carrier k of the currently received symbol n, and stores the estimated channel value in a channel estimation buffer. Subsequently, in step 705, the two-dimensional interpolator 309b calculates channel values Hn−1,k and Hn−1,k+3 of symbol n−1 through interpolation as given in the following Equation (1), and stores the calculated channel values in the channel estimation buffer, where Hn−1,k is calculated through interpolation in the direction of time axis, and Hn−1,k+3 is calculated through interpolation in the diagonal direction. In Equation (1), Hn−1,k=(Hn,k+Hn−2,k)/2 time interpolation Hn−1,k+3=(Hn,k+Hn−2,k+6)/2 diagonal interpolation (1) On completing the interpolation for the symbol n−1, in step 707, the pilot channel estimator 309a performs interpolation for symbol n−2 by using the following Equation (2): Hn−1,k=(Hn,k+Hn−2,k)/2 time interpolation (2) In step 705, Hn,k is obtained by performing step 403, and Hn−2,k corresponds to a value resulting from performing step 705 for a previous symbol, which is stored in the channel estimation buffer. Similarly, Hn−2,k+6 corresponds to a value resulting from performing step 703 for a previous symbol preceding by 2 symbols, which is stored in the channel estimation buffer. Hn−1,k+3 used in step 707 is obtained from a result of performing step 705, and Hn−3,k+3 corresponds to a value resulting from performing step 703 for a previous symbol preceding by 3 symbols, which is stored in the channel estimation buffer. Here, steps 703 to 707 are repeatedly performed for all the kth pilot sub-carriers of the symbol n. In addition, channel estimates at the first and last sub-carriers must be calculated. However, since continual pilots according to the comb-type pilot arrangement are positioned at the first and last sub-carriers in the DVB-T/H system, an output of the pilot channel estimator is stored intact in the channel estimation buffer for each symbol. In an OFDM system without continual pilots at both ends, channel estimates in the latest symbol where the first and last sub-carriers are used as pilot sub-carriers may be copied and used in their entirety, or may be interpolated in the direction of the time axis and stored in the buffer for use in later symbols. If the process of repeatedly performing steps 703 to 707 is completed, channel estimates for all sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−2, corresponding to multiples of 3, are stored in the channel estimation buffer. Subsequently, in step 709, the pilot channel estimator 309a reads out the stored channel estimates for the sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−2, corresponding to multiples of 3, and performs interpolation in the direction of frequency axis to thereby calculate channel estimates for all sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−2. In step 711, the channel compensator 311 performs channel compensation for FFT outputs of the symbol n−2, stored in a separate FFT output buffer, by using the calculated channel estimates of the symbol n−2, and the decoder 313 performs decoding for the compensated FFT outputs. FIG. 8 illustrates a channel estimation apparatus 800 according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 8, the channel estimation apparatus 800 includes an FFT 801, a pilot channel estimator 803, a two-dimensional interpolator 805, a one-dimensional interpolator 807, a channel compensator 813, an FFT output buffer 809, a channel estimation buffer 811 and a decoder 815. Here, the following description will focus on the constructions according to the present invention. On receiving symbol n from the FFT 801, the pilot channel estimator 803 estimates a channel value Hn,k at pilot sub-carrier k, and stores the channel estimate in the channel estimation buffer 811, as in step 703 of FIG. 7. The two-dimensional interpolator 805 receives stored estimates or interpolated values a and b from the channel estimation buffer 811, performs diagonal interpolation and interpolation in the direction of the time axis to thereby calculate c=(a+b)/2, and then stores the calculated value in the channel estimation buffer 811 again. Here, c is the calculated value briefly representing a result of Equation (1). The one-dimensional interpolator 807 reads out channel estimates for pilot sub-carrier positions of symbol n−2, corresponding to multiples of 3, which are calculated through the diagonal interpolation and the interpolation in the direction of the time axis, and then performs interpolation in the direction of the frequency axis for them to thereby calculate channel estimates for all sub-carrier positions of the symbol n−2. The channel compensator 813 performs channel compensation for the symbol n−2, stored in the FFT output buffer 809, by using all the channel estimates of the symbol n−2, calculated by the one-dimensional interpolator 807. The decoder 815 performs decoding for the compensated symbol n−2. The FFT output buffer 809 is implemented by a buffer that can store all sub-carriers of 3 symbols including a current symbol. The channel estimation buffer 811 must be implemented by a buffer capable of storing channel estimates, the amount of which corresponds to 3 symbols, in order to perform two-dimensional interpolation. Although the channel estimation buffer 811 according to the present invention seems to require a storage capacity of 4 symbols including a current symbol, it can operate with a storage capacity of 3 symbols because a storage space for sub-carriers used in the symbol n does not overlap with that for the symbol n−3. Also, since the channel estimation buffer 811 stores only channel estimates for sub-carrier positions corresponding to multiples of 3, and allocates only sub-carriers corresponding to one-third of the total number of sub-carriers to each symbol, it only has to be actually provided with a buffer with a size of (3 symbols×total sub-carriers/3). The channel estimation method according to the present invention significantly improves reception performance in a high-speed environment, as compared to the conventional channel estimation method. While the interpolation interval in the direction of the time axis is a maximum of 4 symbols in the conventional channel estimation method illustrated in FIG. 2, the interpolation interval in the diagonal direction or in the direction of the time axis is only 2 symbols in the channel estimation method according to the present invention. Since the interpolation interval in the direction of the time axis is reduced to ½, interpolation errors decrease, and the reliability of channel estimation is enhanced, so that the inventive method can obtain stable reception performance even in a high-speed environment, as compared to the conventional method. In addition to an improvement in reception performance, an effect of a decrease in necessary memory capacity and delay time can also be obtained. In the conventional method, a delay of 3 symbols is required for obtaining completed channel estimates of 1 symbol. In contrast, only a delay of 2 symbols is required in the improved method according to the present invention. Although the conventional method requires a buffer capable of storing past FFT outputs corresponding to 4 symbols including a current symbol, buffer size is reduced to that corresponding to 3 symbols in the improved method according to the present invention because delay time decreases. FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate reception performance test results in a DVB-T/H system to which a channel estimation method according to the present invention is applied, and represent test results in a low-speed environment with a maximum Doppler frequency of 10 Hz and in a high-speed environment with a maximum Doppler frequency of 340 Hz, respectively. Channel TU6 (Typical Urban of 6 path) is supposed in the reception performance tests, an FFT size of 2K mode, a guard interval of ¼, a modulation method of 16QAM and a code rate of ½ are used as test conditions, and a native interleaver is used as an interleaver. In FIGS. 9 and 10, the abscissa axis represents a Carrier to Noise ratio (C/N), and the ordinate axis represents the Packet Error Rate (PER) of a Reed Solomon (RS) decoder. In FIG. 9, when comparing the inventive channel estimation method 903 with the conventional channel estimation method 901, it can be noted that the receiver to which the inventive channel estimation method 903 is applied has the overall reception performance improved by S1 905 corresponding to a difference between the two error curves 901 and 903, as compared to the conventional channel estimation method. It can be noted from FIG. 10 that such a difference in reception performance increases as the receiver increases in speed, as seen from S2 1005, and thus reception performance in the inventive channel estimation method is more improved at higher speed. When comparing high-speed reception performance in the inventive method with that in the conventional method, the slope of the error curve itself is significantly changed, thus resulting in a significant improvement in reception performance. As described above, according to the present invention, an interpolation interval in the direction of the time axis is reduced to ½ of that in the conventional method by performing diagonal interpolation, so that not only reception performance can be enhanced due to a decrease in interpolation errors, but also the memory capacity required for a receiver and delay time can be reduced. While the invention has been shown and described with reference to certain exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.
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27
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28
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11947489
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US20080130812A1-20080605
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DATA SYNCHRONIZATION SYSTEM
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ACCEPTED
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20080521
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20080605
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[]
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H04L702
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["H04L702"]
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8874795
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20071129
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20141028
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709
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248000
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63607.0
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DAFTUAR
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SAKET
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[{"inventor_name_last": "EOM", "inventor_name_first": "Hyeonsang", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KANG", "inventor_name_first": "Young Sang", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "YEOM", "inventor_name_first": "Heon Young", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "JEONG", "inventor_name_first": "So-young", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "KIM", "inventor_name_first": "Gun-wook", "inventor_city": "Goyang-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "PARK", "inventor_name_first": "Kyung", "inventor_city": "Daejeon-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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A data synchronization system is provided. In the data synchronization system, a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party, and the synchronization message receiving party interprets and stores the meta information included in the synchronization message, and performs further processing for data that is to be synchronized, according to the meta information. Therefore, the frequency of wireless connections for synchronization is minimized.
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1. A data synchronization system comprising: a first apparatus transmitting a synchronization message with meta information; and a second apparatus receiving the synchronization message with the meta information from the first apparatus, interpreting the meta information included in the synchronization message, storing the interpreted meta information, and performing further processing for data that is to be synchronized, according to the meta information. 2. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines a validity term of the data that is to be synchronized. 3. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines a size of the data that is to be synchronized. 4. The data synchronization system of claim 3, wherein, when the meta information further defines an operation that is to be performed when the size of the data that is to be synchronized reaches a defined size. 5. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines a synchronization data storage unit of the first apparatus as a cache for a synchronization data storage unit of the second apparatus. 6. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines a synchronization schedule of the data that is to be synchronized. 7. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines an operation that is to be performed when an error occurs during synchronization of the data that is to be synchronized. 8. The data synchronization system of claim 1, wherein the meta information defines processing of the data that is to be synchronized. 9. The data synchronization system of claim 8, wherein the processing of the data that is to be synchronized is one of compressing, encrypting, and indexing.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a data synchronization system, and more particularly, to a technique for wireless data synchronization between a server and a client which can be connected to a wireless network. 2. Description of the Related Art With development of wireless Internet technologies, a mobile computing environment where users can access data from anywhere at any time is becoming more distributed. Accordingly, users can use various applications including E-mail applications, planning applications, moving picture- and music-related applications, and address book applications, through desktop computers, or mobile devices, such as cellular phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), or notebook computers. A user can distribute various data to the memory of a device, or copy and store various data in the memory of a device. However, a mobile device is at risk of data loss because it can be easily lost or broken. For the reason, it is needed to back up data of a mobile device in the memory of a personal desktop computer or a specific server. However, since a user's mobile terminal is connected to a network only as necessary, due to accounting problems or network load problems, etc., data synchronization has to be performed periodically or non-periodically. A user accesses a network periodically or non-periodically through his or her mobile terminal, transmits data changed in the mobile terminal to a storage server on the network, and receives updated data from the storage server on the network through the mobile terminal, thereby maintaining data synchronization. A representative data synchronization method is a data synchronization protocol, SyncML, defined by the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA). FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a conventional data synchronization system. The data synchronization system consists of a first apparatus 10 and a second apparatus 20 , which are connected to each other through a wireless network. The first apparatus 10 may be a client terminal, such as a cellular phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a notebook computer, and the second apparatus 20 may be a server computer. On the contrary, it is also possible that the first apparatus 10 is a server computer and the second apparatus 20 is a client terminal. The first apparatus 10 includes at least one application 11 , a synchronization agent 12 , a data storage unit 13 , and a communication interface 14 . The application 11 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 13 . The synchronization agent 12 performs synchronization processing for the synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 13 , according to a synchronization message transmitted from the second apparatus 20 . The data storage unit 13 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 14 is used to wirelessly connect the first apparatus 10 to the second apparatus 20 . The second apparatus 20 has the same construction as the first apparatus 10 , and includes at least one application 21 , a synchronization agent 22 , a data storage unit 23 , and a communication interface 24 . Likewise, the application 21 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 23 . The synchronization agent 22 performs synchronization processing for the synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 23 , according to a synchronization message transmitted from the first apparatus 10 . The data storage unit 23 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 24 is used to wirelessly connect the second apparatus 20 to the first apparatus 10 . The data synchronization operation of the conventional data synchronization system as constructed above will be described below. For convenience of description, it is assumed that the first apparatus 10 is a client terminal, the second apparatus 20 is a server computer, and a user executes an application of managing an address book, edits the address book, and stores the edited address book in the data storage unit 13 of the first apparatus 10 . The data storage unit 13 may be a flash memory of a mobile device. After the address book is edited, the synchronization agent 12 is executed, and the first apparatus 10 is connected to the second apparatus 20 through the communication interface 14 . The synchronization agent 12 can be executed manually by a user, or executed automatically by the system. The synchronization agent 12 generates a synchronization message, and transmits the synchronization message to the second apparatus 20 . The second apparatus 20 interprets the synchronization message through the synchronization agent 22 , and performs synchronization processing for synchronization data stored in the data storage unit 23 . The synchronization message includes data identification information for data that is to be synchronized, a synchronization command, and synchronization data. In this case, the data identification information for the data that is to be synchronized includes information about an address book, the synchronization command is an address book update command, and the synchronization data is edited address book data. The second apparatus 20 interprets the synchronization message through the synchronization agent 22 , and stores the edited address book data in a location indentified by information indicating an address book stored in the data storage unit 23 according to the address book update command, thereby performing data synchronization processing. However, in the conventional data synchronization system, when only some of data stored in a data storage unit need to be selectively synchronized, or when synchronization data needs to be processed not through a wireless network, the first apparatus 10 has to be wirelessly connected to the second apparatus 20 , which increases user's accounting loads. Accordingly, the present applicant proposes a method in which a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party so that it can be minimized the frequency of connections of the synchronization message receiving party to a wireless network for synchronization processing, user's accounting loads can be reduced, and synchronization processing can be effectively performed.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a data synchronization system in which a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party so that it can be minimized the frequency of connections of the synchronization message receiving party to a wireless network for synchronization processing, user's accounting loads can be reduced, and synchronization processing can be effectively performed. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data synchronization system including: a first apparatus transmitting a synchronization message with meta information; and a second apparatus receiving the synchronization message with the meta information from the first apparatus, interpreting the meta information included in the synchronization message, storing the interpreted meta information, and performing further processing for data that is to be synchronized, according to the meta information. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority from Korean Patent Application No. 10-2006-0120044 filed on Nov. 30, 2006, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a data synchronization system, and more particularly, to a technique for wireless data synchronization between a server and a client which can be connected to a wireless network. 2. Description of the Related Art With development of wireless Internet technologies, a mobile computing environment where users can access data from anywhere at any time is becoming more distributed. Accordingly, users can use various applications including E-mail applications, planning applications, moving picture- and music-related applications, and address book applications, through desktop computers, or mobile devices, such as cellular phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), or notebook computers. A user can distribute various data to the memory of a device, or copy and store various data in the memory of a device. However, a mobile device is at risk of data loss because it can be easily lost or broken. For the reason, it is needed to back up data of a mobile device in the memory of a personal desktop computer or a specific server. However, since a user's mobile terminal is connected to a network only as necessary, due to accounting problems or network load problems, etc., data synchronization has to be performed periodically or non-periodically. A user accesses a network periodically or non-periodically through his or her mobile terminal, transmits data changed in the mobile terminal to a storage server on the network, and receives updated data from the storage server on the network through the mobile terminal, thereby maintaining data synchronization. A representative data synchronization method is a data synchronization protocol, SyncML, defined by the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA). FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a conventional data synchronization system. The data synchronization system consists of a first apparatus 10 and a second apparatus 20, which are connected to each other through a wireless network. The first apparatus 10 may be a client terminal, such as a cellular phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a notebook computer, and the second apparatus 20 may be a server computer. On the contrary, it is also possible that the first apparatus 10 is a server computer and the second apparatus 20 is a client terminal. The first apparatus 10 includes at least one application 11, a synchronization agent 12, a data storage unit 13, and a communication interface 14. The application 11 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 13. The synchronization agent 12 performs synchronization processing for the synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 13, according to a synchronization message transmitted from the second apparatus 20. The data storage unit 13 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 14 is used to wirelessly connect the first apparatus 10 to the second apparatus 20. The second apparatus 20 has the same construction as the first apparatus 10, and includes at least one application 21, a synchronization agent 22, a data storage unit 23, and a communication interface 24. Likewise, the application 21 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 23. The synchronization agent 22 performs synchronization processing for the synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 23, according to a synchronization message transmitted from the first apparatus 10. The data storage unit 23 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 24 is used to wirelessly connect the second apparatus 20 to the first apparatus 10. The data synchronization operation of the conventional data synchronization system as constructed above will be described below. For convenience of description, it is assumed that the first apparatus 10 is a client terminal, the second apparatus 20 is a server computer, and a user executes an application of managing an address book, edits the address book, and stores the edited address book in the data storage unit 13 of the first apparatus 10. The data storage unit 13 may be a flash memory of a mobile device. After the address book is edited, the synchronization agent 12 is executed, and the first apparatus 10 is connected to the second apparatus 20 through the communication interface 14. The synchronization agent 12 can be executed manually by a user, or executed automatically by the system. The synchronization agent 12 generates a synchronization message, and transmits the synchronization message to the second apparatus 20. The second apparatus 20 interprets the synchronization message through the synchronization agent 22, and performs synchronization processing for synchronization data stored in the data storage unit 23. The synchronization message includes data identification information for data that is to be synchronized, a synchronization command, and synchronization data. In this case, the data identification information for the data that is to be synchronized includes information about an address book, the synchronization command is an address book update command, and the synchronization data is edited address book data. The second apparatus 20 interprets the synchronization message through the synchronization agent 22, and stores the edited address book data in a location indentified by information indicating an address book stored in the data storage unit 23 according to the address book update command, thereby performing data synchronization processing. However, in the conventional data synchronization system, when only some of data stored in a data storage unit need to be selectively synchronized, or when synchronization data needs to be processed not through a wireless network, the first apparatus 10 has to be wirelessly connected to the second apparatus 20, which increases user's accounting loads. Accordingly, the present applicant proposes a method in which a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party so that it can be minimized the frequency of connections of the synchronization message receiving party to a wireless network for synchronization processing, user's accounting loads can be reduced, and synchronization processing can be effectively performed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a data synchronization system in which a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party so that it can be minimized the frequency of connections of the synchronization message receiving party to a wireless network for synchronization processing, user's accounting loads can be reduced, and synchronization processing can be effectively performed. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data synchronization system including: a first apparatus transmitting a synchronization message with meta information; and a second apparatus receiving the synchronization message with the meta information from the first apparatus, interpreting the meta information included in the synchronization message, storing the interpreted meta information, and performing further processing for data that is to be synchronized, according to the meta information. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate exemplary embodiments of the invention, and together with the description serve to explain the aspects of the invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a conventional data synchronization system; and FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a data synchronization system according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS The invention is described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the exemplary embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these exemplary embodiments are provided so that this disclosure is thorough, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the size and relative sizes of layers and regions may be exaggerated for clarity. Like reference numerals in the drawings denote like elements. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a data synchronization system according to an embodiment of the present invention. The data synchronization system includes a first apparatus 100 and a second apparatus 200 which are connected to each other through a wireless network. The first apparatus 100 may be a client terminal, such as a cellular phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a notebook computer, and the second apparatus 200 may be a server computer. On the contrary, it is also possible that the first apparatus 100 is a server computer and the second apparatus 200 is a client terminal. The first apparatus 100 includes at least one application 110, a synchronization agent 120, a data storage unit 130, a communication interface 140, and a meta information database (DB) 150. The application 110 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 130. The synchronization agent 120 performs synchronization processing for synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 130, according to a synchronization message transmitted from the second apparatus 200. The synchronization agent 120 interprets meta information included in the synchronization message, stores the interpreted meta information in the meta information database 150, and performs further processing for data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 130 and will be synchronized, according to the meta information. The data storage unit 130 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 140 connects the first apparatus 100 to the second apparatus 200 through a wireless network. The meta information database 150 stores the meta information included in the synchronization message. The second apparatus 200 has the same construction as the first apparatus 100, and includes at least one application 210, a synchronization agent 220, a data storage unit 230, a communication interface 240, and a meta information database (DB) 250. The application 210 is a program for reading, processing, or storing synchronization data stored in the data storage unit 230. The synchronization agent 220 performs synchronization processing for synchronization data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 230, according to a synchronization message transmitted from the first apparatus 100. The synchronization agent 220 interprets meta information included in the synchronization message, stores the meta information in the meta information database 250, and performs further processing for data that is to be stored in the data storage unit 230 and will be synchronized, according to the meta information. The data storage unit 230 stores the synchronization data. The communication interface 240 connects the second apparatus 200 to the first apparatus 100 through the wireless network. The meta information database 250 stores the meta information included in the synchronization message. The operation of the data synchronization system constructed above will be described in detail below. It is assumed that the first apparatus 100 is a client terminal, the second apparatus 200 is a server computer, and data processed by a user through the first apparatus 100 is transmitted to the second apparatus 200 so that the data is synchronized with data stored in the second apparatus 200. Data changed by a user through execution of the application 110 of the first apparatus 100 is stored in the data storage unit 130. The data stored in the data storage unit 130 is included in a synchronization message, is transmitted to the second apparatus 200, and is synchronized with data stored in the data storage unit 230 of the second apparatus 200. The first apparatus 100 and the second apparatus 200 are connected to the wireless network through the communication interfaces 140 and 240, respectively. The data storage unit 130 of the first apparatus 100 may be a flash memory of a client terminal (a mobile device), and the data storage unit 230 of the second apparatus 200 may be a hard disk of a server computer. In order to synchronize the data stored in the data storage unit 130 with the data stored in the data storage unit 230 of the second apparatus 200, first, the synchronization message is generated. The synchronization message can be generated by the application 110 of the first apparatus 100 or by the synchronization agent 120 of the first apparatus 100. If the synchronization message is generated, the synchronization agent 120 of the first apparatus 100 is executed to transmit the synchronization message to the second apparatus 200, wherein the synchronization agent 120 can be executed manually by a user or automatically by the system. The synchronization message includes data identification information of data that is to be synchronized, a synchronization command, synchronization data, and meta information. The meta information included in the synchronization message is further information for the synchronization data that is to be synchronized, that is, information for selectively synchronizing only some of the data stored in the data storage unit 230 as necessary or information for processing the synchronization data not through the wireless network. The second apparatus 200, which has received the synchronization message from the first apparatus 100, interprets the synchronization message through the synchronization agent 220, performs synchronization processing for the synchronization data stored in the data storage unit 230, interprets the meta information included in the synchronization message transmitted from the first apparatus 100, stores the meta information in the meta information database 250, and then performs processing for data that is to be synchronized, according to the meta information. Since the meta information is used when further processing for data that is to be synchronized is needed, that is, when only some of data stored in the data storage unit 230 need to be selectively synchronized as necessary or when the synchronization data need to be processed not through the wireless network, it is possible to minimize the frequency of wireless connections for synchronization, through further processing for data that is to be synchronized using the meta information, thereby reducing user's accounting loads and effectively performing synchronization. In a conventional technique, since data synchronization is performed after the first apparatus is connected to the second apparatus through a network for such further processing, user's accounting loads increase. The meta information may define a validity period of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200. Also, the meta information may define the size of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200. In this case, the meta information can define an operation that has to be performed when the size of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200 reaches a predetermined size. Also, the meta information may define the data storage unit 130 of the first apparatus 100 as a cache of the data storage unit 230 of the second apparatus 200. Also, the meta information may define a synchronization schedule of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200. Also, the meta information may define an operation that has to be performed when an error occurs during synchronization of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200. Also, the meta information may define processing of the synchronization data stored in the second apparatus 200. Here, the processing of the synchronization data may be one of compressing, encrypting, or indexing. The meta information may define that it is applied to a specific file, or that it is applied to all files in a specific folder or to all data items in the sub-folders of a specific folder. The following embodiments explain various methods for attaching meta information of data items using meta tags based on the data synchronization protocol SyncML, wherein the data synchronization protocol SyncML is expanded so that a synchronization message includes meta information. In the embodiments, tags “ClientCache”, “Server Cache”, “TTL”, “LocalOnly”, “Quota”, “Policy”, “SyncPeriod”, and “ConflictResolve” are defined. The tag “ClientCache” indicates that the corresponding meta information will be stored in a client storage unit, and the tag “ServerCache” indicates that the corresponding meta information will be stored in a server storage unit. Also, additional tags can be defined as necessary. Tags “1 Week”, “1 Day”, and “Every 00:00:00” for indicating periods or times, other than the above-mentioned tags, can be varied or expanded. Values, such as “True”, “16 MB”, “LRU”, also can be varied or expanded. Other than the above-mentioned tags, meta information for data items can be appropriately defined as tags, and formats for representing values of the tags can be defined. First Embodiment A SyncML message according to the first embodiment fetches a data item “mms—001” from a second apparatus (a server), and stores the data item “mms—001” in a data storage unit of a first apparatus (a client) for a week. A tag “ClientCache” of the SyncML message includes information indicating the data storage unit of the client. By inserting a tag “TTL” into the tag “ClientCache”, it can be defined how long the corresponding data item “mms—001” will be stored in the client. Information regarding a period can be defined in units of second/minute/hour/day/week/year. A folder or data item whose storage period is not defined by the tag “TTL” depends on settings of its parent folder. If the storage period of the folder or data item is not set in its parent folder, the folder or data item is maintained indefinitely as long as no processing is performed on the folder or data item. The SyncML message is generated by a client application. The client synchronization agent 120 interprets the tag “ClientCache” of the SyncML message and stores the interpreted result in its meta information database. In this embodiment, a data item “mms—001” is removed from the data storage unit of the client after one week elapses. When the data item “mms—001” is removed, content related to the data item “mms—001” is also removed from the meta information database of the client. <SyncML> <SyncHdr> <VerDTD>1.0</VerDTD> <VerProto>SyncML/1.0</VerProto> <SessionID>1</SessionID> <MsgID>2</MsgID> <Target><LocURI>./Messaging/MMS</LocURI></Target> <Source><LocURI>./MMS</LocURI></Source> </SyncHdr> <SyncBody> <Get> <CmdID>1</CmdID> <Item> <Target> <LocURI>mms_001</LocURI> </Target> </Item> <Meta> <Type xmlns=’syncml:netinf’>application/wap.mms-messge </Type> <ClientCache> <TTL>1 Week</TTL> </ClientCache> </Meta> </Get> </SyncBody> </SyncML> Second Embodiment A SyncML message according to the second embodiment sends a data item “mms—010” of a first apparatus (a client) to a second apparatus (a server), and stores the data item “mms—010” in a data storage unit of the server for one day. A synchronization agent of the server receives the SyncML message from the client, interprets a tag “ServerCache” in the SyncML message to acquire the content of the tag “ServerCache”, and stores the content in a meta information database of the server. After a predetermined time (that is, one day) elapses, the data item “mms—010” is removed from the data storage unit of the server, and content related to the data item “mms—010” is also removed from the meta information database of the server. <Put> <CmdID>2</CmdID> <Item> <Target> <LocURI>mms_010</LocURI> </Target> </Item> <Meta> <Type xmlns=’syncml:netinf’>application/wap.mms-messge</Type> <ServerCache> <TTL>1 Day</TTL> </ServerCache> </Meta> </Put> Third Embodiment A SyncML message according to the third embodiment uses a cache “My Cache” of a first apparatus (a client), a maximum of 16 MB can be stored in the cache “My Cache” of the client, and LRU (Least Recently Used) is used as a replacement policy. In some cases, the cache “My Cache” is used only by the client, and needs not to be synchronized with a second apparatus (a server). In these cases, the cache “My Cache” is stored only in a data storage unit of the client using a tag “LocalOnly”, and is not stored in the server. The size of the cache “My Cache” can be defined using a tag “Quota”, and a replacement policy of the cache “My Cache” can be defined using a tag “Policy”. In this embodiment, the size of the cache “My Cache” is 16 MB, and a replacement policy of the cache “My Cache” is LRU. <Add> <CmdID>5</CmdID> <Meta> <ClientCache> <LocalOnly>True</LocalOnly> <Quota>16MB</Quota> <Policy>LRU</Policy> </ClientCache> </Meta> <Item> <Source> <LocURI>./102</LocURI> <LocName>My Cache</LocName> </Source> </Item> </Add> Fourth Embodiment A SyncML message according to the fourth embodiment generates an “Address Book” of a first apparatus (a client), and synchronizes the “Address Book” of the client with that of a second apparatus (a server) every 00:00:00. However, there is a case where both the client and server are updated before next synchronization is performed after synchronization data stored in the client is synchronized with that of the server. In this case, it can be selected whether to maintain data of the client, whether to maintain data of the server, or whether to wait user's manipulation without synchronization. The current embodiment is to perform synchronization using data of the client. <Add> <CmdID>6</CmdID> <Meta> <ClientCache> <SyncPeriod>Every 00:00:00</ SyncPeriod > <ConflictResolve>ClientSide</ConflictResolve> </ClientCache> </Meta> <Item> <Source> <LocURI>./478</LocURI> <LocName>Address Book</LocName> </Source> </Item> </Add> As described above, in the data synchronization system according to the present invention, since a synchronization message transmitting party transmits a synchronization message with meta information to a synchronization message receiving party, it can be minimized the frequency of connections of the synchronization message receiving party to a wireless network for synchronization processing, thereby reducing user's accounting loads and effectively performing synchronization processing. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention covers the modifications and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents.
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11727186
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US20070240205A1-20071011
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Security level establishment under generic bootstrapping architecture
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ACCEPTED
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20070926
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20071011
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[]
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H04L932
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["H04L932"]
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8037522
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20070323
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20111011
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726
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019000
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64771.0
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SHOLEMAN
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ABU
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Holtmanns", "inventor_name_first": "Silke", "inventor_city": "Klaukkala", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FI"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Laitinen", "inventor_name_first": "Pekka", "inventor_city": "Helsinki", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FI"}]
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Security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, comprising a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity and a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information.
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1. A method comprising: sending a request for a credential for an application in a terminal equipment from an application entity of the terminal equipment to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application in the terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 2. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information. 3. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity refrains from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application. 4. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: notifying a network application function entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the credential quality information comprises a type of bootstrapping mechanism on the basis of which the requested credential is generated. 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the type of bootstrapping mechanism is one of the following: subscriber identity module based type; universal subscriber identity module based type; Internet protocol multimedia services subscriber identity module based type; cellular authentication and voice encryption based type; point-to-point challenge handshake authentication protocol based type; removable user identity module based type; or digital certificate based type. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the credential quality information comprises credential deletion information defining at least one condition under which the requested credential is to be deleted at the application entity. 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the credential deletion information defines as a condition at least one of the following: removing a smartcard from the terminal equipment; powering-down the terminal device; or revocation of credentials. 9. The method according to claim 7, further comprising: pushing a credential deletion notice from the credential establishment entity to the application entity that the condition is fulfilled; and deleting the returned credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion notice. 10. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: pushing, from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, a credential deletion command for deleting a credential at the application entity; and deleting the credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion command, wherein the credential deletion command is pushed when a predetermined condition is fulfilled at the credential establishment entity. 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client. 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment. 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. 14. A method of operating an application entity in a terminal equipment, the method comprising: sending a request for a credential for an application in the terminal equipment from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application in the terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 15. The method according to claim 14, further comprising: determining a security level of the received credential based on the credential quality information. 16. The method according to claim 15, further comprising: comparing the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity refrains from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application. 17. The method according to claim 14, further comprising: notifying a network application function entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information. 18. The method according to claim 14, further comprising: deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled. 19. The method according to claim 14, wherein the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client. 20. A method of operating a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment, the method comprising: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for an application of the terminal equipment; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server. 22. The method according to claim 20, wherein the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. 23. A computer program embodied on a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to perform a security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform: sending a request for a credential for the application from an application entity of the terminal equipment to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 24. A computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate an application entity in a terminal equipment the computer program being configured to perform: sending a request for a credential for an application in the terminal equipment from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 25. A computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for an application in the terminal equipment; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information; and establishing a security level for the application under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 26. A system comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for an application in a terminal equipment from an application entity of the terminal equipment to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and means for establishing a security level for the application in the terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 27. The system according to claim 26, further comprising: means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information. 28. The system according to claim 27, further comprising: means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application. 29. The system according to claim 26, further comprising: means for notifying a network application function entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information. 30. The system according to claim 26, further comprising: means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled. 31. The system according to claim 26, wherein the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client. 32. The system according to claim 26, wherein the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment. 33. The system according to claim 26, wherein the terminal equipment is based on a closed platform environment. 34. The system according to claim 32, wherein the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. 35. An apparatus, comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for an application of a terminal equipment from an application entity of the terminal equipment to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information; and means for establishing a security level for the application in the terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms. 36. The apparatus according to claim 35, further comprising: means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information. 37. The apparatus according to claim 36, further comprising: means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application. 38. The apparatus according to claim 35, further comprising: means for notifying a network application function entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information. 39. The apparatus according to claim 35, further comprising: means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled. 40. The apparatus according to claim 35, wherein the apparatus comprises a terminal equipment.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, various kinds of communication systems, in particular mobile and/or IP-based (IP: Internet Protocol) communication systems, as well as a multitude of services offered in these systems have been developed. In such advanced communication systems, such as e.g. Third Generation mobile communication networks currently under development by the Third Generation Partnership Program (3GPP) and the Third Generation Partnership Program 2 (3GPP2), aspects relating to security and trustworthiness are playing a more and more important role. Starting from the concept of subscriber certificates, which support services that mobile operators provide and whose provision assists mobile operators, and in consideration of a need for more generic security capabilities, 3GPP and 3 GPP2 standardization work lately concentrated on the evolution of a generic authentication architecture (GAA). GAA defines bootstrapping of a shared (symmetric) secret based on specific credentials. As can be gathered from FIG. 1 showing an overview of a generic authentication architecture environment in interrelation with a home subscriber system HSS, a user equipment UE, and a network entity NE, GAA basically consists of three sub-aspects. That is, a generic bootstrapping architecture (GBA), subscriber certificates, and an authentication proxy (AP) e.g. based on HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transport Protocol). Thereby, the generic bootstrapping architecture (GBA) also builds a basis for both the other sub-aspects in that GBA offers generic authentication capability for various applications based on an application specific shared secret or a public/private key pair. Usually, GBA functions to bootstrap authentication and key agreement for application security, and it is based on the AKA (Authentication and Key Agreement) mechanism. In FIG. 2 , there is illustrated a network model for generic bootstrapping. A bootstrapping server function BSF and the user equipment UE, which are connected via a bidirectional link, mutually authenticate using the AKA protocol, and agree on session keys. These keys are afterwards to be used for a bootstrapping session and to be used between the user equipment and a network application function NAF which is also connected to the user equipment by means of a bidirectional link. After a bootstrapping mechanism selection procedure and a bootstrapping procedure based on a selected bootstrapping mechanism, the user equipment and the network application function can run some application-specific protocol where the security of messages will be based on those session keys generated during mutual authentication. Accordingly, GAA/GBA can in general be regarded as a 3-party authentication scenario, wherein the bootstrapping server function is further connected to a home subscriber system (HSS) or Home Location Register (HLR). The reference points (interfaces) between the individual entities in FIG. 2 are denoted by Ub, Ua, Zn, and Zh. The interface Zh is based on Diameter and may be based on MAP (not standard), the Zn interface can be based on Diameter or Web Services (i.e., SOAP over HTTP), the interface Ub is based on a reuse of HTTP Digest AKA messages (i.e., 3G authentication with USIM or ISIM) or some variant of it (e.g., 2G GBA of 3 GPP that is based on legacy GSM authentication, and legacy GBA in 3GPP2 that is based on CDMA 1× and CDMA 1× EvDo are all based on HTTP Digest AKA but with some modifications), and the protocol used on the interface Ua depends on the application to be executed. The utilization of the generic bootstrapping architecture is divided into two phases, i.e. the (generic) bootstrapping procedure as such and the generic bootstrapping usage procedure. The present invention is concerned with the generic bootstrapping usage. For further details on the generic bootstrapping architecture, reference is made to the document “3GPP TS 33.220, v7.3.0” as for 3GPP standardization and to the document “3GPP2 S.P0109-0, version 0.6” as for 3GPP2 standardization, both being published in December 2005.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to remove the drawbacks inherent to previous solutions and to provide an accordingly improved system and terminal equipment as well as accordingly improved methods and computer programs for these. According to a first aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the method comprising the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the further comprises the step of determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the method further comprises the step of comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity refrains from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the method further comprises the step of notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the credential quality information comprises a type of bootstrapping mechanism on the basis of which the requested credential is generated; the type of bootstrapping mechanism is one of the following: subscriber identity module, SIM, based type; universal subscriber identity module, USIM, based type; Internet protocol multimedia services subscriber identity module, ISIM, based type; cellular authentication and voice encryption, CAVE, based type; point-to-point challenge handshake authentication protocol, CHAP, based type; removable user identity module, RUIM, based type; or digital certificate based type; the credential quality information comprises credential deletion information defining at least one condition under which the requested credential is to be deleted at the application entity; the credential deletion information defines as a condition at least one of the following: removing a smartcard from the terminal equipment; powering-down the terminal device; or revocation of credentials; the method further comprises the steps of: pushing a credential deletion notice from the credential establishment entity to the application entity that the condition is fulfilled; and deleting the returned credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion notice; the method further comprises the steps of: pushing, from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, a credential deletion command for deleting a credential at the application entity; and deleting the credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion command, wherein the credential deletion command is pushed when a predetermined condition is fulfilled at the credential establishment entity; the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client; the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment; and/or the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. According to a second aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of operating an application entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the method comprising the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; and receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. Further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect are in accordance with those as set out in connection with the first aspect. According to a third aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of operating a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the method comprising the steps of: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for the application; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; and returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information. Further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect are in accordance with those as set out in connection with the first aspect. According to a fourth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to perform a security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to a fifth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate an application entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; and receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to a sixth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for the application; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; and returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information. According to a seventh aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a system for security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the system comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the system further comprises means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the system further comprises means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the system further comprises means for notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the system further comprises means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled; the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client; the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment or a closed platform environment; and/or the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. According to an eighth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by an apparatus for security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the apparatus comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the apparatus further comprises means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the apparatus further comprises means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the apparatus further comprises means for notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the apparatus further comprises means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled; and/or the apparatus comprises a terminal equipment. It is an advantage of the present invention that a security level establishment and differentiation in an application of a terminal equipment is provided. Based on a corresponding security level differentiation, an internal and external processing of applications, network and services is improved. It is another advantage of the present invention that no external signaling is necessary, particularly no signaling between an application server and an application in a terminal equipment as well as between the application server and a bootstrapping server. It is still another advantage of the present invention that an unpromising and/or unauthenticated external service request to a network application function can be avoided. Thereby, signaling overhead and physical resources occupancy is reduced. Another advantage is that some fraud scenarios are prevented and that the possibility exists to inform the application in the terminal that the application specific credentials it has stored are revoked (e.g. due to cancellation of contract between NAF and operator). However, the terminal application might still want to indicate to the application server the security level, even if the NAF is contacted this might still improve the performance between NAF and BSF.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/787,213 filed on Mar. 30, 2006. The subject matter of this earlier filed application is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to security level establishment under generic bootstrapping architecture. In particular, the present invention relates to security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment using a generic bootstrapping architecture that may utilize a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, such as for example SIM-, USIM- and ISIM-based bootstrapping. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, various kinds of communication systems, in particular mobile and/or IP-based (IP: Internet Protocol) communication systems, as well as a multitude of services offered in these systems have been developed. In such advanced communication systems, such as e.g. Third Generation mobile communication networks currently under development by the Third Generation Partnership Program (3GPP) and the Third Generation Partnership Program 2 (3GPP2), aspects relating to security and trustworthiness are playing a more and more important role. Starting from the concept of subscriber certificates, which support services that mobile operators provide and whose provision assists mobile operators, and in consideration of a need for more generic security capabilities, 3GPP and 3 GPP2 standardization work lately concentrated on the evolution of a generic authentication architecture (GAA). GAA defines bootstrapping of a shared (symmetric) secret based on specific credentials. As can be gathered from FIG. 1 showing an overview of a generic authentication architecture environment in interrelation with a home subscriber system HSS, a user equipment UE, and a network entity NE, GAA basically consists of three sub-aspects. That is, a generic bootstrapping architecture (GBA), subscriber certificates, and an authentication proxy (AP) e.g. based on HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transport Protocol). Thereby, the generic bootstrapping architecture (GBA) also builds a basis for both the other sub-aspects in that GBA offers generic authentication capability for various applications based on an application specific shared secret or a public/private key pair. Usually, GBA functions to bootstrap authentication and key agreement for application security, and it is based on the AKA (Authentication and Key Agreement) mechanism. In FIG. 2, there is illustrated a network model for generic bootstrapping. A bootstrapping server function BSF and the user equipment UE, which are connected via a bidirectional link, mutually authenticate using the AKA protocol, and agree on session keys. These keys are afterwards to be used for a bootstrapping session and to be used between the user equipment and a network application function NAF which is also connected to the user equipment by means of a bidirectional link. After a bootstrapping mechanism selection procedure and a bootstrapping procedure based on a selected bootstrapping mechanism, the user equipment and the network application function can run some application-specific protocol where the security of messages will be based on those session keys generated during mutual authentication. Accordingly, GAA/GBA can in general be regarded as a 3-party authentication scenario, wherein the bootstrapping server function is further connected to a home subscriber system (HSS) or Home Location Register (HLR). The reference points (interfaces) between the individual entities in FIG. 2 are denoted by Ub, Ua, Zn, and Zh. The interface Zh is based on Diameter and may be based on MAP (not standard), the Zn interface can be based on Diameter or Web Services (i.e., SOAP over HTTP), the interface Ub is based on a reuse of HTTP Digest AKA messages (i.e., 3G authentication with USIM or ISIM) or some variant of it (e.g., 2G GBA of 3 GPP that is based on legacy GSM authentication, and legacy GBA in 3GPP2 that is based on CDMA 1× and CDMA 1× EvDo are all based on HTTP Digest AKA but with some modifications), and the protocol used on the interface Ua depends on the application to be executed. The utilization of the generic bootstrapping architecture is divided into two phases, i.e. the (generic) bootstrapping procedure as such and the generic bootstrapping usage procedure. The present invention is concerned with the generic bootstrapping usage. For further details on the generic bootstrapping architecture, reference is made to the document “3GPP TS 33.220, v7.3.0” as for 3GPP standardization and to the document “3GPP2 S.P0109-0, version 0.6” as for 3GPP2 standardization, both being published in December 2005. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to remove the drawbacks inherent to previous solutions and to provide an accordingly improved system and terminal equipment as well as accordingly improved methods and computer programs for these. According to a first aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the method comprising the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the further comprises the step of determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the method further comprises the step of comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity refrains from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the method further comprises the step of notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the credential quality information comprises a type of bootstrapping mechanism on the basis of which the requested credential is generated; the type of bootstrapping mechanism is one of the following: subscriber identity module, SIM, based type; universal subscriber identity module, USIM, based type; Internet protocol multimedia services subscriber identity module, ISIM, based type; cellular authentication and voice encryption, CAVE, based type; point-to-point challenge handshake authentication protocol, CHAP, based type; removable user identity module, RUIM, based type; or digital certificate based type; the credential quality information comprises credential deletion information defining at least one condition under which the requested credential is to be deleted at the application entity; the credential deletion information defines as a condition at least one of the following: removing a smartcard from the terminal equipment; powering-down the terminal device; or revocation of credentials; the method further comprises the steps of: pushing a credential deletion notice from the credential establishment entity to the application entity that the condition is fulfilled; and deleting the returned credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion notice; the method further comprises the steps of: pushing, from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, a credential deletion command for deleting a credential at the application entity; and deleting the credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion command, wherein the credential deletion command is pushed when a predetermined condition is fulfilled at the credential establishment entity; the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client; the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment; and/or the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. According to a second aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of operating an application entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the method comprising the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; and receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. Further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect are in accordance with those as set out in connection with the first aspect. According to a third aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a method of operating a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the method comprising the steps of: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for the application; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; and returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information. Further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect are in accordance with those as set out in connection with the first aspect. According to a fourth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to perform a security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to a fifth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate an application entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment; and receiving, from the credential establishment entity a response which comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to a sixth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a computer program embodied in a computer-readable medium comprising program code configured to operate a credential establishment entity in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the method being configured for security level establishment for an application in the terminal equipment, the computer program being configured to perform the steps of: receiving, from an application entity of the terminal equipment, a request for a credential for the application; acquiring the required credential and credential quality information associated thereto; and returning a response to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the acquired credential and credential quality information. According to a seventh aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by a system for security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, the system comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the system further comprises means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the system further comprises means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the system further comprises means for notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the system further comprises means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled; the credential establishment entity is a generic authentication architecture server and the application entity is a generic authentication architecture client; the terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment or a closed platform environment; and/or the credential establishment entity comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface. According to an eighth aspect of the invention, this object is for example achieved by an apparatus for security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the apparatus comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, comprising: means for sending a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity; and means for returning a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential and credential quality information. According to further advantageous refinements of the present invention under the above aspect: the apparatus further comprises means for determining, at the application entity, a security level of the returned credential based on the credential quality information; the apparatus further comprises means for comparing, at the application entity, the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application using the returned credential, wherein the application entity is configured to refrain from executing the application, for which the returned credential is requested, if the comparing yields that the determined security level of the credential is lower than the desired security level of the application; the apparatus further comprises means for notifying a network application function, NAF, entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information; the apparatus further comprises means for deleting the returned credential from the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled; and/or the apparatus comprises a terminal equipment. It is an advantage of the present invention that a security level establishment and differentiation in an application of a terminal equipment is provided. Based on a corresponding security level differentiation, an internal and external processing of applications, network and services is improved. It is another advantage of the present invention that no external signaling is necessary, particularly no signaling between an application server and an application in a terminal equipment as well as between the application server and a bootstrapping server. It is still another advantage of the present invention that an unpromising and/or unauthenticated external service request to a network application function can be avoided. Thereby, signaling overhead and physical resources occupancy is reduced. Another advantage is that some fraud scenarios are prevented and that the possibility exists to inform the application in the terminal that the application specific credentials it has stored are revoked (e.g. due to cancellation of contract between NAF and operator). However, the terminal application might still want to indicate to the application server the security level, even if the NAF is contacted this might still improve the performance between NAF and BSF. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the following, the present invention will be described in greater detail with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which FIG. 1 shows an overview of a generic authentication architecture environment, FIG. 2 shows a network model for generic bootstrapping, FIG. 3 shows a schematic block diagram of a generic bootstrapping architecture with a terminal equipment according to the present invention, and FIG. 4 shows a schematic block diagram of a system according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION The present invention is described herein with reference to particular non-limiting examples. A person skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention is not limited to these examples, and may be more broadly applied. In particular, the present invention is described in relation to a 3GPP GBA example implementation. For example, the present invention may as well be utilized everywhere where different credential establishment mechanisms are in use. As such, the description of the embodiments given herein specifically refers to terminology which is directly related thereto. Such terminology is only used in the context of the presented examples, and does not limit the invention in any way. In particular, any suitable (today's or future) bootstrapping mechanism may be used for bootstrapping credentials as long as this mechanism complies with the general GBA framework. When an application in a terminal equipment such as a user equipment UE is to be carried out within a GBA framework, an application entity in the terminal equipment has to contact a respective network application function NAF. For assuring its entitlement for carrying out the desired application, the application entity of the terminal equipment has to authenticate itself by means of certain credentials. The application entity obtains these credentials together with a lifetime information from a credential establishment entity of the terminal equipment, which serves for bootstrapping shared keys (i.e. credentials) between the terminal equipment and a bootstrapping server function BSF of the generic bootstrapping architecture. Upon request, the credential establishment entity provides the application entity with corresponding credentials which are to be used for the desired application. Hence, the application can use the received credentials/keys in any way the application requires e.g. within PSK TLS (RFC 4279). The trust that an application or application entity puts into the credentials received from the credential establishment entity might depend on the security level inherent to those credentials. However, the application or application entity is according to the known solutions not able to judge about the security level inherent to the received credentials. Especially, for certain applications, which require a particular minimum security level, this situation poses a problem in that the application in the terminal or in the peripheral device (split terminal case, i.e. an external device is connected via local means to the mobile terminal) cannot be sure whether the received credentials are of sufficient quality or their usage is permitted by the application server. Also, an application residing in the terminal might request a service from a NAF without having a sufficient security level. The NAF would then contact the BSF to obtain knowledge of the security level. In the case, that the security level is too low, the current technology leads to quite some network load and decrease general network performance. In the case that the terminal platform is not open, the application requesting the application specific credentials from the GAA server does not know the used security level. So the only way currently to keep a sufficient security level is not to allow the service. Even if the user obtains a sufficient security level, e.g. by obtaining a new smartcard, the application in the terminal can currently not use the higher security level, since the application would not know that a higher level of security has been reached. Currently, the only possibility is to update the phone software by the manufacturer. The only way to differentiate would be that the operator would provide different kind of phone models, for every bootstrapping type (e.g. card type), different application software would be preinstalled. This would lead to different terminal implementations, depending on the card used, especially updating the card would not be easily possible. Also, the current implementations offer no application specific deletion of keys, e.g. when the card has been removed and would allow fraud. This problem is even more severe in open platform environments. That is, when a terminal equipment is based on an open platform environment, it is possible to install new applications to the terminal equipment. This may be done by any user of the terminal via an application programming interface (API). The downloaded new application has currently no possibility to know, what kind of smart card is in the device. Hence the security level baseline for the application specific credentials is not known to the application. The application can be specifically customized for each card, but that would require that the user or the operator (but that would not be possible for free open software) state what kind of smart card or security level baseline is used. Another problem, that is currently not solved is that the application is not aware, when the application specific credentials received from the GAA server should be deleted. This missing information might lead to the case, that a first user generates application credentials and gives then a second user the smart card, who in turn generates application specific credentials on a second device and hence might obtain a service free of charge. In summary, there exist problems in the known solutions within a generic bootstrapping architecture that an application of a terminal equipment cannot be sure about the security level inherent to bootstrapped credentials received from a credential establishment entity. Stated in other words, the application just does not know what kind of basis for credential generation was used after having received the application specific credential and it is not aware of any events leading to a invalidity of the received credentials. Thus, a solution to the above problems is needed for providing security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture. FIG. 3 shows a schematic block diagram of a generic bootstrapping architecture with a terminal equipment according to the present invention. The terminal equipment is illustrated to be based on a (trusted) open platform environment, such as for example Symbian or Series60. According to FIG. 3, the terminal equipment comprises a GAA server acting as a credential establishment entity (in terms of e.g. GBA_ME or GBA_U), a GAA client acting as an application entity, device drivers (which represent a conventional implementation detail and are not relevant for the present invention), and a smartcard which can bean UICC (Universal Integrated Circuits Card) or a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card or some other form of secure storage, like trusted computing platform. The smartcard can be to be a multi-application card on which several different applications run, which define different bootstrapping mechanisms. By means of these different bootstrapping mechanisms of the UICC, the GAA server is able to bootstrap specific credentials in cooperation with a bootstrapping server function BSF over the network interface Ub. Since the present invention does not relate to the bootstrapping mechanism as such, no description thereof will be given herein. Examples of known bootstrapping mechanisms include bootstrapping based on a subscriber identity module SIM, a universal subscriber identity module USIM, an Internet protocol multimedia services subscriber identity module ISIM, a cellular authentication and voice encryption CAVE, a point-to-point (PPP) challenge handshake authentication protocol CHAP, a removable user identity module RUIM, a digital certificate, a private/public key pair, other form of cryptographic master key, or username/password based schemes. Apart from the known bootstrapping mechanisms mentioned above, the present invention is generally also applicable to any other suitable bootstrapping mechanism, including future bootstrapping mechanisms. The GAA server is either part of the platform of the terminal equipment, or is e.g. downloaded to the terminal equipment after it has been sold. As required for an open terminal platform under generic bootstrapping architecture, the GAA server comprises a generic bootstrapping architecture application programming interface denoted by GBA API. The GBA API interfaces the GAA server with the GAA client. The GBA server takes care that the GBA master key can be established, from which NAF-specific keys are deduced, and hands out the needed NAF-specific keys (credentials). The GAA client interacts with a network application function NAF over the network interface Ua for executing network applications as explained above. According to the present embodiment of the invention, the GAA client as the application entity sends a request to the GBA API (indicated by a respective arrow). By way of such a request, the GAA client requests at least one credential from the GAA server, which is needed at the GAA client for execution of a certain application. Upon such a request, the GAA client (via the GBA API) returns the requested credential(s), which is/are retrieved from a respective credential storage of the GBA server or the smart card. This returning operation is platform-dependent. According to the bootstrapping mechanism used, the returned credential is of a particular bootstrapping type. In its response to the GAA client (indicated by a respective arrow), the GAA server in addition to the requested credential (and possible its lifetime) also includes credential quality information. This credential quality information indicates the type of bootstrapping mechanism on the basis of which the returned credential is generated, such as for example SIM-, USIM-, ISIM-, RUIM-, CAVE-, CHAP-, certificate-, or password based. In case of any other bootstrapping mechanism being used, the type of this mechanism is indicated, including future bootstrapping mechanisms. The master credentials can be stored on different media e.g. secure memory, smart card or other trusted environment. By way of this additional credential quality information according to the present invention, the GAA client, i.e. the application entity, is enabled to determine the security level of the returned credential, and thus the security level of the application executed using this credential. Further, the GAA client is able to compare the determined security level of the credential with a desired security level of the application to be executed using the returned credential. If the determined security level is lower than the desired security level, the GAA client is operable to decide e.g. to refrain from executing the application. Thus, no service request for this application is to be sent to the NAF entity in the network, whereby physical resources are spared and costs are avoided for the user. On the other hand, if the determined security level is higher than the desired security level, the application is ensured to be sufficiently secure with regard to its requirements. For example, a certain application e.g. broadcast application (e.g., 3GPP MBMS) may require at minimum a USIM-based credential, thus not being executed when the returned credential is only of SIM-based bootstrapping type. This prevents that the terminal contacts the service (and may establish a connection that is charged) for a service, that can not be obtained with that level of security. From the point of view of application designers (for open platform terminal equipment) the functionality according to embodiments of the present invention is important as they can deduce the authentication quality in the GAA client (i.e. part of the application) from information received upon a credential request and the application takes into account the level of security (e.g. by limiting the service scope). The application is only executed and possible costs are generated for the user, if the security level matches or is higher and there is a reasonable chance for the user to obtain actually the service. This allows the application designers to take into account specifics that are due to 3GPP- or 3GPP2-specific GBA information (e.g. hacked algorithms or general strength of used algorithms). Namely, the GAA client is able to detect whether 3GPP bootstrapping is based on Second Generation (2G) specifics (e.g. SIM) or Third Generation (3G) specifics (e.g. USIM, ISIM), or whether 3GPP2 based bootstrapping is based on CAVE (i.e. CDMA 1×), CHAP (i.e. CDMA 1× EvDo), or AKA (e.g., USIM) or some other not yet standardized means. As a further aspect of the present embodiment, the GAA client in the terminal equipment notifies the NAF entity of the generic bootstrapping architecture about the returned credential quality information, i.e. the bootstrapping type of the returned credential. Thereby, it can be avoided that that the NAF entity has to retrieve the bootstrapping type information from the BSF entity, thus preventing unnecessary backend signaling, if desired. This is for example particularly interesting for the roaming case, where the NAF entity is not located in the user's (i.e. terminal equipment's) home network and the NAF entity wants to know directly at the first contact (i.e. the GAA client sending a service request including respective credentials for its authentication), what type of bootstrapping has been used to generate the credentials. Then, the NAF entity is operable to decide whether it will trust the credential quality information from the terminal equipment, and if yes, whether the credentials are of a sufficiently high security level. In addition or alternatively to the credential quality information, the response from the GAA server to the GAA client according to an embodiment of the present invention comprises credential deletion information. The credential deletion information according to this embodiment defines at least one condition under which the requested and returned credential becomes invalid, and thus is to be deleted at the GAA client (or all of the GAA clients in the terminal equipment). In contrast to conventional lifetime information, this credential deletion information defines an actual expiry date that is bound to a condition or event (revocation of credential, removal of smart card, device power down), and not a theoretical one that is set during key generation. That is, although the lifetime of a credential has not yet passed, it may expire immediately due to a certain event. For example when the smartcard is removed from the terminal equipment or when the terminal equipment is powered down or when the associated application is closed or when the used and/or stored credential is revoked, certain credentials' validity may expire in order to ensure security and prevent security threats. Thus, the credential deletion information according to this aspect of the present invention represents an alterable freshness information. Usually, an application in the terminal would not be aware that, for example, the credentials are revoked or the smart card has been removed, hence it would not know, that it is supposed to delete the stored application specific credentials. Thereby, a fraud scenario can be prevented, where a user of the (first) terminal equipment generates a first set of credentials in the first terminal equipment using the UICC, the application gets these credentials from the UICC via GAA server and GBA API, and then the user removes the UICC from this first terminal equipment and inserts the same UICC into a new (second) terminal equipment in order to generate another set of credentials with the same UICC, while the first terminal equipment still using the first set of credentials. This e.g. prevents that a UICC is plugged into another terminal equipment to obtain a service for free. If such credential deletion information is returned to the GAA client i.e. GAA using application in the terminal, the GAA client is operable to delete the specified credential upon the defined condition is fulfilled or the defined event takes place. This can for example be implemented as a callback function to the GAA client. That is, whenever a GAA client is expected to delete GBA-related credentials obtained earlier from the GAA server, the GAA server calls a callback function on a specific or all GAA clients that have registered with the GAA server. As regards credential deletion, generally speaking there are two scenarios bring covered by embodiments of the present invention: a) a condition for deletion is pushed from the GAA server to the GAA client, then the event happens (i.e. the condition is fulfilled), then the GAA server pushes the information that the event has occurred, then the application (GAA client) reacts according to the event (condition); or b) an event takes place (at the GAA server), then the GAA server just pushes a delete command to the GAA client without being informed in advance about potential deletion conditions. For case a), the credential quality information comprises credential deletion information defining at least one condition under which the requested credential is to be deleted at the application entity. The credential deletion information defines as a condition at least one of the following: removing a smartcard from the terminal equipment; powering-down the terminal device; or revocation of credentials. Then, the GAA server pushes a credential deletion notice from the credential establishment entity to the application entity that the condition is fulfilled, and, the GAA client deletes the returned credential from the application entity upon receipt of the credential deletion notice. For case b), the GAA server pushes to the GAA client a credential deletion command for deleting a credential at the application entity, when a predetermined condition is fulfilled at the GAA server. Upon receipt of the credential deletion command, the GAA client deletes the credential. Such deletion procedures may also occur in an unsolicited manner. That is, if a respective condition is fulfilled, the GAA server pushes a credential deletion command or a credential deletion notice to the GAA client, even if no credential request has occurred beforehand. Although the principles of the present invention are described above in terms of method steps, embodiments of the present invention also include corresponding software implementations in the form of computer programs and hardware implementations in the form of respective entities, systems and terminals. FIG. 4 shows a schematic block diagram of a system according to the present invention by means of example only. The system forms part of a terminal equipment according to the present invention. According to FIG. 4, a system of the present embodiment comprises a credential establishment entity such as a GAA server and an application entity such as a GAA client. For the sake of simplicity, a GBA application programming interface like that in FIG. 3 has been omitted in this figure. However, a skilled person would know from general knowledge as to how such a GBA API is located within an implementation of the credential establishment entity. Both entities depicted in FIG. 4 are operable according to the methods as set out above or in the appended claims. To this end, the respective means of each entity are configured to perform method steps with similar denotation. It is to be noted that the entities according to certain embodiments of the present invention do not necessarily have to comprise any of the means as depicted in FIG. 4, but any combination thereof is conceivable. In detail, the application entity comprises requesting means being configured to send a request for certain credentials, which the application entity requires, to the credential establishment entity. On the application entity side, determining means are configured to determine, upon receipt of a response including credential quality information and possible credential deletion information, a security level of the returned credential. Further, comparing means are configured to compare a security level determined by the determining means with a desired security level of the application to be executed by the application entity. In case the comparison yields that the returned security level is equal to or higher than the desired security, then executing means of the application entity are configured to execute the desired application using the returned credentials. Otherwise, the application will not be executed. If a certain event takes place, e.g. the GAA server receives a revocation request, smart card is removed, device powered down, this event information is pushed to the GAA client via the GBA API, so that these can take appropriate measures e.g. delete the keys. Notifying means, which are an optional constituent of the application entity, are configured to notify the returned credential quality information and/or the determined security level to a network application function, i.e. a NAF server. Furthermore, the application entity optionally comprises deleting means being configured to delete the credentials of the application entity. The deleting means are operable on the basis of associated credential deletion information, returned together with the credentials from the credential establishment entity, and certain conditions or events as specified by the credential deletion information, such as for example removal of the smartcard from the terminal equipment, power down of device or revocation push from BSF. The credential establishment entity comprises returning means being configured to return, upon request from the requesting means of the application entity, requested credentials together with credential quality information and/or credential deletion information as specified above. To this end, the returning means are further configured to retrieve these pieces of information from a secure storage denoted by DB, which may for example be a directory in UICC, some secure trusted computing hardware or secure memory, where they are stored on the credential establishment entity side. The contents of the secure storage, i.e. shared symmetrical keys (credential) based on GBA as well as corresponding lifetime information, quality information and deletion information, originates from generic bootstrapping. The generic bootstrapping is performed by a bootstrapping means of the credential establishment entity of the terminal and a bootstrapping server function, i.e. a BSF server. Then, the bootstrapping means store the bootstrapped information into the secure storage for future use, e.g. by the returning means. Furthermore, the returning means are configured to push a credential deletion notice to the GAA client that a credential deletion condition is fulfilled, or to push a credential deletion command for deleting a credential at the GAA client, from the GAA server to the GAA client, wherein the credential deletion command is pushed when a predetermined condition is fulfilled at the GAA server. In general, it is also to be noted that the mentioned functional elements, e.g. requesting means or managing returning according to the present invention can be implemented by any known means, either in integrated or removable hardware and/or software, respectively, if it is only adapted to perform the described functions of the respective parts. For example, the returning means of the credential establishment entity can be implemented by any data processing unit, e.g. a microprocessor, being configured to retrieve and return requested credentials and associated quality information as defined by the appended claims. The mentioned parts can also be realized in individual functional blocks or by individual devices, or one or more of the mentioned parts can be realized in a single functional block or by a single device. Correspondingly, the above illustration of FIG. 4 is only for illustrative purposes and does not restrict an implementation of the present invention in any way. Furthermore, method steps likely to be implemented as software code portions and being run using a processor at one of the entities are software code independent and can be specified using any known or future developed programming language such as e.g. Java, C, C++, and Assembler. Method steps and/or devices or means likely to be implemented as hardware components at one of the peer entities are hardware independent and can be implemented using any known or future developed hardware technology or any hybrids of these, such as MOS, CMOS, BiCMOS, ECL, TTL, UICC, TCB (Trusted computing base) etc, using for example ASIC components or DSP components, as an example. Generally, any method step is suitable to be implemented as software or by hardware without changing the idea of the present invention. Devices and means can be implemented as individual devices, but this does not exclude that they are implemented in a distributed fashion throughout the system, as long as the functionality of the device is preserved. For example, the GAA client might reside in a secondary entity, like a PC and calls the GAA server through a local interface e.g. via Bluetooth or WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network). Such and similar principles are to be considered as known to those skilled in the art. According to the present invention and its embodiments, there is provided security level establishment for an application in a terminal equipment under a generic bootstrapping architecture offering a plurality of different bootstrapping mechanisms, the terminal equipment comprising a credential establishment entity and an application entity, comprising a request for a credential for the application from the application entity to the credential establishment entity and a response from the credential establishment entity to the application entity, wherein the response comprises the requested credential information (i.e. key identifier, keys, key lifetime) and credential quality information. The invention describes a new functionality between a credential establishment entity (e.g. a GAA server) and an application entity (e.g. a GAA client), which functionality indicates the credential quality. The trust that an application puts into received credentials might thus depend on the bootstrapping type and the actual expiry point of time. Hence, the application may require a certain security level, especially no service request should be made, when the credentials have been revoked, the security level is to low or the credentials are no longer be valid due to certain events. Even though the invention is described above with reference to the examples according to the accompanying drawings, it is clear that the invention is not restricted thereto. Rather, it is apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention can be modified in many ways without departing from the scope of the inventive idea as disclosed in the appended claims.
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11737712
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US20080005559A1-20080103
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METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR IC CARD APPLICATION LOADING
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ACCEPTED
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20071218
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20080103
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[]
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H04L900
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["H04L900"]
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7523495
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20070419
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20090421
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726
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001000
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99352.0
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HOFFMAN
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BRANDON
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Johnson", "inventor_name_first": "Alan", "inventor_city": "Essex", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "GB"}]
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Systems and methods are described that provide a new type of application load unit for use in the secure loading of applications and/or data onto integrated circuit cards or smart cards. Plaintext key transformation units can be created for each of a plurality of smart cards that are to be loaded with a desired or selected application. A plaintext key transformation unit may be individually encrypted using the public keys associated with target smart cards. An application provider can create one or more application load unit using known means and can then create one or more additional plaintext key transformation unit, one for each target smart card using corresponding public keys which can be obtained taken from a database of card public keys.
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1. A method for securely loading an application, comprising the steps of: maintaining a plurality of cryptographic keys in an electronically addressable device; communicating one or more applications to the device, the one or more applications encrypted using cryptographic keys provided in a first plaintext key transformation unit, the first plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using a common key, wherein the common key and the one or more applications are furnished by a provider and the common key is common to a plurality of devices; and communicating the common key to the device in a second plaintext key transformation unit, the second plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using one or more device-specific transport keys, wherein each of the communicating the one or more applications and the communicating the common key is secured using selected ones of the plurality of cryptographic keys including a provider-specific key. 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of cryptographic keys includes a device-specific public transport key. 3. A method according to claim 2, wherein the common key is communicated to the device upon verification of the device-specific public transport key by a key management authority. 4. A method according to claim 3, wherein the plurality of cryptographic keys includes a device-specific secret transport key operative to extract the common key from the second plaintext key transformation unit. 5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of cryptographic keys includes the common key and wherein the second plaintext key transformation unit is digitally signed using a secret key of the provider. 6. A method according to claim 1, wherein the communicating includes communicating one or more of the plurality of cryptographic keys to the provider, the one or more cryptographic keys including a device-specific public transport key; and identifying the device to the provider. 7. A method according to claim 1, wherein the device is one of a plurality of devices and further comprising the steps of encrypting each of the one or more applications using keys associated with the each application; encrypting the first plaintext key transformation unit using the common key, the plaintext key transformation unit including the associated keys and corresponding application-specific information; and for each of the plurality of devices, encrypting second plaintext key transformation units using public transport keys associated with each of the plurality of devices, the second plaintext key transformation units including the common key, information specific to the each application and device-specific information; and digitally signing each second key transformation unit using a private key of the provider. 8. A method according to claim 4, wherein the second plaintext key transformation units are encrypted using symmetric encryption. 9. A method according to claim 8, wherein the symmetric encryption is Triple DES. 10. A method according to claim 8, wherein the symmetric encryption is AES. 11. A method according to claim 8, wherein the plurality of cryptographic keys includes keys associated with the plurality of devices. 12. A method according to claim 4, wherein the device-specific secret key and the device-specific public key are provided using an asymmetric technique. 13. A method according to claim 12, wherein the asymmetric technique is RSA. 14. A method according to claim 7, wherein the plurality of cryptographic keys includes certified public and secret keys furnished by a certification authority, and further comprising the steps of: encrypting a provider-specific public key using a certified secret key to obtain a provider-specific public key certificate; signing the encrypted application using a provider-specific secret key to obtain a digital signature; and signing the second key transformation unit using the provider-specific secret key to obtain a digital signature. 15. A method according to claim 14, and further comprising the step of verifying the provider-specific public key certificate with the certified public key. 16. A method according to claim 15, and further comprising the steps of: deriving the provider-specific public key from a decrypted public key certificate associated with the provider; and verifying the digital signatures of the application and second key transformation unit based on the derived provider-specific public key. 17. A method according to claim 16, wherein the decrypted public key certificate contains application-specific information. 18. A method according to claim 16, and further comprising the steps of: decrypting the verified second plaintext key transformation unit using a verified device-specific private transport key; and verifying the resultant first plaintext key transformation unit is intended for the device, the verifying including comparing the identity of the device with a device identification in the first plaintext key transformation unit, confirming that the plurality of cryptographic keys includes the common key, decrypting the first plaintext key transformation unit associated with the application using the first key, associating the first plaintext key transformation unit with the decrypted second plaintext key transformation unit, and decrypting the application using the plurality of keys contained within the first plaintext key transformation unit. 19. A device comprising a computing device and storage, the device configured to receive an encrypted application, wherein: the storage maintains a plurality of cryptographic keys including a device-specific private transport key and a common key; and the computing device is configured to decrypt the encrypted application using the device-specific private transport key and the common key. 20. A device according to claim 19, wherein: the encrypted application is encrypted using cryptographic keys provided in a first plaintext key transformation unit, the first plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using the common key, wherein the common key and the one or more applications are furnished by a provider; the common key is provided to the device in a second plaintext key transformation unit, the second plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using one or more device-specific transport keys; and the encrypted application and the common key are provided to the device using selected ones of the plurality of cryptographic keys including a provider-specific key to secure communication of the encrypted application and the common key.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Application Generally, this application relates to smart card technology. More specifically, it relates to a systems and methods for smart card implementation of key encryption key—key transformation unit (“K2KTU”). 2. Description of the Related Art Integrated circuit (“IC”) cards are becoming increasingly used for many different purposes in the world today. Typically, an IC card (also referred to herein as a smart card) is the size of a conventional credit card or debit card and contains one or more integrated circuits, which can be in the form of one or more computer chips, including, for example, a processing element, a read-only-memory (ROM) element, an electrically erasable programmable read only-memory (EEPROM) element, an input/output (I/O) mechanism and other circuitry as may be required to support the smart card in its operations. In addition to its native operating system, an IC card may contain a single application (e.g., a debit or credit application, a purse or electronic money application, an affinity or loyalty program application, and the like) or it may contain multiple independent applications in its memory. MULTOS™ is one example of an operating system that runs on smart cards, as well as other platforms, and allows multiple independent applications to be executed on a smart card. This allows a card user to run one or more of the multiple programs stored on the card regardless of the type of terminal (e.g., an ATM, an airport kiosk, a telephone, a point of sale (POS) device, and the like) into which the card may be inserted or swiped for use. A conventional single application IC card, such as a telephone card or an electronic cash card, is loaded with a single application at its personalization stage. Typically, that single application cannot be modified or changed after the card is issued even if the modification is desired by the card user or card issuer. Moreover, if a card user wanted a variety of application functions to be performed, such as both an electronic purse and a credit/debit function, the card user would be required to carry multiple physical single application cards on his or her person, which would be quite cumbersome and inconvenient. Further, if an application developer or card user desired two different applications to interact or exchange data with each other, such as a purse application interacting with a frequent flyer loyalty application, the card user would be forced to swap multiple single application cards in and out of the card-receiving terminal, making the transaction difficult, lengthy and inconvenient. Therefore, it would be beneficial to have the ability store multiple applications on the same IC card. For example, a card user may have both a purse application and a credit/debit application on the same card so that the user could select which type of payment (i.e., by electronic cash or credit card) to use when making a purchase. It would be further beneficial to provide multiple applications to an IC card, where sufficient memory existed and in which an operating system capable of supporting multiple applications was present on the card. Although multiple applications could be pre-selected and placed in the memory of the card during its production stage, it would also be beneficial to have the ability to load and delete applications for the card post-production as needed. The increased flexibility and power of storing multiple applications on a single card create new challenges to be overcome concerning the integrity and security of the information (including application code and associated data) exchanged between the individual card and the application provider, as well as within the entire system when loading and deleting applications and associated data. It would be beneficial to have the capability in the IC card system to exchange data among cards, card issuers, system operators and application providers securely and to load and delete applications securely at any time from either a terminal or remotely over a telephone line, Internet or intranet connection or other wired or wireless data conduit. Because these data transmission lines are not typically secure lines, a number of security and entity-authentication techniques must be implemented to make sure that applications being sent over the transmission lines are only loaded on the intended cards. However, typical processes used in the art today for securely transmitting data and/or applications to an IC card do not handle batch loading of the data and/or applications well because the information is targeted to an individual IC card using that IC card's public card. If a transmitting entity were desirous of populating multiple IC cards with the same data and/or application, an encrypted set of data would have to be created for each IC card separately. One example of this typical process is illustrated in commonly-owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,230,267, which is also fully incorporated herein for all purposes. Another example is illustrated in commonly-owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,632,888, which is also fully incorporated herein for all purposes. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a typical, secure application load process used in conjunction with the MULTOS™ IC card system. As shown in FIG. 1 , an application load unit prime 10 is created to include an encrypted application load unit 100 using the application provider secret key (“AP_SK”) 11 in combination with a key transformation unit (“KTU”) prime 102 . Typically the KTU prime 102 is created by performing a triple DES operation (i.e., key-encryption-key, key encryption key (“KEK”), operation) on the standard KTU using a transport key. The application load unit prime is then transmitted via typical methods to be loaded onto an IC card 18 . However, prior to loading, the KTU prime 102 must be translated (i.e., decrypted) at 152 back to the regular KTU 154 . This operation requires that a hardware security module (“HSM”) 15 be located locally at the personalization bureau. The HSM 15 communicates securely with the application provider to perform a secure key ceremony 14 whereby the KEK 12 , 12 ′ transport key is exchanged. Once the HSM 15 has the transport key 12 , it can translate the KTU prime 102 back to the regular KTU 154 . Then, the regular application load unit can be used load the application to the target card. A need exists for systems and methods that facilitate fast, efficient and inexpensive secure smart card application and data addition and deletion.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>Aspects and features of this application will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art from the following detailed description of certain embodiments in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a typical, secure application load process used in conjunction with the MULTOS™ IC card system; and FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a novel secure application load process used in conjunction with an IC card system according to certain embodiments. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application claims priority to and incorporates by reference herein U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/793,543 filed Apr. 19, 2006 entitled “Methods and Systems for IC Card Application Loading.” BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Application Generally, this application relates to smart card technology. More specifically, it relates to a systems and methods for smart card implementation of key encryption key—key transformation unit (“K2KTU”). 2. Description of the Related Art Integrated circuit (“IC”) cards are becoming increasingly used for many different purposes in the world today. Typically, an IC card (also referred to herein as a smart card) is the size of a conventional credit card or debit card and contains one or more integrated circuits, which can be in the form of one or more computer chips, including, for example, a processing element, a read-only-memory (ROM) element, an electrically erasable programmable read only-memory (EEPROM) element, an input/output (I/O) mechanism and other circuitry as may be required to support the smart card in its operations. In addition to its native operating system, an IC card may contain a single application (e.g., a debit or credit application, a purse or electronic money application, an affinity or loyalty program application, and the like) or it may contain multiple independent applications in its memory. MULTOS™ is one example of an operating system that runs on smart cards, as well as other platforms, and allows multiple independent applications to be executed on a smart card. This allows a card user to run one or more of the multiple programs stored on the card regardless of the type of terminal (e.g., an ATM, an airport kiosk, a telephone, a point of sale (POS) device, and the like) into which the card may be inserted or swiped for use. A conventional single application IC card, such as a telephone card or an electronic cash card, is loaded with a single application at its personalization stage. Typically, that single application cannot be modified or changed after the card is issued even if the modification is desired by the card user or card issuer. Moreover, if a card user wanted a variety of application functions to be performed, such as both an electronic purse and a credit/debit function, the card user would be required to carry multiple physical single application cards on his or her person, which would be quite cumbersome and inconvenient. Further, if an application developer or card user desired two different applications to interact or exchange data with each other, such as a purse application interacting with a frequent flyer loyalty application, the card user would be forced to swap multiple single application cards in and out of the card-receiving terminal, making the transaction difficult, lengthy and inconvenient. Therefore, it would be beneficial to have the ability store multiple applications on the same IC card. For example, a card user may have both a purse application and a credit/debit application on the same card so that the user could select which type of payment (i.e., by electronic cash or credit card) to use when making a purchase. It would be further beneficial to provide multiple applications to an IC card, where sufficient memory existed and in which an operating system capable of supporting multiple applications was present on the card. Although multiple applications could be pre-selected and placed in the memory of the card during its production stage, it would also be beneficial to have the ability to load and delete applications for the card post-production as needed. The increased flexibility and power of storing multiple applications on a single card create new challenges to be overcome concerning the integrity and security of the information (including application code and associated data) exchanged between the individual card and the application provider, as well as within the entire system when loading and deleting applications and associated data. It would be beneficial to have the capability in the IC card system to exchange data among cards, card issuers, system operators and application providers securely and to load and delete applications securely at any time from either a terminal or remotely over a telephone line, Internet or intranet connection or other wired or wireless data conduit. Because these data transmission lines are not typically secure lines, a number of security and entity-authentication techniques must be implemented to make sure that applications being sent over the transmission lines are only loaded on the intended cards. However, typical processes used in the art today for securely transmitting data and/or applications to an IC card do not handle batch loading of the data and/or applications well because the information is targeted to an individual IC card using that IC card's public card. If a transmitting entity were desirous of populating multiple IC cards with the same data and/or application, an encrypted set of data would have to be created for each IC card separately. One example of this typical process is illustrated in commonly-owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,230,267, which is also fully incorporated herein for all purposes. Another example is illustrated in commonly-owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,632,888, which is also fully incorporated herein for all purposes. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a typical, secure application load process used in conjunction with the MULTOS™ IC card system. As shown in FIG. 1, an application load unit prime 10 is created to include an encrypted application load unit 100 using the application provider secret key (“AP_SK”) 11 in combination with a key transformation unit (“KTU”) prime 102. Typically the KTU prime 102 is created by performing a triple DES operation (i.e., key-encryption-key, key encryption key (“KEK”), operation) on the standard KTU using a transport key. The application load unit prime is then transmitted via typical methods to be loaded onto an IC card 18. However, prior to loading, the KTU prime 102 must be translated (i.e., decrypted) at 152 back to the regular KTU 154. This operation requires that a hardware security module (“HSM”) 15 be located locally at the personalization bureau. The HSM 15 communicates securely with the application provider to perform a secure key ceremony 14 whereby the KEK 12, 12′ transport key is exchanged. Once the HSM 15 has the transport key 12, it can translate the KTU prime 102 back to the regular KTU 154. Then, the regular application load unit can be used load the application to the target card. A need exists for systems and methods that facilitate fast, efficient and inexpensive secure smart card application and data addition and deletion. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects and features of this application will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art from the following detailed description of certain embodiments in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a typical, secure application load process used in conjunction with the MULTOS™ IC card system; and FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a novel secure application load process used in conjunction with an IC card system according to certain embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings, which are provided as illustrative examples of certain embodiments so as to enable those skilled in the art to practice the embodiments and are not meant to limit the scope of the application. Where aspects of certain embodiments can be partially or fully implemented using known components or steps, only those portions of such known components or steps that are necessary for an understanding of the embodiments will be described, and detailed description of other portions of such known components or steps will be omitted so as not to obscure the embodiments. Further, certain embodiments are intended to encompass presently known and future equivalents to the components referred to herein by way of illustration. As used herein, the terms application provider and personalization bureau are used as a matter of convenience, for consistency and clarity. However, as will become evident to those skilled in the art, the functions of both can be performed at either one of the facilities or even at a completely different facility including, for example, at the card issuer. Such variations are accommodated in many embodiments and fall within the scope of the invention. Certain embodiments propose a new type of application load unit (“ALU”) for use in the secure loading of applications and/or data onto IC cards (or smart cards). This new type of ALU, as discussed herein, will be referred to as a confidential ALU prime. In certain embodiments, the ALU prime can be created using combinations of conventional techniques augmented according to certain aspects of the invention. For example, the encrypted ALU can be combined with the KTU prime, which is an encrypted KTU using a KEK. In addition, a new component can also be created and combined in the ALU prime. This new component, as discussed herein, will be referred to as a card-specific KEK KTU (K2KTU). This new type of KTU is also a type of card-targeted KTU, but instead of the KTU containing the keys that were used to encrypt the ALU (as the regular KTU and KTU prime contain), the K2KTU contains the KEK used to create the KTU prime. In this way, no HSM will be necessary at the personalization facility. In certain embodiments, one K2KTU can be created for each smart card to be loaded with a particular application; that is, the KEK may be individually encrypted under each Public Key of each target smart card. In certain embodiments, a KEK can be provided that is common to all KTU primes and an application provider may create a K2KTU for a plurality smart cards independent of related ALU primes. However, it will be appreciated that in certain embodiments, the KEK used should match and will typically remain constant over time although, in certain embodiments the KEK may be permitted to change on occasion. In certain embodiments, to ensure the integrity of the K2KTU, the application provider can digitally sign each K2KTU using the same application provider secret key (AP_SK) that was used to create the application signature. This will ensure that only genuine K2KTUs are ultimately processed. This signature feature provides advantages including, for example, the ability to overcome one of the existing security weaknesses of the MULTOS™ application loading system whereby, in the current system, the regular KTUs (and thus the KTU primes) are not digitally signed by the application provider. FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a novel secure application load process used in conjunction with an IC card system according to certain aspects of the invention. As shown in FIG. 2, an application provider can create one or more ALU primes 20 using the AP_SK 21 and KEK 22 as described above and as is currently performed. However, the application provider can then additionally create one or more K2KTUs 23, one for each target IC card 28 using the public key (MKD_PK) 240 of the target card 28, which can be obtained from storage 24 such as a database of card public keys that can be provided, for example, by a key management authority. The application provider can further digitally sign each K2KTU 23 using its AP_SK 21. Having secured the set of K2KTUs 23 for an application, the application provider can transmit the ALU primes 20 and the K2KTUs 23 to the personalization bureau via any secure or non-secure transmission means. As shown in FIG. 2, at the personalization bureau, an ALU prime 25 can be selected for loading on a desired smart card 28. Based on the card ID (MCD_ID) 282, and, as applicable, an application ID, a correct K2KTU 262 can be selected from the one or more K2KTUs 260 created for that application. After loading the KTU prime 252 from the ALU prime 25 into the target IC card 28, the K2KTU 262 can be loaded. However, the order of these loads can be altered within the scope of certain embodiments. After load initiation (e.g., using a “CREATE MEL” command), the certificate can be checked and the AP_PK extracted. The application signature may then be checked. Following application signature check, the K2KTU signature can be verified using AP_PK. The K2KTU 262 can be decrypted using the smart card's secret key (MKD_SK). Then the K2KTU 262 can be checked to ensure that this particular ALU is intended for the desired IC card 28. Finally, the regular KTU can be decrypted using the KEK 22 contained within K2KTU 262. Once the regular KTU is translated from the KTU prime 25 using the KEK 22, application load proceeds as normal. In certain embodiments, no HSM need be present at the location of the card application terminal (i.e., no key ceremony is required) when the K2KTU component is used. Further, the application provider can create multiple K2KTUs 23 for an application or create multiple sets of K2KTUs 23 for an associated set of multiple applications and distribute the one or more confidential ALU primes 20 to a personalization bureau for more efficient batch processing of multiple IC cards. For a particular application (e.g., based on an applications ID) and a particular card (i.e., based on the card's ID), the proper K2KTU can be selected from the proper set of K2KTUs (i.e., where each set of K2KTUs can be representative of a particular application, and each member K2KTU within a set is associated with a particular card to receive that application). Additional Descriptions of Certain Aspects of the Invention Certain embodiments of the invention provide methods for securely loading an application, comprising the steps of maintaining a plurality of cryptographic keys in an electronically addressable device, communicating one or more applications to the device, the one or more applications encrypted using cryptographic keys provided in a first plaintext key transformation unit, the first plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using a common key, wherein the common key and the one or more applications are furnished by a provider and the common key is common to a plurality of devices, and communicating the common key to the device in a second plaintext key transformation unit, the second plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using one or more device-specific transport keys. In some of these embodiments, each of the communicating the one or more applications and the communicating the common key is secured using selected ones of the plurality of cryptographic keys including a provider-specific key. In some of these embodiments, the plurality of cryptographic keys includes a device-specific public transport key. In some of these embodiments, the common key is communicated to the device upon verification of the device-specific public transport key by a key management authority. In some of these embodiments, the plurality of cryptographic keys includes a device-specific secret transport key operative to extract the common key from the second plaintext key transformation unit. In some of these embodiments, the plurality of cryptographic keys includes the common key and wherein the second plaintext key transformation unit is digitally signed using a secret key of the provider. In some of these embodiments, the communicating includes communicating one or more of the plurality of cryptographic keys to the provider, the one or more cryptographic keys including a device-specific public transport key, and identifying the device to the provider. In some of these embodiments, the device is one of a plurality of devices and further comprising the steps of encrypting each of the one or more applications using keys associated with the each application, encrypting the first plaintext key transformation unit using the common key, the plaintext key transformation unit including the associated keys and corresponding application-specific information, and for each of the plurality of devices, encrypting second plaintext key transformation units using public transport keys associated with each of the plurality of devices, the second plaintext key transformation units including the common key, information specific to the each application and device-specific information, and digitally signing each second key transformation unit using a private key of the provider. In some of these embodiments, the second plaintext key transformation units are encrypted using symmetric encryption. In some of these embodiments, the symmetric encryption is Triple DES. In some of these embodiments, the symmetric encryption is AES. In some of these embodiments, the plurality of cryptographic keys includes keys associated with the plurality of devices. In some of these embodiments, the device-specific secret key and the device-specific public key are provided using an asymmetric technique. In some of these embodiments, the asymmetric technique is RSA. In some of these embodiments, the plurality of cryptographic keys includes certified public and secret keys furnished by a certification authority, and further comprising the steps of encrypting a provider-specific public key using a certified secret key to obtain a provider-specific public key certificate, signing the encrypted application using a provider-specific secret key to obtain a digital signature, and signing the second key transformation unit using the provider-specific secret key to obtain a digital signature. In some of these embodiments, the step of verifying the provider-specific public key certificate with the certified public key. In some of these embodiments, the method also comprises deriving the provider-specific public key from a decrypted public key certificate associated with the provider, and verifying the digital signatures of the application and second key transformation unit based on the derived provider-specific public key. In some of these embodiments, the decrypted public key certificate contains application-specific information. In some of these embodiments, the method also comprises decrypting the verified second plaintext key transformation unit using a verified device-specific private transport key, and verifying the resultant first plaintext key transformation unit is intended for the device, the verifying including comparing the identity of the device with a device identification in the first plaintext key transformation unit, confirming that the plurality of cryptographic keys includes the common key, decrypting the first plaintext key transformation unit associated with the application using the first key, associating the first plaintext key transformation unit with the decrypted second plaintext key transformation unit, and decrypting the application using the plurality of keys contained within the first plaintext key transformation unit. In some of these embodiments, a device is employed that comprises a computing device and storage, the device configured to receive an encrypted application, wherein the storage maintains a plurality of cryptographic keys including a device-specific private transport key and a common key and the computing device is configured to decrypt the encrypted application using the device-specific private transport key and the common key. In some of these embodiments, the encrypted application is encrypted using cryptographic keys provided in a first plaintext key transformation unit, the first plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using the common key, wherein the common key and the one or more applications are furnished by a provider. In some of these embodiments, the common key is provided to the device in a second plaintext key transformation unit, the second plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using one or more device-specific transport keys. In some of these embodiments, the encrypted application and the common key are provided to the device using selected ones of the plurality of cryptographic keys including a provider-specific key to secure communication of the encrypted application and the common key. In some of these embodiments, a method for secure application loading of an application to electronically addressable devices is provided. The method may comprise the steps of maintaining a plurality of cryptographic keys within the device, providing the device with one or more applications, encrypted using a plurality of cryptographic keys within a plaintext key transformation unit and said plaintext key transformation unit being encrypted using a non-device-specific key, each application and non-device-specific key being furnished by a provider, providing the device with the non-device-specific key within a plaintext key transformation unit, encrypted using a device-specific transport key resulting in the key-encryption-key key transformation unit. In some of these embodiments, the communication of the application and non-device-specific key are secured using selected ones of the plurality of cryptographic keys, including a provider-specific key associated with a provider. In some of these embodiments, the method may further comprise encrypting a plurality of applications intended for different devices using a plurality of keys, formatting the plurality of keys and application-specific information into a plaintext key transformation unit and encrypting said key transformation unit using a single non-device-specific key, formatting the non-device-specific key, application-specific information and device-specific information into a plaintext key transformation unit and encrypting said key transformation unit using each of the device-specific public transport keys of the plurality of devices resulting in the key-encryption-key key transformation units, digitally signing each key-encryption-key key transformation unit using a provider private key. Although the application has been particularly described with reference to embodiments thereof, it should be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes, modifications, substitutes and deletions are intended within the form and details thereof, without departing from the spirit and scope of the application. Accordingly, it will be appreciated that in numerous instances some features of certain embodiments will be employed without a corresponding use of other features. Further, those skilled in the art will understand that variations can be made in the number and arrangement of inventive elements illustrated and described in the above figures. It is intended that the scope of the appended claims include such changes and modifications.
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US20080068990A1-20080320
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METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR IMPLEMENTING MULTICAST SERVICE
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ACCEPTED
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20080305
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20080320
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[]
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H04L1226
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["H04L1226", "H04L1216"]
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8270294
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20071115
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20120918
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370
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390000
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73439.0
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YOUNG
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STEVE
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[{"inventor_name_last": "WU", "inventor_name_first": "Haijun", "inventor_city": "Shenzhen", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CN"}]
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Embodiments of the present invention provide a method and an apparatus for implementing a multicast service. The method includes: constructing a multicast service notification packet, and sending the multicast service notification packet to a user terminal; the multicast service notification packet may be a return notification packet for responding a request of a user for joining a multicast group or an abnormity notification packet for notifying a user of reason for an abnormity in the multicast service or the reason that the user fails to join the multicast group. Therefore, it is effective to improve the user's satisfaction of a multicast video service provided by an operator and to improve the operability and the manageability of a multicast video network.
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1. A method for implementing a multicast service, comprising: receiving a packet from a user terminal; constructing, by a network side providing a multicast service, a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal; and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the multicast service notification packet is an abnormity notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet comprises: determining a reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service; and carrying the reason in the abnormity notification packet. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the determining the reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service comprises: determining a reason that the user terminal is unable to join a multicast group, when the user terminal applies to the network side for joining the multicast group and the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the reason that the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group is selected from the group consisting of: a reason that the user terminal has no right to join the multicast group; and a reason that a physical port of the network side does not have enough bandwidth to enable the user terminal to develop the multicast service. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the determining the reason the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service comprises: determining a reason that quality of service (QoS) of the multicast service is changed, when the QoS of the multicast service obtained by the user terminal having joined the multicast group is changed. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the multicast service notification packet is a return notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet comprises: constructing the return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the constructing the multicast service notification packet comprises: extracting a source address from a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal upon receiving the packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal; and modifying a destination address of the multicast service notification packet into the source address extracted from the packet in the multicast service notification packet. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the source address comprises: a Media Access Control (MAC) address of the user terminal. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the constructing the multicast service notification packet comprises: recording a port of the user terminal upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal; carrying the multicast service notification packet using a multicast packet; and the sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal comprises: transmitting the multicast service notification packet to the recorded port of the user terminal. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the multicast service notification packet is selected from the group consisting of: a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet obtained by extending one type of Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) packet. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet are obtained by extending two types of IGMP packets, respectively. 13. An apparatus for implementing a multicast service, comprising: means, for receiving a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service notification packet constructing module, for constructing a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal, and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. 14. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the multicast service notification packet constructing module comprises: a return notification packet constructing module, for constructing a return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal, and sending the return notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. 15. The apparatus of claim 14 wherein the multicast service notification packet constructing module further comprises: an abnormity notification packet constructing module, for constructing an abnormity notification packet, and sending the abnormity notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the multicast service notification packet constructing module further comprises: an abnormity reason determining module, for determining a reason for an abnormity when the abnormity occurs in the multicast service provided for the user terminal; and the abnormity notification packet constructing module constructs the abnormity notification packet according to the reason determined by the abnormity reason determining module. 17. The apparatus of claim 13, wherein the multicast service notification packet constructing module comprises: an abnormity notification packet constructing module, for constructing an abnormity notification packet, and sending the abnormity notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the multicast service notification packet constructing module further comprises: an abnormity reason determining module, for determining a reason for an abnormity when the abnormity occurs in the multicast service provided for the user terminal; and the abnormity notification packet constructing module constructs the abnormity notification packet according to the reason determined by the abnormity reason determining module. 19. A user terminal for implementing a multicast service, comprising: means, for sending a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service request sending control module, for controlling resending the packet if receiving no multicast service notification packet returned by a network side upon sending the packet to the network side. 20. The user terminal of claim 19, further comprising: an abnormity notification packet handling module, for receiving an abnormity notification packet sent by the network side, and displaying on a display interface a reason for an abnormity contained in the abnormity notification packet.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>At present, a multicast service is provided on a networking model generally over a multicast video network including a video headend system (i.e. headend system), an IP Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) (i.e. core device), an access network (edge device), and a home network. The video headend system implements functions such as video subscriber management, Condition Access (CA)/Digital Rights Management (DRM), video coding, and transmits a video stream to an IP MAN. Signals of a TV and a broadcast channel are encoded into one-path stream by means of the MPEG-2 and the one-path stream is encapsulated in a User Datagram Protocol (UDP)/IP packet. The IP MAN transmits a video stream to a broadband access network by means of an IP multicast function. The access network implements the process of joining and leaving a video group, and sends the video stream required to the user. The access network may include a Layer 2 switch and a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM). The Layer 2 switch includes an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switch or an Ethernet switch. The access network connects with users via physical lines such as a Fast Ethernet (FE) or an x Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL). The IP MAN sends a video stream to an edge device to which a user connects, such as a multicast router, a Layer 2 switch or a DSLAM, and the video stream is sent to users according to an Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) control packet. At present, a PC or a Set Top Box (STB) joins the multicast programs as a user device through a multicast protocol, IGMP (V1, V2 or V3). The IGMP is a protocol over an IP protocol and in parallel with the IP protocol, and defines two entities, a client and a multicast router. The two entities are a video terminal and an access device with respect to the above network. Based on an IGMP protocol, a host is able to report that the host wants to join or leave a multicast group to a multicast router. For example, when joining the multicast group, a host sends a “membership report” message to a local multicast router, and makes an appropriate preparation of its own IP module so as to receive data transmitted from the multicast group. Before developing a multicast service, it is necessary to configure different port-based multicast rights at a DSLAM. A user is able to access multicast contents listed in a multicast right list of the user. When accessing other contents, the user will be rejected without any content to be returned. In a DSL-based Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), since DSL line bandwidth changes randomly, the bandwidth reduction or off-line will occur when a DSL line is affected by instantaneous external interference. In accordance with the dynamic multicast bandwidth control, a random packet loss will occur in the videos of all programs when the bandwidth requirement for a DSL line has exceeded the downlink bandwidth of the DSL line, thereby influencing the program that a user is watching. At present, in the procedure of developing a multicast service by a user terminal, there is no IGMP-based feedback channel in a server end since the current IGMP protocol only supports a unidirectional process initiated by a user. In this way, the network side only simply rejects a request from a user or randomly discards a multicast packet sent to a video terminal of the user under an abnormal condition, and thus there will be a blank screen in the video terminal of the user. That is to say, it is impossible for the network side to notify a user of a reason that the user is unable to watch a video program or the quality of the video program watched by the user is impaired, thereby influencing the user's satisfaction of a multicast video service.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a method and an apparatus for implementing a multicast service, which makes it possible for a user terminal to explicitly obtain the condition for joining a multicast group and developing the multicast service in the process of joining the multicast group, thereby improving the operability of developing the multicast service. The present invention is implemented with the following technical solutions. A method for implementing a multicast service includes: receiving a packet from a user terminal; constructing, by a network side providing a multicast service, a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal; and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet is an abnormity notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: determining a reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service; and carrying the reason in the abnormity notification packet. The determining the reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service includes: determining a reason that the user terminal is unable to join a multicast group, when the user terminal applies to the network side for joining the multicast group and the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group. The reason that the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group is selected from the group consisting of: a reason that the user terminal has no right to join the multicast group; and a reason that a physical port of the network side does not have enough bandwidth to enable the user terminal to develop the multicast service. The determining the reason the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service includes: determining a reason that quality of service (QoS) of the multicast service is changed, when the QoS of the multicast service obtained by the user terminal having joined the multicast group is changed. The multicast service notification packet is a return notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: constructing the return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal. The constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: extracting a source address from a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal upon receiving the packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal; and modifying a destination address of the multicast service notification packet into the source address extracted from the packet in the multicast service notification packet. The source address includes: a Media Access Control (MAC) address of the user terminal. The constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: recording a port of the user terminal upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal; carrying the multicast service notification packet using a multicast packet; and the sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal includes: transmitting the multicast service notification packet to the recorded port of the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet is selected from the group consisting of: a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet are obtained by extending one type of Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) packet. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet are obtained by extending two types of IGMP packets, respectively. An apparatus for implementing a multicast service includes: means, for receiving a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service notification packet constructing module, for constructing a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal, and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module includes: a return notification packet constructing module, for constructing a return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal, and sending the return notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module further includes: an abnormity notification packet constructing module, for constructing an abnormity notification packet, and sending the abnormity notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module further includes: an abnormity reason determining module, for determining a reason for an abnormity when the abnormity occurs in the multicast service provided for the user terminal; and the abnormity notification packet constructing module constructs the abnormity notification packet according to the reason determined by the abnormity reason determining module. A user terminal for implementing a multicast service includes: means, for sending a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service request sending control module, for controlling resending the packet if receiving no multicast service notification packet returned by a network side upon sending the packet to the network side. The user terminal further includes: an abnormity notification packet handling module, for receiving an abnormity notification packet sent by the network side, and displaying on a display interface a reason for an abnormity contained in the abnormity notification packet. As can be seen from the above technical solution in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, the network side returns a response packet (i.e. multicast service notification packet) to a user terminal after receiving a packet for the joining the multicast group by the user terminal in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, which makes it possible for the user terminal to obtain in time whether the joining process is successful and the reason for failing to join the multicast group, and may obtain the relevant reasons when the quality of multicast videos watched by a user is impaired. Therefore, it is effective to improve the user's satisfaction of a multicast video service provided by an operator. The method in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention specifically provides a return notification and a notification function by extending an IGMP, so as to improve the stability of a multicast protocol and improve the operability and the manageability of a multicast video network.
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This application is a continuation of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2006/001774, filed Jul. 20, 2006, which claims priority to Chinese Patent Application No. 200510085514.2, filed Jul. 22, 2005, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to network communication technologies, more particularly, to a method and an apparatus for implementing a multicast service. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION At present, a multicast service is provided on a networking model generally over a multicast video network including a video headend system (i.e. headend system), an IP Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) (i.e. core device), an access network (edge device), and a home network. The video headend system implements functions such as video subscriber management, Condition Access (CA)/Digital Rights Management (DRM), video coding, and transmits a video stream to an IP MAN. Signals of a TV and a broadcast channel are encoded into one-path stream by means of the MPEG-2 and the one-path stream is encapsulated in a User Datagram Protocol (UDP)/IP packet. The IP MAN transmits a video stream to a broadband access network by means of an IP multicast function. The access network implements the process of joining and leaving a video group, and sends the video stream required to the user. The access network may include a Layer 2 switch and a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM). The Layer 2 switch includes an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switch or an Ethernet switch. The access network connects with users via physical lines such as a Fast Ethernet (FE) or an x Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL). The IP MAN sends a video stream to an edge device to which a user connects, such as a multicast router, a Layer 2 switch or a DSLAM, and the video stream is sent to users according to an Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) control packet. At present, a PC or a Set Top Box (STB) joins the multicast programs as a user device through a multicast protocol, IGMP (V1, V2 or V3). The IGMP is a protocol over an IP protocol and in parallel with the IP protocol, and defines two entities, a client and a multicast router. The two entities are a video terminal and an access device with respect to the above network. Based on an IGMP protocol, a host is able to report that the host wants to join or leave a multicast group to a multicast router. For example, when joining the multicast group, a host sends a “membership report” message to a local multicast router, and makes an appropriate preparation of its own IP module so as to receive data transmitted from the multicast group. Before developing a multicast service, it is necessary to configure different port-based multicast rights at a DSLAM. A user is able to access multicast contents listed in a multicast right list of the user. When accessing other contents, the user will be rejected without any content to be returned. In a DSL-based Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), since DSL line bandwidth changes randomly, the bandwidth reduction or off-line will occur when a DSL line is affected by instantaneous external interference. In accordance with the dynamic multicast bandwidth control, a random packet loss will occur in the videos of all programs when the bandwidth requirement for a DSL line has exceeded the downlink bandwidth of the DSL line, thereby influencing the program that a user is watching. At present, in the procedure of developing a multicast service by a user terminal, there is no IGMP-based feedback channel in a server end since the current IGMP protocol only supports a unidirectional process initiated by a user. In this way, the network side only simply rejects a request from a user or randomly discards a multicast packet sent to a video terminal of the user under an abnormal condition, and thus there will be a blank screen in the video terminal of the user. That is to say, it is impossible for the network side to notify a user of a reason that the user is unable to watch a video program or the quality of the video program watched by the user is impaired, thereby influencing the user's satisfaction of a multicast video service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method and an apparatus for implementing a multicast service, which makes it possible for a user terminal to explicitly obtain the condition for joining a multicast group and developing the multicast service in the process of joining the multicast group, thereby improving the operability of developing the multicast service. The present invention is implemented with the following technical solutions. A method for implementing a multicast service includes: receiving a packet from a user terminal; constructing, by a network side providing a multicast service, a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal; and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet is an abnormity notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: determining a reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service; and carrying the reason in the abnormity notification packet. The determining the reason that the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service includes: determining a reason that the user terminal is unable to join a multicast group, when the user terminal applies to the network side for joining the multicast group and the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group. The reason that the user terminal is unable to join the multicast group is selected from the group consisting of: a reason that the user terminal has no right to join the multicast group; and a reason that a physical port of the network side does not have enough bandwidth to enable the user terminal to develop the multicast service. The determining the reason the network side is unable to provide the user terminal with the multicast service includes: determining a reason that quality of service (QoS) of the multicast service is changed, when the QoS of the multicast service obtained by the user terminal having joined the multicast group is changed. The multicast service notification packet is a return notification packet; and the constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: constructing the return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal. The constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: extracting a source address from a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal upon receiving the packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal; and modifying a destination address of the multicast service notification packet into the source address extracted from the packet in the multicast service notification packet. The source address includes: a Media Access Control (MAC) address of the user terminal. The constructing the multicast service notification packet includes: recording a port of the user terminal upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal; carrying the multicast service notification packet using a multicast packet; and the sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal includes: transmitting the multicast service notification packet to the recorded port of the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet is selected from the group consisting of: a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet are obtained by extending one type of Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) packet. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet are obtained by extending two types of IGMP packets, respectively. An apparatus for implementing a multicast service includes: means, for receiving a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service notification packet constructing module, for constructing a multicast service notification packet upon receiving the packet from the user terminal, and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module includes: a return notification packet constructing module, for constructing a return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining a multicast group sent by the user terminal, and sending the return notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module further includes: an abnormity notification packet constructing module, for constructing an abnormity notification packet, and sending the abnormity notification packet as the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet constructing module further includes: an abnormity reason determining module, for determining a reason for an abnormity when the abnormity occurs in the multicast service provided for the user terminal; and the abnormity notification packet constructing module constructs the abnormity notification packet according to the reason determined by the abnormity reason determining module. A user terminal for implementing a multicast service includes: means, for sending a packet from a user terminal; a multicast service request sending control module, for controlling resending the packet if receiving no multicast service notification packet returned by a network side upon sending the packet to the network side. The user terminal further includes: an abnormity notification packet handling module, for receiving an abnormity notification packet sent by the network side, and displaying on a display interface a reason for an abnormity contained in the abnormity notification packet. As can be seen from the above technical solution in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, the network side returns a response packet (i.e. multicast service notification packet) to a user terminal after receiving a packet for the joining the multicast group by the user terminal in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, which makes it possible for the user terminal to obtain in time whether the joining process is successful and the reason for failing to join the multicast group, and may obtain the relevant reasons when the quality of multicast videos watched by a user is impaired. Therefore, it is effective to improve the user's satisfaction of a multicast video service provided by an operator. The method in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention specifically provides a return notification and a notification function by extending an IGMP, so as to improve the stability of a multicast protocol and improve the operability and the manageability of a multicast video network. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a networking model of a multicast network. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating the structure of a multicast network. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating the procedure of developing a multicast service. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating the format of an existing IGMP packet. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram illustrating the procedure of developing a multicast service in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram illustrating the format of a return notification packet described in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram illustrating the format of an abnormity notification packet described in FIG. 5. FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram illustrating the specific structure of an apparatus in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, the network side providing a multicast service can provide information in the process of developing the multicast service for a user terminal (i.e. user device, or referred to as user terminal device). The network side providing the multicast service constructs a multicast service notification packet according to the condition that the user terminal applies for and develops the multicast service, and sends the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal. The multicast service notification packet may be: a return notification packet for responding to a request from a user terminal for joining the multicast group, and/or, an abnormal notification packet for notifying a user terminal of a reason that the multicast service is abnormal or a reason that the user terminal is failed to join the multicast group. In the case that network resources or user rights are unable to meet the requirement of a user for a multicast video service, it is possible to switch to a video channel for explaining a reason to the user or switch to a free and independent video channel, and send a multicast service notification packet to the user terminal, so as to avoid that a blank screen occurs while the user is unable to learn a reason for the blank screen, thereby improving the user's satisfaction. The case that the network resources or the user rights are unable to meet the requirement of the user for the multicast video service includes that: a joining condition is unable to be met in the process of joining a multicast group by a user terminal, and the quality of the multicast video service is impaired and the multicast video service is unable to be received in the process of receiving the multicast video service by the user terminal. A multicast service is provided on a networking model generally as shown in FIG. 1. A multicast video network as shown in FIG. 1 includes: a video headend system (i.e. headend system), an MAN (i.e. core device), an access network (edge device), and a home network. As shown in FIG. 2, multicast rights of User 1 and User 2 are configured in a multicast right list stored in an Access Node (AN). The AN controls the right of a user to watch a video service according to the information listed in the multicast right list. The procedure of developing a multicast video service by a user in FIG. 2 may be implemented as shown in FIG. 3, specifically including the following processes. 31: When User 1 chooses to watch a program on Channel 1, a user device, i.e. STB 1, sends an IGMP Join packet for joining multicast group 1, i.e. Group 1. To avoid an abnormity caused by the loss of a packet, it is usually needed to send the IGMP Join packet two times. 32: After receiving the IGMP Join packet from User 1, a DSLAM, as an IGMP Proxy, checks whether User 1 has a right to join Group 1, or whether the physical port has enough bandwidth; if the physical port has enough bandwidth, the DSLAM detects whether a members has joined Group 1; if User 1 is the first member of Group 1, the DSLAM sends an IGMP Join packet to an upper layer multicast router to join Group 1. 33: After receiving the IGMP Join packet from the DSLAM, the upper layer multicast router sends a multicast stream of Group 1 to the DSLAM; and after receiving the multicast stream, the DSLAM multicasts the multicast stream to the port of User 1 (Supporting across-VLAN/PVC multicast forwarding). The multicast router may need to exchange multicast routing information with an upper layer device through a Protocol-Independent Multicast (PIM)/IGMP. 34: When User 2 also chooses to watch a program on Channel 1, another user device, i.e. STB 2, sends an IGMP Join packet for joining Group 1. 35: After receiving the IGMP Join packet from the User 2, the DSLAM finds that there is a member joining Group 1, and sends multicast stream 1 to User 2. 36: When User 1 changes channels or stops watching the program on Channel 1, STB 1 sends an IGMP Leave packet for leaving Group 1. 37: After receiving the IGMP Leave packet from STB1, the DSLAM sends an IGMP Group Specific Query packet to determine whether there is another STB watching Channel 1 via the port; if there is not another STB watching Channel 1 via the port, stops sending multicast stream 1 to the port; if an IGMP Quick Leave manner is adopted, the DSLAM directly stops forwarding multicast stream 1 to the port instead of sending the IGMP Group Specific Query packet. 38: When User 2 changes channels or stops watching the program on Channel 1, STB2 sends an IGMP Leave packet for leaving Group 1. 39: After receiving the IGMP Leave packet, the DSLAM sends an IGMP Group Specific Query packet to determine whether there is another STB watching Channel 1 via the port; if there is not another STB watching Channel 1 via the port, stops sending multicast stream 1 to the port; if the IGMP Quick Leave manner is adopted, the DSLAM directly stops forwarding multicast stream 1 to the port instead of sending the IGMP Group Specific Query packet. 310: If the DSLAM does not receive a Report message after a Last Member Query Interval expires, the DSLAM determines that Group 1 has not a member, and sends an IGMP Leave packet to the upper layer multicast router. To describe the present invention conveniently, the format of an IGMP packet over an Ethernet interface in the process of developing a multicast service by a user is firstly described hereinafter in accordance with IGMP V2 RFC2236 standard, and the format of the IGMP packet is as shown in FIG. 4. The IGMP packet includes the following. First, an Ethernet header, in which a source MAC address is a unicast MAC address, a destination MAC address is a multicast MAC address, and an Ethernet protocol type, Ethertype, is IP, indicating that the IGMP packet is an IP packet. Second, an IP header, in which a source IP address is a unicast IP address of a transmitter, a destination IP address is a multicast IP address which is mapped into the multicast MAC address of the Ethernet header by means of a general rule; for the IGMP, the protocol type in the IP header is IGMP, indicating that the data carried is IGMP data. Third, an IGMP header, when an IGMP packet is defined according to IGMP v2 standard, including: a Type indicating the type of the IGMP packet as follows: 0x11=Membership Query, group query packet; 0x16=Version 2 Membership Report, group report packet, for joining a multicast group; 0x17=Leave Group, group leave packet, for leaving a designated multicast group; 0x12=Version 1 Membership Report, compatible with a packet type of IGMP V1; a maximal response time; and a check value Checksum for checking the integrity of a packet. Finally, a multicast group number. The present invention may be implemented by extending the existing IGMP and a procedure described as follows. Two aspects are considered in the embodiment of the present invention. After receiving an IGMP packet, a device issues a return notification packet to improve the reliability of the IGMP packet, thereby reducing the times of sending an IGMP packet blindly. Moreover, it is necessary for extending the IGMP to add a packet type for sending an abnormity reason to a user terminal when an on-demand request of the user terminal fails; if there is no enough bandwidth for the requirement of the user terminal, it is necessary to send an IGMP multicast notification packet to the user terminal. At first, the procedure, modified by the present invention, of joining a multicast group to develop a multicast service by a user terminal, is described as follows. As shown in FIG. 5, the procedure specifically includes the following processes. 51: When User 1 chooses to watch a program on Channel 1, STB 1 sends an IGMP Join packet for joining multicast group 1, and starts Timer 1 set for 2S. 52: After receiving the IGMP join packet from User 1, the DSLAM acting as an IGMP Proxy records a source MAC address of STB1, and constructs an IGMP packet according to the source MAC address in the IGMP join packet; the IGMP packet, as a return notification packet, i.e. as a multicast service notification packet, is sent to STB1 by means of a unicast Ethernet packet and by taking the source MAC address of STB 1 as the destination MAC address; alternatively, using IGMP multicast encapsulation, the DSLAM sends the return notification packet to the corresponding user terminal via a port to which an IGMP Join packet connects. The DSLAM further needs to check whether the user has a right to join multicast group 1 or the physical port has enough bandwidth; if has enough bandwidth, the DSLAM determines whether a member has joined multicast group 1; if the user is the first member of multicast group 1, the DSLAM sends an IGMP Join packet to an upper layer multicast router to join multicast group 1. 53: After receiving the return notification packet, STB1 does not send a backup IGMP Join packet if STB 1 determines that the DSLAM has received an IGMP Join packet. If STB 1 does not receive the return notification packet when Timer 1 expires, STB1 resends the IGMP Join packet. 54: After receiving the IGMP Join packet from the DSLAM, the upper layer multicast router sends a multicast stream of multicast group 1 to the DSLAM; after receiving the multicast stream, the DSLAM multicasts the multicast stream to the port of User 1 (Supporting cross-VLAN/PVC multicast forwarding). The multicast router may need to exchange multicast routing information with an upper layer device by means of the PIM/IGMP due to different network conditions and different user access conditions. 55: When User 2 also chooses to watch Channel 1, STB 2 sends an IGMP Join packet to join multicast group 1; after receiving the IGMP Join packet sent by STB2, the DSLAM records a source MAC address of STB2; The DSLAM further needs to check whether the user has a right to join multicast group 1 or the physical port has enough bandwidth; if has enough bandwidth, proceed to 57; otherwise, proceed to 56. 56: The DSLAM constructs an abnormity notification packet according to the source MAC address of STB2, and sends the abnormity notification packet to STB2 in a unicast mode by taking the source MAC address of STB2 as a destination MAC address. Alternatively, using IGMP multicast encapsulation, the DSLAM sends the abnormity notification packet to the corresponding user according to the port to which the IGMP Join packet connects. If the user determines that the user has on right to watch a relevant multicast video service upon receiving the abnormity notification packet, the user does not send the IGMP Join packet to the network side any more, i.e. the procedure of joining a multicast group is terminated. 57: After receiving the IGMP Join packet, the DSLAM sends multicast stream 1 to the User 2 if it is determined that a member has joined multicast group 1. 58: When User 1 switches channels or stops watching the program on Channel 1, STB 1 sends an IGMP Leave packet to leave multicast group 1. 59: After receiving the IGMP Leave packet, the DSLAM sends a specific group query packet to determine whether there is another STB watching the program on Channel 1 via the port; if there is no another STB watching the program on Channel 1 via the port, the DSLAM stops sending multicast stream 1 to the port. If an IGMP Quick Leave is adopted, the DSLAM directly stops forwarding multicast stream 1 to the port instead of sending the specific group query packet. As can be seen from the above procedure provided by the embodiment of the present invention, on the one hand, a return notification packet is sent to a user to notify the user that the network side has received the IGMP Join packet in the process of joining a multicast group by the user; on the other hand, an abnormity notification packet is sent to the user to notify the user of the reason for rejecting the user to join the multicast group when the network side rejects the user to join the multicast group. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet may be obtained by extending one type of packet, i.e., the return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet may be identified by means of different fields in one type of packet respectively. The return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet may also be obtained by extending two types of packets. In addition, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, in the process of developing a multicast service by a user, in the case that the QoS of the multicast service provided for the user is impaired, i.e. the network side is unable to provide the multicast service desired by the user, the network side determines the reason for an abnormity of the multicast service, and notifies the user of the reason for the impairment of the QoS of the multicast service by means of an abnormity notification packet, so that the user may obtain the reason why it is unable to normally watch the multicast service. In accordance with the embodiment of the present invention, the process of developing a multicast service involves a multicast service notification packet which may be a return notification packet or an abnormity notification packet. The multicast service notification packet is an extended and modified IGMP protocol packet. The multicast service notification packet may be only one type of packet extended or two types of packets extended. In the case that two types of packets are used, the definition of IGMP is extended and two types of IGMP packets are added. (1) The first type of IGMP packet includes: 0x46=Report Receipt, return notification packet, used as a confirmation packet upon receiving a 0x16 packet. The format of the return notification packet is as shown in FIG. 6. The return notification packet includes: packet type, i.e. 0x46, maximal response time, i.e., Max Resp Time, check value, i.e. Checksum and the number of the multicast group joined, i.e., Group Address. (2) The second type of IGMP packet includes: 0x48 Report Inform, information packet, or referred to as abnormity notification packet used as an abnormity notification packet of handling result of 0x16 packet, for example used for notifying a user of a failure after the user fails to join a multicast group, and notifying the user of the reason for an abnormity when the abnormity occurs in the multicast service in the process of developing the multicast service by the user. The format of information packet is as shown in FIG. 7, including: packet type (0X48), the maximal response time, Check value, the number of the multicast group joined and the reason for a failure. The reason for a failure may be specifically indicated in a character string mode or by a reason ID. In general, the reason ID indicating that a user fails to join a multicast group or an abnormity occurs in a multicast service may include: 0x0001, indicating that the backbone bandwidth is not enough; 0x0002, indicating that the line bandwidth is not enough; 0x0003, indicating that the line is deteriorated; if the reason is indicated in a character string mode, a reason character string, for example, “Backbone bandwidth is not enough”, may be set therein. Certainly, a new code corresponding to a new failure or an abnormity reason may be set in accordance with the failure type that the network side is able to determine. In addition, a Layer 2 multicast packet is used in an existing protocol to transfer an IGMP packet, i.e. a Layer 2 destination MAC address is a multicast address; if a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet extended in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention are still transferred by means of the multicast packet, all users of the multicast group have to receive the return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet instead of notifying users who need the return notification packet and the abnormity notification packet. The following two methods are adopted in embodiments of the present invention. Method 1: A destination MAC address of a return notification packet is modified into a unicast MAC address, that is, an source MAC address in an IGMP Join packet acts as the destination MAC address, and a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet corresponding to the source MAC address will be forwarded to the designated user terminal, which makes it possible to only notify the designated user who needs to be notified; in this way, it is possible to save the bandwidth resources of network. Method 2: A DSLAM device sends a return notification packet and an abnormity notification packet to the corresponding port of the user instead of sending to other ports in a multicast mode according to the port which the IGMP Join packet connects to or an abnormity occurs in, which enables the user to receive the traffic required by the user. The present invention further includes: in the process of developing a multicast service by a user, if the QoS of a multicast video service is impaired, for example, a packet loss occurs due to bandwidth restriction, the network side may further construct an abnormity notification packet to notify the user terminal of the reason that the QoS of the multicast video service is impaired by means of the format as shown in FIG. 7, so that the user can obtain the reason that the QoS of the multicast video service is impaired in real time; in this way, it is not only possible to improve the user's satisfaction for a multicast service provided by an operator, but also convenient for the user to remove the reason that the QoS of the multicast video service is impaired in real time to improve the QoS of the multicast video service. The method of the present invention may be implemented by means of an apparatus for improving the reliability of a multicast service; the apparatus may be set in a broadband access device, such as a DSLAM device, or be installed separately. The apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention is hereinafter described with respect to the attached drawings. As shown in FIG. 8, the apparatus in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention includes a multicast service notification packet constructing module capable of constructing a multicast service notification packet according to the condition when the user terminal requests developing a multicast service, and sending the multicast service notification packet to the user terminal; and the multicast service notification packet constructing module specifically includes: an abnormity reason determining module capable of determining the reason for an abnormity when an abnormity occurs in a multicast service provided for the user, for example, a line is deteriorated and bandwidth is not enough; an abnormity notification packet constructing module capable of constructing an abnormity notification packet according to the reason determined by the abnormity reason determining module, and sending the abnormity notification packet to the user terminal, so that the user can learn the reason for the abnormity in the multicast service according to the abnormity notification packet; a return notification packet constructing module capable of constructing a return notification packet upon receiving a packet for joining the multicast group sent by the user terminal, and sending the return notification packet to the user terminal. In an embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus may only include the return notification packet constructing module or only include the abnormity reason determining module and the abnormity notification packet constructing module. The user terminal for implementing a multicast service in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention is as shown in FIG. 8, specifically including a multicast service request sending control module and an abnormity notification packet handling module. The multicast service request sending control module is capable of controlling resending a multicast service request packet if receiving no response packet returned by the network side within a predetermined time period after the user terminal sends a multicast service request packet to the network side. The abnormity notification packet handling module is capable of receiving an abnormity notification packet sent by the network side, and displaying a reason for abnormity contained in the abnormity notification packet on a display interface. To sum up, in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, the IGMP is extended for providing a return notification function and a notification function, thereby improving the stability of a multicast protocol and the operability of a multicast video network. The foregoing is only preferred embodiments of the present invention. The protection scope of the present invention, however, is not limited to the above description. Any change or substitution, within the technical scope disclosed by the present invention, easily occurring to those skilled in the art should be covered by the protection scope of the present invention. Therefore, the protection scope of the present invention should be compatible with the protection scope stated by claims.
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H
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12
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26
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11973115
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US20090006869A1-20090101
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Techniques for synchronizing and archive-versioning of encrypted files
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ACCEPTED
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20081216
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20090101
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[]
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H04L928
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["H04L928", "G06F1214", "G06F2100"]
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7908490
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20071005
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20110315
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713
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193000
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64924.0
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CRIBBS
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MALCOLM
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Satya Sudhakar", "inventor_name_first": "Gosukonda Naga Venkata", "inventor_city": "Bangalore", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IN"}]
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Techniques are presented for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files. Blocks of encrypted data are managed and metadata is maintained for the blocks. The metadata identifies a maximum number of blocks and an index or parameter string. The string includes transaction identifiers and relative block numbers. The metadata is used as parameter information to a hash algorithm along with a hash key to acquire a unique initialization vector for each block. Each initialization vector when supplied to a cipher service along with a particular block of data produces an encrypted version of the data supplied or supplies a decrypted version of the data supplied. The techniques are also applied to files being archived and versioned from a storage volume.
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1. A method, comprising: managing a synchronized version of a file as encrypted blocks of data that when assembled and when decrypted represent a copy of that file; maintaining metadata for the encrypted blocks, wherein the metadata includes a maximum number for the encrypted blocks and an index string identifying added and removed ones of the encrypted blocks; and using the maximum number and selective portions of the index string as input to a hash algorithm along with a hash key to produce initialization vectors for each of the encrypted blocks, the initialization vectors used to properly encrypt and decrypt data associated with each of the encrypted blocks. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein maintaining further includes: detecting a new block being added within the encrypted blocks; and appending a new string to the index string of the metadata, wherein the new string includes a plus sign symbol followed by a relative position location number as to where the new block is to be positioned within the encrypted blocks. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein maintaining further includes: detecting an existing block being deleted within the encrypted blocks; and appending a new string to the index string of the metadata, wherein the new string includes a minus sign followed by a relative position location number within the encrypted blocks that identifies the existing block that was removed from the encrypted blocks. 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising: parsing the index string for added and removed blocks, wherein added block numbers are prefixed with a plus sign symbol and deleted block numbers are prefixed with a minus sign symbol; and iteratively reconstructing the initialization vectors during the parsing for each block number in response to the added block numbers and the deleted block numbers. 5. The method of claim 4 further comprising: passing each initialization vector for each block number to a cipher service to decrypt data; ordering the decrypted data; and producing the file. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein maintaining further includes identifying repeating patterns of added or deleted block numbers in the index string and compressing each repeated pattern within the index string. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein maintaining further includes acquiring the maximum number of blocks as a fixed constant or calculating the maximum number of blocks as a predefined maximum file size divided by a predefined block size. 8. A method, comprising: generating parameters to an algorithm that produces archived or de-archived portions of a file from a volume that is being archived and versioned; and maintaining a string representing the parameters, wherein the parameters are augmented with special characters to represent when particular ones of the portions are being added, removed, and include other versions. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein maintaining further includes: using a plus sign as one of the special characters to represent a portion added to the file; using a negative sign as one of the special characters to represent a portion removed from the file; and using a comma character as one of the special characters to represent a portion that includes a version of the file. 10. The method of claim 8 further comprising, retaining portions of the file that are removed from the volume in chronological order in a separate area for subsequent recovery. 11. The method of claim 8 further comprising, storing the string as metadata within an archived volume that includes the portions of the file in an archived format. 12. The method of claim 11 further comprising: acquiring each parameter from the metadata using the special characters; and selectively passing each parameter or sets of parameters to the algorithm to acquire data associated with each portion in the archived or de-archived format for archiving or consuming. 13. The method of claim 8 further comprising, selectively calling the algorithm on request and passing a hash key and a particular set of parameters to acquire an archive version of a particular portion of the file. 14. The method of claim 8 further comprising, selectively calling the algorithm on request and passing a hash key and a particular set of parameters to acquire a de-archived version of a particular portion of the file. 15. A system, comprising: a synchronization service implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and to process on a machine; and an initialization vector service implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and to process on the machine or a different machine, wherein the synchronization service is to maintain an encrypted version of a file in synchronization with a decrypted version of that file via encrypted blocks, and wherein the initialization vector service is to maintain metadata for the encrypted blocks that includes a maximum number for the encrypted blocks and an index string, the index string identifying added and removed ones of the encrypted blocks, and wherein the initialization vector service is to produce an initialization vector for each encrypted block of the encrypted version of the file in response to the maximum number and selective portions of the index string, each initialization vector permits a particular block of data associated with the file to be encrypted or decrypted when supplied to a cipher service. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the initialization vector service is to serially append a substring onto the index string when a new block of data is detected as being inserted within the encrypted blocks, wherein the substring includes a plus sign symbol and a number representing a relative block position within the encrypted blocks to place the new block of data. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein the initialization vector service is to serially append a substring onto the index string when an existing block of data is detected as being deleted from the encrypted blocks, wherein the substring includes a negative sign symbol and a number representing a block position within the encrypted blocks that identifies the existing block to remove. 18. The system of claim 15, wherein the metadata is appended to a first of the encrypted blocks as a header. 19. The system of claim 15, wherein the metadata is stored separately from the encrypted blocks. 20. The system of claim 15, wherein the synchronization service is to invoke the initialization vector service to produce encrypted versions of the file or to produce a decrypted version of the file. 21. A system, comprising: an archive-versioning service implemented in machine-accessible and readable medium and to process on a machine; and an initialization vector service implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and to process on the machine or a different machine, wherein the archive-versioning service is to manage archiving and versioning of files for a volume, and wherein the initialization vector service is to produce an initialization vector for each portion of a particular file when changes are detected in that file on the volume, the initialization vector produced using a relative block identifier as a parameter along with a hash key to a vector producing service, and wherein each initialization vector when passed to a cipher service along with data associated with a particular portion of the particular file produces an archived or de-archived version of that file. 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the relative block identifier includes references to a configurable number of previous transactions and their relative block identifiers on the volume. 23. The system of claim 21, wherein the relative block identifier includes addition and subtraction indicators for selective block identifiers, and the initialization vector service is to perform the arithmetic before passing along the relative block identifier and the hash key to the vector producing service. 24. The system of claim 21, wherein the relative block identifier includes a special character to identify portions of the file having multiple versions. 25. The system of claim 21, wherein the archive-versioning service is to retain data associated with deleted portions of the file from the volume in a chronological order and in a separate storage area for subsequent recovery.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Increasingly enterprises and individuals expect to have access to information twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, and three-hundred sixty-five days a year. Additionally, since the world economy has become highly networked, the location of the information desired by users has become largely irrelevant. Many techniques are deployed by enterprises to ensure that their data is available when requested, when failures occur, or when recovery of specific versions of their data is needed. One such technique employs data replication or mirroring; such that the data is available from multiple independent data sources should some type of failure occur. Another technique permits data to have multiple versions, such that the data along with its versions are archived and acquired from a separate storage area on demand. Furthermore, the security of data has also become a significant concern for enterprises. Thus, replicated data, archived data, and versioned data are often encrypted. A variety of techniques exists for encrypting data in blocks on a storage volume and securely delivering decrypted versions of the blocks as needed. Each of the available techniques for securely encrypting and decrypting blocks of data has their own advantages and disadvantages. However, they all appear to suffer from one major drawback and that is when a block is added or removed, then all the blocks from those that were inserted or deleted have to be resynchronized when remote resynchronization tools are used or when file difference generating algorithms are used, since all those blocks are changed. This is a costly operation in terms of memory and processing. Therefore, improved techniques for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files are desirable.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In various embodiments, techniques are provided for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files. More particularly and in an embodiment, a synchronized version of a file is managed as encrypted blocks of data that when assembled and when decrypted represent a copy of that file. Also, metadata is maintained for the encrypted blocks. The metadata includes a maximum number for the encrypted blocks and an index string, which identifies added and removed ones of the encrypted blocks. The maximum number and selective portions of the index string are used as input to a hash algorithm along with a hash key in order to produce a unique initialization vector for each of the encrypted blocks. The initialization vectors are then used to properly encrypt and decrypt data associated with each of the encrypted blocks.
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RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority to India Patent Application No. 1383/DEL/2007 filed in the India Patent Office on Jun. 28, 2007 and entitled “TECHNIQUES FOR SYNCHRONIZING AND ARCHIVE-VERSIONING OF ENCRYPTED FILES;” the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. FIELD The invention relates generally to data storage processing and more particularly to secure techniques for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files. BACKGROUND Increasingly enterprises and individuals expect to have access to information twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, and three-hundred sixty-five days a year. Additionally, since the world economy has become highly networked, the location of the information desired by users has become largely irrelevant. Many techniques are deployed by enterprises to ensure that their data is available when requested, when failures occur, or when recovery of specific versions of their data is needed. One such technique employs data replication or mirroring; such that the data is available from multiple independent data sources should some type of failure occur. Another technique permits data to have multiple versions, such that the data along with its versions are archived and acquired from a separate storage area on demand. Furthermore, the security of data has also become a significant concern for enterprises. Thus, replicated data, archived data, and versioned data are often encrypted. A variety of techniques exists for encrypting data in blocks on a storage volume and securely delivering decrypted versions of the blocks as needed. Each of the available techniques for securely encrypting and decrypting blocks of data has their own advantages and disadvantages. However, they all appear to suffer from one major drawback and that is when a block is added or removed, then all the blocks from those that were inserted or deleted have to be resynchronized when remote resynchronization tools are used or when file difference generating algorithms are used, since all those blocks are changed. This is a costly operation in terms of memory and processing. Therefore, improved techniques for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files are desirable. SUMMARY In various embodiments, techniques are provided for synchronizing and archive-versioning encrypted files. More particularly and in an embodiment, a synchronized version of a file is managed as encrypted blocks of data that when assembled and when decrypted represent a copy of that file. Also, metadata is maintained for the encrypted blocks. The metadata includes a maximum number for the encrypted blocks and an index string, which identifies added and removed ones of the encrypted blocks. The maximum number and selective portions of the index string are used as input to a hash algorithm along with a hash key in order to produce a unique initialization vector for each of the encrypted blocks. The initialization vectors are then used to properly encrypt and decrypt data associated with each of the encrypted blocks. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for synchronizing encrypted blocks of a file, according to an example embodiment. FIG. 2 is a diagram of a method for archiving and versioning a file of a volume under archive-versioning control, according to an example embodiment. FIG. 3 is a diagram of a file synchronization system, according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4 is a diagram of file archive-versioning system, according to an example embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein, a “file” refers to a logical grouping of information organized in a particular fashion and accessed and consumed by a resource (e.g., user or automated service, etc.) as a single document or unit of information. The underlying services that manage the file on a storage volume or machine may or may not store the data associated with the file in a contiguous fashion. But from the perspective of the resource, the file looks and behaves as if the data is contiguous. In fact, at lower levels of implementation, a file is often broken into equal sized chunks called “blocks.” The maximum number of blocks for any given file can be provided as a configuration to storage management services or can be calculated by dividing the system limit or policy-based limit for the size of any given file by a desired block size (maximum_file_size divided by block_size=max_number_of_blocks). An “initialization vector” (IV) is a block of bits that when provided to a cipher service along with a block of data and encryption key for a file produces an encrypted or decrypted version of that block of data. Yet, having the IV is not particular useful in discovering the encryption/decryption being used by the cipher service. The point of the IV and the cipher service is to prevent unauthorized access to blocks of a file or to versions of files. With other storage encryption techniques, should an intruder discover how a particular block is encoded, then the intruder could potentially discover how some other similar blocks are encoded and thus compromise the entire storage environment and its encrypted data and files. The IV and cipher service combination provides a random and yet securely repeatable mechanism for one block to be dependent and yet also independent from the other blocks of a file. So, an intruder might discover the encoding of one block but this will not assist in the discovery of the other blocks. A variety of existing IV and cipher services exist in the industry; however these techniques force blocks to be renumbered when blocks are added or deleted from a set of blocks representing a particular file. Consequently, the existing approaches are not useful in maintaining versions of encrypted files. The enumerated limitations and others are corrected with the teachings presented herein and below. In what follows, it will be demonstrated how different types of securely repeatable initialization vectors may be constructed and special information retained that permits blocks to be more efficiently encrypted and decrypted from storage and permits versions of files to be more efficiently archived and versioned. This also permits remote synchronization services to send only a same number of changed blocks in an encrypted file as that which is in the corresponding unencrypted file. According to an embodiment, the techniques presented herein may be implemented within Novell storage products distributed by Novell, Inc. of Provo, Utah and/or Linux operating system (OS) environments. Of course it is to be understood that any network architecture, OS, device, proxy, or product may be enhanced to utilize and deploy the techniques presented herein and below. FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method 100 for synchronizing encrypted blocks of a file, according to an example embodiment. The method 100 (hereinafter “secure synchronization service”) is implemented in a machine-access and machine-readable medium and is accessible over a network. The network may be wired, wireless, or a combination of wired and wireless. The secure synchronization service may be implemented as an enhancement to a service that executes within an operating system or that executes within a standalone storage encryption/decryption replication and synchronization product. Initially, the secure synchronization service is configured to monitor an environment or storage volume (can be sets of volumes) for purposes of replication or synchronization with another volume or a reserved partition of the same volume being monitored. The files of the volume being monitored are synchronized to the other volume or as stated above to the reserved partition of the same volume being monitored, in the manner discussed below. The data of the files is encrypted for security purposes and uses an enhanced Encrypted Salt-Sector Initialization Vector (ESSIV) technique achieved by creating novel types of Initialization Vectors (IV's). It is noted that for purposes of illustration and ease of comprehension the processing of the secure synchronization service is discussed with respect to processing a single file on a volume or storage environment; however, the secure synchronization service can monitor all files or configurable subsets of files on the volume or within the storage environment; each file processed in the following manners. At 110, the secure synchronization service manages a synchronized version of a file as encrypted blocks of data. While managing the synchronized version of the file, at 120, the secure synchronization service maintains metadata for the encrypted blocks of data as a whole. This metadata includes a maximum number of blocks for the file and a string (special information discussed more completely below). According to an embodiment, at 121, the secure synchronization service determines the maximum number of encrypted blocks by acquiring a constant associated with all files or a particular class of files to which the file being managed belongs. The constant is preconfigured for the storage environment or operating system being used. In some cases, at 121, the secure synchronization service can also dynamically calculate the maximum number of blocks by dividing the maximum permissible file size (in bytes) by the preferred or desired block size (in bytes). So, the maximum number of encrypted blocks for the file being managed can be based on all files, subsets of files, or even a particular file based on policy and identity of that file. Additionally, the maximum number of encrypted blocks can be a fixed constant acquired by the secure synchronization service or can be something that the secure synchronization service dynamically calculates when needed. The metadata also includes an index string. The index string includes a serial listing of relative block information and transactional identifiers or details. That is, the index string identifies added and removed encrypted blocks from the file being synchronized and kept in encrypted format on the storage volume. For example, suppose initially that a new block was being added between blocks 3 and 4; in such a case the substring, within the index string, identifies this situation as “+3.” The plus sign symbol “+” identifies a transaction taking place within the file; specifically a new block being added. If a block is removed, the transaction identifier is a negative sign symbol “−.” A complete example of index string and its contents within the context of an example illustration is presented below. In an embodiment, at 122, the secure synchronization service recognizes repeating patterns within the index string associated with the metadata. These repeating patterns are reduced by the secure synchronization service. For example, consider an index string that appears as “−4−4−4−4−4−4.” This depicts data being deleted from the file being synchronized by deleting a current 4th block for 6 successive iterations. The secure synchronization service can represent this in a reduced format of “−(4-9).” This is so because each time a 4th block is deleted from the encrypted set of blocks representing the file being synchronized the next or then 5th block slides to a new 4th block position. So, in the example, a series of 6 successive operations to delete the 4th block is really a single operation that deletes a range of blocks, namely blocks 4-9. It is noted that this is but one illustration and other reduction techniques can be used to reduce repeating patterns detected in the index string. At 130, the secure synchronization servile uses the maximum number of encrypted blocks and selective portions of the index string as input to a hash algorithm along with a securely acquired hash key. This produces from the hash algorithm an IV for each encrypted block of the file. The IV can be subsequently supplied to a cipher service along with the block to which it relates to produce either an encrypted version of that block or a decrypted version of that block. Typically, a storage encryption hash algorithm takes as input the hash key and expects a sector number (sector being the smallest addressable unit of storage in bytes that a particular storage environment supports). In the present teaching, the sector number is replaced by a block number and the block number is not in every case a real block number for a particular block of the data associated with the file; rather the block number supplied to the hash algorithm is a relative number that is calculated in the manners discussed more completely below with the example illustrations presented. Thus, the phrase “selective portion” refers to this relative block number that is calculated, which uses in some cases the maximum block number and other previous block transactions. According to an embodiment, at 140, the secure synchronization service detects a new block being added to the encrypted blocks. In response to this, the secure synchronization service appends a new string to the index string. The new string includes a plus sign (transaction identifier) followed by a relative position location number. The relative position location number is the block number of the first encrypted block that the new block is being inserted between. So, if the new block were being inserted between blocks 7 and 8, the secure synchronization service adds “+7” onto the end of the index string to capture this transaction in the file being actively synchronized. In another case, at 150, the secure synchronization service detects a transaction on the file that indicates an existing block is being deleted from the encrypted blocks of the file. In response to this, the secure synchronization service appends a new string having a negative sign (transaction identifier) followed by a position location number that identifies the existing block being deleted within the encrypted blocks. For example, if block 8 were deleted, the secure synchronization service writes a new substring of “−8” onto the end of the index string. In an embodiment, at 160, the secure synchronization service parses the index string for added and removed encrypted blocks. This can be done using the transaction identifier (sets of reserved characters identifying addition and subtraction operations on the file) as a delimiter when parsing the index string. Each transaction is then iteratively processed by the secure synchronization service to reconstruct the IV's for each block number of the file. At 161, each IV and data associated with the block to which that IV relates is passed to a cipher service to acquire a decrypted version of that block of data. Next, the blocks are properly ordered and the file is produced for subsequent consumption by a user or an automated service. Example Illustration Number One The maximum number of blocks is taken dynamically at any time during its life cycle as max file size divided by block size. Assume this to be 4 gigabytes (GB) and maximum number of blocks is referenced as “S” for this example. A total number of blocks that are appended is also maintained. This total number of appended blocks is referred to as “N” for this example. Initially, S=256 and N=50 and transactions against a file that the blocks represents takes place. A first transaction inserts a new block after the 31th block position for the file. The index string is now represented by the secure synchronization service as “+31.” Next, block 18 is deleted and the index string becomes “+31−18.” If another block is again inserted after the 43rd position then the index string becomes “+31−18+43.” Again, if the 27th block is inserted then the index string becomes “+31−18+43+27.” The block number replaces the sector number for an ESSIV hash algorithm that produces an IV for consumption by a cipher service. So, IV=E(SALT, block number), where SALT=Hash(KEY). Replacing the traditional sector number with a block number results in a derivation of the IV, called IV1 herein. When the secure synchronization service appends information, the value of N is incremented and it is used as a block number for calculating the ESSIV. So, IV=E(SALT, N), where SALT=Hash(KEY). This is another derivation of the IV, called IV2 because the traditional sector number is replaced in the hash parameters with N, the total number of blocks appended. Suppose further that when the 27th block is inserted (in the above illustration), the value “S+18+43+27” becomes input to the ESSIV, where IV=E(SALT, (S+18+43+27)) and where SALT=Hash(KEY)). Note that “+31” was not added. This is so because depending upon the IV size returned from the hash algorithm, just the last 2 or 3 number of insertions or deletions can be used and appended to S. Recall further that S=256; thus the IV=E(SALT,(256+18+43+27)). Moreover, when there is only one inserting then just that one is taken not 2 or 3 preceding transactions since they do not exist and remaining bits of the IV are made zero because the IV can be any number and there is no restriction that it should not contain many zeros. This type of IV derivation is referred to as IV3. Furthermore, N is not incremented if a new block is inserted between blocks and N is not decremented if an existing block is removed between blocks. N is just incremented and just decremented if an IV of a last block is of type IV1 or IV2. During decryption, the secure synchronization service uses the index string and the maximum number of blocks to identify blocks that are inserted and for computing the proper IV's for them. Example Illustrating Number Two This illustration visually shows how the maximum number of encrypted blocks and index string is used to acquire the IVs in encryption and decryption For the encryption case: 1. Initial state: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “” IV 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Block 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Insert block between 3 and 4: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3” IV 1 2 3 256+“+3” 4 5 6 7 Block 1 2 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 Note: 3.5 is only indicative. No where is this information (3.5) stored. 3. Delete 6th block: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6” IV 1 2 3 256+“+3” 4 5 7 Block 1 2 3 3.5 4 5 7 4. Insert block between 2nd and 3rd block: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2” IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 3 4 5 7 Block 1 2 2.5 3.5 3 4 5 7 5. Delete 5th block: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2−5” IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 4 5 7 Block 1 2 2.5 3.5 4 5 7 6. Delete 6th block: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2−5−6” IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 4 7 Block 1 2 2.5 3.5 4 7 This can be rewritten as: IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 4 7 Block 1 2 3 4 5 6 IVs in decryption: 1. Initial state: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2−5−6” IVs are unknown. IV Block 1 2 3 4 5 6 The index string can be used to arrive at the IVs. 2. Operation “−6”: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2−5” IV Block 1 2 3 4 5 X 6 3. Operation “−5”: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6+2” IV Block 1 2 3 4 X 5 X 6 4. Operation “+2”: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3−6” IV 256+“−6+2” Block 1 2 3 4 X 5 X 6 5. Operation “−6”: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “+3” IV 256+“−6+2” Block 1 2 3 4 X 5 X X 6 6. Operation “+3”: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “” IV 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” Block 1 2 3 4 X 5 X X 6 7. Fill up remaining blocks: S = 256, N = 7, Index String: “” IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 3 4 5 6 7 Block 1 2 3 4 X 5 X X 6 Rewrite it by removing deleted blocks (noted as X) as: IV 1 2 256+“−6+2” 256+“+3” 4 7 Block 1 2 3 4 5 6 This is the same IV as the one at the end of encryption. So IVs are retrieved successfully and hence decryption can be done. It is noted that N need not be stored. The total number of blocks in the encrypted files and the number of deleted blocks (represented by “−” in the index string) will give this value. S can be fixed or hard coded in the application which can be same for all files. Instead of “−4−4−4−4−4−4” in the index string the service can reduce it to a range, such as “−(4to9).” The techniques presented so far have dealt with generating initialization vectors for encrypted files, which can be used in synchronization. The discussion of FIG. 2 focuses on archive-versioning. FIG. 2 is a diagram of a method 200 for managing files of a volume under archive-versioning control, according to an example embodiment. The method 200 (hereinafter “archive-versioning service”) is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is accessible over a network. The network may be wired, wireless, or a combination of wired and wireless. Initially, a volume having files or a subset of a volume having files is under version control and versions are archived to another volume or a reserved portion of the volume being monitored. The files are archived in a compressed or encrypted format. At 210, the archive-versioning service generates parameters to an algorithm that produces archived and de-archived portions of a file from a volume being archived and versioned. In an embodiment, the algorithm is an ESSIV algorithm that produces an initiation vector (IV); the IV consumed by a cipher service to uniquely generate portions of a file independent of other portions of the same file. However, the parameters supplied are relative portion numbers or references and not sector numbers as would traditionally be the case. At 220, the archive-versioning service maintains a string representing the parameters augmented with special characters when portions of the file are added, removed, and when a particular potion includes other versions. So, the parameters include special characters known to and recognized by the archive-versioning service. These characters identify transactions, such as adding portions to the file, and such as deleting portions of the file. The characters also identify whether some portions have multiple versions. According to an embodiment, at 221, the archive-versioning service uses a plus sign “+” as one of the special characters for identifying adding a portion to the file. A negative sign “−” identifies deleting or removing a portion from the file. Also, a comma “,” identifies a particular portion, which forms a version of the file. As an example: in the string “+3−6+2−5+6”; if “+3−6” and “+2−5” forms 2 versions of the file then it is stored as “+3−6,+2−5,−6”. With this information different versions of file can be readily identified and later reconstructed on demand. In an embodiment, at 230, the archive-versioning service retains portions of the file that are actively removed in chronological order and in a separate area for recovery when requested. Thus, deleted versions can be recovered and reconstructed. In one arrangement, at 240, the archive-versioning service stores the string as metadata within an archived volume that includes the portions of the file in archived format. At 241, the archive-versioning service acquires each parameter from the metadata using the special characters as delimiters when parsing the metadata. The archive-versioning service then selectively passes each parameter or sets of parameters to the algorithm to acquire data associated with each portion in an archived or de-archived format. The algorithm essentially produces an IV and the then forwards this to cipher service to produce data associated with a particular portion of the file in archived or de-archived format. In another case, at 250, the archive-versioning service selectively calls the algorithm and passes a hash key and a particular set of parameters to acquire an archived or de-archived version of a particular portion of the file. This processing may be iterated so that an entire archived or de-archived version of the file is produced. One now appreciates how IV's or different types can be created using relative blocks or portions of a file. These IV's when consumed by a cipher service result in encrypted/decrypted or archived/de-archived versions of portions of files. Each IV having different encryption/decryption that is unique to it via its IV and some IV's using relative block numbers in their production. The portions or blocks of the file when assembled produce the file. It is also noted that the differences between versions of a particular file may be represented using deltas. An example of this is available in U.S. Pat. No. 6,233,589; commonly assigned to Novell, Inc. of Provo, Utah. So, the technique presented herein can incorporate delta approaches to versioning, such as the one referenced above. FIG. 3 is a diagram of a file synchronization system 300, according to an example embodiment. The secure communication key generation and distribution system 300 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is accessible over a network. The network may be wired, wireless, or a combination of wired and wireless. In an embodiment, the file synchronization system 300 implements, among other things, various aspects of the method 100 of the FIG. 1. The file synchronization system 300 includes a synchronization service 301 and an initialization vector (IV) service 302. Each of these and their interactions with one another will now be discussed in turn. The synchronization service 301 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is to process on a machine. The synchronization service 301 is to maintain an encrypted version of a file in synchronization with a decrypted version of that file. This is done via encrypted blocks that when assembled in the proper order represented the decrypted version for the file. The synchronization service 301 is also to maintain metadata for the encrypted blocks. The metadata includes a maximum number for the encrypted blocks and an index string (special information). The index string identifies added and removed ones of the encrypted blocks. The IV service 302 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is to process on the same machine or a different machine of the network. The IV service 302 is to produce an IV for each encrypted block of the encrypted version of the file. This is done by passing the maximum number and selective portions of the index string as parameters to a hashing algorithm, which can be a part of the IV service 302; although it does not have to be in every case. Each IV permits a particular block of data associated with the file to be encrypted or decrypted when supplied to a cipher service. In an embodiment, the IV service 302 is to serially append a substring onto the index string when a new block of data is detected as being inserted within the encrypted blocks. The substring includes a plus sign symbol “+” and a relative block position within the encrypted blocks to place the new block of data. The relative block position can be expressed in terms of an expression, such as “+7” In this example of “+7” the new block is added between blocks 7 and 8 and is represented by the expression of “+7.” In a similar situation, the IV service 302 is to serially append a substring onto the index string when an existing block of data is detected as being deleted from the encrypted blocks. The substring includes a negative sign symbol “−” and a number representing a block position within the encrypted blocks that identifies the existing block to remove. So, removing an 8th block appears as a substring “−8.” In operation, the synchronization service 301 invokes the IV service 302 to produce encrypted versions of the file or to produce decrypted versions of the file. This is done by passing the data blocks along to the IV service 302. The IV service 302 produces the IV's and passes the IV's along with their data blocks to a cipher service. The cipher service provides the encrypted or decrypted versions of the data blocks. According to an embodiment, the metadata is appended to a first encrypted block as a header. Alternatively, the metadata is stored separately from the encrypted blocks entirely and retrieved in response to a file identifier. The IV service 302 builds and assembles the metadata as the file being monitored is changed. The changes are communicated to the IV service 301 via the synchronization service 301. FIG. 4 is a diagram of file archive-versioning system 400, according to an example embodiment. The file archive-versioning system 400 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium is accessible over a network. The network may be wired, wireless, or a combination of wired and wireless. In an embodiment, the file archive-versioning system 400 implements various aspects associated of the method 200 of the FIG. 2. The file archive-versioning system 400 includes an archive-versioning service 401 and an IV service 402. Each of these and their interactions with one another will now be discussed in detail. The archive-versioning service 401 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is to process on a machine. The archive-versioning service 401 is to manage archiving and versioning of files for a volume. Each file is managed as a series of blocks or portions. When a file or the volume is versioned, the archive versioning service 401 captures the incremental changes from a source volume and implements them on the archived and versioning volume. The IV service 402 is implemented in a machine-accessible and readable medium and is to process on the same machine or a different machine of the network. The IV service 402 produces an IV for each portion or block of a particular file when changes or versions are detected or taken on the volume. The IV is produced using a relative block identifier as a parameter along with a secure hash key parameter; the parameters passed to a vector producing service. The vector producing service when given the hash key and the relative block identifier produces a unique IV for the portion or block of the file in question. The IV when passed to a cipher service along with a block of data to which the IV relates produces an archived or de-archived version of the block of data. According to an embodiment, the relative block identifier includes references to a configurable number of previous transactions and their relative block identifiers on the volume. So, 2 to 3 previous transactions and their transaction identifiers can be used together as the relative block identifier and the relative block identifier is passed as one of the parameters to the vector producing service. In an embodiment, the relative block identifier also includes addition and subtraction indicators for selective block identifiers. The IV service 402 is to perform the arithmetic before passing along the relative block identifier and the hash key to the vector producing service. Examples of the relative block identifier being passed to a vector producing service was presented above with reference to the example scenarios presented with respect to the method 100 of the FIG. 1. The relative block identifier may also include a special character to identify portions of the file that have multiple versions. This permits versions to be represented and detected in the portions or blocks associated with the file. According to an embodiment, the archive-versioning service 401 retains data associated with deleted portions of the file from the volume. The deleted portions of the file are retained in chronological order and in a separate storage area for subsequent recovery. The above description is illustrative, and not restrictive. Many other embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description. The scope of embodiments should therefore be determined with reference to the appended claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. The Abstract is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. §1.72(b) and will allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature and gist of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In the foregoing description of the embodiments, various features are grouped together in a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting that the claimed embodiments have more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Thus the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Description of the Embodiments, with each claim standing on its own as a separate exemplary embodiment.
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11943746
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US20080074514A1-20080327
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IMAGE DATA CORRECTION PROCESSING BASED ON SENSITIVITY
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ACCEPTED
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20080312
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20080327
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[]
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H04N5217
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["H04N5217"]
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7978238
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20071121
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20110712
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348
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231600
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97956.0
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AKSHAY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "HARADA", "inventor_name_first": "Osamu", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sakamoto", "inventor_name_first": "Hiromichi", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A signal processing device includes a memory which stores correction data in advance. The signal processing device modifies the correction data stored in the memory on the basis of an image sensing signal obtained by causing an image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in a non-exposure state. The signal processing device corrects by using the modified correction data an image sensing signal obtained by causing the image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in an exposure state.
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1. An image sensing apparatus comprising: an image sensing device; and a correction unit that corrects noise in image data obtained by said image sensing device, the noise being due to at least dark current generated in said image sensing device, wherein said correction unit selects, at least based on setting state of said image sensing apparatus and environmental condition, either one of: correcting the image data using first correction data pre-stored in a storage medium; and obtaining second correction data, that is different from the first correction data, from the output of said image sensing device with being shielded from light and correcting the image data using the second correction data. 2. The image sensing apparatus according to claim 1 further comprising an operation member that is used for starting auto focus control and auto exposure control, wherein the first correction data is pre-stored in the storage medium before said operation member is operated, and the second correction data is obtained after said operation member is operated. 3. The image sensing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said correction unit obtains the second correction data before acquiring the image data if a sequential image sensing is set as the setting state, and obtains the second correction data after acquiring the image data if a single-shot image sensing is set as the setting state. 4. The image sensing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said correction unit corrects the image data using the second correction data if a sensitivity set in said image sensing apparatus is higher than a reference sensitivity. 5. The image sensing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said correction unit corrects the image data using the second correction data if an exposure period of time for obtaining the image data is set longer than a predetermined period of time. 6. The image sensing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said correction unit corrects the image data using the second correction data if temperature at the time of obtaining the image data is higher than a predetermined temperature.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Image processing apparatuses such as an electronic camera which uses a memory card having a solid-state memory element as a recording medium, and records and plays back still and moving images sensed by a solid-state image sensing device (to be described as an image sensing device hereinafter) such as a CCD or CMOS have commercially been available. This image processing apparatus such as an electronic camera allows the photographer to select a single-shot/sequential image sensing mode from the operation unit. The photographer can switch image sensing between single-shot image sensing for sensing an image for each frame every time he/she presses the shutter button and sequential image sensing for sequentially sensing images while he/she keeps pressing the shutter button. To sense an image by using the image sensing device such as a CCD or CMOS, the image processing apparatus can execute dark noise correction processing by calculation processing using dark image data read out after charge accumulation similar to actual image sensing while the image sensing device is not exposed, and image data of actual image sensing read out after charge accumulation while the image sensing device is exposed. A high-quality image can be attained by correcting the sensed image data for image quality degradation caused by dark current noise generated by the image sensing device, a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device, or the like. However, in order to cause the image processing apparatus to perform dark noise correction processing, a dark image must be sensed. This increases the release time lag, missing a good opportunity of capturing an image. To solve this problem, there is known an image processing apparatus which uses correction data stored in advance to cancel the horizontal shading (luminance level nonuniformity) of the image sensing device or a noise component (offset from a proper dark level) such as a dark current, and can sense a high-quality image while suppressing the release time lag small. The correction data stored in advance is an offset amount for canceling the horizontal shading of the image sensing device, or the difference between a proper dark level and image data obtained by performing dark image sensing but not performing correction using correction data in assembling an image processing apparatus. The dark level serves as a criterion for the luminance component and color components of image data in image processing. The image quality can therefore be improved by correcting the dark level of image data obtained by exposing the image sensing device. The prior art suffers the following problems. Some image sensing devices nonlinearly change the dark current noise state depending on the temperature characteristic of an output circuit. In an image processing apparatus having such an image sensing system, a noise component which should be canceled remains in sensed image data even by using a correction value stored in advance, degrading the image quality. In this case, correction by calculation using a temperature coefficient complicates the calculation. Calculation processing takes a long time in the presence of many pixels, increasing the release time lag. A correction value may be stored in advance for each temperature region, which requires a larger memory capacity and makes the apparatus bulky. In addition to dark noise correction processing, the image processing apparatus can execute shading correction processing by calculation processing using shading correction data stored in advance in a storage medium, and sensed image data read out after charge accumulation while the image sensing device is exposed. Noise generated in an image sensing circuit system, i.e., the voltage nonuniformity caused by the resistance component of the power line in a sensor, and shading by element variations or the like can be reduced, sensing a high-quality image. However, the prior art poses the following problems. In a conventional image processing apparatus such as an electronic camera, shading correction data is stored in a storage medium in advance. In image sensing, the shading correction data is read out from the storage medium, and calculation processing is performed using the shading correction data and sensed image data, achieving shading correction. If the change of the shading amount depending on image sensing conditions is not considered, appropriate shading correction cannot be done, and the image quality may degrade. If the change of the shading amount depending on image sensing conditions is considered, the number of shading correction data corresponding to respective image sensing conditions must be stored in the storage medium, which requires a large-capacity storage medium.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been made in consideration of the above situation, and has as its object to properly correct the noise and shading of a sensed image. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is attained by providing an apparatus comprising: (A) a memory adapted to store correction data; (B) a signal processing device adapted to modify the correction data stored in the memory by using an image sensing signal obtained by causing an image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in a non-exposure state, and adapted to correct by using the modified correction data an image sensing signal obtained by causing the image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in an exposure state. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an apparatus comprising: (A) a memory adapted to store shading correction data; (B) a signal processing device adapted to modify the shading correction data stored in the memory in accordance with an image sensing condition and correct an image sensing signal by using the modified shading correction data. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an image processing method comprising modifying correction data stored in a memory by using an image sensing signal obtained by causing an image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in a non-exposure state, and correcting by using the modified correction data an image sensing signal obtained by causing the image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in an exposure state. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an image processing method comprising modifying shading correction data stored in a memory in accordance with an image sensing condition, and correcting an image sensing signal by using the modified shading correction data. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the figures thereof.
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This application is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 10/370,972, filed Feb. 20, 2003, to which priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 is claimed. This application also claims a benefit of priority based on Japanese Patent Applications No. 2002-042933, filed on Feb. 20, 2002, and No. 2002-064086, filed on Mar. 8, 2002, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety as if fully set forth herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to correction processing and control such as shading correction performed on image data obtained from an image sensing device. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Image processing apparatuses such as an electronic camera which uses a memory card having a solid-state memory element as a recording medium, and records and plays back still and moving images sensed by a solid-state image sensing device (to be described as an image sensing device hereinafter) such as a CCD or CMOS have commercially been available. This image processing apparatus such as an electronic camera allows the photographer to select a single-shot/sequential image sensing mode from the operation unit. The photographer can switch image sensing between single-shot image sensing for sensing an image for each frame every time he/she presses the shutter button and sequential image sensing for sequentially sensing images while he/she keeps pressing the shutter button. To sense an image by using the image sensing device such as a CCD or CMOS, the image processing apparatus can execute dark noise correction processing by calculation processing using dark image data read out after charge accumulation similar to actual image sensing while the image sensing device is not exposed, and image data of actual image sensing read out after charge accumulation while the image sensing device is exposed. A high-quality image can be attained by correcting the sensed image data for image quality degradation caused by dark current noise generated by the image sensing device, a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device, or the like. However, in order to cause the image processing apparatus to perform dark noise correction processing, a dark image must be sensed. This increases the release time lag, missing a good opportunity of capturing an image. To solve this problem, there is known an image processing apparatus which uses correction data stored in advance to cancel the horizontal shading (luminance level nonuniformity) of the image sensing device or a noise component (offset from a proper dark level) such as a dark current, and can sense a high-quality image while suppressing the release time lag small. The correction data stored in advance is an offset amount for canceling the horizontal shading of the image sensing device, or the difference between a proper dark level and image data obtained by performing dark image sensing but not performing correction using correction data in assembling an image processing apparatus. The dark level serves as a criterion for the luminance component and color components of image data in image processing. The image quality can therefore be improved by correcting the dark level of image data obtained by exposing the image sensing device. The prior art suffers the following problems. Some image sensing devices nonlinearly change the dark current noise state depending on the temperature characteristic of an output circuit. In an image processing apparatus having such an image sensing system, a noise component which should be canceled remains in sensed image data even by using a correction value stored in advance, degrading the image quality. In this case, correction by calculation using a temperature coefficient complicates the calculation. Calculation processing takes a long time in the presence of many pixels, increasing the release time lag. A correction value may be stored in advance for each temperature region, which requires a larger memory capacity and makes the apparatus bulky. In addition to dark noise correction processing, the image processing apparatus can execute shading correction processing by calculation processing using shading correction data stored in advance in a storage medium, and sensed image data read out after charge accumulation while the image sensing device is exposed. Noise generated in an image sensing circuit system, i.e., the voltage nonuniformity caused by the resistance component of the power line in a sensor, and shading by element variations or the like can be reduced, sensing a high-quality image. However, the prior art poses the following problems. In a conventional image processing apparatus such as an electronic camera, shading correction data is stored in a storage medium in advance. In image sensing, the shading correction data is read out from the storage medium, and calculation processing is performed using the shading correction data and sensed image data, achieving shading correction. If the change of the shading amount depending on image sensing conditions is not considered, appropriate shading correction cannot be done, and the image quality may degrade. If the change of the shading amount depending on image sensing conditions is considered, the number of shading correction data corresponding to respective image sensing conditions must be stored in the storage medium, which requires a large-capacity storage medium. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in consideration of the above situation, and has as its object to properly correct the noise and shading of a sensed image. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is attained by providing an apparatus comprising: (A) a memory adapted to store correction data; (B) a signal processing device adapted to modify the correction data stored in the memory by using an image sensing signal obtained by causing an image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in a non-exposure state, and adapted to correct by using the modified correction data an image sensing signal obtained by causing the image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in an exposure state. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an apparatus comprising: (A) a memory adapted to store shading correction data; (B) a signal processing device adapted to modify the shading correction data stored in the memory in accordance with an image sensing condition and correct an image sensing signal by using the modified shading correction data. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an image processing method comprising modifying correction data stored in a memory by using an image sensing signal obtained by causing an image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in a non-exposure state, and correcting by using the modified correction data an image sensing signal obtained by causing the image sensing unit to perform image sensing operation in an exposure state. According to the present invention, the foregoing object is also attained by providing an image processing method comprising modifying shading correction data stored in a memory in accordance with an image sensing condition, and correcting an image sensing signal by using the modified shading correction data. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the figures thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an image processing apparatus according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a flow chart showing the main routine in the image processing apparatus according to the embodiments; FIG. 3 is a flow chart showing the main routine in the image processing apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing a distance measurement/photometry processing routine in the image processing apparatus according to the embodiments; FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing an image sensing processing routine in the image processing apparatus according to the embodiments; FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing a correction data change processing routine in the image processing apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing the arrangement of the main part of an image processing apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a flow chart showing the main routine according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing the main routine according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a flow chart showing a dark capturing processing routine according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a flow chart showing a shading correction data mapping routine according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 12A to 12C are graphs for explaining shading correction data calculation processing according to the second embodiment of the present invention, in which FIG. 12A shows shading correction data at a reference ISO sensitivity, FIG. 12B shows gain-converted shading correction data, and FIG. 12C shows offset-converted shading correction data; and FIG. 13 is an explanatory view showing an image sensing operation flow according to the second embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail in accordance with the accompanying drawings. First Embodiment FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the configuration of an image processing apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention. The image processing apparatus comprises an image processing apparatus (main body) 100, recording media 200 and 210 detachably mounted in the image processing apparatus main body 100, and a lens unit 300 detachably mounted on the image processing apparatus main body 100. In the image processing apparatus 100, a shutter 12 controls the exposure amount to an image sensing device 14. The image sensing device 14 converts an optical image of an object into an electrical signal. The image processing apparatus 100 of the first embodiment has the first image sensing mode in which charges are accumulated without exposing the image sensing device 14, and the second image sensing mode in which charges are accumulated while the image sensing device 14 is exposed. In a single-lens reflex camera, light incident on a lens 310 of the lens unit 300 is guided via a stop 312, a lens mount 306, and a lens mount 106, a mirror 130, and the shutter 12 of the image processing apparatus 100, forming an optical image on the image sensing device 14. An A/D converter 16 converts an analog signal output from the image sensing device 14 into a digital signal. A timing generator 18 supplies a clock signal and control signal respectively to the image sensing device 14, the A/D converter 16, and a D/A converter 26 under the control of a memory controller 22 and a system controller 50. An image processor 20 performs predetermined pixel interpolation processing and color conversion processing on data from the A/D converter 16 or data from the memory controller 22. If necessary, the image processor 20 performs predetermined calculation processing using sensed image data, and the system controller 50 performs TTL (Through-The-Lens) AF (Auto Focus) processing, AE (Auto Exposure) processing, and EF (pre-flash) processing with respect to a shutter controller 40 and a distance measurement unit 42 on the basis of the result of calculations. Further, the image processor 20 performs predetermined calculation processing using sensed image data, and performs TTL AWB (Auto White Balance) processing on the basis of the result of calculations. In the first embodiment, the image processing apparatus 100 comprises the dedicated distance measurement unit 42 and a dedicated photometry unit 46. It is also possible to perform AF processing, AE processing, and EF processing by using the distance measurement unit 42 and photometry unit 46, and not to perform AF processing, AE processing, and EF processing by using the image processor 20. It is also possible to perform AF processing, AE processing, and EF processing by using the distance measurement unit 42 and photometry unit 46, and further to perform AF processing, AE processing, and EF processing by using the image processor 20. The memory controller 22 controls the A/D converter 16, the timing generator 18, the image processor 20, an image display memory 24, the D/A converter 26, a memory 30, and a compression/expansion circuit 32. Data from the A/D converter 16 is written into the image display memory 24 or memory 30 via the image processor 20 and memory controller 22, or directly via the memory controller 22. The image display memory 24 stores display image data. The D/A converter 26 converts a digital signal output from the memory controller 22 into an analog signal. An image display unit 28 comprises a TFT LCD or the like. Display image data written in the image display memory 24 is displayed on the image display unit 28 via the D/A converter 26. An electronic finder function can be realized by sequentially displaying sensed image data on the image display unit 28. Further, the image display unit 28 arbitrarily turns ON/OFF its display in accordance with an instruction from the system controller 50. If the display is turned OFF, the electric consumption of the image processing apparatus 100 can be greatly reduced. The memory 30, used for storing sensed still images and moving images, has a sufficient storage capacity for storing a predetermined number of still images and a moving image for a predetermined period. In sequential image sensing to sequentially sense a plurality of still images or in panoramic image sensing, a large number of images can be written into the memory 30 at a high speed. The memory 30 may be used as a work area for the system controller 50. The compression/expansion circuit 32 compresses or expands image data by adaptive discrete cosine transformation (ADCT) or the like. The compression/expansion circuit 32 reads out an image stored in the memory 30, performs compression or expansion processing on the read image, and writes the processed data into the memory 30. Based on photometry information from the photometry unit 46, the shutter controller 40 controls the shutter 12 in association with a stop controller 340 which controls the stop 312 of the lens unit 300. The distance measurement unit 42 performs AF processing. Light incident on the lens 310 of the lens unit 300 is guided to enter the distance measurement unit 42 via the stop 312, the lens mount 306, and the lens mount 106, mirror 130, and distance measurement sub-mirror (not shown) of the image processing apparatus 100 in a single-lens reflex camera, thereby measuring the focus state of an image formed as an optical image. A thermometer 44 can detect the temperature of the image sensing environment. When the thermometer 44 is incorporated in the sensor (image sensing device 14), the dark current of the sensor can be more accurately expected. The photometry unit 46 performs AE (Auto Exposure) processing. Light incident on the lens 310 of the lens unit 300 is guided to enter the photometry unit 46 via the stop 312, the lens mount 306, and the lens mount 106, the mirror 130, a mirror 132, and a photometry lens (not shown) of the image processing apparatus 100 in a single-lens reflex camera, thereby measuring the exposure state of an image formed as an optical image. The photometry unit 46 has an EF processing function in association with a flash 48. The flash 48 has an AF auxiliary light projection function and a flash adjusting function. The system controller 50 can also perform exposure control and AF control by the video TTL method of controlling the shutter controller 40, the stop controller 340, and a distance measurement controller 342, on the basis of the result of calculations by the image processor 20 for image data sensed by the image sensing device 14. AF control may be performed using both the result of measurements by the distance measurement unit 42 and the result of calculations by the image processor 20 for image data sensed by the image sensing device 14. Exposure control may be done using both the result of measurements by the photometry unit 46 and the result of calculations by the image processor 20 for image data sensed by the image sensing device 14. The system controller 50 controls the overall image processing apparatus 100, and executes the processing of each flow chart to be described later on the basis of an internal program stored in, e.g., a memory 52 in the image processing apparatus 100 or an external program supplied to the image processing apparatus 100. The memory 52 stores constants, variables, programs, and the like for operating the system controller 50. A notification unit 54 comprises a liquid crystal display device and loudspeaker which display and output operating statuses, messages, and the like by using characters, images, sound, and the like in accordance with execution of a program by the system controller 50. One or a plurality of notification units 54 are arranged at easy-to-see positions near the operation unit of the image processing apparatus 100, and formed from a combination of LCDs, LEDs, sound generating devices, and the like. Some functions of the notification unit 54 are provided within an optical finder 104. The display contents of the notification unit 54, displayed on the LCD or the like, include indication of single-shot/sequential image sensing, a self timer, a compression ratio, an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) sensitivity, the number of recording pixels, the number of recorded images, the number of recordable images, a shutter speed, an f-number, exposure compensation, flash illumination, pink-eye effect mitigation, macro image sensing, a buzzer-set state, a remaining timer battery level, a remaining battery level, an error state, information of plural digit numbers, the attached/detached status of the recording media 200 and 210, the attached/detached status of the lens unit 300, the operation of a communication I/F, date and time, and a connection state to an external computer. Further, the display contents of the notification unit 54, displayed within the optical finder 104, include a focus state, an image sensing “ready” state, a camera shake warning, a flash charge state, a flash charge completion state, a shutter speed, an f-number, exposure compensation, and write operation into a recording medium. The display contents of the notification unit 54, displayed on the LED or the like, include a focus state, an image sensing “ready” state, a camera shake warning, a flash charge state, a flash charge completion state, write operation into a recording medium, a macro image sensing setting notification, and a secondary battery charge state. The display contents of the notification unit 54, displayed on the lamp or the like, include a self-timer notification lamp. The self-timer notification lamp may also be used for AF auxiliary light. A nonvolatile memory 56 is an electrically erasable and recordable memory such as an EEPROM. The nonvolatile memory 56 stores various parameters, set values such as the ISO sensitivity, set modes, and one-dimensional correction data used for horizontal dark shading correction. One-dimensional correction data is created and written in adjustment during the manufacturing process of the image processing apparatus. Operation means 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, and 70 are used to input various operation instructions to the system controller 50, and comprise one or a plurality of combinations of switches, dials, touch panels, a device for pointing by line-of-sight detection, a voice recognition device, and the like. These operation means will be described in detail. The mode dial switch 60 allows switching and setting function image sensing modes such as an automatic image sensing mode, a programmed image sensing mode, a shutter speed priority image sensing mode, a stop priority image sensing mode, a manual image sensing mode, a focal depth priority (depth) image sending mode, a portrait image sensing mode, landscape image sensing mode, a close-up image sensing mode, a sports image sensing mode, a night view image sensing mode, and a panoramic image sensing mode. The shutter switch SW1 62 is turned ON by half stroke of the shutter button (not shown) to designate the start of the operations of AF processing, AE processing, AWB processing, and EF processing. The shutter switch SW2 64 is turned ON by full stroke of the shutter button (not shown) to designate the start of a series of processing operations: exposure processing to write a signal read from the image sensing device 14 into the memory 30 via the A/D converter 16 and memory controller 22; development processing by using calculations by the image processor 20 and memory controller 22; and recording processing to read out image data from the memory 30, compress the image data by the compression/expansion circuit 32, and write the image data into the recording medium 200 or 210. The playback switch 66 designates the start of playback operation to read out a sensed image from the memory 30 or the recording medium 200 or 210 in an image sensing mode and display the image on the image display unit 28. The single-shot/sequential image sensing switch 68 allows setting a single-shot image sensing mode in which an image of one frame is sensed and then the device stands by when the shutter switch SW2 64 is pressed, and a sequential image sensing mode in which images are sequentially sensed while the shutter switch SW2 64 is kept pressed. The ISO sensitivity setting switch 69 enables setting an ISO sensitivity (image sensing sensitivity) by changing the gain setting in the image sensing device 14 or image processor 20. The operation unit 70 comprises various buttons and touch panels including a menu button, a set button, a macro button, a multi-image reproduction/repaging button, flash set button, a single-shot/sequential/- self-timer image sensing switching button, a forward (+) menu item selection button, a backward (−) menu item selection button, a forward (+) reproduction image search button, a backward (−) reproduction image search button, an image sensing quality selection button, an exposure correction button, a date/time set button, a selection/switching button for selecting and switching various functions in executing image sensing and reproduction in a panoramic mode or the like, a determination/execution button for setting determination and execution of various functions in executing image sensing and reproduction in a panoramic mode or the like, an image display ON/OFF switch to set the ON/OFF state of the image display unit 28, and a quick review ON/OFF switch to set a quick review function of automatically reproducing sensed image data immediately after image sensing. The operation unit 70 also comprises a compression mode switch to select the compression ratio of JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) compression or select a CCDRAW mode in which a signal from the image sensing device 14 is directly digitized and recorded on a recording medium, a reproduction switch capable of setting function modes such as a reproduction mode, multi-image reproduction/erase mode, and PC (Personal Computer) connection mode, and an AF mode set switch capable of setting a one-shot AF mode in which, if the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed, auto focus operation starts and once the image is in focus, the focus state is maintained, and a servo AF mode in which auto focus operation is kept performed while the shutter switch SW1 is kept pressed. With a rotary dial switch, numerical values and functions can be more easily selected for the “+” and “−” buttons. A power switch 72 allows switching and setting the power ON/OFF mode of the image processing apparatus 100. The power switch 72 also allows switching and setting the power ON/OFF settings of various accessory devices including the lens unit 300, external flash (not shown), and recording media 200 and 210 which are connected to the image processing apparatus 100. A power controller 80 comprises a battery detection circuit, a DC/DC converter, a switch circuit to switch a block to be energized, and the like. The power controller 80 detects the attached/detached state of the battery, a battery type, and a remaining battery power level, controls the DC/DC converter based on the results of detection and an instruction from the system controller 50, and supplies a necessary voltage to the respective parts including the recording media 200 and 210 for a necessary period. Connectors 82 and 84 connect the power controller 80 and a power source 86. The power source 86 comprises a primary battery such as an alkaline battery or lithium battery, a secondary battery such as an NiCd battery, NiMH battery, or Li battery, an AC adaptor, and the like. Interfaces 90 and 94 interface the recording media 200 and 210 such as a memory card and hard disk. Connectors 92 and 96 connect the image processing apparatus 100 and the recording media 200 and 210 such as a memory card and hard disk. A recording medium attached/detached state detector 98 detects whether the recording medium 200 and/or 210 is attached to the connector 92 and/or 96. In the first embodiment, two systems of interfaces and connectors for connection with the recording medium are employed. However, one or a plurality of systems of interfaces and connectors for connection with the recording medium may be provided. Further, interfaces and connectors pursuant to different standards may be combined. As the interfaces and connectors, cards in conformity with PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) card standards and cards in conformity with CF (Compact Flash.RTM.) card standards may be used. In a case where cards and connectors in conformity with the PCMCIA standards, CF (Compact Flash.RTM.) card standards, and the like are used as the interfaces 90 and 94 and the connectors 92 and 96, image data and management information attached to the image data can be transferred between the image processing apparatus and other peripheral devices such as a computer and printer by connecting various communication cards such as a LAN card, modem card, USB (Universal Serial Bus) card, IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 1394 card, P1284 card, SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) card, and PHS (Personal Handyphone System) card. The optical finder 104 can receive light incident on the lens 310 of the lens unit 300 via the stop 312, the lens mount 306, and the lens mount 106 and mirrors 130 and 132 of the image processing apparatus 100 in a single-lens reflex camera, forming and displaying an image as an optical image. An image can be sensed by using only the optical finder 104 without using any electronic finder function on the image display unit 28. A communication unit 110 has various communication functions for RS232C, USB, IEEE 1394, P1284, SCSI, modem, LAN, and wireless communication. A connector/antenna 112 functions as a connector when the image processing apparatus 100 is connected to another device via the communication unit 110, and as an antenna for wireless communication. An interface 120 connects the image processing apparatus 100 to the lens unit 300 at the lens mount 106. A connector 122 electrically connects the image processing apparatus 100 to the lens unit 300. A lens attached/detached state detector 124 detects whether the lens unit 300 is mounted on the lens mount 106 and/or connector 122. The connector 122 transfers a control signal, state signal, data signal, and the like between the image processing apparatus 100 and the lens unit 300, and also has a function of supplying currents of various voltages. The connector 122 may perform not only electrical communication but also optical communication and sound communication. The mirrors 130 and 132 can guide light incident on the lens 310 to the optical finder 104 in a single-lens reflex camera. Note that the mirror 132 may be a quick-return mirror or half-mirror. The recording medium 200 comprises a memory card, hard disk, or the like. The recording medium 200 has a recording unit 202 of a semiconductor memory, magnetic disk, or the like, an interface 204 for the image processing apparatus 100, and a connector 206 for connection with the image processing apparatus 100. Also, the recording medium 210 comprises a memory card, hard disk, or the like. The recording medium 210 has a recording unit 212 of a semiconductor memory, magnetic disk, or the like, an interface 214 for the image processing apparatus 100, and a connector 216 for connection with the image processing apparatus 100. The lens unit 300 is of interchangeable lens type. The lens mount 306 mechanically couples the lens unit 300 to the image processing apparatus 100. The lens mount 306 incorporates various functions for electrically connecting the lens unit 300 to the image processing apparatus 100. The image sensing lens 310 transmits an object image. The stop 312 adjusts the quantity of light entering from the image sensing lens 310. An interface 320 interfaces the lens unit 300 to the image processing apparatus 100 within the lens mount 306. A connector 322 electrically connects the lens unit 300 to the image processing apparatus 100. The connector 322 transfers a control signal, state signal, data signal, and the like between the image processing apparatus 100 and the lens unit 300, and also has a function of receiving or supplying currents of various voltages. The connector 322 may perform not only electrical communication but also optical communication and audio communication. The stop controller 340 controls the stop 312 on the basis of photometry information from the photometry unit 46 of the image processing apparatus 100 in association with the shutter controller 40 which controls the shutter 12. The distance measurement controller 342 controls focusing of the image sensing lens 310. A zoom controller 344 controls zooming of the image sensing lens 310. A lens system controller 350 controls the whole lens unit 300. The lens system controller 350 has as a memory which stores operation constants, variables, programs, and the like, and a nonvolatile memory which holds identification information such as a number unique to the lens unit 300, management information, pieces of function information such as a full-aperture f-number, minimum f-number, and focal length, and current and past set values. The operation of the image processing apparatus 100 with the above arrangement according to the first embodiment will be described in detail below with reference to FIGS. 1 to 6. <Whole Processing of Image Processing Apparatus 100> FIGS. 2 and 3 are flow charts showing the main routine of the image processing apparatus 100 according to the first embodiment. The operation of the image processing apparatus 100 will be described with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3. If the image processing apparatus 100 is powered ON by, e.g., replacing batteries, the system controller 50 initializes flags such as a single-shot/sequential image sensing flag and flash flag (to be described later), control variables, and the like, and performs predetermined initial settings necessary for the respective parts of the image processing apparatus 100 (step S101). The system controller 50 checks the set position of the power switch 72 (step S102). If the power switch 72 is set to power-OFF (“power OFF” in step S102), the system controller 50 performs predetermined end processing such that the display of each notification unit is changed to an end state, necessary parameters including flags and control variables, set values, and set modes are stored in the nonvolatile memory 56, and unnecessary power supplies of the respective parts of the image processing apparatus 100 including the image display unit 28 are turned OFF by the power controller 80 (step S103). After that, the process returns to step S102. If the power switch 72 is set to power-ON (“power ON” in step S102), the system controller 50 causes the power controller 80 to check whether the remaining capacity or operation status of the power source 86 formed from a battery or the like inhibits the operation of the image processing apparatus 100 (step S104). If the power source 86 has any problem (NO in step S104), the system controller 50 generates a predetermined warning display output or warning sound output by an image or sound using the notification unit 54 (step S105), and the process returns to step S102. If the power source 86 has no problem (YES in step S104), the system controller 50 checks the set position of the mode dial switch 60 (step S106). If the mode dial switch 60 is set to an image sensing mode (“image sensing mode” in step S106), the process advances to step S108. If the mode dial switch 60 is set to another mode (“another mode” in step S106), the system controller 50 executes processing corresponding to the selected mode (step S107), and after ending the processing, the process returns to step S102. If the mode dial switch 60 is set to the image sensing mode, the system controller 50 checks whether the recording medium 200 or 210 is mounted in the image processing apparatus 100, acquires management information of image data recorded on the recording medium 200 or 210, and checks whether the operation state of the recording medium 200 or 210 inhibits the operation of the image processing apparatus 100, particularly image data recording/reproduction operation with respect to the recording medium (step S108). If the recording medium 200 or 210 has any problem as a result of determination (NO in step S108), the system controller 50 generates a predetermined warning display output or warning sound output by an image or sound using the notification unit 54 (step S105), and the process returns to step S102. If the recording medium 200 or 210 has no problem as a result of determination (YES in step S108), the system controller 50 advances to step S109. The system controller 50 checks the set state of the single-shot/sequential image sensing switch 68 which sets single-shot/sequential image sensing (step S109). If single-shot image sensing has been selected, the system controller 50 sets the single-shot/sequential image sensing flag to single-shot image sensing (step S110), and if sequential image sensing has been selected, to sequential image sensing (step S111). After the flag is set, the process shifts to step S112. The single-shot image sensing mode in which an image of one frame is sensed and then the device stands by when the shutter switch SW2 64 is pressed, and the sequential image sensing mode in which images are sequentially sensed while the shutter switch SW2 64 is kept pressed can be arbitrarily switched and set by operating the single-shot/sequential image sensing switch 68. Note that the state of the single-shot/sequential image sensing flag is stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52. The system controller 50 generates display outputs and sound outputs for various set states of the image processing apparatus 100 by images and sound using the notification unit 54 (step S112). If the image display of the image display unit 28 is ON, the system controller 50 also uses the image display unit 28 to generate display outputs and sound outputs for various set states of the image processing apparatus 100 by images and sound. The system controller 50 confirms the state of the shutter switch SW1 62 (step S121), and if the shutter switch SW1 62 is not pressed (“OFF” in step S121), the process returns to step S102. If the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed (“ON” in step S121), the system controller 50 performs distance measurement/photometry processing of focusing the image sensing lens 310 on an object to be sensed by distance measurement processing, and determining an f-number and shutter time by photometry processing (step S122). Thereafter, the process shifts to step S123. In photometry processing, the flash is also set, as needed. Details of distance measurement/photometry processing will be explained later with reference to FIG. 4. The system controller 50 reads out from the nonvolatile memory 56 one-dimensional correction data used for horizontal dark shading correction, and maps the data in the memory 30. At the end of mapping the one-dimensional correction data, the system controller 50 captures a dark image in the use of the one-dimensional correction data (meaning an accumulated charge output from the image sensing device 14 while keeping the shutter 12 closed). The system controller 50 changes the mapped correction data in accordance with the state of the dark image (step S123). Details of step S123 will be described later with reference to FIG. 6. The system controller 50 confirms the state of the shutter switch SW2 64 (step S124). If the shutter switch SW2 64 is not pressed (“OFF” in step S124), the process shifts to step S125, and if the shutter switch SW1 62 is not pressed, too, immediately returns to step S102. If the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed, the process returns to step S124. If the shutter switch SW2 64 is pressed (“ON” in step S124), the system controller 50 checks whether the memory 30 has an image storage buffer area capable of storing image data sensed in the second image sensing mode (step S126). If the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 does not have any area capable of storing new image data (NO in step S126), the system controller 50 generates a predetermined warning display output or warning sound output by an image or sound using the notification unit 54 (step S127), and the process returns to step S102. This situation occurs when, for example, the first image which should be read out from the memory 30 and written into the recording medium 200 or 210 has not been recorded yet on the recording medium 200 or 210, and no free area even for one image can be ensured in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 immediately after sequential image sensing by the maximum number of images which can be stored in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. To store sensed image data in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 after compression, whether the storage area can be ensured in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 is checked in step S126 in consideration of the fact that the compressed image data amount changes depending on the settings of the compression mode. If the memory 30 has an image storage buffer area capable of storing sensed image data (YES in step S126), the system controller 50 executes image sensing processing of reading from the image sensing device 14 a sensed image signal accumulated for a predetermined time, and writing the sensed image data into a predetermined area of the memory 30 via the A/D converter 16, image processor 20, and memory controller 22, or via the memory controller 22 directly from the A/D converter 16 (step S128). Details of image sensing processing step S128 will be described later with reference to FIG. 5. The system controller 50 reads out via the memory controller 22 part of image data written in the predetermined area of the memory 30, performs WB (White Balance) integral calculation processing and OB (Optical Black) integral calculation processing necessary for developing processing, and stores the results of calculations in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52. The system controller 50 reads out the sensed image data written in the predetermined area of the memory 30 by using the memory controller 22, and if necessary, the image processor 20. Also, the system controller 50 executes various developing processes including AWB (Auto White Balance) processing, gamma conversion processing, and color conversion processing by using the results of calculations stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S129). In developing processing, the system controller 50 also executes dark correction calculation processing of canceling the dark current noise of the image sensing device 14 or the like by subtraction processing using the correction data which has been mapped and changed in step S123 in accordance with the state of the dark image data. By dark correction calculation processing using horizontal dark shading correction data, sensed image data can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by horizontal dark current noise or fixed pattern noise in the image sensing device 14, without performing dark image capturing processing for a sensed image in the entire image sensing region. The system controller 50 reads out the image data written in the predetermined area of the memory 30, and performs image compression processing corresponding to the set mode by the compression/expansion circuit 32 (step S130). The system controller 50 writes the image data having undergone a series of processes into a free portion of the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. Along with execution of a series of image sensing processes, the system controller 50 reads out the image data stored in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30, and writes the data into the recording medium 200 or 210 such as a memory card or Compact Flash.RTM. card via the interface 90 or 94 and the connector 92 or 96 (step S131). Recording processing is executed every time image data having undergone a series of processes is newly written into a free portion of the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. During write of image data into the recording medium 200 or 210, an LED, for instance, of the notification unit 54 is flickered in order to explicitly indicate that write operation is in progress. The system controller 50 checks whether the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed (step S132), and if the shutter switch SW1 62 is not pressed, the process returns to step S102. If the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed, the system controller 50 checks the state of the single-shot/sequential image sensing flag stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S133). If single-shot image sensing has been set, the process returns to step S132 and waits until the shutter switch SW1 62 is turned off. If sequential image sensing has been set, the process returns to step S124 and prepares for image sensing of the next frame. A series of image sensing processes then end. <Distance Measurement/Photometry Processing> FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing details of distance measurement/photometry processing in step S122 of FIG. 3. In distance measurement/photometry processing, various signals are exchanged between the system controller 50 of the image processing apparatus 100 and the stop controller 340 or distance measurement controller 342 of the lens unit 300 via the interface 120, connector 122, connector 322, interface 320, and lens controller 350. The system controller 50 starts AF processing by using the image sensing device 14, the distance measurement unit 42, and the distance measurement controller 342 of the lens unit 300 (step S201). The system controller 50 executes AF control (step S202). More specifically, light incident on the lens 310 of the lens unit 300 is guided to enter the distance measurement unit 42 via the stop 312, the lens mount 306, and the lens mount 106, mirror 130, and distance measurement sub-mirror (not shown) of the image processing apparatus 100, thereby checking the focus state of an image formed as an optical image. While the lens 310 is driven by using the distance measurement controller 342 of the lens unit 300 until the image is determined to be in focus by distance measurement (AF) (YES in step S203), the focus state is detected by using the distance measurement unit 42 of the image processing apparatus 100 (step S202). If the image is determined to be in focus by distance measurement (AF) (YES in step S203), the system controller 50 determines a distance measurement point where the image is in focus from a plurality of distance measurement points within the image frame (step S204). The system controller 50 stores distance measurement data and set parameters (or either of distance measurement data and set parameters) in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 together with the determined distance measurement point data, and the process advances to step S205. The system controller 50 starts AE (Auto Exposure) processing by using the photometry unit 46 (step S205). The system controller 50 causes light incident on the lens 310 of the lens unit 300 to enter the photometry unit 46 via the stop 312, the lens mount 306, and the lens mount 106, mirrors 130 and 132, and photometry lens (not shown) of the image processing apparatus 100, thereby measuring the exposure state of an image formed as an optical image. The system controller 50 performs photometry processing by using the shutter controller 40 until exposure is determined to be proper (YES in step S207) (step S206). If exposure is determined to be proper (YES in step S207), the system controller 50 stores photometry data and set parameters (or either of photometry data and set parameters) in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52, and advances to step S208. The system controller 50 determines an f-number (Av value) and shutter speed (Tv value) in accordance with the exposure (AE) result detected in photometry processing step S206 and an image sensing mode set by the mode dial switch 60. The system controller 50 determines the charge accumulation time of the image sensing device 14 in accordance with the determined shutter speed (Tv value), and performs image sensing processing and dark capturing processing for the same charge accumulation time. The system controller 50 determines from measurement data obtained in photometry processing step S206 whether the flash is required (step S208). If the flash is not required, the system controller 50 clears the flash flag, and ends distance measurement/photometry processing routine step S122 (FIG. 3). If the flash is required, the flash flag is set, and the flash 48 is charged (step S209) until the flash 48 is fully charged (step S210). If the flash 48 has been charged (YES in step S210), the system controller 50 ends the distance measurement/photometry processing routine (step S122 of FIG. 3). <Image Sensing Processing> FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing details of image sensing processing in step S128 of FIG. 3. In image sensing processing, various signals are exchanged between the system controller 50 of the image processing apparatus 100 and the stop controller 340 or distance measurement controller 342 of the lens unit 300 via the interface 120, connector 122, connector 322, interface 320, and lens controller 350. The system controller 50 moves the mirror 130 to a predetermined position (mirror-up position) outside the optical axis by a mirror driving unit (not shown) (step S301). The system controller 50 drives the stop 312 to a predetermined f-number by the stop controller 340 in accordance with photometry data stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S302). The system controller 50 executes charge clear operation for the image sensing device 14 (step S303). After charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 starts (step S304), the system controller 50 opens the shutter 12 by the shutter controller 40 (step S305), and starts exposure of the image sensing device 14 (step S306). The system controller 50 determines from the flash flag whether the flash 48 is required (step S307), and if the flash 48 is required, causes the flash 48 to emit light (step S308). The system controller 50 waits for the end of exposure of the image sensing device 14 in accordance with photometry data (step S309), closes the shutter 12 by the shutter controller 40 (step S310), and ends exposure of the image sensing device 14. The system controller 50 drives the stop 312 to a full-aperture f-number by the stop controller 340 of the lens unit 300 (step S311), and moves the mirror 130 to a predetermined position (mirror-down position) within the optical axis by the mirror driving unit (not shown) (step S312). Upon the lapse of a set charge accumulation time (YES in step S313), the system controller 50 ends charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 (step S314). The system controller 50 reads a charge signal from the image sensing device 14, and writes sensed image data into a predetermined area of the memory 30 via the A/D converter 16, image processor 20, and memory controller 22, or via the memory controller 22 directly from the A/D converter 16 (step S315). After a series of processes end, the system controller 50 ends the image sensing processing routine (step S128 of FIG. 3). <Correction Data Change Processing> FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing details of correction data change processing in step S123 of FIG. 3. The system controller 50 of the image processing apparatus 100 reads out from the nonvolatile memory 56 one-dimensional correction data (to be referred to as “correction data” hereinafter) used for horizontal dark shading correction, and maps the data in the memory 30 (step S401). The system controller 50 executes charge clear operation for the image sensing device 14 (step S402), and starts charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 in the first image sensing mode while keeping the shutter 12 closed (step S403). Upon the lapse of a set charge accumulation time (YES in step S404), the system controller 50 ends charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 (step S405). The system controller 50 reads out a charge signal from the image sensing device 14, and writes only image data of a predetermined region (e.g., several lines) as part of the image sensing device 14 into a predetermined area of the memory 30 via the A/D converter 16, image processor 20, and memory controller 22, or via the memory controller 22 directly from the A/D converter 16 (step S406). The system controller 50 performs horizontal dark shading correction processing for the image data written in the memory 30 by using the correction data read out from the nonvolatile memory 56 (step S407). The system controller 50 calculates a dark level from the image data having undergone horizontal dark shading correction processing (step S408). As a calculation method, e.g., the average value of image data having undergone horizontal dark shading correction processing is calculated and used. If the dark level calculated in step S408 is not an allowable value (“outside allowable range” in step S409), the dark level varies under the influence of the ambient temperature on the output circuit (not shown) of the image sensing device 14. Thus, the system controller 50 changes the correction data so as to make the calculated dark level reach an allowable value (step S410), and ends the correction data change processing routine. Note that the change of correction data means the change of mainly the offset amount of correction data. Depending on the correction method, only the correction coefficient or both the offset amount and correction coefficient of correction data may be changed. The correction data is such data as to cancel a dark current component of the image sensing device 14 and the FPN (Fixed Pattern Noise) of the circuit system. If the dark level calculated in step S408 is an allowable value (“within allowable range” in step S409), the dark level falls within a proper range without any influence of the ambient temperature on the image sensing device 14. The system controller 50 therefore ends the correction data change processing routine without changing correction data. As described above, according to the first embodiment, image data which is obtained in the first image sensing mode and referred to in order to change correction data is data read from not the entire region but a predetermined region of the image sensing device 14, and this image data read time is very short. Even if the characteristic of the image sensing system changes under the influence of the ambient temperature, an increase in the release time lag along with dark image sensing can be prevented, compared to a case wherein correction data is not changed. Correction data is changed in accordance with image data obtained in the first image sensing mode every image sensing, and image data obtained in the second image sensing mode is corrected using the changed correction data. Even if the dark current noise of the image sensing device 14 nonlinearly changes depending on the temperature characteristic of the output circuit, the noise component can be easily canceled, preventing image quality degradation and obtaining a high-quality image. In the first embodiment, correction data for horizontal dark shading correction is mapped (step S401 of FIG. 6) after the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed. Alternatively, correction data may be mapped after power-ON of the image processing apparatus. In the first embodiment, correction data is one-dimensional horizontal data, but may be one-dimensional vertical data or two-dimensional data. In the first embodiment, correction data is changed (step S123 of FIG. 3) after the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed. Alternatively, correction data may be changed immediately before image sensing (immediately before step S129 of FIG. 3) after the shutter switch SW2 64 is pressed. In the first embodiment, processing of changing correction data (step S123 of FIG. 3) is performed regardless of the ambient temperature. Processing of correction data may be performed only when the ambient temperature falls outside a predetermined range. The predetermined range is an ambient temperature range where the output of the image sensing device 14 is free from any influence and horizontal dark shading correction data need not be changed. Second Embodiment The second embodiment of the present invention realizes effective shading correction even when the shading of an image sensing device changes depending on image sensing conditions (image sensing ISO (International Organization for Standardization) sensitivity) in an image processing apparatus such as an electronic camera. The second embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. The arrangement of an image processing apparatus in the second embodiment is the same as that in the first embodiment shown in FIG. 1, and a description thereof will be omitted. In the second embodiment, a nonvolatile memory 56 stores various parameters, set values such as the image sensing ISO sensitivity, set modes, one-dimensional shading correction data at a reference image sensing ISO sensitivity that is used for horizontal dark shading correction, and a gain amount and offset amount corresponding to each image sensing ISO sensitivity. One-dimensional shading correction data is created and written in adjustment during the manufacturing process of the image processing apparatus. Alternatively, one-dimensional shading correction data may be generated based on a dark image captured right after the image processing apparatus is powered ON. FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing the arrangement of the main part of the image processing apparatus according to the second embodiment. The image processing apparatus comprises an image sensing lens 1 (310 in FIG. 1), a solid-state image sensing device 2 (14 in FIG. 1), an A/D converter 3 (16 in FIG. 1), a timing generator 4 (18 in FIG. 1), a memory controller 5 (22 in FIG. 1), an image processor 6 (20 in FIG. 1), a system controller 7 (50 in FIG. 1), and a nonvolatile memory 8 (56 in FIG. 1). The image sensing lens 1 forms an optical image of an object to be sensed onto the solid-state image sensing device 2. The solid-state image sensing device 2 converts the formed image data into an electrical signal. The A/D converter 3 A/D-converts an output signal from the solid-state image sensing device 2. The timing generator 4 determines the operation timings of the solid-state image sensing device 2 and A/D converter 3. The memory controller 5 controls the A/D converter 3, timing generator 4, image processor 6, and nonvolatile memory 8. The image processor 6 performs predetermined pixel interpolation processing and color conversion processing on data from the A/D converter 3 or data from the memory controller 5. The system controller 7 controls the overall image processing apparatus. The nonvolatile memory 8 is an electrically erasable and recordable memory, and stores various parameters, set values such as the ISO sensitivity, set modes, one-dimensional shading correction data at a reference image sensing ISO sensitivity that is used for horizontal dark shading correction, and a gain amount and offset amount corresponding to each image sensing ISO sensitivity. The operation of the image processing apparatus with the above arrangement according to the second embodiment will be described in detail below. <Whole Processing of Image Processing Apparatus 100> The whole processing of an image processing apparatus 100 in the second embodiment will be explained. A description of processing from steps S101 to S112 in FIG. 2 which is the same as that in the first embodiment will be omitted. Processing after step S112 will be described with reference to FIGS. 8 and 9. If a shutter switch SW1 62 is not pressed in step S521 of FIG. 8 (“OFF” in step S521), the flow returns to step S102 in FIG. 2. If the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed (“ON” in step S521), a system controller 50 performs distance measurement/photometry processing of focusing the image sensing lens 1 on an object to be sensed by distance measurement processing, and determining an f-number and shutter time by photometry processing (step S522). The process then shifts to step S523. In photometry processing, the flash is also set, as needed. Details of distance measurement/photometry processing step S522 is the same as the processes described with reference to FIG. 4 in the above first embodiment, thus the detailed explanation of step S522 is omitted. The system controller 50 checks the set sensitivity of the image processing apparatus 100 (step S523). If the set sensitivity is lower than ISO 800, the process advances to step S524; if the set sensitivity is equal to or higher than ISO 800, to step S527. This is because the exposure amount is small, and image quality degradation by dark current noise generated by an image sensing device 14, a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device 14, or the like becomes conspicuous. In this case, the threshold to determine the set sensitivity is ISO 800, but may be ISO 1600 for a small sensor dark current. The system controller 50 checks whether the set sensitivity is lower than ISO 400 (step S524). If the set sensitivity is lower than ISO 400, the process shifts to step S530; if the set sensitivity is equal to or higher than ISO 400, to step S525. The system controller 50 checks whether a temperature Temp in the image sensing environment that is detected by a thermometer 44 is lower than 28.degree. C. (step S525). If the temperature Temp is lower than 28.degree. C., the process shifts to step S530; if the temperature Temp is equal to or higher than 28.degree. C., to step S526. The system controller 50 checks whether the shutter time Tv determined in distance measurement/photometry processing (step S522) is equal to or longer than 1 sec (step S526). If the shutter time is 1 sec or more, the system controller 50 sets a dark subtraction flag to 1 (step S527), and the process advances to step S528. If the shutter time is shorter than 1 sec. the system controller 50 clears the dark subtraction flag to 0 (step S530), and the process advances to step S531. After the dark subtraction flag is cleared, correction data corresponding to the image sensing ISO sensitivity is mapped (step S531). Details of correction data mapping processing step S531 will be described later with reference to FIG. 11. Note that “dark subtraction” is calculation processing of subtracting dark image data from image data of actual image sensing (see “BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION”). After the dark subtraction flag is set, the system controller 50 checks a single-shot/sequential image sensing flag stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or a memory 52 (step S528). If single-shot image sensing has been set, the system controller 50 shifts to step S540; if sequential image sensing has been set, captures a dark image (step S529) and the process shifts to step S540. (By performing correction calculation processing using dark image data captured by dark image capturing processing, sensed image data can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by dark current noise generated by the image sensing device 14, a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device 14, or the like. Details of dark image capturing processing step S529 will be described with reference to FIG. 10.) If a shutter switch SW2 64 is not pressed (“OFF” in step S540), the process returns to step S521 and repeats processing up to step S540. If the shutter switch SW2 64 is pressed (“ON” in step S540), the system controller 50 checks whether a memory 30 has an image storage buffer area capable of storing sensed image data (step S542). If the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 does not have any area capable of storing new image data (NO in step S542), the system controller 50 generates a predetermined warning display output or warning sound output by an image or sound using a notification unit 54 (step S544), and the process returns to step S102 in FIG. 2. This situation occurs when, for example, the first image which should be read out from the memory 30 and written into a recording medium 200 or 210 has not been recorded yet on the recording medium 200 or 210, and no free area even for one image can be ensured in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 immediately after sequential image sensing by the maximum number of images which can be stored in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. To store sensed image data in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 after compression, whether the storage area can be ensured in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30 is checked in step S542 in consideration of the fact that the compressed image data amount changes depending on the settings of the compression mode. If the memory 30 has an image storage buffer area capable of storing sensed image data (YES in step S542), the system controller 50 executes image sensing processing of reading from the image sensing device 14 an image sensing signal accumulated for a predetermined time, and writing the sensed image data into a predetermined area of the memory 30 via an A/D converter 16, image processor 20, and memory controller 22, or via the memory controller 22 directly from the A/D converter 16 (step S546). In image sensing processing step S546, the processing described with reference to FIG. 5 in the above first embodiment is performed, and thus the detailed description of the step S546 is omitted. After image sensing processing step S546 ends, the system controller 50 checks the state of the dark subtraction flag stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S548). If no dark subtraction flag has been set, the process shifts to step S554. If the dark subtraction flag has been set, the system controller 50 checks the state of the single-shot/sequential image sensing flag stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S550). If single-shot image sensing has been set, the process advances to step S552; if sequential image sensing has been set, to step S554. In single-shot image sensing setting, the system controller 50 performs dark capturing processing of accumulating a noise component such as the dark current of the image sensing device 14 for the same time as that of actual image sensing while keeping a shutter 12 closed, and reading the accumulated noise image signal (step S552). After that, the process shifts to step S554. Details of dark capturing processing step S552 will be described with reference to FIG. 10. The system controller 50 reads out via the memory controller 22 part of image data written in a predetermined area of the memory 30, performs WB (White Balance) integral calculation processing and OB (Optical Black) integral calculation processing necessary for developing processing, and stores the results of calculations in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52. The system controller 50 reads out the sensed image data written in the predetermined area of the memory 30 by using the memory controller 22, and if necessary, the image processor 20. Also, the system controller 50 executes various developing processes including AWB (Auto White Balance) processing, gamma conversion processing, and color conversion processing by using the results of calculations stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S554). In developing processing, the system controller 50 also executes dark correction calculation processing of canceling the dark current noise of the image sensing device 14 or the like by subtraction processing using horizontal dark shading correction data which corresponds to the image sensing ISO sensitivity value and has been mapped in step S531, or dark image data captured in dark image capturing processing (step S529 or S552). By correction calculation processing using horizontal dark shading correction data, a sensed image can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by horizontal dark current noise or fixed pattern noise in the image sensing device 14, without performing dark image capturing processing (step S529 or S552) for a sensed image. By correction calculation processing using dark image data obtained in dark image capturing processing, sensed image data can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by a two-dimensional factor such as a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device 14, in addition to horizontal dark current noise or fixed pattern noise in the image sensing device 14. The system controller 50 reads out the image data written in the predetermined area of the memory 30, and performs image compression processing corresponding to the set mode by a compression/expansion circuit 32 (step S556). The system controller 50 writes the image data having undergone a series of processes into a free portion of the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. Along with execution of a series of image sensing processes, the system controller 50 reads out the image data stored in the image storage buffer area of the memory 30, and writes the data into the recording medium 200 or 210 such as a memory card or Compact Flash.RTM. card via an interface 90 or 94 and a connector 92 or 96 (step S558). Recording processing on the recording medium 200 or 210 is executed for image data every time image data having undergone a series of processes is newly written into a free portion of the image storage buffer area of the memory 30. During write of image data into the recording medium 200 or 210, an LED, for instance, of the notification unit 54 flickered to explicitly indicate that write operation is in progress. The system controller 50 checks whether the shutter switch SW1 62 is pressed (step S560), and if the shutter switch SW1 62 is OFF, the process returns to step S102 in FIG. 2. If the shutter switch SW1 62 is ON, the system controller 50 checks the single-shot/sequential image sensing flag stored in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S562). If single-shot image sensing has been set, the system controller 50 returns to step S560; if sequential image sensing has been set, returns to step S540 and repeats the above-described operation. <Dark Image Capturing Processing> FIG. 10 is a flow chart showing details of dark image capturing processing in step S529 of FIG. 8 and step S552 of FIG. 9. The system controller 50 of the image processing apparatus 100 executes charge clear operation for the image sensing device (CCD) 14 (step S601), and starts charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 while keeping the shutter 12 closed (step S602). Upon the lapse of a set charge accumulation time (YES in step S603), the system controller 50 ends charge accumulation in the image sensing device 14 (step S604). The system controller 50 reads a charge signal from the image sensing device 14, and writes image data (dark image data) into a predetermined area of the memory 30 via the A/D converter 16, image processor 20, and memory controller 22, or via the memory controller 22 directly from the A/D converter 16 (step S605). The dark image data is used in developing processing when image sensing processing is executed before the dark image data is captured and sensed image data is read from the image sensing device 14 and written into the memory 30, and in developing processing when image sensing processing is executed after the dark image data is captured and sensed image data is read from the image sensing device 14 and written into the memory 30. By developing processing using the dark image data, sensed image data can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by dark current noise generated by the image sensing device 14, a defective pixel due to a slight scratch unique to the image sensing device 14, or the like. At the end of a series of processes, dark image capturing processing routine step S529 (FIG. 8) and step S552 (FIG. 9) end. <Correction Data Mapping Processing> FIG. 11 is a flow chart showing details of correction data mapping processing in step S531 of FIG. 8. The system controller 50 of the image processing apparatus 100 reads out from the nonvolatile memory 56 one-dimensional shading correction data which is obtained at a reference image sensing ISO sensitivity value and serves as reference data for one-dimensional shading correction data used for horizontal shading correction. The system controller 50 maps the one-dimensional shading correction data in the memory 30 (step S701). The system controller 50 reads out an image sensing ISO sensitivity value set in the internal memory of the system controller 50 or the memory 52 (step S702). The system controller 50 reads out a gain amount and offset amount corresponding to the readout image sensing ISO sensitivity value from the nonvolatile memory 56, and maps them in the memory 30 (step S703). The system controller 50 calculates one-dimensional shading correction data, mapped in the memory 30, corresponding to the image sensing ISO sensitivity by arithmetic calculation using the one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference image sensing ISO sensitivity and the gain amount and offset amount corresponding to each image sensing ISO sensitivity (step S704). FIGS. 12A to 12C are graphs showing the outline of arithmetic calculation processing in step S704. In FIG. 12A, the solid line represents one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference image sensing ISO sensitivity value that is mapped in the memory 30 in step S701. In FIG. 12B, the chain double-dashed line represents one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference ISO sensitivity. The solid line represents the calculation result of multiplying by the gain amount the one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference ISO sensitivity that is represented by the chain double-dashed line. In FIG. 12C, the chain double-dashed line represents one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference ISO sensitivity. The broken line represents the calculation result of multiplication by the gain. The solid line represents the result of adding/subtracting the offset amount to/from the broken-line calculation result of multiplying by the gain amount the one-dimensional shading correction data at the reference ISO sensitivity. That is, solid-line data is one-dimensional shading correction data corresponding to the image sensing ISO sensitivity. The system controller 50 maps in the memory 30 the one-dimensional shading correction data which corresponds to the image sensing ISO sensitivity and has been calculated in step S704 (step S705). By developing processing using the shading correction data corresponding to the image sensing ISO sensitivity, sensed image data can be corrected for image quality degradation caused by horizontal dark current noise or fixed pattern noise in the image sensing device 14. At the end of a series of processes, mapping processing routine step S531 (FIG. 8) for one-dimensional shading correction data ends. <Image Sensing Operation Flow> FIG. 13 is an explanatory view showing an image sensing operation flow according to the second embodiment. AF processing, AE processing, image sensing processing, and dark image capturing processing in FIG. 13 are the same as those described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5, FIGS. 2, 8 and 9, and FIG. 10, respectively, and a description thereof will be omitted. As described above, according to the second embodiment of the present invention, shading correction data at a reference image sensing ISO sensitivity, and a gain amount and offset amount at each image sensing ISO sensitivity are stored in the nonvolatile memory 56 in an image processing apparatus which records a sensed still image and/or moving image on a recording medium. Even if the shading changes upon the change in image sensing ISO sensitivity, effective shading correction processing can be done. It suffices to store, in the nonvolatile memory 56 for each image sensing ISO sensitivity, shading correction data at a reference image sensing ISO sensitivity and a gain amount and offset amount which are much smaller in data amount than the shading correction data. The capacity of the nonvolatile memory 56 can be greatly saved in comparison with a method of storing shading correction data at all image sensing ISO sensitivities in a storage medium. In the description of the first and second embodiments, single-shot/sequential image sensing is switched using the single-shot/sequential image sensing switch 68. Alternatively, single-shot/sequential image sensing may be switched in accordance with operation mode selection by a mode dial switch 60. In the description of the above embodiments, the charge accumulation time of actual image sensing processing and that of dark image capturing processing are equal to each other. However, different charge accumulation times may be adopted as far as data enough to correct dark current noise or the like can be obtained. No image sensing operation can be done during execution of dark capturing processing operation in steps S524 and S531 of FIG. 8. A notification unit 54 and/or image display unit 28 may output an image or sound representing that an image processing apparatus 100 is busy. In the description of the first and second embodiments, image sensing operation is performed by moving the mirror 130 to a mirror-up position or mirror-down position. It is also possible to form a mirror 130 from a half-mirror and perform image sensing operation without moving the mirror 130. In the description of the first and second embodiments, the recording media 200 and 210 are memory cards such as a PCMCIA card or Compact Flash.RTM., hard disks, or the like. Recording media 200 and 210 may also be formed from optical disks such as a micro DAT, magneto-optical disk, CD-R, or CD-RW, or phase change optical disks such as a DVD. The recording media 200 and 210 may also be composite media of memory cards and hard disks. Part of the composite medium may be detachable. In the description of the first and second embodiments, the recording media 200 and 210 are separated from the image processing apparatus 100 and are arbitrarily connectable to it. Either or both of the recording media may be fixed to the image processing apparatus 100. The image processing apparatus 100 may be so constituted as to allow connecting one or an arbitrary number of recording media 200 or 210. In the description of the first and second embodiments, the recording media 200 and 210 are mounted in the image processing apparatus 100. However, one or a plurality of recording media may be mounted. The second embodiment does not particularly mention the mapping timing of one-dimensional shading correction data. Correction data may be mapped upon power-ON. Correction data is one-dimensional horizontal data, but may be one-dimensional vertical data or two-dimensional data. Further, only one correction data is stored, but a plurality of correction data may be stored. For a plurality of correction data, a method of selecting only one of a plurality of correction data, or a method of adding a plurality of correction data at an arbitrary ratio may be employed. Correction data is created and written in adjustment during the manufacturing process of the image processing apparatus, but the write stage is not limited to the manufacturing process. Other Embodiment The present invention can be applied to a system constituted by a plurality of devices or to an apparatus comprising a single device. Further, the object of the present invention can also be achieved by providing a storage medium storing program codes for performing the aforesaid processes to a computer system or apparatus (e.g., a personal computer), reading the program codes, by a CPU or MPU of the computer system or apparatus, from the storage medium, then executing the program. In this case, the program codes read from the storage medium realize the functions according to the embodiments, and the storage medium storing the program codes constitutes the invention. Further, the storage medium, such as a floppy disk, a hard disk, an optical disk, a magneto-optical disk, CD-ROM, CD-R, a magnetic tape, a non-volatile type memory card, and ROM, and computer network, such as LAN (local area network) and WAN (wide area network), can be used for providing the program codes. Furthermore, besides aforesaid functions according to the above embodiments are realized by executing the program codes which are read by a computer, the present invention includes a case where an OS (operating system) or the like working on the computer performs a part or entire processes in accordance with designations of the program codes and realizes functions according to the above embodiments. Furthermore, the present invention also includes a case where, after the program codes read from the storage medium are written in a function expansion card which is inserted into the computer or in a memory provided in a function expansion unit which is connected to the computer, CPU or the like contained in the function expansion card or unit performs a part or entire process in accordance with designations of the program codes and realizes functions of the above embodiments. In a case where the present invention is applied to the aforesaid storage medium, the storage medium stores program codes corresponding to the flowcharts shown in FIGS. 2-6, or FIGS. 2, 4, 5, 8-11 described in the embodiments. Further, the above embodiments or the technical elements thereof may be combined as necessary. The present invention is not limited to the above embodiments and various changes and modifications can be made within the spirit and scope of the present invention. Therefore to apprise the public of the scope of the present invention, the following claims are made.
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52
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17
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11704262
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US20070200918A1-20070830
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Method for setting mute flags to improve compatibilities and the high definition multimedia interface system using the same method
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ACCEPTED
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20070816
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20070830
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[]
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H04N714
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["H04N714"]
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7773107
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20070209
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20100810
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725
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080000
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61420.0
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BROCKMAN
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ANGEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kwon", "inventor_name_first": "Kwang Hun", "inventor_city": "Yongin-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kim", "inventor_name_first": "Chang Hoon", "inventor_city": "Seongnam-si", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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The present invention relates to an HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) system, and more particularly, to a method for setting mute flag in connection with transmission of audio data and auxiliary data transmitted through HDMI system, and an HDMI system using the same method.
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1. An HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising: a packet header indicating the packet type; and a subpacket comprising at least one of single mute flags of audio mute flag and video mute flag and complex mute flag. 2. The HDMI system according to claim 1, wherein the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. 3. The HDMI system according to claim 1, wherein the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. 4. The HDMI system according to claim 1, wherein the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. 5. The HDMI system according to claim 1, wherein the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7, and the complex mute flag is contained in SB0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB1 through SB7. 6. The HDMI system according to claim 1, wherein the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV. 7. A mute flag controlling method in an HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising the steps of: requesting change of setting value in the source device; setting at least one of the audio mute setting flag and video mute setting flag in the source device; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; muting one of the audio signal or the video signal while playing the other; completing the request of changing setting value; setting mute clearing flag of one of the set mute flag; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; and releasing the mute of the audio signal or the video signal. 8. A mute flag controlling method according to claim 7, wherein the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. 9. A mute flag controlling method according to claim 7, wherein the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. 10. A mute flag controlling method according to claim 7, wherein the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. 11. A mute flag controlling method according to claim 7, wherein the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7, and the complex mute flag is contained in SB0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB1 through SB7. 12. A mute flag controlling method according to claim 7, wherein the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) system, and more particularly, to a method for setting mute flag in connection with transmission of audio data and auxiliary data transmitted through HDMI system, and an HDMI system using the same method. 2. Description of the Related Art HDMI is a standard for connecting a source device which sends data and a sink device which receives data, wherein the source device may be, for example, set-top box or DVD player and the sink device may be, for example, digital TV. General architecture of HDMI system is suggested in “HDMI specification version 1.2a, FIG. 3-1 HDMI Block diagram”, which is incorporated herewith as FIG. 1 . Referring to FIG. 1 of the present invention, an HDMI system consists of a source device 100 which sends data and a sink device 200 which receives data. Each of source device and sink device may have more than one HDMI inputs and HDMI outputs. All the HDMI inputs at the source device and the sink device conform to the specification for the HDMI sink device, and all the HDMI outputs at the HDMI system accconformords to the specification the for HDMI source device. As shown in FIG. 1 , HDMI cable 300 employed in HDMI system holds four different channels, each of which consists of TDMS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) data channels 301 , 302 , 303 and clock channel 304 . These channels are used for transmitting video data, audio data and auxiliary data. Also, HDMI system holds VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) DDC (Display Data Channel) 400 , which is used for exchanging configuration and status information between the single source device and the single sink device. Alternatively, HDMI system may use CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) line 500 which transmits CEC protocol to provide high level control among various viewing devices in user environment. As described above, audio data, video data and auxiliary data are transmitted from HDMI sender 101 of the source device 100 to HDMI receiver 201 of the sink device 200 through three TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) data channels 301 , 302 , 303 and video pixel clock is transmitted through TMDS clock channel 304 . The video pixel clock is used as frequency standard for restoring data on three TMDS data channel 301 , 302 , 303 by receiver 201 of sink device 202 . The difference between traditional DVI (Digital Visual Interface) system and HDMI system is that audio data and auxiliary data as well as video data are transmitted through HDMI cable 300 . Video data is transmitted as a series of 24 bit pixel on the three TMDS data channels and HDMI system employs packet structure for transmitting audio data and auxiliary data. There is a packet type called General Control packet in HDMI specification version 1.2a (see table 3). The General Control packet was introduced in HDMI specification for muting audio and video signal simultaneously to reduce transient impacts between the source device and the sink device. The General Control packet retains Clear_AVMUTE flag and Set_AVMUTE flag for muting or for releasing the muting of audio and video signal simultaneously. It is optional for the source device to send muting signal, but is required for the sink device to receive the signal for muting signal. Further, it is optional for the sink device to effectively process the received muting signal. The reason HDMI system employs these mute flags are to minimize the transient impacts due to the status changes when the source device sends signals to the sink device. For example, it is possible to prevent audio pop noise which may occur in the source device by setting the AVMUTE flags. When Set-AVMUTE flag is set in the source device, the sink device receives invalid video or audio signal. Accordingly, HDMI sink device can optionally perform the muting of video or audio signal as required. Recently, most of home appliances are equipped with HDMI input/output terminals. Also, many high level functions (e.g. memory card operability) are increasingly added to set-top boxes or DVD players which meet the HDMI specification. Accordingly, the interoperability between the various source devices and the sink devices becomes an important issue. More specifically, during transient period when resolution or frequency is being changed between the source device and the sink device, there may occur flickering or noise (hereinafter transient impacts). To prevent the transient impact, a technology to reduce transient impact of devices employing HDMI specification, or a technology to increase interoperability between devices is required. The mute flags retained in the General Control packet of HDMI specification could be a solution to increase the interoperability between the source device and the sink device. Meanwhile, sometimes it is enough to simultaneously set Clear_AVMUTE flag and Set_AVflag to mute or release muting both audio signal and video signal (e.g. when the resolution is being changed), but at other times it is required to mute or release muting one of audio signal and video signal. For example, when playing back MP3 file from memory card which was added as a high level function or when changing frequency of MP3 file, more detailed control to selectively mute or release muting one of audio or video signal is desirable rather than to mute or release muting both of them. The need for more detailed control is increasing according to the high-end trend and diversification of source device and sink device.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a HDMI system and a mute flag control method of the same that enable selective control of audio or video mute flag and reduce the transient impacts of related art in which one could not but mute or release muting of both audio and video signal, and to substantially obviate one or more problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. Additional advantages, objects, and features of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and in part will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by the structure particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, there is provided an HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising: a packet header indicating the packet type; and a subpacket comprising at least one of single mute flags of audio mute flag and video mute flag and complex mute flag. In a preferred embodiment, the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB 0 through SB 7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB 0 through SB 7 , and the complex mute flag is contained in SB 0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB 1 through SB 7 . In a preferred embodiment, the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV. In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a mute flag controlling method in an HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising the steps of: requesting change of setting value in the source device; setting at least one of the audio mute setting flag and video mute setting flag in the source device; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; muting one of the audio signal or the video signal while playing the other; completing the request of changing setting value; setting mute clearing flag of one of the set mute flag; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; and releasing the mute of the audio signal or the video signal. In a preferred embodiment, the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB 0 through SB 7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB 0 through SB 7 , and the complex mute flag is contained in SB 0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB 1 through SB 7 . In a preferred embodiment, the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description of the present invention is exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRFSUM description="Brief Summary" end="tail"?
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The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119 and 35 U.S.C. 365 to Korean Patent Application No. 10-2005-0014375 (filed on Feb. 14, 2006), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) system, and more particularly, to a method for setting mute flag in connection with transmission of audio data and auxiliary data transmitted through HDMI system, and an HDMI system using the same method. 2. Description of the Related Art HDMI is a standard for connecting a source device which sends data and a sink device which receives data, wherein the source device may be, for example, set-top box or DVD player and the sink device may be, for example, digital TV. General architecture of HDMI system is suggested in “HDMI specification version 1.2a, FIG. 3-1 HDMI Block diagram”, which is incorporated herewith as FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 1 of the present invention, an HDMI system consists of a source device 100 which sends data and a sink device 200 which receives data. Each of source device and sink device may have more than one HDMI inputs and HDMI outputs. All the HDMI inputs at the source device and the sink device conform to the specification for the HDMI sink device, and all the HDMI outputs at the HDMI system accconformords to the specification the for HDMI source device. As shown in FIG. 1, HDMI cable 300 employed in HDMI system holds four different channels, each of which consists of TDMS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) data channels 301, 302, 303 and clock channel 304. These channels are used for transmitting video data, audio data and auxiliary data. Also, HDMI system holds VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) DDC (Display Data Channel) 400, which is used for exchanging configuration and status information between the single source device and the single sink device. Alternatively, HDMI system may use CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) line 500 which transmits CEC protocol to provide high level control among various viewing devices in user environment. As described above, audio data, video data and auxiliary data are transmitted from HDMI sender 101 of the source device 100 to HDMI receiver 201 of the sink device 200 through three TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) data channels 301, 302, 303 and video pixel clock is transmitted through TMDS clock channel 304. The video pixel clock is used as frequency standard for restoring data on three TMDS data channel 301, 302, 303 by receiver 201 of sink device 202. The difference between traditional DVI (Digital Visual Interface) system and HDMI system is that audio data and auxiliary data as well as video data are transmitted through HDMI cable 300. Video data is transmitted as a series of 24 bit pixel on the three TMDS data channels and HDMI system employs packet structure for transmitting audio data and auxiliary data. There is a packet type called General Control packet in HDMI specification version 1.2a (see table 3). The General Control packet was introduced in HDMI specification for muting audio and video signal simultaneously to reduce transient impacts between the source device and the sink device. The General Control packet retains Clear_AVMUTE flag and Set_AVMUTE flag for muting or for releasing the muting of audio and video signal simultaneously. It is optional for the source device to send muting signal, but is required for the sink device to receive the signal for muting signal. Further, it is optional for the sink device to effectively process the received muting signal. The reason HDMI system employs these mute flags are to minimize the transient impacts due to the status changes when the source device sends signals to the sink device. For example, it is possible to prevent audio pop noise which may occur in the source device by setting the AVMUTE flags. When Set-AVMUTE flag is set in the source device, the sink device receives invalid video or audio signal. Accordingly, HDMI sink device can optionally perform the muting of video or audio signal as required. Recently, most of home appliances are equipped with HDMI input/output terminals. Also, many high level functions (e.g. memory card operability) are increasingly added to set-top boxes or DVD players which meet the HDMI specification. Accordingly, the interoperability between the various source devices and the sink devices becomes an important issue. More specifically, during transient period when resolution or frequency is being changed between the source device and the sink device, there may occur flickering or noise (hereinafter transient impacts). To prevent the transient impact, a technology to reduce transient impact of devices employing HDMI specification, or a technology to increase interoperability between devices is required. The mute flags retained in the General Control packet of HDMI specification could be a solution to increase the interoperability between the source device and the sink device. Meanwhile, sometimes it is enough to simultaneously set Clear_AVMUTE flag and Set_AVflag to mute or release muting both audio signal and video signal (e.g. when the resolution is being changed), but at other times it is required to mute or release muting one of audio signal and video signal. For example, when playing back MP3 file from memory card which was added as a high level function or when changing frequency of MP3 file, more detailed control to selectively mute or release muting one of audio or video signal is desirable rather than to mute or release muting both of them. The need for more detailed control is increasing according to the high-end trend and diversification of source device and sink device. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a HDMI system and a mute flag control method of the same that enable selective control of audio or video mute flag and reduce the transient impacts of related art in which one could not but mute or release muting of both audio and video signal, and to substantially obviate one or more problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. Additional advantages, objects, and features of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and in part will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by the structure particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, there is provided an HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising: a packet header indicating the packet type; and a subpacket comprising at least one of single mute flags of audio mute flag and video mute flag and complex mute flag. In a preferred embodiment, the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7, and the complex mute flag is contained in SB0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB1 through SB7. In a preferred embodiment, the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV. In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a mute flag controlling method in an HDMI system comprising a source device having a sender which sends at least one of video data, audio data and auxiliary data, cables passing the vide data, audio data and auxiliary data from the source device and a sink device having a receiver which receives the data from the source device, said audio data and auxiliary data being contained in GCP (General Control Packet) comprising the steps of: requesting change of setting value in the source device; setting at least one of the audio mute setting flag and video mute setting flag in the source device; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; muting one of the audio signal or the video signal while playing the other; completing the request of changing setting value; setting mute clearing flag of one of the set mute flag; transmitting the set mute flag from the source device to the sink device; and releasing the mute of the audio signal or the video signal. In a preferred embodiment, the audio mute flag comprises audio mute setting flag and audio mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the video mute flag comprises video mute setting flag and video mute clearing flag. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7 which comprise the single mute flags and complex mute flags. In a preferred embodiment, the subpacket consists of 8 bytes, SB0 through SB7, and the complex mute flag is contained in SB0 and single mute flags are contained in one of SB1 through SB7. In a preferred embodiment, the source device is one of set-top box and DVD player, and the sink device is digital TV. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description of the present invention is exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this application, illustrate embodiment(s) of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principle of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of HDMI system specified by HDMI specification version 1.2a. FIG. 2 shows flow of AVMUTE flag of General Control packet according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 shows flow of AMUTE flag of General Control packet according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Reference will now be made in detail to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer the same or like parts. In HDMI system, links for transmitting and receiving data between source device and sink device consist of Video Data Period, Data Island Period, and Control Period. During the Video Data Period, active pixels of active video line are transmitted. During the Island Period audio data and auxiliary data are transmitted as a series of packets. Control Period is when there is no need to transmit video, audio or auxiliary data. Among these, Data Island Period is related to the feature of the present invention, and during the Island Period packets of audio sample data and auxiliary data are transmitted. The auxiliary data comprise EIA/CEA-861B InfoFrames and other data describing active audio or video stream or source device. The structure of Data Island Packet used in Data Island Period is as follows. All the data in one Data Island are included in 32 pixel packet. A packet consists of one packet header, packet body (which consists of four subpackets) and error correction bit. Each of the subpackets comprises 56 bit data, and is protected by 8 bit BCH ECC parity bits. A packet header comprises 24 data bits and additional 8 bit BCH (32, 24) ECC parity bits. The parity bits are produced from 24 bits of packet header. A packet header comprises 8 bit packet type and 16 bit packet specific data. Table 1 shows structure of packet header cited from Table 5-7 of HDMI specification 1.2a. TABLE 1 Structure of packet header bit# Byte 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HB0 Packet type HB1 Packet specific data HB2 Packet specific data As shown in Table 1, the first byte HB0 indicates packet type, the second byte and the third byte, HB1 and HB2 packet specific data. TABLE 2 Example in which a certain packet type (General Control Packet) is designated (HDMI specification version 1.2 Table 5-16) bit# Byte 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HB0 1 1 HB1 HB2 Table 2 shows packet type of HB0 is “3” in which bit 0 and bit 1 are “1” of the first byte, which indicates the packet type is General Control packet of one embodiment of the present invention. TABLE 3 Packet type (HDMI specification version 1.2a Table 5-8) Packet Type Value Packet Type 0x00 NULL 0x01 Audio Clock Generation (N/CTS) 0x02 Audio Sample (L-PCM and compressed formats) 0x03 General Control 0x04 ACP Packet 0x05 ISRC1 Packet 0x06 ISRC2 Packet 0x07 1 Bit Audio Sample Packet 0x80+ InfoFrame Type EIA/CEA-861B InfoFrame 0x81 Vendor-Specific InfoFrame 0x82 AVI InfoFrame* 0x83 Source Product Descriptor InfoFrame 0x84 Audio InfoFrame 0x85 MPEG Source InfoFrame As shown in Table 3, the difference of HDMI especially from DVI is that various Island packets such as Null, Audio Clock Regeneration (N/CTS), Audio Sample (L-PCM, compress formats) can be transmitted and received during Data Island Period. One packet type lout of the various Island packets is General Control packet. The subpacket structure of General Control packet is shown in Table 4. TABLE 4 General Control Subpacket (HDMI specification version 1.2a Table 5-17) bit# Byte 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 SB0 0 0 0 Clear_AVMUTE 0 0 0 Set_AVMUTE SB1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subpacket of HDMI General Control consists of 7 bytes, SB0˜SB6R as shown in Table 4, in which SB0 is presently used to include Set_AVMUTE flag in bit 0 and Clear_AVMUTE in bit 4. In other words, mute flags of General Control in prior art is complex mute flags for muting or releasing muting of both audio and video signal, and cannot but mute or release muting of both audio and video signal at the same time. TABLE 5 Subpacket of General Control according to an embodiment of the present invention bit# Byte 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 SB0 0 Clear_AMUTE Clear_VMUTE Clear_AVMUTE 0 Set_AMUTE Set_VMUTE Set_AVMUTE SB1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SB7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 As shown in Table 5, mute flags according to an embodiment of the present invention comprise single mute flags, Set_AMUTE, Clear_AMUTE, Set_VMUTE and Clear_VMUTE for controlling audio or video signal as well as complex mute flgas, Set_AVMUTE and Clear_AVMUTE for controlling audio and video signal at the same time. In this configuration, assuming HDMI source device and HDMI sink device are connected and performing the playback of MP3, when bit 3, #2 of the first byte SB0 is set to 1 and sampling frequency of MP3 file is changed, transient impacts can be reduced by simply muting only audio signal. As such, it is not needed to mute both audio and video signals. More specifically, when sampling frequency of audio signal is being changed, the sink device may produce negative impacts such as pop noises due to the change of internal clock. In this case, the source device sets Set_AMUTE flag to 1 not Set_AVMUTE flag, and the sink device mutes the audio signal while the source is performing the internal process for changing sample frequency. After the internal process is completes, the source device sets Clear_AMUTE to 1, and the sink device receives data in which Clear_AMUTE is set to 1. And then the sink device releases the muting of audio signal. In terms of mute control as above, that is, by selectively muting only audio signal (or only video signal as seeded), the transient impacts due to the change of sampling frequency, resolution and so on in connection with either of audio or video signal can be minimized. In this embodiment, it is described the mute flags are located only in the first byte, SB0 of subpacket. However, the single mute flags such as AMUTE flag and VMUTE flag may be distributed in one or more bytes in the second byte through the eighth byte of subpacket while the complex mute flags such as AVMUTE are limited in the first byte. Also, it is to be understood that the mute flags may be located in anywhere within the subpacket. FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 represent general transmission of AVMUTE flags and AMUTE flags of General Control packet between the source device and the sink device in HDMI system. Referring to FIG. 2, transmission of AVMUTE flag is described as below. When the source device demands resolution change S2001, it sets Set_AVMUTE flag “1” of complex mute flag retained in subpacket of General Control packet and sends General Control packet to sink device S2002. The sink device parses the General Control packet and mutes audio and video signal according to the Set_AVMUTE flag S2003. In the meantime, while audio and video signal is muted, the source device changes video resolution and other setting values including synchronization, clock and so on. After the change of the video resolution is completed, the source device sets Clear_AVMUTE flag of General Control packet and sends it to the sink device S2005. And then the sink device parses the General Control packet and releases the muting of the audio and video signal S2006. Through the step as above, it is possible change video resolution by muting or releasing muting of both audio and video signals. However, it is desirable to set or clear single mute flags when it needs muting either one of audio and video signal. FIG. 3 shows mute flag control method by muting and releasing muting of only audio signal. Referring to FIG. 3, when the source device demands playback of an MP3 file which has different sampling frequency from that of the previously played MP3 file S3001, it sets Set_AMUTE flag of General Control flag which is a single audio flag to 1 and sends it to the sink device S3002. The sink device receives the General Control packet and mutes audio signal according to the Set_AMUTE flag S3003. The source device changes sampling frequency of the MP3 file while the audio signal is muted. During the changing of sampling frequency, processes in connected with video signal go on S3004. After the changing of sampling frequency is complete, the source device sets Clear_AMUTE flag to 1 of General Control packet and sends it to the sink device S3007. The sink device parses the General Control packet and releases the muting of audio signal S3008. The steps of transmitting and receiving at least one of audio mute flag and video mute flag may be prescribed as a requirement in the HDMI specification. And the test and acknowledgment procedure for the steps of transmitting and receiving audio mute flag and video mute flag can be added to HDMI CTS (Compliance Test Specification). It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention covers the modifications and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. As is clear from the forgoing description, An HDMI system and mute flag controlling method according to the present invention have following advantages. It is possible to properly meet the capricious situations which may occur during the communication between the source device and the sink device due to the functional high end trend and diversification thereof by selectively muting either audio or video signal as well as muting both audio signal and video signal in HDMI system. An HDMI system and mute flag controlling method according to the present invention can reduce the transient impacts occurring during changing of system setting values, so that the interoperability between source device and sink device employing HDMI system can be enhanced and the fields which source device and sink device may be applied can be dramatically enlarged. An HDMI system and mute flag controlling method according to the present invention can achieve the above advantages by means of simple manipulations of General Control packet without creating new configuration.
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H
| 70H04
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7
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14
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11998201
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US20080130060A1-20080605
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Facsimile machine
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ACCEPTED
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20080521
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20080605
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[]
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H04N100
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["H04N100"]
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7660021
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20071129
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20100209
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358
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003280
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79494.0
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BAKER
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CHARLOTTE
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Gotou", "inventor_name_first": "Kazunori", "inventor_city": "Osaka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ogawa", "inventor_name_first": "Shinya", "inventor_city": "Osaka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nagano", "inventor_name_first": "Daisaku", "inventor_city": "Osaka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A facsimile machine according to the present invention is capable of accurately comprehending management information of a received document such as from which source to which destination a received document on a discharge tray has been sent, when and by whom a part or the whole has been taken away, since a received document managing section 37 manages the received facsimile document based on a placement status obtained by a placement status obtaining section 27 and stored information of a reception information storing section 31. Consequently, the received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination can be managed properly based on the management information.
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1. A facsimile machine comprising: an image forming section forming an image of a document which has been received from a source via facsimile on a sheet of recording paper; a discharge section on which the received document image-formed by the image forming section is discharged; a reception information storing section storing reception information of the received document, every time a facsimile is received from the source, as associating with recording paper identification information which is stored on a non-contact memory provided on a plurality of respective sheets of the recording paper and is capable of identifying each sheet of the recording paper uniquely; a placement status obtaining section provided in the discharge section and obtaining a placement status of the received document in the discharge section by reading the recording paper identification information of the non-contact type memory; and a received document managing section managing the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section and stored information of the reception information storing section. 2. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made. 3. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that the whole of a received document included in the facsimile reception has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about the whole of the received document included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. 4. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document included in the facsimile reception has been partly taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about a part of the received document among all of the received documents included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. 5. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed from the time of the facsimile reception is made. 6. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, further comprising a user identification information obtaining section obtaining user identification information of an access user every time the user makes access, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section, the stored information of the reception information storing section and the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section. 7. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made, a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting. 8. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user of a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from present to absence is made and also when a determination that a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting agrees with a user of destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. 9. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user different from a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a determination that a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting does not agree with a user of destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. 10. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the received document managing section manages the received facsimile document, regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed by a user of destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed is made. 11. The facsimile machine according to claim 1, wherein the received document managing section informs both or either of an appropriate source and/or an appropriate destination of management information of the received facsimile document. 12. The facsimile machine according to claim 11, wherein the management information is informed via facsimile or e-mail. 13. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the user identification information obtaining section obtains user identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory carried by a plurality of respective users and is capable of identifying each user uniquely via the non-contact type memory every time the user makes access. 14. The facsimile machine according to claim 6, wherein the user identification information obtaining section obtains the user identification information through a key input operation by the user or biometric information authentication (biometric authentication) of the user every time the user makes access.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a facsimile machine capable of properly managing a received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination. 2. Background Art There has been a demand in conventional facsimile machines that a source wants to confirm receipt of the received document the source has sent to a destination. To satisfy the demand, it is important that the received facsimile document which has been sent from the source to the destination is properly managed at the destination side. In order to satisfy the demand that the source wants to confirm receipt of the received facsimile document, Japanese Published Unexamined Patent Application No. H8-279866 describes art wherein a receipt message to the effect that document information has been received is transmitted to the source when a document sensor provided on an output tray section detects no paper within the output tray section. Japanese Published Unexamined Patent Application No. H9-69908 describes that a paper output sensor detecting whether a received document having been output on a paper output tray is placed on the paper output tray and a voice data controlling section 13 informing the source by telephonic communication that the received document has been received when the paper output sensor detects that the received document has been taken away are provided, and thus the source can reliably confirm that the received document has been received by the destination and also the destination can reliably recognize that the received document has arrived. However, a user generally takes away only a received document addressed to himself/herself, for example, in a facsimile machine shared by a plurality of users among the foregoing conventional facsimile machines. As a result, when a received document addressed to a plurality of users is mixed and piled up on a discharge section, the received document addressed to the other users is left on the discharge section as it is. In this case, receipt of the received document cannot be confirmed properly by the facsimile machines in accordance with the conventional art. Therefore, it was difficult for the conventional facsimile machines to properly manage the received facsimile document which has been sent from the source to the destination.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a facsimile machine capable of properly managing a received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination. In order to achieve the foregoing object, a facsimile machine according to the present invention includes an image forming section forming an image of a facsimile document which has been received from a source on a sheet of recording paper, a discharge section on which the received document image-formed by the image forming section is discharged, a reception information storing section storing reception information of the received document, every time a facsimile is received from the source, as associating with recording paper identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory provided on a plurality of respective sheets of the recording paper and is capable of identifying each sheet of the recording paper uniquely, a placement status obtaining section provided in the discharge section and obtaining a placement status of the received document in the discharge section by reading the recording paper identification information of the non-contact type memory and a received document managing section managing the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section and stored information of the reception information storing section. Further, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made. Still further, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that the whole of a received document included in the facsimile reception has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about the whole of the received document included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. Still further, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document included in the facsimile reception has been partly taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about a part of the received document among the whole of the received documents included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. Furthermore, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed is made. On the other hand, a user identification information obtaining section obtaining user identification information of an access user every time the user makes access is further provided, and the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section, the stored information of the reception information storing section and the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section. In this case, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made, a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting. Further, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user of a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a determination that a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting agrees with a user of destination information base on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. In addition, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user different from a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting does not agree with a user of the destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. Furthermore, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed by a user of the destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed is made. Further, the received document managing section can be configured to inform both or either of an appropriate source and/or an appropriate destination of management information of the received facsimile document. In this case, the management information can be configured to be informed via facsimile or e-mail. Further, the user identification information obtaining section can be configured to obtain user identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory carried by a plurality of respective users and is capable of identifying each user uniquely, via the non-contact type memory every time the user makes access. Alternatively, the user identification information obtaining section may be configured to obtain the user identification information through a key input operation by the user or biometric authentication of the user every time the user makes access.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a facsimile machine capable of properly managing a received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination. 2. Background Art There has been a demand in conventional facsimile machines that a source wants to confirm receipt of the received document the source has sent to a destination. To satisfy the demand, it is important that the received facsimile document which has been sent from the source to the destination is properly managed at the destination side. In order to satisfy the demand that the source wants to confirm receipt of the received facsimile document, Japanese Published Unexamined Patent Application No. H8-279866 describes art wherein a receipt message to the effect that document information has been received is transmitted to the source when a document sensor provided on an output tray section detects no paper within the output tray section. Japanese Published Unexamined Patent Application No. H9-69908 describes that a paper output sensor detecting whether a received document having been output on a paper output tray is placed on the paper output tray and a voice data controlling section 13 informing the source by telephonic communication that the received document has been received when the paper output sensor detects that the received document has been taken away are provided, and thus the source can reliably confirm that the received document has been received by the destination and also the destination can reliably recognize that the received document has arrived. However, a user generally takes away only a received document addressed to himself/herself, for example, in a facsimile machine shared by a plurality of users among the foregoing conventional facsimile machines. As a result, when a received document addressed to a plurality of users is mixed and piled up on a discharge section, the received document addressed to the other users is left on the discharge section as it is. In this case, receipt of the received document cannot be confirmed properly by the facsimile machines in accordance with the conventional art. Therefore, it was difficult for the conventional facsimile machines to properly manage the received facsimile document which has been sent from the source to the destination. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a facsimile machine capable of properly managing a received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination. In order to achieve the foregoing object, a facsimile machine according to the present invention includes an image forming section forming an image of a facsimile document which has been received from a source on a sheet of recording paper, a discharge section on which the received document image-formed by the image forming section is discharged, a reception information storing section storing reception information of the received document, every time a facsimile is received from the source, as associating with recording paper identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory provided on a plurality of respective sheets of the recording paper and is capable of identifying each sheet of the recording paper uniquely, a placement status obtaining section provided in the discharge section and obtaining a placement status of the received document in the discharge section by reading the recording paper identification information of the non-contact type memory and a received document managing section managing the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section and stored information of the reception information storing section. Further, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made. Still further, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that the whole of a received document included in the facsimile reception has been taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about the whole of the received document included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. Still further, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document included in the facsimile reception has been partly taken away when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about a part of the received document among the whole of the received documents included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status. Furthermore, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed is made. On the other hand, a user identification information obtaining section obtaining user identification information of an access user every time the user makes access is further provided, and the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section, the stored information of the reception information storing section and the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section. In this case, the received document managing section can be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made, a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting. Further, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user of a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a determination that a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting agrees with a user of destination information base on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. In addition, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user different from a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a user specified based on the user identification information obtained by the user identification information obtaining section upon determination of the shifting does not agree with a user of the destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section is made. Furthermore, the received document managing section may be configured to manage the received facsimile document regarding that a received document specified based on the placement status is forgotten to be removed by a user of the destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section does not shift from presence to absence even after a predetermined time has elapsed is made. Further, the received document managing section can be configured to inform both or either of an appropriate source and/or an appropriate destination of management information of the received facsimile document. In this case, the management information can be configured to be informed via facsimile or e-mail. Further, the user identification information obtaining section can be configured to obtain user identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory carried by a plurality of respective users and is capable of identifying each user uniquely, via the non-contact type memory every time the user makes access. Alternatively, the user identification information obtaining section may be configured to obtain the user identification information through a key input operation by the user or biometric authentication of the user every time the user makes access. OPERATION AND EFFECTS OF THE INVENTION The facsimile machine according to the present invention includes an image forming section forming an image of a document which has been received from a source via facsimile on a sheet of recording paper, a discharge section on which the received document image-formed by the image forming section is discharged, a reception information storing section storing reception information of the received document, every time a facsimile is received from the source, as associating with recording paper identification information which is stored on a non-contact type memory provided on a plurality of respective sheets of the recording paper and capable of identifying each sheet of the recording paper uniquely, a placement status obtaining section provided in the discharge section and obtaining a placement status of the received document in the discharge section by reading the recording paper identification information of the non-contact type memory and a received document managing section as will be described next. The received document managing section manages the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section and stored information of the reception information storing section. Here, ‘to manage a received facsimile document’ means comprehending accurately management information of the received document such as from which source to which destination the received document on the discharge tray has been sent, when and by whom a part or the whole has been taken away, etc., based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section and stored information of the reception information storing section, and also storing, changing, deleting or updating the comprehended management information of the received document so as to be used for informing a source or destination. Therefore, according to the facsimile machine according to the present invention, a received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination can be managed properly based on the management information. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an overview of a facsimile machine in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is an explanatory diagram showing a state of an IC tag embedded in a sheet of recording paper used in the facsimile machine according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3A is an explanatory diagram exemplifying details of reception information of a received document, stored as associated with recording paper identification information. FIG. 3B is an explanatory diagram exemplifying details of page information subordinate to the reception information in FIG. 3A. FIG. 4 is an operational flowchart to store the reception information as associating with the recording paper identification information of the received document when a document image is printed out on a sheet of the recording paper. FIG. 5 is an operational flowchart to notify acknowledgement of receipt in accordance with the received document. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, a facsimile machine in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention is described in detail with reference to the drawings. General Configuration of a Facsimile Machine in Accordance With an Embodiment of the Present Invention As shown in FIG. 1, various functions including a copying job, a printing job or a network transmission (mail transmission, data transmission, etc.) job other than a facsimile communication job are available in a facsimile machine 101 according to the embodiment of the present invention. The facsimile machine 101 is controlled by a facsimile controller 3 composed of a microcomputer and dedicated hardware circuitry. As input/output devices connected to the facsimile controller 3 via a bus line 4 and taking charge of the various functions, the facsimile machine 101 is provided with a paper feeding section 1, a facsimile communication section 5, a scanner section 6, an image forming section 7, an operation panel section 8, a local area network interface (LAN I/F) section 10, an informing section 11, a discharge section 13 and a communication section 15. The facsimile machine 101 is connected with a simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) server 103 via a local area network (LAN) 12 while connected to a public network 14. The scanner section 6 includes an image irradiation lamp and a charge coupled device (CCD) sensor constituting a scanner (not shown). The image irradiation lamp irradiates a document and the CCD sensor receives its reflection, thereby reading out an image from the document and outputting image data corresponding to the read-out image to an image processing section (not shown). The image forming section 7 includes a photoconductor drum, an exposure system and a development system, all of which are not shown. The image forming section 7 prints an image on a sheet of recording paper by using image data which has been read by the scanner section 6, image data which has been transmitted from a client personal computer (PC) by the LAN 12 via the LAN I/F section 10 and image data of facsimile data which has been received from an external facsimile machine by the facsimile communication section 5. In the embodiment, the image forming section 7 prints an image of a received facsimile document which has been received by the facsimile communication section 5 on a sheet of the recording paper. The operation panel section 8 includes a display section 8a and an operation key section 8b, and is used when a user performs operations in connection with a facsimile function, a scanner function, a printer function, a copier function, etc. The display section 8a is composed of a touch panel unit combined with a touch panel and a color liquid crystal display (LCD). The display section 8a displays various operation screens and also displays operation buttons for the user to input various operation commands by touching an appropriate place. The operation key section 8b is provided with a plurality of operation keys to accept an operation input by the user. The operation key section 8a is used when the user selectively carries out a key input operation for a necessary function from among various functions such as the facsimile function, the copier function, the printer function and the scanner function, for example. More specifically, the operation key section 8a is used, for example, when the user performs a ten-key input operation to select a facsimile machine at the other end as using the facsimile function and when the user carries out an input operation for a one touch dial or a speed dial. With the use of a network interface (10/100 Base-TX), the LAN I/F section 10 controls transmission and reception of various data with respect to a user terminal such as a client PC connected via the LAN 12. When an e-mail is transmitted/received, for example, the e-mail is transmitted/received to a sender or receiver via the LAN I/F section 10 and the SMTP server 103. The informing section 11 has a function of informing both or either of an appropriate source and/or an appropriate destination of management information about the received facsimile document. The paper feeding section 1 is a section to store recording paper before printing processing, and is provided with a paper ID detecting section 1a. The paper ID detecting section 1a has a function of reading out recording paper identification information which is stored in an IC tag 43 embedded in recording paper 41 and is capable of identifying a plurality of respective sheets of the recording paper uniquely when the printing processing is carried out, as shown in FIG. 2. As the IC tag 43, a non-contact type IC memory, for example, a μ-chip registered trademark by Hitachi, Ltd. can be used suitably. The discharge section 13 includes a discharge tray for placing a received document of which printing processing has been finished, and is provided with a paper ID detecting section 13a. The paper ID detecting section 13a (corresponding to a part of ‘a placement status obtaining section’ in the present invention) is used at the time of obtaining a placement status with regard to how much of the received document of which printing processing has been finished is left on the discharge tray. The communication section (corresponding to a part of ‘a user identification information obtaining section’ in the present invention) 15 has a function of obtaining user identification information about an access user approaching the machine 101 by performing wireless communication with a memory card 16 such as an IC card carried by the user. The facsimile communication section 5 has a function of transmitting image data of a document which has been read by the scanner section 6 to a facsimile machine at the other end via the public network 14 and receiving image data which has been transmitted from a facsimile machine at the other end. The facsimile communication section 5 includes a network controlling section 21, a modulating and demodulating section 23 and an encoding/decoding section 25. The network controlling section 21 corresponds to a network control unit (NCU), and has a function of performing network control such as sending a dial signal to the public network 14. The modulating and demodulating section 23 has a function of modulating compressed/encoded image data to a voice signal and demodulating a received voice signal to image data. The encoding/decoding section 25 has a function of compressing and encoding image data of a document targeted for communication and decompressing and decoding received image data. In order to properly manage the whereabouts of the received facsimile document which has been sent from a source to a destination, the facsimile controller 3 includes a placement status obtaining section (cooperating with the paper ID detecting section 13a to serve as ‘a placement status obtaining section’ in the present invention) 27 provided in the discharge section 13 and obtaining a placement status of the received document on the discharge tray by reading out recording paper identification information (hereinafter sometimes abbreviated as ‘recording paper ID’) of the IC tag 43, a user identification information obtaining section (cooperating with the communication section 15 to serve as ‘a user identification information obtaining section’ in the present invention) 29 obtaining user identification information (hereinafter sometimes abbreviated as ‘user ID’) of an access user every time the user makes access, a reception information storing section (corresponding to 1a reception information storing section, in the present invention) 31 storing reception information of the received document, every time a facsimile is received from the source, as associating with the recording paper identification information of the non-contact type IC tag 43, a placement status determining section 33 making a determination whether the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence, a removal status determining section 35 making a determination whether the shifting is made with respect to the whole of the received document included in facsimile reception specified based on the relevant placement status and a received document managing section (corresponding to ‘a received document managing section’ in the present invention) 37 managing the received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 and stored information of the reception information storing section 31. The functions taken charge of by the placement status determining section 33 and the removal status determining section 35 may be combined into the received document managing section 37. [Exemplification of Reception Information] As attributes included in reception information stored in the reception information storing section 31 and serving an important role in the present invention, a serial number, a date and time of facsimile reception, information of a source user name, information of a destination user name, a communication result, a status whether receipt acknowledgement is notified, the number of pages of the facsimile reception can be exemplified, as shown in a table of reception information records of FIG. 3A. As attributes included in page information subordinate to the reception information of the serial number ‘03’ among the reception information records in FIG. 3A, for example, a serial number for each page, a recording paper ID for each page (‘123456—001’, ‘123456—002’ and ‘123456—003’ in the embodiment), an output paper size for each page (‘A4’ size, ‘B4’ size, ‘A3’ size, etc.), resolution for each page (‘Normal’, ‘Fine’, ‘Super_Fine’, etc.), a communication result for each page, a removal date and time for each page (‘-’ in the embodiment means the page has not been taken away yet) and a removal user name for each page (‘-’ in the embodiment means the page has not been taken away yet) can be exemplified as shown in a table of page information records of FIG. 3B. The reception information is referred to, for example, when a placement status as to which and how much of the received document among received facsimile documents that have been discharged on the discharge tray is left after the printing processing is finished is obtained. This reception information can be obtained from a facsimile machine at the other end during facsimile communication by using a non-standard facilities set-up (NSS), for example. By Internet FAX, the reception information can be obtained by writing down on a header or main body of a mail message. Operations of a Facsimile Machine According to the Embodiment Of the Present Invention Now, a flow of an operation of associating reception information with recording paper ID at facsimile reception is explained according to a flowchart in FIG. 4. The facsimile communication section 5 completes facsimile reception at Step S11. At this moment, image data of a document which has been received via facsimile is stored on an image memory (not shown). At Step S13, the facsimile controller 13 starts an image forming processing on recording paper 41 for every page of an image of the received facsimile document from the source. At Step S15, the paper ID detecting section 1a of the paper feeding section 1 reads out and detects recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 embedded in the recording paper 41 at the timing that the recording paper 41 stored in the paper feeding section 1 is sent out to the image forming section 7. The paper ID detecting section 1a then transmits the detected recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 to the facsimile controller 3. Although the embodiment is explained as giving an example that the IC tag 43 embedded in the recording paper 41 is provided in advance with the recording paper ID capable of identifying a plurality of sheets of recording paper uniquely, the present invention is not limited to the example. More specifically, for example, a writing section (not shown) for writing the recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 may be configured to be provided in the paper feeding section 1 and give the recording paper ID to the IC tag 43. In response to the recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 which has been detected at Step S15, the reception information storing section 31 stores the recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 in a field of the recording paper ID among the attributes of the page information as shown in FIG. 3B at Step S17. When the image forming processing for one page is completed at Step S19, the facsimile controller 3 makes a determination at Step S21 whether there is a page which has not been printed out yet among the received facsimile documents. As a result of the determination, the facsimile controller 3 moves the flow of the operation return to Step S13 and performs the subsequent operation sequentially when a determination that there is a page which has not been printed out yet is made. On the other hand, the facsimile controller 3 terminates a series of the flow of operations when a determination that all of the pages have finished being printed out is made. By the foregoing series of operations, the recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 embedded in each sheet of the recording paper 41 is stored in the field of the recording paper ID in the table of the page information shown in FIG. 3B subordinate to the table of the reception information shown in FIG. 3A, as associated with the reception information of the facsimile reception, with respect to the recording paper 41 of each page on which the received facsimile document has been image-formed. Subsequently, in accordance with the flowchart in FIG. 5, is explained a flow of an operation in obtaining a placement status as to which and how much of the received document among received facsimile documents that have been discharged on the discharge tray is left and notifying the source of receipt acknowledgement based on the obtained placement status. At Step S31, the facsimile controller 3 determines whether there is a communication (a reception information record) in which receipt acknowledgement of the received document has not been notified yet, referring to stored information (the field of ‘reception acknowledgement’ in FIG. 3A) of the reception information storing section 31. As a result of the determination, the facsimile controller 3 moves the flow of the operation to Step S33 when a determination that there is a communication in which receipt acknowledgement of the received document has not been notified yet. On the other hand, the facsimile controller 3 terminates a series of the flow of operations when a determination that there is no communication in which receipt acknowledgement of the received document has not been notified yet. In order to obtain a placement status which and how much of the received facsimile documents that have been discharged on the discharge tray are left, the placement status obtaining section 27 makes the paper ID detecting section 13a provided in the discharge section 13 read out recording paper ID of the IC tag 43 of the received document on the discharge tray at Step S33. At Step S35, the placement status determining section 33 and the removal status determining section 35 examine a placement status as to which and how much of the received documents is left and a removal status as to when and by whom which received document has been taken away with respect to the received facsimile documents placed on the discharge tray by referring to the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 and the field of ‘removal date and time’ shown in FIG. 3B among the page information subordinate to the reception information of the received document of which receipt acknowledgement has not been notified yet. When a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence is made, at Step S37, the removal status determining section 35 regards that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user specified based on the user ID obtained by the user ID obtaining section 29 upon determination of the shifting, and presumes a removal user who has taken away the received document. The removal status determining section 35 presumes that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user different from a proper destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence is made and also when a determination that the user specified based on the user ID obtained by the user ID obtaining section 29 upon determination of the shifting does not agree with a user (see the field of ‘destination user name’ among the reception information shown in FIG. 3A) in destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section 31 is made. On the other hand, the removal status determining section 35 presumes that a received document specified based on the placement status has been taken away by a user different from a proper destination when a determination that the user specified based on the user ID obtained by the user ID obtaining section 29 does not agree with a user in the destination information based on the stored information of the reception information storing section 31 is made. That is, the removal status determining section 35 compares the field of ‘destination user name’ in the reception information as shown in FIG. 3A with the field of ‘removal user name’ in the page information as shown in FIG. 3B to make a removal user correct/incorrect determination whether the received document has been taken away by a proper destination user correctly. As regarding an access user obtained by the user identification information obtaining section 29 as the removal user having taken away the received document when the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence, the access user name is stored as the removal user in the field of ‘removal user name’ in the page information shown in FIG. 3B. Accordingly, the access user obtained by the user identification information obtaining section 29 at the time that the removal status of the received document shifts from presence to absence is arranged to be regarded as the removal user having taken away the received document, as referring to ‘removal date and time’ in the page information shown in FIG. 3B. At Step S39, the facsimile controller 3 determines whether all pages (‘3’ pages in the embodiment) have been taken away relative to a communication (a reception information record) in which receipt acknowledgement of the received document has not been notified yet, as referring to the stored information (the field of ‘removal date and time’ in FIG. 3B) of the reception information storing section 31. As a result of the determination, the facsimile controller 3 moves the flow of the operation return to Step S33 and performs the subsequent operation sequentially when a determination that all of the pages among the communications in which receipt acknowledgement of the received document has not been notified yet are not taken away (there are cases where all of the pages are left in their entirety and where apart of the pages is partly left. Informing modes in those cases will be described later.) is made. On the other hand, the facsimile controller 3 moves the flow of the operation to Step S41 when a determination that all of the pages have been taken away is made. The facsimile controller 3, at Step S41, informs both or either of the appropriate source and/or the appropriate destination of receipt of the received document via an appropriate means such as facsimile communication or e-mail. At this Step S41, when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about all of the received document included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status, the whole of the received document included in the facsimile reception is considered as having been taken away, and receipt of the received document is arranged to be informed to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination. Further, a result of the removal user correct/incorrect determination at Step S37 may be sent together with the receipt acknowledgement. In addition, in delivering the receipt acknowledgement of the received document to the source of the facsimile via an appropriate means such as facsimile communication or e-mail, a facsimile number or an e-mail address of the appropriate source may be extracted by referring to facsimile numbers and e-mail addresses registered in an address book. [Disclosure of Variations] The foregoing embodiment is explained by giving an example that a group of facsimile reception transmitted from a source is considered as a unit and for a document of the facsimile reception, when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about all of the received document included in the facsimile reception specified based on the placement status, the whole of the received document included in the facsimile reception is regarded as having been taken away, and receipt of the received document is informed to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination. However, the present invention is not limited to the example. More specifically, for a group of a received facsimile document, for example, when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 shifts from presence to absence is made and also when the determination of the shifting is made about a part of the received document among all of the received documents included in facsimile reception specified based on the placement status, it may be configured such that the received document included in the facsimile reception is regarded as having been partly taken away and partial receipt of the received document is informed to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination. When a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 does not shift from presence to absence (regardless of the whole or a part of the received document in a group of the facsimile reception) even after a predetermined time has elapsed from the moment the facsimile reception is made, it may be configured such that the received document specified based on the placement status is regarded as being forgotten to be removed and an alarm of forgetting removal of the received document is given to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination. Further, it may be configured such that the received document specified based on the placement status is regarded as being forgotten to be removed by a user of destination information (see the field of ‘destination user name’ in the reception information shown in FIG. 3A) based on the stored information of the reception information storing section 31 and an alarm of forgetting removal of the received document is given to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination when a determination that the placement status of the received document obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 does not shift from presence to absence (regardless of the whole or a part of the received document in a group of the facsimile reception) even after a predetermined time has elapsed from the moment the facsimile reception is made. As a mode of informing both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination of receipt or forgetting removal of the received document, a configuration that an alarm beeping is sounded by the facsimile machine at the destination may be adopted. By reading out user ID of a memory card 16 carried by a user, the receipt or forgetting removal of the received document may be informed at the moment when the appropriate user accesses the facsimile machine. At the time of the informing, the receipt or forgetting removal of the received document may be displayed on a display screen of the display section 8a. In addition, on the occasion of the display, the receipt or forgetting removal of the received document may be displayed, for example, continuously for a predetermined time or temporarily. Although the foregoing embodiment is explained as providing an example that the user ID obtaining section 29 obtains a user ID which is stored on a memory card (non-contact type memory) 16 carried by a plurality of respective users and is capable of identifying each user uniquely via the memory card (non-contact type memory) 16 every time the user makes access, the present invention is not limited to the example. More specifically, for example, a mode may be adopted that the user ID obtaining section 29 obtains the user ID through a key input operation by the user or biometric information authentication of the user such as a fingerprint authentication every time the user makes access. A concept of ‘to inform of management information of a received facsimile document’ in the present invention includes all that when a facsimile is received, that effect is informed to an appropriate destination user via e-mail, etc., when a received facsimile document has been taken away by a proper destination user, that effect is informed to an appropriate source user via e-mail, etc., when a part or the whole of a received facsimile document is not taken away and left behind, that effect is informed to an appropriate source or destination user via e-mail, etc., when a received facsimile document has been taken away by the incorrect user, that effect is informed to an appropriate source user, a proper destination user or the user who has taken away the document by mistake via e-mail, etc. Last, there are various modes in the aforementioned present invention obviously belonging to the identity scope. Such various modes are not regarded as departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, and every modification obvious to those skilled in the art falls within the technical scope of the claims according to the present invention. Effects of the Embodiment In the facsimile machine 101 according to the embodiment of the present invention, the received document managing section 37 manages a received facsimile document based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 and stored information of the reception information storing section 31. Here, ‘to manage a received facsimile document’ is a concept including all accurately comprehending management information of the received document such as from which source to which destination the received document on the discharge tray is transmitted, when and by whom a part or the whole has been taken away, based on the placement status obtained by the placement status obtaining section 27 and the stored information of the reception information storing section 31 and storing, changing, deleting or updating the comprehended management information of the received document so as to be used for informing the source or destination. Consequently, according to the facsimile machine 101 of the embodiment of the present invention, a received facsimile document which has been transmitted from a source to a destination can be managed properly based on the management information. Since the management information of the received facsimile document as to from which source to which destination the received document on the discharge tray is transmitted and when and by whom a part or the whole has been taken away is arranged to be informed to both or either of the appropriate source and/or destination, the source is able to know the management information of the received facsimile document in detail while the destination is able to know without fail an existence of the received facsimile document addressed to himself/herself.
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1
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00
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11932612
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US20080063367A1-20080313
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RECORDING MEDIUM AND METHOD FOR REPRODUCING INFORMATION THEREFROM
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ACCEPTED
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20080227
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20080313
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[]
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H04N591
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["H04N591"]
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7657158
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20071031
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20100202
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386
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095000
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70535.0
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SHIBRU
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HELEN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "SUGIMURA", "inventor_name_first": "Naozumi", "inventor_city": "Yokohama", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "OKAMOTO", "inventor_name_first": "Hiroo", "inventor_city": "Yokohama", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "SHIOKAWA", "inventor_name_first": "Junji", "inventor_city": "Chigasaki", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A recording medium having recorded thereon, a plurality of picture information sets, presentation time values each of which is associated with the corresponding one of the picture information sets, picture information record marks each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said presentation time values, clip information specifying what position on the recording medium is associated with each of said presentation time values, and reproducing order specifying information specifying in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced.
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1. A recording medium where the following are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said picture information sets; picture information record marks each of which is associated with the corresponding one of said presentation time values; clip information specifying what position on the recording medium is associated with each of said presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information specifying in what order said picture information sets are to be reproduced.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a technique for recording/reproducing picture information, in particular still picture information, on/from a recording medium. FIG. 2 shows an example of the conventional arrangement of information files that are stored on an optical disk, such as a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc), where moving picture information is recorded. In the information file structure shown in FIG. 2 , a directory DVR is formed on the optical disk. Each information file is recorded under this directory. In FIG. 2 , the info.dvr file 201 is a file where information such as the number and filenames of play lists under the DVR directory is written. The menu.tidx file 202 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails to be used in menus is recorded. The menu.tdat file 203 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used in menus is recorded. The mark.tidx file 204 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails associated with mark positions are recorded. The mark.tdat file 205 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used at mark positions is recorded. Play list files 206 are files where marks and other information specifying in what order and what parts of picture information are to be reproduced are recorded. Clip information files 207 are files where information such as play start points in stream files and their packet positions is recorded. Stream files 208 are files where such packets as picture information and sound information are recorded. With respect to the stream files 208 , picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 standard, which is one of the standard picture information compressing techniques, and the compressed information is converted into a stream file before being recorded. MPEG2 provides an excellent ability to compress a large amount of information not only to NTSC-format picture information, but also to HD (High Density) picture information, such as Hi-Vision. The amount of information in original picture information can be compressed to about one tenth or one fiftieth. For example, picture information in the NTSC format is compressed to about 6 Mbps, while HD picture information is compressed to about 20 Mbps. In both cases, MPEG2 can attain a sufficiently high picture quality. Picture information compression by MPEG2 is widely used in such applications as accumulation of picture information on DVDs and digital broadcasting. With respect to the clip information files 207 , in the same manner as described above, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 format before being recorded. The MPEG2 system compresses picture information based on correlations between adjacent pictures. More specifically, if there are portions which do not change between adjacent pictures, information relating to these portions is not transmitted again, and the last picture information received is used as it is for these portions. However, this imposes a drawback in that not all picture information elements can be reproduced by decoding such picture information, only the changed portions of which were encoded. After such an operation as fast forward or skip, play can be restarted only from those pictures in which all picture information elements were encoded. Generally, when picture information compression is performed according to the MPEG2 standard, picture information is divided into groups, each comprising about fifteen pictures. Each of these groups is called a GOP (Group of Pictures). Play from the top of a GOP allows immediate reproduction of picture information. In the clip information file 207 , the packet position of the top of each GOP is recorded with the time (corresponding to the Presentation Time Stamp value) indicating when its picture information was encoded. This makes it possible to easily find a play start position when a search or skip operation is performed. Clip information files 207 are associated with stream files on a one-to-one basis. If a clip information file designated 01000.c1pi is recorded in association with a stream file designated 01000.m2ts, these files can easily be recognized as being associated with each other. With respect to the play list files 206 , information recorded in each play list file lists parts of stream files which are to be played in the specified order. FIG. 3 more specifically shows the information structure of the play list files. In a play list file, the version_number entry indicates the version of the play list. The PlayList_start_address entry indicates where the play list information is recorded in the play list file. The PlayListMark_start_address entry indicates where the play list mark information is recorded. The MakersPrivateData_start_address entry indicates where the maker's private information is recorded. Note that each play list contains information about one or more play items, indicating what parts of stream files are to be played. An example of, the play list mark information will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 7 . The length entry indicates the information length of the play list mark information. The number_of_PlayListMarks entry indicates the number of play list marks. The mark_type entry indicates the type of the play list mark. The mark_name_length entry indicates the length of the play list mark's name. The ref_to_PlayItem_id entry indicates the number of the play item associated with the play list mark. The mark_time_stamp entry indicates the time when the play list mark was marked. The Entry_ES_PID entry indicates the packet ID of the ES (Elementary Stream) of the play item associated with the play list mark. The ref_to_thumbnail_index entry indicates the number of the thumbnail associated with the play list mark. The mark_name entry stores a character string representing the name of the play list mark. An example of the stream management structure of moving picture information will be described with reference to FIG. 13 . As shown in FIG. 13 , a stream is composed of plural titles and a title is composed of plural chapters. Each chapter is composed of plural scenes. In many cases, each scene is constituted by moving picture information that has been recorded continuously until recording is stopped after having been started. With reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 13 , the types of play list marks will be described. Each play list mark may have be any of one of several identifiable types; for example, a title mark indicates the top of a title, a chapter mark indicates the top of a chapter and a skip mark indicates the top of a scene. With reference to FIG. 8 , an example of how the play list information, play item information, clip information, stream files and play list mark information are mutually associated will be described. Each play list includes one or plural play items. In this example, two play items 802 and 803 are shown a part of play list 801 . Each play item specifies what part of what stream file is to be played by designating the corresponding clip information's filename, STC_sequence number, start time and stop time. More specifically, the play item 802 is associated with an area 804 of a stream file. Each play item may be associated with a different stream file. Reference numerals 806 and 807 respective indicate positions where play list marks are recorded. Actually, these play list marks are recorded in the play list information and are converted to packet positions in the actual stream file by using the clip information. (For example, see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-123389.) The above-mentioned technique assumes that moving picture information is recorded and reproduced using MPEG stream files. However, it is necessary to record/reproduce still picture information as well as moving picture information. In addition, unlike moving picture information, when still picture information is to be reproduced, it is desirable to allow each still picture to be accessed easily. When reproducing a plurality of still pictures from a recording medium, the user is required to perform operations for such purposes as to switch to the previous or next picture. Since the recording/reproducing of still picture information is not taken into consideration in the conventional recording and reproducing apparatus, however, the apparatus can not operate properly in response to the above-mentioned operations by the user. In addition, a method for displaying still picture information while outputting sound information continuously as BGM (Background Music) has not been taken into consideration. It is an object of the present invention to solve the above-mentioned problems, that is, to allow still picture information to be easily selected and reproduced and to provide a user-friendly reproducing technique.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To solve the aforementioned problems, the present invention provides a recording medium on which the following information is recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. In addition, the present invention provides a technique for reproducing information from a recording medium on which the following items are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; clip information which specifies what position on the recording medium is associated with each of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. The picture information is reproduced through the following steps: detecting the presentation time value of a picture information set to be retrieved from the corresponding picture information record mark; using the clip information to detect the recording position on the recording medium which corresponds to the detected presentation time value; and reproducing picture information from the detected recording position.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/250,505, filed Oct. 17, 2005, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/664,901, filed Sep. 23, 2003, which claims priority from JP 2003-168591, filed Jun. 13, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a technique for recording/reproducing picture information, in particular still picture information, on/from a recording medium. FIG. 2 shows an example of the conventional arrangement of information files that are stored on an optical disk, such as a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc), where moving picture information is recorded. In the information file structure shown in FIG. 2, a directory DVR is formed on the optical disk. Each information file is recorded under this directory. In FIG. 2, the info.dvr file 201 is a file where information such as the number and filenames of play lists under the DVR directory is written. The menu.tidx file 202 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails to be used in menus is recorded. The menu.tdat file 203 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used in menus is recorded. The mark.tidx file 204 is a file where information such as the sizes and information amounts of thumbnails associated with mark positions are recorded. The mark.tdat file 205 is a file where thumbnail picture information to be used at mark positions is recorded. Play list files 206 are files where marks and other information specifying in what order and what parts of picture information are to be reproduced are recorded. Clip information files 207 are files where information such as play start points in stream files and their packet positions is recorded. Stream files 208 are files where such packets as picture information and sound information are recorded. With respect to the stream files 208, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 standard, which is one of the standard picture information compressing techniques, and the compressed information is converted into a stream file before being recorded. MPEG2 provides an excellent ability to compress a large amount of information not only to NTSC-format picture information, but also to HD (High Density) picture information, such as Hi-Vision. The amount of information in original picture information can be compressed to about one tenth or one fiftieth. For example, picture information in the NTSC format is compressed to about 6 Mbps, while HD picture information is compressed to about 20 Mbps. In both cases, MPEG2 can attain a sufficiently high picture quality. Picture information compression by MPEG2 is widely used in such applications as accumulation of picture information on DVDs and digital broadcasting. With respect to the clip information files 207, in the same manner as described above, picture information is compressed according to the MPEG2 format before being recorded. The MPEG2 system compresses picture information based on correlations between adjacent pictures. More specifically, if there are portions which do not change between adjacent pictures, information relating to these portions is not transmitted again, and the last picture information received is used as it is for these portions. However, this imposes a drawback in that not all picture information elements can be reproduced by decoding such picture information, only the changed portions of which were encoded. After such an operation as fast forward or skip, play can be restarted only from those pictures in which all picture information elements were encoded. Generally, when picture information compression is performed according to the MPEG2 standard, picture information is divided into groups, each comprising about fifteen pictures. Each of these groups is called a GOP (Group of Pictures). Play from the top of a GOP allows immediate reproduction of picture information. In the clip information file 207, the packet position of the top of each GOP is recorded with the time (corresponding to the Presentation Time Stamp value) indicating when its picture information was encoded. This makes it possible to easily find a play start position when a search or skip operation is performed. Clip information files 207 are associated with stream files on a one-to-one basis. If a clip information file designated 01000.c1pi is recorded in association with a stream file designated 01000.m2ts, these files can easily be recognized as being associated with each other. With respect to the play list files 206, information recorded in each play list file lists parts of stream files which are to be played in the specified order. FIG. 3 more specifically shows the information structure of the play list files. In a play list file, the version_number entry indicates the version of the play list. The PlayList_start_address entry indicates where the play list information is recorded in the play list file. The PlayListMark_start_address entry indicates where the play list mark information is recorded. The MakersPrivateData_start_address entry indicates where the maker's private information is recorded. Note that each play list contains information about one or more play items, indicating what parts of stream files are to be played. An example of, the play list mark information will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 7. The length entry indicates the information length of the play list mark information. The number_of_PlayListMarks entry indicates the number of play list marks. The mark_type entry indicates the type of the play list mark. The mark_name_length entry indicates the length of the play list mark's name. The ref_to_PlayItem_id entry indicates the number of the play item associated with the play list mark. The mark_time_stamp entry indicates the time when the play list mark was marked. The Entry_ES_PID entry indicates the packet ID of the ES (Elementary Stream) of the play item associated with the play list mark. The ref_to_thumbnail_index entry indicates the number of the thumbnail associated with the play list mark. The mark_name entry stores a character string representing the name of the play list mark. An example of the stream management structure of moving picture information will be described with reference to FIG. 13. As shown in FIG. 13, a stream is composed of plural titles and a title is composed of plural chapters. Each chapter is composed of plural scenes. In many cases, each scene is constituted by moving picture information that has been recorded continuously until recording is stopped after having been started. With reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 13, the types of play list marks will be described. Each play list mark may have be any of one of several identifiable types; for example, a title mark indicates the top of a title, a chapter mark indicates the top of a chapter and a skip mark indicates the top of a scene. With reference to FIG. 8, an example of how the play list information, play item information, clip information, stream files and play list mark information are mutually associated will be described. Each play list includes one or plural play items. In this example, two play items 802 and 803 are shown a part of play list 801. Each play item specifies what part of what stream file is to be played by designating the corresponding clip information's filename, STC_sequence number, start time and stop time. More specifically, the play item 802 is associated with an area 804 of a stream file. Each play item may be associated with a different stream file. Reference numerals 806 and 807 respective indicate positions where play list marks are recorded. Actually, these play list marks are recorded in the play list information and are converted to packet positions in the actual stream file by using the clip information. (For example, see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2003-123389.) The above-mentioned technique assumes that moving picture information is recorded and reproduced using MPEG stream files. However, it is necessary to record/reproduce still picture information as well as moving picture information. In addition, unlike moving picture information, when still picture information is to be reproduced, it is desirable to allow each still picture to be accessed easily. When reproducing a plurality of still pictures from a recording medium, the user is required to perform operations for such purposes as to switch to the previous or next picture. Since the recording/reproducing of still picture information is not taken into consideration in the conventional recording and reproducing apparatus, however, the apparatus can not operate properly in response to the above-mentioned operations by the user. In addition, a method for displaying still picture information while outputting sound information continuously as BGM (Background Music) has not been taken into consideration. It is an object of the present invention to solve the above-mentioned problems, that is, to allow still picture information to be easily selected and reproduced and to provide a user-friendly reproducing technique. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To solve the aforementioned problems, the present invention provides a recording medium on which the following information is recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. In addition, the present invention provides a technique for reproducing information from a recording medium on which the following items are recorded: a plurality of picture information sets; presentation time values, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the picture information sets; picture information record marks, each of which is associated with a corresponding one of the presentation time values; clip information which specifies what position on the recording medium is associated with each of the presentation time values; and reproducing order specifying information which specifies in what order the picture information sets are to be reproduced. The picture information is reproduced through the following steps: detecting the presentation time value of a picture information set to be retrieved from the corresponding picture information record mark; using the clip information to detect the recording position on the recording medium which corresponds to the detected presentation time value; and reproducing picture information from the detected recording position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a reproducing apparatus with which the present invention is carried out; FIG. 2 is a diagram which shows an example of the structural arrangement of files on a recording medium; FIG. 3 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of a play list file; FIG. 4 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play list information; FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the information provided by a type_of_presentation entry; FIG. 6 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play item information; FIG. 7 is a diagram which shows an example of the data structure of play list mark information; FIG. 8 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when moving picture information is recorded; FIG. 9 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when still picture information is recorded; FIG. 10 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when BGM-combined still picture information is recorded; FIG. 11 is a diagram which shows the format of a MPEG-TS; FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an output timing control circuit; and FIG. 13 is a diagram which conceptually shows an example of a stream management structure; FIG. 14 is a diagram which shows how information is mutually associated when still picture information is recorded; and FIG. 15 is a diagram which conceptually shows the content of a play list file. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description is direction to a first embodiment of the present invention. Although it is assumed in the description of this first embodiment that a DVD is being used as a recording medium, the present invention can also be applied to the use of a CD (Compact Disc), MD (Mini Disc) and various other information recording media. It is also assumed in the following description that intra frame compressed picture information (I pictures) is included in recorded MEPEG stream files (hereafter denoted simply as stream files) according to the MPEG2 standard. Needless to say, information can be encoded by another picture information compression method as well. Similar to picture information, sound information is compressed in terms of quantity by using a sound information compression technique in this first embodiment. The employed sound information compression technique is selectable from a variety of compression systems, such as the MPEG1 audio system and the AAC system that is used in BS digital broadcasting. In addition, since the amount of sound information is smaller than that of picture information, it can be recorded by a linear PCM method without compression. In addition, in this first embodiment, picture information and sound information, which are encoded as described above, are multiplexed into a stream file and recorded as a single file so as to facilitate transmission and accumulation. More specifically, each information unit is converted into a 188-byte packet, which is given a PID (Packet ID) to identify the packet. Giving a unique PID to each unit of information allows packets to be sorted easily when they are reproduced. In a first embodiment, not only picture and sound information, but also subtitle information, graphic information, control command information and other information packets can also be multiplexed into a stream file. Further, such packets as PMT (Program Map Table) and PAT (Program Allocation Table) packets, which define how PIDs are associated with each other, and a PCR (Program Clock Reference) packet indicating time information are also multiplexed. A stream file where information is multiplexed in this way is recorded on an optical disk as a stream file. A reproducing apparatus according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, an optical disk 101 has information recorded thereon, and an optical pickup 102 reads out information from the optical disk 101 by using laser light. In a reproducing signal processing circuit 103, the signal that has been read out through the optical pickup 102 is subjected to prescribed decoding processing, and it is converted to a digital signal. In an output control circuit 104, the digital signal from the reproducing signal processing circuit, where decoding processing was performed, is packetized according to a prescribed format, and it is then subjected to output processing. A servo circuit 105 controls the rotating speed of the optical disk and the position of the optical pickup 102. A drive control circuit 106 controls the servo circuit 105 and the signal processing circuit 103. In an audio information decoder 107, a sound information signal is obtained by decoding sound information packets received from the output control circuit 104. An audio output terminal 108 outputs the sound information signal which was obtained through decoding by the audio information decoder 107. In a video information decoder 109, a picture information signal is obtained by decoding picture information packets received from the output control circuit 104. A video output terminal 110 outputs the picture information signal which was obtained through decoding by the video information decoder 109. On the optical disk 101, stream files are recorded, in which picture information and sound information signal packets are multiplexed. In addition, such information as play list information, which lists items to be reproduced in the listed order from streams, clip information, which locates characteristic points in each stream, mark position information, which indicates skip positions and chapter start positions, and menu information, that is used to select a play list, are recorded as files in a prescribed format. Each play list information file has information about one or plural play items, indicating what parts of what stream files are to be reproduced. FIG. 4 shows an example of the data structure of the play item information in the first embodiment. In the play item information, the length entry indicates the length of the play items. The type_of_presentation entry indicates how the items are to be presented. The number_of_PlayItems entry indicates the number of play items in the play item information. The number_of_SubPlayItems entry indicates the number of sub play items (Sub play items will be described later in connection with a third embodiment. FIG. 5 shows the meaning of the values which the type_of_presentation can have. More specifically, if type_of_presentation entry is 0, the play items are reproduced as ordinary moving or still picture information. If the type_of_presentation entry is 1, they are reproduced as still picture information with BGM. Note that still picture information with BGM will be described in detail later in connection with a third embodiment. FIG. 6 shows an example of the data structure of the play item information. The length entry indicates the information length of the play item. The still_flag entry is a flag indicating whether the presentation is to be frozen at the end of the play item reproduced. If the stil_flag entry is set, the still_duration entry specifies in seconds how long the presentation is to be frozen at the end of the play item being reproduced. When the entry still_duration=0, this specifies that the presentation is to be frozen infinitely. The Clip_Information_file_name entry represents the file identifier of the corresponding clip information file and stream file. The ref_to_STC_id entry indicates the sequence number of the STC in the stream file. The IN_time entry specifies where the play item begins in the stream file by designating the corresponding PTS in the picture information. The OUT_time entry specifies where the play item ends in the stream file by designating the corresponding PTS in the picture information. In the first embodiment, play items are respectively associated with individual still pictures, as shown in FIG. 14. On the other hand, as described with the conventional technique, in the case of moving picture information, it is not feasible to associate every I picture with a play item since this tremendously enlarges the size of the play list file. Thus, play list mark information is recorded at the top of each chapter, as shown in FIG. 8. By using such marks, it is possible to realize various functions, such as to start reproduction from the next chapter and to go back to the top of the current chapter and start reproduction therefrom. In the case of still picture information, however, it is desirable to associate each still picture with a play item. When switching to the previous or next still picture, this allows the still picture to be detected easily. As described, in connection with the first embodiment, a plurality of still pictures can be recorded in such a manner that such operations as switching to the next or previous picture can be implemented easily. Now, a second embodiment of the present invention will be described. Although the description thereof is based on some assumptions, these assumptions will not be specifically mentioned, since they are the same as those made in the description of the first embodiment. The second embodiment is characterized in that each still picture is associated with a mark. That is, in the second embodiment, a still picture mark, which indicates the top of a still picture, is added as another type of play list mark to the syntax shown in FIG. 7. Accordingly, each play list mark is recognizable, for example, as either a chapter mark indicating the top of a chapter, a still picture mark indicating the top of a still picture or a skip mark indicating the skip position of a scene. The meaning of each mark can be recognized if the mark is given prescribed numbers assigned to the type of mark. This allows plural marks of the same type to be used selectively. Needless to say, it is possible not only to give any meanings to marks, but also to use only one mark type. In the second embodiment, if the position of each still picture is recorded as a play list mark, it is possible to easily detect the position of the objective still picture when switching to the previous or next still picture is to be performed. For reference, FIG. 15 conceptually shows the play list management structure in the second embodiment. With reference to FIG. 9, an example of how each item of information is associated when still picture information is recorded will be described. When still picture information is recorded, it is recorded as picture information instead of moving picture information. In the case of still picture information, picture information is not recorded continuously, but only where still picture information is to be reproduced. Meanwhile, such information as sound information and subtitle information is recorded continuously on a stream whether the information is associated with still picture information or moving picture information. Similar to moving picture information, the still picture information to be recorded is picture information that has been compressed according to the MPEG2 format and is recorded as a file in the form of a MPEG transport packet. Unlike moving picture information, however, only one intra frame compressed picture (I picture) is recorded as still picture information. Since the information is terminated at the end of the picture information, adding a sequence end code to the picture information allows the decoder to display and hold one picture. FIG. 11 conceptually shows a MPEG transport packet. The stream from the output control circuit 104 is output in the form of this MPEG transport packet. In FIG. 11, reference numeral 1101 designates a packet header and 1102 designates a MPEG transport packet. The MPEG transport packet is 188 bytes long. Plural consecutive packets, each with a 4-byte packet header, are recorded as a stream file. Of the packet header, 30 bits are used as a time stamp and the remaining 2 bits are used as an area to record additional information. The time stamp is used to control the output timing of the packet. Its value is determined by counting based on a 27 MHz clock. FIG. 12 shows a specific example of a portion of the output control circuit 104 that is configured to control the packet output timing. The circuit portion includes an input terminal 1201, a buffer 1202, a time stamp pickup circuit 1203, an oscillator 1204, a counter 1205, a coincidence detector 1206 and an output terminal 1207. The signal retrieved from an optical disk is supplied to the input terminal 1201 of the output timing control circuit as a MPEG transport packet. As shown in FIG. 11, this incoming MPEG transport packet has a 4-byte packet header. The time stamp pickup circuit 1203 extracts a 30-bit time stamp from the packet header of the MPEG transport packet and supplies it to the coincidence detector 1206. Concurrently, the packet is stored in the buffer 1202. Meanwhile, the oscillator 1204, which generates a clock signal having a frequency of 27 MHz, supplies this clock signal to the counter 1205. The counter 1205 is 30 bits long, the same as the time stamp, and it counts the 27 MHz clock pulses. The result of the counting by the counter is supplied into the coincidence detector 1206. An example of how reproduction is performed in a reproducing apparatus according to the second embodiment will now be described with reference to FIG. 1. On an optical disk 101, picture information streams, play list information, clip information, etc. are recorded in the aforementioned formats. Initially, the user sets the optical disk 101 into the reproducing apparatus. Once the optical disk is inserted, the drive control circuit 106 detects the presence of the inserted disk and, by sending a signal, notifies the system control circuit 111 that a disk has been inserted. Upon receiving the disk insertion signal, the system control circuit 111 reads out file management information from the optical disk 101. More specifically, the system control circuit 111 instructs the drive control circuit 106 to read out information from a prescribed sector of the optical disk 101. According to the instruction received from the system control circuit 111, the drive control circuit 106 controls the servo circuit 105 to control the rotating speed and phase of the optical disk and the position of the optical pickup 102. Accordingly, the optical pickup 102 seeks out the specified sector and reads out information therefrom by laser light. The laser light received by the optical pickup 102 is converted to an electrical signal by a photoreceptive circuit, and the electrical signal is sent to the reproducing signal processing circuit 103. The reproducing signal processing circuit 103 converts the electric signal to digital information by performing decoding, error correction and the like on the signal. The information read out in this manner from the prescribed sector is sent back to the system control circuit 111 via the drive control circuit 106. Based on the information received from the drive control circuit 106, the system control circuit 111 analyzes the file management information and the contents of the read out files. The recorded file management information includes the directory, identifier, size and location of each file recorded on the optical disk 101. Using the file management information, the system control circuit 111 reads out the necessary files. Then, the user instructs the reproducing apparatus to start playing the optical disk 101. More specifically, the user pushes the play start button on a remote controller (not shown). The signal transmitted from the remote controller is received by the remote control receiver 112 and supplied to the system control circuit 111. Recognizing the signal as the play start command from the user, the system control circuit 111 reads out a file info.dvr 201 to acquire the number, filenames, etc., of play list files recorded on the disk. The system control circuit 111 displays the acquired play list information on the picture information screen, urging the user to select a play list. The embodiment may also be configured in such a manner that menu picture information is displayed with thumbnails. The user selects a desired play list from the play lists displayed on the TV picture information screen. This selection is effected by pushing a button, such as the upward, downward, rightward or leftward buttons on the remote controller. Via the remote control receiver, the system control circuit is notified as to which button has been pressed. Of course, this play list selecting operation is not necessary if the user intends to play the top play list. Once a play list is selected, the system control circuit 111 reads out the selected play list information from the optical disk. Each play list includes a type_of_presentation entry, representing information indicating how play is to be performed. It also includes play item information indicating what parts of what stream files are to be played by designating the corresponding filenames and play start and end times. In addition, play list mark information is also written. The play list mark information includes the numbers given respectively to the play item and thumbnail associated with each marked time. As example of how the reproducing apparatus operates when the type_of_presentation entry is 0, that is, when ordinary play is to be performed, will be described. If the type_of_presentation entry is 0, files specified as play items will be played sequentially. More specifically, the system control circuit 111 reads out the top play item information and reads out a clip information file 207 associated with the Clip_information_file entry written there. Then, by using the clip information, the times designated in the IN_time and OUT_time entries that are written for the play item are converted to the corresponding packet start number and end number. Then, a stream file associated with the Clip_information_file entry is read out so as to replay it from the packet associated with the packet start number. Retrieved stream packets are output from the output control circuit 104 to the audio decoder 107 and video decoder 109 at the prescribed timings according to the time stamps written on the packets. In the audio decoder 107, sound information is decoded and output to the sound information output terminal 108. Similarly, in the video decoder 109, picture information is decoded and output to the picture information output terminal 110. In addition, subtitle information, graphic information and the like are decoded in prescribed decoders (not shown) and superimposed on the picture information signal to be output. Commands multiplexed into the stream are supplied from the output control circuit 104 to the system control circuit 111 where the commands are interpreted. The stream file is replayed until the packet which is given an end packet number associated with the OUT_time entry for the play item 902 is reached. After the end packet is replayed, the next play item 903 begins to be replayed similarly. Once the play items listed in the play list 901 all have been played, the reproducing apparatus goes back to the play list selection stage. Needless to say, the system control circuit 111 may also be modified in such a manner that, in this case, the next play list begins to be played continuously. An example of how the skip operation is treated while picture information is being reproduced will be described. As described earlier, play list mark information is included in the play list 901. Each play list mark is associated with a play item and indicates the time when the mark was recorded. While the play item 901 is being replayed, if the next chapter button on the remote controller is pushed by the user to replay the next chapter, the play list mark information associated with the current play item is read and a chapter mark 910 which exists later than the current replay time is retrieved as a skip mark. In the description of the second embodiment, it is assumed that each play item corresponds to a chapter and that the top still picture mark of each chapter serves also as a chapter mark, although this should not be construed to limit the scope of the present invention. The present invention may also be implemented in such a manner that an arbitrary picture group is associated with a play item and still picture marks are set separately from chapter marks. In addition, if another skip mark is not found in the play list mark information associated with the current play item, the play list mark information associated with the next play item may be searched. The time of the chapter mark 910 that is retrieved in this manner is acquired from its mark_time_stamp entry and the corresponding play start packet number is determined from the clip information. Then still picture information 905 begins to be reproduced from that packet. This allows the next chapter to be played in response to actuation of the next chapter button. Similarly, if the previous chapter button is pushed to restart replay from the next previous chapter, the play list mark information associated with the currently replayed item is read to find a skip mark which is older than the current replay time. If there is no older skip mark in that play list mark information, the play list mark information associated with the next previous play item may be searched. The time of the skip mark retrieved in this manner is acquired from its mark_time_stamp entry, and the corresponding play start packet number is determined from the clip information. Then the stream file begins to be replayed from that packet. This allows the next previous chapter to be replayed in response to actuation of the chapter button. In this way, a stream can be replayed from before and after a play list mark position. An example of picture information switching operations (skip, etc.) will be described. In FIG. 9, the play list 901 includes two play items 902 and 903. If the play list 901 begins to be replayed, still picture information 904 and its accompanying information 907, such as sound information, included in the play item 902, are replayed at first. The still picture information 904 is immediately displayed if the stream begins to be replayed. Meanwhile, the accompanying information 907 is a stream having a predetermined length, and it is displayed over a predetermined period of time (for example, 5 seconds). This replay period was determined when the information was prepared. After the play item 902 is replayed, the play item 903 is replayed. The play item 903 includes two still pictures 905 and 906, along with accompanying sound and other information 908. If the play item 903 begins to be replayed, the still picture information 905 is immediately displayed, and, after expiration of a predetermined period of time, the still picture information 906 is displayed. During this time, the accompanying information 908 continues to be output. When the accompanying information 908 reaches to its end time, replaying the play item 904 is completed. If the next picture button is pushed to display the next still picture information while the still picture information 905 is being replayed, the system control circuit retrieves the next picture mark 911 from the play list mark information and begins to replay the stream from the position given by the mark 911, that is, the still picture information 906. The accompanying sound and other information 908 is multiplexed with the still picture information stream. If the displayed still picture information changes, the accompanying information being output also changes. Accordingly, replay of the accompanying information 908 is restarted from the position associated with the still picture information 906, that is, the still picture mark 911 so that the remaining part of the accompanying information 908 is replayed. Similarly, if the previous picture button is pushed to display the previous still picture information while the still picture information 905 is being replayed, the system control circuit picks up the next previous picture mark 909 from the play list mark information and begins to replay the stream from the position given by the mark 909, that is, the still picture information 904 and accompanying information 907. As described so far, the user can easily switch the displayed picture information. In addition, the still_flag and still_duration entries can be set to play items. They are used to freeze picture information for a certain period of time at the end of a play item that is being replayed. For example, the play item 902 will be frozen for 10 seconds at its end if the still_flag entry is set and the value 10 is assigned to the still_duration entry. The system control circuit recognizes that the still_flag entry is set for the play item 902 after the play item 902 is replayed, and freezes the display. More specifically, the system control circuit stops the output of the sound information and continues to display the last picture information. Then, the system control circuit starts replaying the next play item after 10 seconds have passed. Thus, the display can be frozen for an arbitrary period after play item replay. If the next picture button is pushed while the display is frozen, replay may be restarted from the position of the next still picture flag. If the still_duration entry is set to 0, replay is controlled so as to freeze the display until some operation is performed by the user. This processing, combined with command processing, can be applied to, for example, menu selection by the user. As shown in FIG. 6, since the stil_flag entry is set on an each play list basis in the play list information structure of this embodiment, only the last picture information of each play item can be frozen. To allow picture information during a play item replay to be frozen, the play item must be divided into separate play items or the syntax must be modified so that the still_flag and still_duration entry information can be set more than once for each play item. Note that, although the stream associated with the play list 912 in the example of FIG. 6 has only still picture information and does not contain sound and other accompanying information, the play list 912 also allows the same replay and skip operations as the play list 901. In addition, if every I picture of moving picture information is associated with a mark in the same manner as still picture information, switching to another I picture can be performed easily when moving picture information is displayed as still picture information. As described so far, plural still pictures recorded in the second embodiment can be easily switched to either display the next picture or a previous picture. Also, when moving picture information is displayed as still picture information, switching to either the next or the previous picture can be performed easily. A third embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 10. In the second embodiment described above, if the displayed still picture information is switched due to a skip operation or the like, the accompanying sound information is switched as well. However, it is preferable to continuously output sound information without a break, for example, while a menu is being displayed for selection or while still picture information is being displayed like a photo album. Accordingly, as shown in FIG. 10, BGM sound information is recorded as a sub play item separately from the ordinary play items. FIG. 10 shows how information is mutually associated when BGM-combined still picture information is replayed. If still picture information has been multiplexed with sound and other information before being recorded, as shown in FIG. 9, switching the displayed picture information to another picture as instructed by the user results in switching not only the picture information, but also the associated sound and other accompanying information. This is not always desirable, for example, when a menu screen is to be displayed using still picture information. Accordingly, the third embodiment is configured in such a manner that even when picture information is switched, sound information can be replayed continuously without a break. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 10, a play list includes not only a plurality of still pictures specified as ordinary play items, but also sound information specified as a sub play item. Since this allows the sound information to be replayed independently of the still picture information, the sound information can be replayed continuously even when the displayed still picture is switched. In view of the information syntax, a play item can be defined as BGM-combined still picture information by specifying type_of_presentation=1 in the play list information. An example of how BGM-included information, as shown in FIG. 10, is replayed will be described. To replay still picture information with BGM, the entry type_of_presentation is set to 1. In a play list 1001, a sub play item 1010 is included with two play items 1002 and 1003. More specifically, the audio stream 1011 is specified as SubPlayItem( ) according to the information syntax in FIG. 6. Here, the stream corresponding to the play items includes subtitle information, graphic information and control commands, as well as picture information, but does not contain sound information. Meanwhile, the sub play item stream 1011 contains only sound information. When the play list 1001 is to be replayed, information about the play items (1002 and 1003) and the sub play item 1010 is acquired from the play list (FIG. 4). Then, a clip information file is read out according to the Clip_information_file_name entry in the play item (FIG. 6). Using this clip file information, the stream replay start packet number associated with the time specified in the IN_time entry is obtained. Further, the stream file associated with the clip information file is read in to output and decode picture information starting from the packet having the replay start packet number. The streams 1004, 1005 and 1006 replayed here as play items include picture information and subtitle information, but they do not contain sound information. Or, even if sound information is included, control is carried out so as to abort the sound information without outputting it. The play items in the play list 1001 are replayed through this processing procedure. Meanwhile, the sub play item 1010 is also specified in the play list 1001. If the type_of_presentation entry is specified as 1 in the play list information, the system control circuit in the reproducing apparatus judges that this play list includes the replay of still picture information with BGM. In this case, the sub play item is to be treated as BGM sound information. More specifically, a stream 1011 corresponding to the sub play item 1010 is read in and control is performed so as to repeatedly replay this stream. Of course, this control may be modified so as to replay the sub play item stream only once. It is also possible to allow the number of times replay is repeated to be specified/recorded for the sub play item. Note that the sub play item must be replayed concurrently with a play item. For example, time division processing makes it possible to read in and replay/output both stream files concurrently. Of course, the same result can be obtained by reading the whole sub play item into a prepared large capacity buffer memory in advance. Then, on the assumption that the recorded information is structured as shown in FIG. 10, an example of how the replayed still picture information is switched when instructed by the user will be described. As described earlier, if the play list 1001 is selected, the play items 1002 and 1003 will be replayed sequentially to output still picture information. Concurrently, the sub play item 1010 will also be replayed to output sound information from the stream 1011. If the next picture button is pushed by the user to display the next still picture while the stream 1005 is being replayed, the system control circuit retrieves the next still picture mark 1009 from the play item marks and restarts replay at that position. Thus, the replayed still picture information is switched to display the still picture information contained in stream 1006. Meanwhile, the sub play item 1010 continues to be replayed independent of the user's still picture switching operation. Thus, the stream 1011 can be replayed to continuously output sound information without a break even when the replayed picture information is switched as instructed by the user. The information structure shown in FIG. 10 also allows the still_picture_flag and still_duration entry to be used to freeze the display of each picture information for an arbitrary period after being replayed. Also, in this case, it is possible to prevent sound information from breaking if control is carried out so as to continuously output the sub play item 1010, i.e., the BGM sound information. In the third embodiment, as described so far, by using a sub play item as BGM sound information, it is possible to continuously output sound information even when the replayed image information is switched by the user. Note that, although in the specific example mentioned above, two types of play list marks (chapter marks and still picture marks) are selectively used, this should not be construed to limit the implementation of the present invention. It is also possible to use play list marks of the same type. In this case, it is possible to perform appropriate processing based on the result of judging whether the picture information being replayed is ordinary moving picture information or still picture information. As described, in accordance with the third embodiment, a plurality of recorded still pictures can be easily switched to display either the next picture or a previous picture. In addition, it is possible to continuously output sound information as BGM while still picture information is displayed. More particularly, the present invention makes it possible to easily switch reproduced still picture information and provides a user-friendly reproducing technique. Although the present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments, other embodiments can also be implemented without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. The particular embodiments as described herein are merely examples and are not to be construed as limiting, in any way, the scope of the present invention. The scope of the present invention should be assessed in accordance with the appended claims. Further, the scope of the present invention encompasses all changes and modifications which are equivalent to the subject matter of the appended claims.
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5
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91
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11939333
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US20080111929A1-20080515
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Display Screen Turning Apparatus
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ACCEPTED
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20080501
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20080515
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[]
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H04N564
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["H04N564"]
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8237874
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20071113
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20120807
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348
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836000
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96366.0
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KWIECINSKI
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RYAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "YOKOTA", "inventor_name_first": "Katsuyuki", "inventor_city": "Daito-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hibi", "inventor_name_first": "Toshiharu", "inventor_city": "Daito-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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This display screen turning apparatus includes a turntable mounted with a display body and rotatable in a horizontal plane, a base, rotatably holding the turntable, provided with a drawn projecting portion and a floating prevention member so mounted on the projecting portion of the base as to prevent the turntable from upward floating. The floating prevention member has a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of the turntable is arranged, a mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion and a leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for maintaining the base and the floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the base.
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1. A display screen turning apparatus comprising: a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane; a base, rotatably holding said rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion; and a floating prevention member so mounted on said projecting portion of said base as to prevent the outer periphery of said rotating member from upward floating, wherein said floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of said rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of said rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting said floating prevention member on said projecting portion and a leg portion provided between said floating prevention portion and said mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of said base and said floating prevention portion of said floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of said base. 2. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said floating prevention member is formed by a platelike member, and said leg portion provided on said floating prevention member formed by said platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of said rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction. 3. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said floating prevention member further includes a vertically extending connecting portion connecting said floating prevention portion and said mounting portion with each other, and a hole is formed at least on the boundary between said connecting portion and said mounting portion of said floating prevention member. 4. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the distance between an end, closer to said rotating member, of a contact surface of said leg portion coming into contact with said base and a mounting position of said mounting portion is larger than the distance between said end and said floating prevention portion. 5. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of said rotating member is formed on a portion of said floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of said rotating member. 6. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein a side end surface of said floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of said rotating member is concavely bent. 7. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said floating prevention member includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. 8. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 1, wherein a positioning protrusion is provided on the upper surface of said drawn projecting portion of said base. 9. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 8, wherein said mounting portion of said floating prevention member includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with said protrusion. 10. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 3, wherein said hole is U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate said leg portion and said connecting portion from each other. 11. A display screen turning apparatus comprising: a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane; a base, rotatably holding said rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion; and a floating prevention member so mounted on said projecting portion of said base as to prevent the outer periphery of said rotating member from upward floating, wherein said floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of said rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of said rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting said floating prevention member on said projecting portion, a leg portion provided between said floating prevention portion and said mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of said base and said floating prevention portion of said floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of said base and a vertically extending connecting portion connecting said floating prevention portion and said mounting portion with each other, said floating prevention member is formed by a platelike member, said leg portion provided on said floating prevention member formed by said platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of said rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction, a hole is formed at least on the boundary between said connecting portion and said mounting portion of said floating prevention member, the distance between an end, closer to said rotating member, of a contact surface of said leg portion coming into contact with said base and a mounting position of said mounting portion is larger than the distance between said end and said floating prevention portion, and a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of said rotating member is formed on a portion of said floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of said rotating member. 12. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 11, wherein a side end surface of said floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of said rotating member is concavely bent. 13. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 11, wherein said floating prevention member includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. 14. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 11, wherein a positioning protrusion is provided on the upper surface of said drawn projecting portion of said base. 15. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 14, wherein said mounting portion of said floating prevention member includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with said protrusion. 16. The display screen turning apparatus according to claim 11, wherein said hole is U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate said leg portion and said connecting portion from each other.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a display screen turning apparatus, and more particularly, it relates to a display screen turning apparatus comprising a rotating member rotatable in a horizontal plane. 2. Description of the Background Art A turning apparatus comprising a rotating member rotatable in a horizontal plane is known in general. For example, Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885 (1987) discloses a rotating table apparatus comprising a rack having a circular recess portion, a circular rotating table rotatably arranged on the upper surface of the circular recess portion of the rack and a monitor stand, loaded with a monitor display, arranged on the upper surface of the rotating table. The rotating table apparatus disclosed in Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885 is so formed as to fix the monitor stand, the rotating table and the rack by passing a shaftlike post having a coupling hole (threaded hole) for a screw on the forward end thereof through a through-hole provided at the center of the rotating table and an opening provided at the center of the rack from an opening provided on the monitor stand and fastening a screw to the coupling hole provided on the post from under the lower surface of the rack. Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385 (1992) discloses a turntable comprising a circular upper plate, a circular lower plate and a rotatable rotating support plate, provided between the circular upper plate and the circular lower plate, formed by a plurality of steel balls and a cage holding the plurality of steel balls. The turntable disclosed in Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385 is so formed as to fix the upper plate, the rotating support plate and the lower plate by passing a fixed axle having a flange on the lower end thereof through axial holes provided at the centers of the lower plate and the rotating support plate and a fixed hole provided at the center of the upper plate from under the lower surface of the lower plate and caulking an end of the fixed axle protruding from the upper surface of the upper plate. In the aforementioned rotating table apparatus disclosed in Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885, however, the center of the rotating table is rotatably fixed by the shaftlike post, whereby it is disadvantageously difficult to suppress backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating table, although the rotating table can be prevented from backlash at the center thereof. In the aforementioned turntable disclosed in Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385, the center of the rotating support plate is rotatably fixed by the fixed axle, whereby it is disadvantageously difficult to suppress backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating support plate, although the rotating support plate can be prevented from backlash at the center thereof.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been proposed in order to solve the aforementioned problems, and an object of the present invention is to provide a display screen turning apparatus capable of suppressing backlash on the outer periphery of a rotating member. A display screen turning apparatus according to a first aspect of the present invention comprises a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane, a base, rotatably holding the rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion, and a floating prevention member so mounted on the projecting portion of the base as to prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating, while the floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of the rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion and a leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base. The display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, comprising the floating prevention member including the floating prevention portion provided above the region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged as hereinabove described, can prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating with the floating prevention portion also when force upwardly moving the outer periphery of the rotating member acts on the rotating member, thereby suppressing backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating member. The floating prevention member is so formed as to include the leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion of the base for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at the prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base, whereby the leg portion can inhibit the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member from coming into contact with the rotating member also when the drawn projecting portion of the base is formed with a height smaller than a prescribed height due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member is preferably formed by a platelike member, and the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is preferably so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction. According to this structure, the rotating member can be easily horizontally positioned by arranging the floating prevention member so that the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member comes into contact with four points provided on the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member at equiangular intervals, for example. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member preferably further includes a vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other, and a hole is preferably formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member. According to this structure, the mechanical strength is reduced in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion as compared with a case provided with no hole, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the distance between an end, closer to the rotating member, of a contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and a mounting position of the mounting portion is preferably larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member is inclined toward the floating prevention portion or the mounting portion about the end of the leg portion when fixed to the projecting portion of the base, if the height of the projecting portion of the base is dispersed. Also in this case, the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) of the floating prevention portion remains smaller than deviation in the height of the base, mounted with the mounting portion, from a designed value since the distance between the end of the leg portion and the mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end of the leg portion and the floating prevention portion. Thus, fluctuation in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be reduced as compared with a case where the floating prevention member is provided with no leg portion, whereby the floating prevention portion can be further inhibited from coming into contact with the rotating member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is preferably formed on a portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member. According to this structure, the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of projection of the protrusion formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the rotating member also when the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member is dispersed due to dispersion in the height of the projecting portion of the base mounted with the mounting portion, whereby precision in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be increased. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a side end surface of the floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of the rotating member is preferably concavely bent. According to this structure, a turning gear member provided on the rotating member can be prevented from coming into contact with the floating prevention member upon rotation of the rotating member. Thus, the rotating member can smoothly rotate. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member preferably includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. According to this structure, the circular first screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member and a screw mounting hole of the projecting portion of the base can be strongly fixed with a screw on a prescribed position. Also when the screw mounting hole provided on the projecting portion of the base deviates from a designed value, the screw can be easily mounted through the slitlike second screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a positioning protrusion is preferably provided on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be positioned with the protrusion, to be mounted on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base in the positioned state. In this case, the mounting portion of the floating prevention member preferably includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with the protrusion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be easily mounted in the positioned state by engaging the engaging portion of the floating prevention member with the positioning protrusion of the base. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus having the hole formed on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, the hole is preferably U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other. According to this structure, the mechanical strength in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion is further reduced as compared with a case of not separating the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered more easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be more reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. A display screen turning apparatus according to a second aspect of the present invention comprises a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane, a base, rotatably holding the rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion and a floating prevention member so mounted on the projecting portion of the base as to prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating, while the floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of the rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion, a leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base and a vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other, the floating prevention member is formed by a platelike member, the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction, a hole is formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member, the distance between an end, closer to the rotating member, of a contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and a mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion, and a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is formed on a portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member. The display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, comprising the floating prevention member including the floating prevention portion provided above the region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged as hereinabove described, can prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating with the floating prevention portion also when force upwardly moving the outer periphery of the rotating member acts on the rotating member, thereby suppressing backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating member. The floating prevention member is so formed as to include the leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion of the base for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at the prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base, whereby the leg portion can inhibit the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member from coming into contact with the rotating member also when the drawn projecting portion of the base is formed with a height smaller than a prescribed height due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy. Further, the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on the side end surface in the thickness direction, whereby the rotating member can be easily horizontally positioned by arranging the floating prevention member so that the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member comes into contact with four points provided on the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member at equiangular intervals, for example. The floating prevention member is so formed as to further include the vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other while the hole is formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member so that the mechanical strength is reduced in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion as compared with a case provided with no hole, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. The distance between the end, closer to the rotating member, of the contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and the mounting position of the mounting portion is set larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion, whereby the floating prevention member is inclined toward the floating prevention portion or the mounting portion about the end of the leg portion when fixed to the projecting portion of the base, if the height of the projecting portion of the base is dispersed. Also in this case, the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) of the floating prevention portion remains smaller than deviation in the height of the base, mounted with the mounting portion, from a designed value since the distance between the end of the leg portion and the mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end of the leg portion and the floating prevention portion. Thus, fluctuation in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be reduced as compared with a case where the floating prevention member is provided with no leg portion, whereby the floating prevention portion can be further inhibited from coming into contact with the rotating member. The protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member so that the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of projection of the protrusion formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the rotating member also when the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member is dispersed due to dispersion in the height of the projecting portion of the base mounted with the mounting portion, whereby precision in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be increased. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, a side end surface of the floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of the rotating member is preferably concavely bent. According to this structure, a turning gear member provided on the rotating member can be prevented from coming into contact with the floating prevention member upon rotation of the rotating member. Thus, the rotating member can smoothly rotate. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, the floating prevention member preferably includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. According to this structure, the circular first screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member and a screw mounting hole of the projecting portion of the base can be strongly fixed with a screw on a prescribed position. Also when the screw mounting hole provided on the projecting portion of the base deviates from a designed value, the screw can be easily mounted through the slitlike second screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, a positioning protrusion is preferably provided on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be positioned with the protrusion, to be mounted on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base in the positioned state. In this case, the mounting portion of the floating prevention member preferably includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with the protrusion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be easily mounted in the positioned state by engaging the engaging portion of the floating prevention member with the positioning protrusion of the base. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus having the hole formed on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, the hole is preferably U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other. According to this structure, the mechanical strength in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion is further reduced as compared with a case of not separating the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered more easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. The foregoing and other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the present invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a display screen turning apparatus, and more particularly, it relates to a display screen turning apparatus comprising a rotating member rotatable in a horizontal plane. 2. Description of the Background Art A turning apparatus comprising a rotating member rotatable in a horizontal plane is known in general. For example, Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885 (1987) discloses a rotating table apparatus comprising a rack having a circular recess portion, a circular rotating table rotatably arranged on the upper surface of the circular recess portion of the rack and a monitor stand, loaded with a monitor display, arranged on the upper surface of the rotating table. The rotating table apparatus disclosed in Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885 is so formed as to fix the monitor stand, the rotating table and the rack by passing a shaftlike post having a coupling hole (threaded hole) for a screw on the forward end thereof through a through-hole provided at the center of the rotating table and an opening provided at the center of the rack from an opening provided on the monitor stand and fastening a screw to the coupling hole provided on the post from under the lower surface of the rack. Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385 (1992) discloses a turntable comprising a circular upper plate, a circular lower plate and a rotatable rotating support plate, provided between the circular upper plate and the circular lower plate, formed by a plurality of steel balls and a cage holding the plurality of steel balls. The turntable disclosed in Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385 is so formed as to fix the upper plate, the rotating support plate and the lower plate by passing a fixed axle having a flange on the lower end thereof through axial holes provided at the centers of the lower plate and the rotating support plate and a fixed hole provided at the center of the upper plate from under the lower surface of the lower plate and caulking an end of the fixed axle protruding from the upper surface of the upper plate. In the aforementioned rotating table apparatus disclosed in Japanese Patent Laying-Open No. 62-138885, however, the center of the rotating table is rotatably fixed by the shaftlike post, whereby it is disadvantageously difficult to suppress backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating table, although the rotating table can be prevented from backlash at the center thereof. In the aforementioned turntable disclosed in Japanese Utility Model Laying-Open No. 4-61385, the center of the rotating support plate is rotatably fixed by the fixed axle, whereby it is disadvantageously difficult to suppress backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating support plate, although the rotating support plate can be prevented from backlash at the center thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been proposed in order to solve the aforementioned problems, and an object of the present invention is to provide a display screen turning apparatus capable of suppressing backlash on the outer periphery of a rotating member. A display screen turning apparatus according to a first aspect of the present invention comprises a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane, a base, rotatably holding the rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion, and a floating prevention member so mounted on the projecting portion of the base as to prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating, while the floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of the rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion and a leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base. The display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, comprising the floating prevention member including the floating prevention portion provided above the region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged as hereinabove described, can prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating with the floating prevention portion also when force upwardly moving the outer periphery of the rotating member acts on the rotating member, thereby suppressing backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating member. The floating prevention member is so formed as to include the leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion of the base for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at the prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base, whereby the leg portion can inhibit the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member from coming into contact with the rotating member also when the drawn projecting portion of the base is formed with a height smaller than a prescribed height due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member is preferably formed by a platelike member, and the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is preferably so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction. According to this structure, the rotating member can be easily horizontally positioned by arranging the floating prevention member so that the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member comes into contact with four points provided on the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member at equiangular intervals, for example. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member preferably further includes a vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other, and a hole is preferably formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member. According to this structure, the mechanical strength is reduced in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion as compared with a case provided with no hole, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the distance between an end, closer to the rotating member, of a contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and a mounting position of the mounting portion is preferably larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member is inclined toward the floating prevention portion or the mounting portion about the end of the leg portion when fixed to the projecting portion of the base, if the height of the projecting portion of the base is dispersed. Also in this case, the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) of the floating prevention portion remains smaller than deviation in the height of the base, mounted with the mounting portion, from a designed value since the distance between the end of the leg portion and the mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end of the leg portion and the floating prevention portion. Thus, fluctuation in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be reduced as compared with a case where the floating prevention member is provided with no leg portion, whereby the floating prevention portion can be further inhibited from coming into contact with the rotating member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is preferably formed on a portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member. According to this structure, the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of projection of the protrusion formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the rotating member also when the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member is dispersed due to dispersion in the height of the projecting portion of the base mounted with the mounting portion, whereby precision in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be increased. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a side end surface of the floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of the rotating member is preferably concavely bent. According to this structure, a turning gear member provided on the rotating member can be prevented from coming into contact with the floating prevention member upon rotation of the rotating member. Thus, the rotating member can smoothly rotate. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, the floating prevention member preferably includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. According to this structure, the circular first screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member and a screw mounting hole of the projecting portion of the base can be strongly fixed with a screw on a prescribed position. Also when the screw mounting hole provided on the projecting portion of the base deviates from a designed value, the screw can be easily mounted through the slitlike second screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the first aspect, a positioning protrusion is preferably provided on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be positioned with the protrusion, to be mounted on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base in the positioned state. In this case, the mounting portion of the floating prevention member preferably includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with the protrusion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be easily mounted in the positioned state by engaging the engaging portion of the floating prevention member with the positioning protrusion of the base. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus having the hole formed on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, the hole is preferably U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other. According to this structure, the mechanical strength in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion is further reduced as compared with a case of not separating the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered more easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be more reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. A display screen turning apparatus according to a second aspect of the present invention comprises a rotating member mounted with a display screen and rotatable in a horizontal plane, a base, rotatably holding the rotating member, provided with a drawn projecting portion and a floating prevention member so mounted on the projecting portion of the base as to prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating, while the floating prevention member includes a floating prevention portion provided above a region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged not to come into contact with the upper surface of the rotating member, a mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion, a leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base and a vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other, the floating prevention member is formed by a platelike member, the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on a side end surface in the thickness direction, a hole is formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member, the distance between an end, closer to the rotating member, of a contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and a mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion, and a protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is formed on a portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member. The display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, comprising the floating prevention member including the floating prevention portion provided above the region where the upper surface of the rotating member close to the outer periphery is arranged as hereinabove described, can prevent the outer periphery of the rotating member from upward floating with the floating prevention portion also when force upwardly moving the outer periphery of the rotating member acts on the rotating member, thereby suppressing backlash (floating) on the outer periphery of the rotating member. The floating prevention member is so formed as to include the leg portion provided between the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion for mounting the floating prevention member on the projecting portion of the base for maintaining the upper surface of the base and the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member at the prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base, whereby the leg portion can inhibit the floating prevention portion of the floating prevention member from coming into contact with the rotating member also when the drawn projecting portion of the base is formed with a height smaller than a prescribed height due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy. Further, the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member is so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member on the side end surface in the thickness direction, whereby the rotating member can be easily horizontally positioned by arranging the floating prevention member so that the leg portion provided on the floating prevention member formed by the platelike member comes into contact with four points provided on the outer peripheral surface of the rotating member at equiangular intervals, for example. The floating prevention member is so formed as to further include the vertically extending connecting portion connecting the floating prevention portion and the mounting portion with each other while the hole is formed at least on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion of the floating prevention member so that the mechanical strength is reduced in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion as compared with a case provided with no hole, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. The distance between the end, closer to the rotating member, of the contact surface of the leg portion coming into contact with the base and the mounting position of the mounting portion is set larger than the distance between the end and the floating prevention portion, whereby the floating prevention member is inclined toward the floating prevention portion or the mounting portion about the end of the leg portion when fixed to the projecting portion of the base, if the height of the projecting portion of the base is dispersed. Also in this case, the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) of the floating prevention portion remains smaller than deviation in the height of the base, mounted with the mounting portion, from a designed value since the distance between the end of the leg portion and the mounting position of the mounting portion is larger than the distance between the end of the leg portion and the floating prevention portion. Thus, fluctuation in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be reduced as compared with a case where the floating prevention member is provided with no leg portion, whereby the floating prevention portion can be further inhibited from coming into contact with the rotating member. The protrusion protruding toward the upper surface of the rotating member is formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the upper surface of the rotating member so that the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of projection of the protrusion formed on the portion of the floating prevention portion opposed to the rotating member also when the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member is dispersed due to dispersion in the height of the projecting portion of the base mounted with the mounting portion, whereby precision in the interval between the floating prevention portion and the rotating member can be increased. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, a side end surface of the floating prevention portion closer to the rotation center of the rotating member is preferably concavely bent. According to this structure, a turning gear member provided on the rotating member can be prevented from coming into contact with the floating prevention member upon rotation of the rotating member. Thus, the rotating member can smoothly rotate. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, the floating prevention member preferably includes a first screw mounting hole circular in plan view and a second screw mounting hole slitlike in plan view. According to this structure, the circular first screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member and a screw mounting hole of the projecting portion of the base can be strongly fixed with a screw on a prescribed position. Also when the screw mounting hole provided on the projecting portion of the base deviates from a designed value, the screw can be easily mounted through the slitlike second screw mounting hole of the floating prevention member. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus according to the second aspect, a positioning protrusion is preferably provided on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be positioned with the protrusion, to be mounted on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion of the base in the positioned state. In this case, the mounting portion of the floating prevention member preferably includes a concaved engaging portion engaging with the protrusion. According to this structure, the floating prevention member can be easily mounted in the positioned state by engaging the engaging portion of the floating prevention member with the positioning protrusion of the base. In the aforementioned display screen turning apparatus having the hole formed on the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, the hole is preferably U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other. According to this structure, the mechanical strength in the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion is further reduced as compared with a case of not separating the leg portion and the connecting portion from each other, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion can be rendered more easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion of the base from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion and the mounting portion, whereby the projecting portion of the base and the floating prevention member can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion. The foregoing and other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the present invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing the overall structure of a liquid crystal television provided with a display screen turning apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of the liquid crystal television provided with the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a plan view of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a perspective view for illustrating the structure of a turning portion of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is an exploded perspective view for illustrating the detailed structure of the turning portion of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a floating prevention member of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment as viewed from above; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the floating prevention member of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment as viewed from below; FIG. 8 is a plan view of the floating prevention member of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment as viewed from above; FIG. 9 is a plan view of the floating prevention member of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment as viewed from below; FIG. 10 is a sectional view taken along the line 100-100 in FIG. 3; FIG. 11 is a perspective view for illustrating the structure of a transmission gear portion of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 12 is a sectional view taken along the line 200-200 in FIG. 11; FIGS. 13 and 14 are diagrams for illustrating a turning operation of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 15 is a sectional view taken along the line 100-100 in FIG. 3, showing a projecting portion of a base of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 at a level lower than a prescribed height; and FIG. 16 is a sectional view taken along the line 100-100 in FIG. 3, showing the projecting portion of the base of the display screen turning apparatus according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 at a level higher than the prescribed height. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An embodiment of the present invention is now described with reference to the drawings. The structures of a display screen turning apparatus 20 according to an embodiment of the present invention and a liquid crystal television 100 provided with the display screen turning apparatus 20 are described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 12. This embodiment of the present invention is applied to the display screen turning apparatus 20 for the liquid crystal television 100 employed as an exemplary display. The display screen turning apparatus 20 according to the embodiment of the present invention is provided for turning a display body 10 of the liquid crystal television 100 supported by a display screen support mechanism 50 left- and rightward (along arrows A and B) (by ±30° according to this embodiment), as shown in FIG. 1. The display body 10 is an example of the “display screen” in the present invention. As shown in FIG. 3, the display screen turning apparatus 20 is constituted of a turning portion 30 for turning the display body 10 (see FIG. 2) supported by the display screen support mechanism 50 left- and rightward (along arrows A and B in FIG. 1) in a horizontal plane and a driving portion 40, formed by a plurality gears etc. described later, provided for turning a turntable 31 described later. The turning portion 30 is constituted of the turntable 31 of sheet metal mounted with the display screen support mechanism 50 (see FIG. 2), 24 steel balls 32 arranged in through-holes 33a of a holding member 33 described later, the holding member 33 of resin rotatably holding the steel balls 32, a base 34 of sheet metal and floating prevention members 35 (four in this embodiment) of sheet metal, as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. The turntable 31 is an example of the “rotating member” in the present invention. The holding member 33 of resin is annularly formed in plan view, as shown in FIG. 5. This holding member 33 is provided with the 24 through-holes 33a substantially rectangular (substantially square in this embodiment) in plan view at a prescribed interval. The holding member 33 has a height smaller than the diameter of the steel balls 32 and a diameter substantially equal to that of the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31. Therefore, the plurality of steel balls 32 charged into the through-holes 33a (see FIG. 5) of the holding member 33 are held between the turntable 31 and the base 34 from above and from below respectively as shown in FIG. 4, so that the turntable 31 is rotatable left- and rightward (along arrows A and B in FIG. 4) on the base 34. As shown in FIG. 5, projecting portions 34a having an upwardly projectingly drawn shape are formed on the platelike base 34 of sheet metal by press working (drawing). The quantity of projection (D2 in FIG. 10) of the projecting portions 34a from the upper surface of the base 34 is about 2.95 mm. Protrusions 341a for positioning the floating prevention members 35 described later are provided on the upper surfaces of the projecting portions 34a. The projecting portions 34a are formed at equiangular intervals (intervals of 90° according to this embodiment), to enclose both of the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 and the outer peripheral surface 33b. The projecting portions 34a are provided with pairs of screw mounting holes 34b on portions mounted with the floating prevention members 35 respectively, as shown in FIG. 5. The base 34 is provided with upwardly projecting screw receiving holes 34c as shown in FIG. 5, so that a resin cover member 21 (see FIG. 2) described later is mounted on the base 34 with screws (not shown) through the screw receiving holes 34c. A rotating shaft portion 34d of metal is mounted on the base 34 by caulking, as shown in FIG. 5. The rotating shaft portion 34d mounted on the base 34 is inserted into a through-hole 31b provided on the turntable 31 while an E-ring 36 is fitted into a groove portion 341d circumferentially provided on the outer side surface of a portion of the rotating shaft portion 34d protruding from the through-hole 31b of the turntable 31 perpendicularly to the shaft of the rotating shaft portion 34d, so that the steel balls 32 and the holding member 33 are arranged between the turntable 31 and the base 34. According to this embodiment, each of the floating prevention members 35 formed by platelike members of sheet metal is constituted of a floating prevention portion 35a provided above a portion where an upper surface portion of the turntable 31 (see FIG. 5) close to the outer peripheral surface 31a is arranged, a mounting portion 35b for mounting the floating prevention member 35 on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34, a leg portion 35c maintaining the base 34 and the floating prevention member 35 at a prescribed interval by coming into contact with the upper surface of the base 34 and a vertically extending connecting portion 35d connecting the floating prevention portion 35a and the mounting portion 35b with each other, as shown in FIGS. 6 to 9. According to this embodiment, the floating prevention portion 35a is provided with a protrusion 351a of about 0.5 mm in thickness protruding toward the upper surface of the turntable 31 by half-punching, as shown in FIGS. 7, 9 and 10. The protrusion 351a is so formed by half-punching that a first surface 352a of the protrusion 351a opposed to the upper surface of the turntable 31 can be horizontally formed. Further, the protrusion 351a is so formed that the distance D1 between the same and the upper surface of the turntable 31 is about 0.2 mm when the floating prevention member 35 is mounted on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34. As shown in FIGS. 6 to 9, an end surface 353a of the floating prevention member 35a along the axis of rotation of the turntable 31 (see FIG. 5) is concavely bent, in order to prevent a turning gear member 48 of resin described later from coming into contact with the floating prevention member 35 upon turning of the turntable 31 (see FIG. 5). This end surface 353a is an example of the “side end surface” in the present invention. The mounting portion 35b is provided with screw mounting holes 351b and 352b for mounting the floating prevention member 35 on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34 with screws 70 (see FIG. 5), as shown in FIGS. 6 to 9. The screw mounting hole 351b is formed circular in plan view with respect to the base 34. On the other hand, the screw mounting hole 352b is formed slitlike in plan view with respect to the base 34, so that the floating prevention member 35 can be fixed to the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34 with the corresponding screw 70 when the interval between the two screw mounting holes 34b provided on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34 deviates from the designed value. The mounting portion 35b is provided with a concave engaging portion 353b positioning the floating prevention member 35 by engaging with the positioning protrusion 341a (see FIG. 5) provided on the upper surface of the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34. The screw mounting holes 351b and 352b are examples of the “first screw mounting hole” and the “second screw mounting hole” in the present invention respectively. According to this embodiment, each floating prevention member 35 formed by the platelike member is provided with the leg portion 35c formed by vertically folding the floating prevention portion 35a downward, as shown in FIGS. 6 and 7. As shown in FIG. 10, the leg portion 35c is so formed that a contact surface 351c provided on the lower end thereof comes into contact with the upper surface of the base 34 when the floating prevention member 35 is mounted on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34, thereby setting the interval between the upper surface of the base 34 and the lower surface of the floating prevention member 35 (quantity of projection of the projecting portion 34a) D2 to about 2.95 mm. The leg portion 35c is also so formed as to position the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 and the outer peripheral surface 33b of the holding member 33 when the floating prevention member 35 is mounted on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34. As shown in FIG. 5, the floating prevention portions 35a of the four floating prevention members 35 inhibit the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 and the holding member 33 from vertical movement when the turntable 31 rotates left- and rightward (along arrows A and B in FIG. 4). According to this embodiment, notched holes 351d are formed on the boundary between the connecting portion 35d connecting the floating prevention portion 35a and the mounting portion 35b of each floating prevention member 35 with each other and the mounting portion 35b, as shown in FIGS. 6 to 9. These notched holes 351d, U-shaped in plan view, are connected with the engaging portion 353b provided on the mounting portion 35b, while reaching a part of the floating prevention portion 35a. Further, the notched holes 351d are so formed as to separate the leg portion 35c and the connecting portion 35d from each other. Thus, the boundary between the connecting portion 35d and the mounting portion 35b is reduced in mechanical strength to be easily deflectable as compared with a case where no notched holes 351d are provided. According to this embodiment, the distance D3 between an end 353c, closer to the turntable 31, of the contact surface 351c of the leg portion 35c coming into contact with the base 34 and the mounting position of the mounting portion 35b is rendered larger than the distance D4 between the end 353c and the floating prevention portion 35a when the floating member 35 is mounted on the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34, as shown in FIG. 10. The driving portion 40 is constituted of a transmission gear portion 41 for rotating the turntable 31 provided on the turning portion 30 left- and rightward (along arrows A and B in FIG. 1) in the horizontal plane and a stepping motor 42 serving as a driving source for the transmission gear portion 41, as shown in FIGS. 3 and 5. The transmission gear portion 41 is so formed that a gear 43 of resin, a torque limiter 60 and other gears 44 and 45 of resin are arranged in a gear box 46 of resin, as shown in FIG. 3. As shown in FIG. 11, a worm gear 47 of resin is press-fitted into the rotating shaft of the stepping motor 42. The gear 43 integrally includes a large-diametral gear portion 43a and a small-diametral gear portion 43b, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. Similarly, the gear 44 integrally includes a large-diametral gear portion 44a and a small-diametral gear portion 44b. The gear 45 also integrally includes a large-diametral gear portion 45a and a small-diametral gear portion 45b. The turning gear member 48 of resin is fixed to the upper surface of the turntable 31 of the turning portion 30 with four screws 70, as shown in FIGS. 3, 5 and 11. The gear box 46 (see FIG. 3) for storing the transmission gear portion 41 and the stepping motor 42 is omitted in FIG. 11, in order to illustrate the structure of the transmission gear portion 41. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, the worm gear 47 meshes with the large-diametral gear portion 43a of the gear 43 so that the rotating shafts thereof are perpendicular to each other, while the small-diametral gear portion 34b of the gear 43 meshes with a gear portion 62a (see FIG. 12) of a driving gear 62 of the torque limiter 60 so that the rotating shafts thereof are parallel to each other. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, further, a gear portion 61a (see FIG. 12) of a driven gear 61 of the torque limiter 60 meshes with the large-diametral gear portion 45a of the gear 45 so that the rotating shafts thereof are parallel to each other, while the small-diametral gear portion 44b of the gear 44 meshes with the large-diametral gear portion 45a of the gear 45 so that the rotating shafts thereof are parallel to each other. In addition, the small-diametral gear portion 45b of the gear 45 meshes with a turning gear portion 48a of the turning gear member 48 so that the rotating shafts thereof are parallel to each other, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. Thus, the driving force of the stepping motor 42 is transmitted to the turntable 31 through the worm gear 47, the gear 43, the torque limiter 60, the gears 44, 45 and the turning gear member 48, due to the aforementioned arrangement of these gears shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. The torque limiter 60 is constituted of the driving gear 61 of resin, the driven gear 62 of resin and a spring member (coil spring) 63 of metal, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. The torque limiter 60 is capable of turning the turntable 31 in the display screen turning apparatus 20 by transmitting the driving force of the stepping motor 42 to the turning portion 30 through the transmission gear portion 41 when the driving force of the stepping motor 42 is not more than prescribed driving torque, and is so formed as not to transmit the driving force of the stepping motor 42 to the turning portion 30 when the driving force of the stepping motor 42 exceeds the prescribed driving torque. The display screen support mechanism 50 is provided on the upper surface of the turntable 31 of the display screen turning apparatus 20, as shown in FIG. 3. This display screen support mechanism 50 is constituted of a display screen support member 51 and a reinforcing member 52 for reinforcing the display screen support member 51. The display screen support member 51 and the reinforcing member 52 are fixed to the turntable 31 with two screws 70, to vertically extend with respect to the surface of the turntable 31. The display screen support member 51 is provided adjacent to the reinforcing member 52, and coupled to the reinforcing member 52 with three screws 70. The display body 10 is constituted of a front cabinet 11 of resin and a rear cabinet 12 of resin, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. A liquid crystal module (not shown) mounted with a liquid crystal panel (not shown) is enclosed with the front cabinet 11 and the rear cabinet 12 in the display body 10. The display body 10 is mounted on the display screen support member 51 by fastening the screws 70 to screw mounting holes (not shown) through screw receiving holes 51a and 51b (see FIG. 2) of the display screen support member 51. The rear cabinet 12 is integrally provided with a hole 12a for arranging the display screen support member 51 in a concealed manner. A plurality of screw receiving holes 12b (seven in this embodiment) are provided on the outer periphery of the rear cabinet 12, so that the rear cabinet 12 is mounted on the front cabinet 11 with screws 80. In the display screen turning apparatus 20, the cover member 21 of resin is mounted on the base 34 of the turning portion 30 with screws (not shown) from below the lower surface of the base 34, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. The cover member 22 of resin is so mounted as to cover the turning portion 30 from above and to be turnable in the horizontal direction (along arrows A and B in FIG. 1) along with the turntable 31 of the turning portion 31, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. The cover member 22 of resin is provided with a hole 22a for receiving the display screen support mechanism 50, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. A left- and rightward turning operation of the display screen turning apparatus 20 according to this embodiment in the horizontal plane is now described with reference to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 and 14. In the state where the display screen support member 51 is perpendicular to the turntable 31 provided on the turning portion 30 and directed frontward (the center of the turning gear portion 48a of the turning gear member 48 meshes with the small-diametral gear portion 45b of the gear 45) as shown in FIG. 3, the user presses an automatic turning button (not shown) of an attached remote controller (not shown), so that a signal for turning the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) rightward (along arrow A in FIG. 1) is transmitted to a control circuit portion (not shown) of the display body 10. The stepping motor 42 of the display screen turning apparatus 20 is driven on the basis of this signal. More specifically, the stepping motor 42 is so driven that the worm gear 47 mounted thereon rotates along arrow E1 (see FIG. 11) and the gear 43 rotates along arrow E2 (see FIG. 11), as shown in FIG. 3. The driving gear 62 of the torque limiter 60 rotates along arrow E3 through the gear 43. The driven gear 61 of the torque limiter 60 also rotates along arrow E3, and the gear 44 rotates along arrow E4 (see FIG. 11). Further, the gear 45 rotates along arrow E5 (see FIG. 11), whereby the turning gear member 48 rotates along arrow E6. Thus, the turntable 31 provided on the turning portion 30 mounted with the display screen support member 51 starts turning along arrow G1 as shown in FIG. 13, whereby the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) starts turning-along arrow A (see FIG. 1). AS shown in FIG. 13, the turntable 31 provided on the turning portion 30 receiving the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) continuously turns along arrow A (see FIG. 1) at a prescribed rotational speed. At this time, the turntable 31 turns while receiving the load of the display body 10 (see FIG. 1). The floating prevention portions 35a of the four floating prevention members 35 are arranged at the interval of about 0.2 mm with respect to the upper surface of the turntable 31 as shown in FIG. 4, whereby the turntable 31 turns while the outer peripheral surface 31a thereof is prevented from upward floating. When the display body 10 turns up to an angle desirable for the user, the user releases the automatic turning button (not shown) of the attached remote controller (not shown), so that the signal for turning the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) rightward (along arrow A in FIG. 1) is not transmitted to the control circuit portion (not shown) of the display body 10. Therefore, the stepping motor 42 is stopped. Thus, the turntable 31 stops turning along arrow G1 on the position shown in FIG. 13, and comes to a standstill. When the turning angle of the turntable 31 reaches the maximum (30° in this embodiment) while the user continuously turns the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) along arrow A (see FIG. 1), the turntable 31 comes into contact with a stopper member (not shown) provided in the turning portion 30, to be prevented from further turning along arrow A (see FIG. 1). Therefore, the turntable 31 stops turning along arrow G1 on the position shown in FIG. 14, and comes to a standstill. At this time, the stepping motor 42 is still continuously driven so that the driving torque is transmitted from the stepping motor 42 to the driving gear 62 of the torque limiter 60 through the worm gear 47 and the gear 43. The driven gear 61 is pressed against the driving gear 62 by the spring member 63 with predetermined urging force, as shown in FIG. 12. If driving torque exceeding the frictional force between the outer peripheral surface of the driven gear 61 and the inner peripheral surface of the driving gear 62 is applied to the driving gear 62 due to the urging force of the spring member 63, therefore, the inner peripheral surface of the driving gear 62 and the outer peripheral surface of the driven gear 61 so slip as not to transmit the driving torque from the driving gear 62 to the driven gear 61. In other words, the driven gear 61, the gears 44 and 45 and the turning gear member 48 stop rotating when the turntable 31 comes into contact with the stopper member (not shown), regardless of the rotation of the driving gear 62. While the turntable 31 rotates along arrow G1 shown in FIG. 13 in the above turning operation, the turntable 31 oppositely rotates along arrow G2 when turning the turntable 31 along arrow G2 through an operation similar to the above, so that the display body 10 (see FIG. 1) turns leftward (along arrow B in FIG. 1). As hereinabove described, the display screen turning apparatus 20 according to this embodiment, comprising the floating prevention members 35 including the floating prevention portions 35a provided above the region where the upper surface of the turntable 31 close to the outer peripheral surface 31a is arranged as hereinabove described, can prevent the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 from upward floating with the floating prevention portions 35a also when force upwardly moving the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 acts on the turntable 31, thereby suppressing backlash (floating) on the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31. The floating prevention members 35 are so formed as to include the leg portions 35c provided between the floating prevention portions 35a and the mounting portions 35b for mounting the floating prevention members 35 on the projecting portions 34a of the base 34 for maintaining the upper surface of the base 34 and the floating prevention portions 35a of the floating prevention members 35 at the prescribed interval, whereby the leg portions 35c can inhibit the floating prevention portions 35a of the floating prevention members 35 from coming into contact with the turntable 31 also when the drawn projecting portions 34a of the base 34 are formed at a level lower than a prescribed height due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the leg portions 35c provided on the floating prevention members 35 formed by the platelike members are so formed as to come into contact with the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 on side end surfaces 352c in the thickness direction, whereby the turntable 31 can be horizontally positioned by the floating prevention members 35 so arranged that the leg portions 35c come into contact with four points of the outer peripheral surface 31a of the turntable 31 provided at the equiangular intervals of 90°. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the floating prevention members 35 are so formed as to further include the vertically extending connecting portions 35d connecting the floating prevention portions 35a and the mounting portions 35b with each other, while the notched holes 351d are formed on the boundaries between the connecting portions 35d and the mounting portions 35b. Further, the notched holes 351d are connected with the engaging portions 353b provided on the mounting portions 35b, while reaching parts of the floating prevention portions 35a. Thus, the mechanical strength is reduced in the boundaries between the mounting portions 35b and the connecting portions 35b as compared with a case provided with no notched holes 351d, whereby the boundaries between the mounting portions 35b and the connecting portions 35d can be rendered easily deflectable. Also when the height D5 of each drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 is rendered smaller than the height D2 of about 2.95 mm shown in FIG. 10 due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy as shown in FIG. 15, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the corresponding connecting portion 35d and the corresponding mounting portion 35b, whereby the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 and the corresponding floating prevention member 35 can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion 34c. Also when the height D5 of each drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 is rendered larger than the height D2 of about 2.95 mm shown in FIG. 10 due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, further, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the corresponding connecting portion 35d and the corresponding mounting portion 35b, whereby the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 and the corresponding floating prevention member 35 can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion 34c. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the distance D3 between the end 353c, closer to the turntable 31, of the contact surface 351c of each leg portion 35c coming into contact with the base 34 and the mounting position of each mounting portion 35b is rendered larger than the distance D4 between the end 353c and the floating prevention portion 35a, whereby the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) D7 of the floating prevention portion 35a is smaller than the deviation D6 in the height of the projecting portion 34a from the designed value even if the vertical size of the projecting portion 34a of the base 34 exceeds the height D2 of about 2.95 mm shown in FIG. 10 due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy and the floating member 35 is inclined toward the floating prevention portion 35a as shown by one-dot chain lines in FIG. 16. Even if the vertical size of the projecting portion 34a of the base 34 is rendered smaller than the height D2 of about 2.95 mm shown in FIG. 10 due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy and the floating member 35 is inclined toward the mounting portion 35b, further, the quantity of inclination (movement in the vertical direction) D7 of the floating prevention portion 35a is smaller than the deviation D6 in the height of the projecting portion 34a from the designed value. Thus, fluctuation in the interval between the floating prevention portion 35a and the turntable 31 can be reduced as compared with a case where the floating prevention member 35 is provided with no leg portion 35c, whereby the floating prevention portion 35a can be further inhibited from coming into contact with the turntable 31. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the protrusion 351a protruding toward the upper surface of the turntable 31 is formed on the portion of each floating prevention portion 35a opposed to the upper surface of the turntable 31 so that the interval between the floating prevention portion 35a and the turntable 31 can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of projection of the protrusion 351a of the floating prevention portion 35a protruding toward the upper surface of the turntable 31 also when the interval between the floating prevention portion 35a and the turntable 31 is dispersed due to dispersion in the height of the projecting portions 34a of the base 34 mounted with the mounting portion 35b, whereby precision in the interval between the floating prevention portion 35a and the turntable 31 can be increased. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the end surface 353a of the floating prevention portion 35a closer to the rotation center of the turntable 31 is so concavely bent that the turning gear member 48 provided on the turntable 31 can be prevented from coming into contact with the floating prevention member 35 upon rotation of the turntable 31. Thus, the turntable 31 can smoothly rotate. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, each floating prevention member 35 includes the screw mounting hole 351b circular in plan view and the screw mounting hole 352b slitlike in plan view, whereby the circular screw mounting hole 351b of the floating prevention member 35 and the screw mounting hole 34b of the corresponding projecting portion 34a of the base 34 can be strongly fixed with the corresponding screw 70 on a prescribed position. Also when the screw mounting hole 34b provided on the projecting portion 34a of the base 34 deviates from the designed value, the corresponding screw 70 can be easily mounted through the slitlike screw mounting hole 352b of the floating prevention member 35. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the positioning protrusion 341a is provided on the upper surface of each drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34, whereby the floating prevention member 35 can be positioned with the protrusion 341a, to be mounted on the upper surface of the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 in the positioned state. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the mounting portion 35b of each floating prevention member 35 includes the concaved engaging portion 353b engaging with the protrusion 341a, whereby the floating prevention member 35 can be easily mounted in the positioned state by engaging the engaging portion 353b of the floating prevention member 35 with the positioning protrusion 341a of the base 34. According to this embodiment, as hereinabove described, the notched holes 351d of each floating prevention member 35 are U-shaped in plan view, and so provided as to separate the leg portion 35c and the connecting portion 35d from each other so that the mechanical strength in the boundary between the connecting portion 35d and the mounting portion 35b is further reduced as compared with a case of not separating the leg portion 35c and the connecting portion 35d from each other, whereby the boundary between the connecting portion 35d and the mounting portion 35b can be rendered more easily deflectable. Also when the height of the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 deviates from the designed value due to dispersion in dimensional accuracy, therefore, the deviation in the height of the drawn projecting portion 34a of the base 34 from the designed value can be absorbed by deflecting the boundary between the connecting portion 35d and the mounting portion 35b, whereby the projecting portion 34a of the base 34 and the floating prevention member 35 can be reliably fixed without adjusting the height of the leg portion 35c. Although the present invention has been described and illustrated in detail, it is clearly understood that the same is by way of illustration and example only and is not to be taken by way of limitation, the spirit and scope of the present invention being limited only by the terms of the appended claims. For example, while the display screen turning apparatus is provided on the liquid crystal television employed as an exemplary display in the aforementioned embodiment, the present invention is not restricted to this but the display screen turning apparatus may alternatively be provided on a display, such as an organic EL panel, having a display screen (display panel) other than the liquid crystal panel. While the leg portion included in each floating prevention member is formed by vertically folding the floating prevention portion in the aforementioned embodiment, the present invention is not restricted to this but the leg portion may alternatively be separately formed, to be mounted on the floating prevention member. While the holes formed in each floating prevention member are connected to the engaging portion provided on the mounting portion while reaching the part of the floating prevention portion in the aforementioned embodiment, the present invention is not restricted to this but the holes may alternatively be provided only in the vicinity of the connecting portion and the mounting portion, or may be replaced with notches. While the surface of the protrusion, formed on each floating prevention member, opposed to the turntable is flat in the aforementioned embodiment, the present invention is not restricted to this but the portion of the protrusion opposed to the turntable may alternatively be spherically formed to come into point contact with the upper surface of the outer periphery of the turntable when the outer periphery of the turn table floats upward.
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H
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5
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64
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11866469
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US20080172691A1-20080717
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BROADCAST SIGNAL PROCESSING APPARATUS AND CONTROL METHOD THEREOF
|
ACCEPTED
|
20080701
|
20080717
|
[]
|
H04N5445
|
["H04N5445", "H04N7173"]
|
8015579
|
20071003
|
20110906
|
725
|
038000
|
67678.0
|
RABOVIANSKI
|
JIVKA
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "LEE", "inventor_name_first": "Chul-Mok", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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A broadcasting signal processing apparatus includes: a signal receiver which receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcast signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information; a signal processor which processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver; and a controller which controls the signal processor so that execution of the application program is paused and the video is adjusted if an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed.
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1. A broadcasting signal processing apparatus comprising: a signal receiver which receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcast signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information; a signal processor which processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver; and a controller which controls the signal processor so that execution of the application program is paused and the video is adjusted if an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed. 2. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a user input unit to which a user's instruction to adjust the video is input, wherein the controller determines that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied when the user's instruction is input. 3. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 2, wherein the user input unit comprises a remote controller or a control panel, the remote controller or control panel including at least one button, and wherein the controller determines that the user's instruction is input when the at least one button is pressed. 4. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, wherein the controller changes a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state by calling a function of the application program that pauses the execution of the application program. 5. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, wherein adjustment of the video includes adjusting a size of the video. 6. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, wherein the broadcasting information comprises a graphic user interface (GUI) that displays the broadcasting information. 7. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, wherein the controller resumes execution of the paused application program. 8. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 7, further comprises a user input unit to which a user's instruction to resume the paused application program is input, wherein the controller resumes the paused application program when the user's instruction is input. 9. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 7, wherein the controller controls the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment if the application program is resumed. 10. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 7, the controller calls a function of the application program that changes a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state in order to resume the paused application program. 11. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a display unit which displays a video based on the broadcasting signal processed by the signal processor. 12. A control method of a broadcasting signal processing apparatus having a signal receiver that receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcasting signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information, and a signal processor that processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver, the control method comprising: determining whether an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed; pausing the execution of the application program if the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied; and controlling the signal processor so that the video being displayed is adjusted while the application program is paused. 13. The control method of claim 12, further comprising receiving a user's instruction for adjusting the video, wherein it is determined that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied if the user's instruction is input. 14. The control method of claim 12, wherein the pausing of the execution of the application program comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state. 15. The control method of claim 12, wherein the adjustment of the video comprises adjusting a size of the video. 16. The control method of claim 12, wherein the providing of the broadcasting information comprises displaying a graphic user interface (GUI) for the broadcasting information. 17. The control method of claim 12, further comprising resuming the execution of the paused application program. 18. The control method of claim 17, wherein the resuming of the execution of the paused application program comprises: receiving a user's instruction for resuming the execution of the paused application program; and resuming the execution of the paused application program if the user's instruction is input. 19. The control method of claim 17, wherein the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises controlling the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment. 20. The control method of claim 17, wherein the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Apparatuses and methods consistent with the present invention relate to a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method thereof, and more particularly, to a broadcasting signal processing apparatus that executes an application program included in a broadcasting signal, and a control method thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art A broadcasting signal processing apparatus, such as a TV or a set-top box, receives a broadcasting signal from a broadcasting station and processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal. The broadcasting signal may include an application program that provides various broadcasting services, such as data broadcasting, and that broadcasts information. For example, the application program may include a Java application that is defined in digital TV broadcasting specifications such as OpenCable Application Platform (OCAP), Advanced Common Application Platform (ACAP), and Multimedia Home Platform (MHP). Such an application program is downloaded to the broadcasting signal processing apparatus through the received broadcasting signal, and the broadcasting signal processing apparatus provides various broadcasting information by executing the downloaded application program. However, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus can perform only the functions provided by the application program during execution of the application program. That is, if a user-desired function is not included in the application program in advance, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus cannot perform the user-desired function during execution of the application program. Hereinafter, detailed descriptions will be given with examples. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus provides broadcasting information by displaying a graphical user interface (GUI) of an application program. FIG. 1 shows a screen 1 where a GUI 3 of an application program is displayed by a broadcasting signal processing apparatus. When the application program is executed, a broadcasting signal video (hereinafter will be referred to as “video”) 2 can be displayed on an upper left portion of the screen 1 and the GUI 3 of the application program can be displayed on the other portion of the screen 1 . In this case, a user may want to display the video 2 , which is displayed on only a portion of the screen 1 , over the full screen. However, when the application program does not have a function that allows adjusting of the size of the video 2 , the application program must be terminated in order to adjust the size of the video 2 while the application program is being executed. In addition, when a user wants to use broadcasting information of the terminated application program, the application program needs to be restarted. In this case, the previous execution information of the application program is lost. Therefore, previous operations must be performed again in order to use the broadcasting information. The above information disclosed in this Background section is only for enhancement of understanding of the background of the invention and therefore it may contain information that does not form the prior art that is already known in this country to a person of ordinary skill in the art.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The exemplary embodiment of the present invention overcomes the above disadvantages and other disadvantages not described above. Also, the present invention is not required to overcome the disadvantages described above. Accordingly, the exemplary embodiment provides a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method that performs a user-desired function without terminating an application program. Particularly, the exemplary embodiment provides a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method that more conveniently performs a user-desired function during execution of an application program. The foregoing and/or other aspects of the present invention can be achieved by providing a broadcasting signal processing apparatus comprising: a signal receiver which receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcast signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information; a signal processor which processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver; and a controller which controls the signal processor so that execution of the application program is paused and the video is adjusted if an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a user input unit to which a user's instruction to adjust the video is input, wherein the controller determines that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied when the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the user input unit comprises a remote controller or a control panel, the remote controller or control panel including at least one button, and wherein the controller determines that the user's instruction is input when the at least one button is pressed. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller changes a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state by calling a function of the application program that pauses the execution of the application program. According to an aspect of the invention, adjustment of the video includes adjusting a size of the video. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting information comprises a graphic user interface (GUI) that displays the broadcasting information. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller resumes execution of the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a user input unit to which a user's instruction to resume the paused application program is input, wherein the controller resumes the paused application program when the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller controls the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment if the application program is resumed. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller calls a function of the application program that changes a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state in order to resume the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a display unit which displays a video based on the broadcasting signal processed by the signal processor. The foregoing and/or other aspects of the present invention can be achieved by providing a control method of a broadcasting signal processing apparatus having a signal receiver that receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcasting signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information, and a signal processor that processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver, the control method comprising: determining whether an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed; pausing the execution of the application program if the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied; and controlling the signal processor so that the video being displayed is adjusted while the application program is paused. According to an aspect of the invention, the control method further comprises receiving a user's instruction for adjusting the video, wherein it is determined that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied if the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the pausing of the execution of the application program comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state. According to an aspect of the invention, the adjustment of the video comprises adjusting a size of the video. According to an aspect of the invention, the providing of the broadcasting information comprises displaying a graphic user interface (GUI) for the broadcasting information. According to an aspect of the invention, the control method further comprises resuming the execution of the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program comprises: receiving a user's instruction for resuming the execution of the paused application program; and resuming the execution of the paused application program if the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises controlling the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority from Korean Patent Application No. 10-2007-0004379, filed on Jan. 15, 2007 in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Apparatuses and methods consistent with the present invention relate to a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method thereof, and more particularly, to a broadcasting signal processing apparatus that executes an application program included in a broadcasting signal, and a control method thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art A broadcasting signal processing apparatus, such as a TV or a set-top box, receives a broadcasting signal from a broadcasting station and processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal. The broadcasting signal may include an application program that provides various broadcasting services, such as data broadcasting, and that broadcasts information. For example, the application program may include a Java application that is defined in digital TV broadcasting specifications such as OpenCable Application Platform (OCAP), Advanced Common Application Platform (ACAP), and Multimedia Home Platform (MHP). Such an application program is downloaded to the broadcasting signal processing apparatus through the received broadcasting signal, and the broadcasting signal processing apparatus provides various broadcasting information by executing the downloaded application program. However, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus can perform only the functions provided by the application program during execution of the application program. That is, if a user-desired function is not included in the application program in advance, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus cannot perform the user-desired function during execution of the application program. Hereinafter, detailed descriptions will be given with examples. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus provides broadcasting information by displaying a graphical user interface (GUI) of an application program. FIG. 1 shows a screen 1 where a GUI 3 of an application program is displayed by a broadcasting signal processing apparatus. When the application program is executed, a broadcasting signal video (hereinafter will be referred to as “video”) 2 can be displayed on an upper left portion of the screen 1 and the GUI 3 of the application program can be displayed on the other portion of the screen 1. In this case, a user may want to display the video 2, which is displayed on only a portion of the screen 1, over the full screen. However, when the application program does not have a function that allows adjusting of the size of the video 2, the application program must be terminated in order to adjust the size of the video 2 while the application program is being executed. In addition, when a user wants to use broadcasting information of the terminated application program, the application program needs to be restarted. In this case, the previous execution information of the application program is lost. Therefore, previous operations must be performed again in order to use the broadcasting information. The above information disclosed in this Background section is only for enhancement of understanding of the background of the invention and therefore it may contain information that does not form the prior art that is already known in this country to a person of ordinary skill in the art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The exemplary embodiment of the present invention overcomes the above disadvantages and other disadvantages not described above. Also, the present invention is not required to overcome the disadvantages described above. Accordingly, the exemplary embodiment provides a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method that performs a user-desired function without terminating an application program. Particularly, the exemplary embodiment provides a broadcasting signal processing apparatus and a control method that more conveniently performs a user-desired function during execution of an application program. The foregoing and/or other aspects of the present invention can be achieved by providing a broadcasting signal processing apparatus comprising: a signal receiver which receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcast signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information; a signal processor which processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver; and a controller which controls the signal processor so that execution of the application program is paused and the video is adjusted if an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a user input unit to which a user's instruction to adjust the video is input, wherein the controller determines that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied when the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the user input unit comprises a remote controller or a control panel, the remote controller or control panel including at least one button, and wherein the controller determines that the user's instruction is input when the at least one button is pressed. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller changes a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state by calling a function of the application program that pauses the execution of the application program. According to an aspect of the invention, adjustment of the video includes adjusting a size of the video. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting information comprises a graphic user interface (GUI) that displays the broadcasting information. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller resumes execution of the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a user input unit to which a user's instruction to resume the paused application program is input, wherein the controller resumes the paused application program when the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller controls the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment if the application program is resumed. According to an aspect of the invention, the controller calls a function of the application program that changes a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state in order to resume the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus further comprises a display unit which displays a video based on the broadcasting signal processed by the signal processor. The foregoing and/or other aspects of the present invention can be achieved by providing a control method of a broadcasting signal processing apparatus having a signal receiver that receives a broadcasting signal, the broadcasting signal including an application program for providing broadcasting information, and a signal processor that processes the broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver, the control method comprising: determining whether an adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while the application program is executed; pausing the execution of the application program if the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied; and controlling the signal processor so that the video being displayed is adjusted while the application program is paused. According to an aspect of the invention, the control method further comprises receiving a user's instruction for adjusting the video, wherein it is determined that the adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied if the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the pausing of the execution of the application program comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from an execution state to a pause state. According to an aspect of the invention, the adjustment of the video comprises adjusting a size of the video. According to an aspect of the invention, the providing of the broadcasting information comprises displaying a graphic user interface (GUI) for the broadcasting information. According to an aspect of the invention, the control method further comprises resuming the execution of the paused application program. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program comprises: receiving a user's instruction for resuming the execution of the paused application program; and resuming the execution of the paused application program if the user's instruction is input. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises controlling the signal processor so that the video is restored prior to adjustment. According to an aspect of the invention, the resuming of the execution of the paused application program further comprises calling a function of the application program so as to change a current state of the application program from a pause state to an execution state. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and/or other aspects of the prevent invention will become apparent and more readily appreciated from the following description of the exemplary embodiment, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 shows a screen where a GUI of an application program is displayed by a broadcasting signal processing apparatus; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a broadcasting signal processing apparatus according to a first exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 shows a screen of the broadcasting signal processing apparatus according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a configuration of software for realization of a controller according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the state of the application program according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 6 is a flowchart of a control method of the broadcasting signal processing apparatus according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION Reference will now be made in detail to an embodiment of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like elements throughout. The exemplary embodiment is described below so as to explain the present invention by referring to the figures. Hereinafter, the exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 may be a TV or a set-top box that receives a broadcasting signal from a broadcasting station and processes the received signal so that a video is displayed based on the received broadcasting signal. The broadcasting signal includes an application program that provides various broadcasting information such as data broadcasting. Such an application program can be provided as a Java application defined in a specification associated with digital TV broadcasting, such as OpenCable Application Platform (OCAP), Advanced Common Application Platform (ACAP), and Multimedia Home Platform (MHP). The broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 can adjust a video or perform other functions without terminating the application program that is currently being executed. For example, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 can adjust the size of the video according to instructions of a user during execution of the application program. In further detail, as shown in FIG. 2, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 includes a signal receiver 110 that receives a broadcasting signal, a signal processor 120 that processes the received broadcasting signal so that a video is displayed based on the broadcasting signal, and a controller 130 that controls the signal processor 120 so that execution of the application program is temporarily paused in order to adjust the video if at least one adjustment condition of the video being displayed is satisfied while broadcasting information is provided by the execution of the application program. The signal receiver 110 performs frequency tuning to one of a plurality of channels according to control of the controller 130 and, therefore, receives the broadcasting signal. The signal processor 120 performs demultiplexing or decoding of the broadcasting signal received by the signal receiver 110. The signal processor 120 adjusts the displayed video according to control of the controller 130. When it is determined that the receiving of the application program by the signal receiver 110 is completed, the controller 130 can start the application program. In this case, as shown in FIG. 1, the GUI 3 of the application program can be displayed on the screen 1 by the execution of the application program. The broadcasting information is provided through the GUI 3 of the application program. When adjustment conditions of a predetermined image are satisfied during the execution of the application, the controller 130 temporarily pauses the execution of the application program and controls the signal processor 120 so that the video is adjusted. In other words, the user does not need to terminate the application program to adjust the video. The controller 130 can control the signal processor 120 so that, for example, the size of the video is adjusted. For example, when the video 2 is displayed on a portion of the screen 1 together with the GUI 3 of the application program, the controller can control the signal processor 120 so that the size of the video 2 is adjusted. Therefore, the video 20 can be displayed over the entire screen 10 as shown in FIG. 3. The user can determine whether the adjustment conditions of the video are satisfied during the execution of the application program. That is, the broadcasting signal processor 100 may further include a user input unit 140 that receives at least one instruction of the user to adjust the video. The controller 130 can determine that adjustment conditions of the video being displayed are satisfied when the user's instructions are input through the user input unit 140. Thus, a user's preference can be better satisfied because the user is able to perform user-desired video adjustment at a user-desired time during execution of the application program. The user input unit 140 can be provided as a remote controller (not shown) having at least one button, such as a hotkey, or as a control panel (not shown) provided in the broadcasting signal processor 100. The controller 130 determines that the user's instructions for video adjustment are input when a button of the remote controller or the control panel is pressed. Therefore, the user can perform a convenient, user-desired video adjustment with a simple key input, like a hotkey, during execution of the application program. The controller 130 can then resume the execution of the application program that has been temporarily paused after the video adjustment. If the execution of the application program is resumed, the controller 130 can control the signal processor 120 so that the video 20 of FIG. 3 is restored to the original state of the video (refer to video 2 of FIG. 1) prior to adjustment. The controller 130 can resume the temporarily paused application program when the user instructs the application program to resume through the user input unit 140. The instruction meaning “resume execution of the application program” can be input through a predetermined button of the user input unit 140, such as a remote controller or a control panel. A button corresponding to the user instruction for the application program resumption may be the same as the button corresponding to the user instruction for video adjustment during execution of the application program. That is, whenever the button is pressed, the video 1 of FIG. 1 and the video 10 of FIG. 3 can be alternatively displayed. As described, since the video can be switched from the after-adjustment state to the before-adjustment state, and vice versa, with a simple key input such as the hot key, user convenience can be improved. The controller 130 can be software and hardware. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a configuration of software of the controller 130. The controller 130 may include a host platform 134 and a middleware 135, both as software. Referring to FIG. 2, the controller 130 may include a read only memory (ROM) 131 as hardware for storing the host platform 134 and the middleware 135, a random access memory (RAM) 132 for loading the stored host platform 134 and the stored middleware 135, and a central processing unit (CPU) 133 for executing the host platform 134 and the middleware 135 that are loaded to the RAM 132. The application program 136 can also be loaded to the RAM 132 and executed by the CPU 133. The host platform 134 includes a device driver (not shown) that controls the broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100. When the application program is executed, the middleware 135 provides an application programming interface (API) for using functions of the host platform 134. The API serves as an interface between the host platform 134 and the application program 136. The host platform 134 and the middleware 135 are programmed so that the CPU 133 performs the above-described operations of the controller 130. Referring to FIG. 5, execution, pause, and resumption of the application program 136 will be described in detail. FIG. 5 shows a diagram of the states of the application program 136. As shown in FIG. 5, the states of the application program 136 include a Loaded state 51, a Paused state 52, an Active state 53, and a Destroyed state 54. The Loaded state 51 indicates that receiving of the application program 136 has been completed by the signal receiver 110. The Paused state 52 indicates that the application program 136 has been initialized and is ready for execution. The Active state 53 indicates that the initialized application program 136 is being executed. The Destroyed state 54 indicates that the application program 136 has been terminated. The Paused state 52 and the Active state 53 are examples of a pause state and an execution state, respectively, in the present exemplary embodiment. The application program 136 has functions respectively corresponding to the states 51, 52, 53, and 54. These functions are defined in the broadcasting specifications, such as the OCAP and the MHP. That is, the application program 136 can be switched to the Paused state 52 from the Loaded state 51 by calling an initXlet function of the application program 136. In addition, the Paused state 52 and the Active state 53 can be executed by respectively calling pauseXlet and startXlet functions, and the two states 52 and 53 can be switched to each other accordingly. Further, the application program 136 in the Loaded state 51, the Paused state 52, or the Active state 53 can be moved to the Destroyed state 54 at any time by calling, for example, a destroyXlet function. During execution of the application program 136, the controller 130 changes the current state of the application program 136 from the Active state 53 to the Paused state 52 by calling the pauseXlet function so as to temporarily pause the execution of the application program 136. In addition, the controller 130 changes the current state of the application program 136 from the Paused state 52 to the Active state 53 by calling the startXlet function while the execution of the application program 136 is paused. This resumes the temporarily paused application program 136. Referring to FIG. 2, the broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 may further include a display unit 150 that displays images based on the broadcasting signals processed by the signal processor 120. The display unit 150 may display images by using a liquid crystal display (LCD) or a plasma display panel (PDP). FIG. 6 is a flowchart of a control method of the broadcasting signal processing apparatus 100 according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. When receiving of the application program included in the broadcasting signal is finished, the controller 130 executes the application program, at operation of S101. When the application program is executed, as shown in FIG. 1, the video 2 and the GUI 3 of the application program can be displayed. Subsequently, the controller 130 determines whether the user has input instructions for video adjustment, at operation of S102. The user's instructions may require maximization of the size of the video 2 of FIG. 1 to the size of the screen 1. The user's instructions may be input through a predetermined button on the user input unit 140, such as a remote controller. When it is determined at the operation of S102 that the user's instructions have been input, the controller 130 temporarily pauses the execution of the application program, at operation of S103. For example, the controller 130 changes the current state of the application program from the Active state 53 to the Paused state 52 by calling the pauseXlet function. This temporarily pauses the application program. Next, the controller 130 controls the signal processor 120 so that the video is adjusted according to the user's instructions, at operation of S104. For example, the controller 130 controls the signal processor 120 so that the size of the video 2 of FIG. 1 is maximized and the video 20 is displayed on the full screen 10 as shown in FIG. 3. At operation of S104, the controller 130 may hide the GUI 3 of the application program shown in FIG. 1 so as to fully display the video 20 on the screen 10. Next, the controller 130 determines whether user's instructions for restoring the video prior to adjustment are input at operation of S105. That is, the controller 130 determines whether user' instructions for resuming the application program are input, at operation of S105. When it is determined at operation of S105 that the user's instructions for resuming the application program are input, the controller 130 controls the signal processor 120 so that the video is restored to a before-adjustment state, at operation of S106. Restoring of the video may indicate that the size of the video 20 of FIG. 3 is adjusted to the size of the video 2 of FIG. 1. Next, the controller 130 resumes the paused application program, at operation of S107. For example, the controller 130 calls the startXlet function of the application program in order to change the current state of the application program from the Paused state 52 to the Active state 53. Thereby, the paused application program is resumed. When the application program is paused, the GUI 3 of the application program as shown in FIG. 1 may be displayed. The operation order of the operation of S106 and the operation of S107 may be interchanged. As described above, a broadcasting signal processor and a control method of performing a user-desired function without terminating an application program, can be provided according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Particularly, the user can adjust the video during execution of the application program so that the user does not need to terminate the application program in order to adjust the video. In addition, a user can be more satisfied by performing user-desired video adjustment at user-desired time during execution of the application program according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Further, user convenience can be improved by allowing the user to adjust the video to a desired state with a simple key input, like a hotkey. Although an exemplary embodiment of the present invention has been shown and described, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes may be made in this exemplary embodiment without departing from the principles and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined in the appended claims and their equivalents.
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H
| 70H04
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54
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45
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11807957
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US20080131080A1-20080605
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Apparatus and method using compressed codes for scheduling broadcast information recording
|
ACCEPTED
|
20080521
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20080605
|
[]
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H04N700
|
["H04N700"]
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8233773
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20070529
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20120731
|
386
|
083000
|
67828.0
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CHEVALIER
|
ROBERT
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Yuen", "inventor_name_first": "Henry C.", "inventor_city": "Redondo Beach", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kwoh", "inventor_name_first": "Daniel S.", "inventor_city": "Rolling Hills Estates", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Digital compressed codes, associated with advertisements enable a user to selectively record additional information, which would be broadcast on a television channel at a later time. The advertisement could be print advertisement or broadcast advertisement on television or radio. The user enters the digital code (I code) associated with an advertisement into a unit with a decoding means which automatically converts the code into CTL (channel, time and length). The unit within a twenty four hour period activates a VCR to record information on the television channel at the right time for the proper length of time. The decoded channel, time and length information can be communicated directly to a VCR and used by the VCR directly to automatically activate the VCR to record a given television information broadcast corresponding to the communicated channel, time and length. Alternately, the channel, time and length information can be decoded directly in a remote control unit and only start record, stop record and channel selection commands sent to the VCR at the appropriate times. Algorithms for decoding the I codes can be a function of time to ensure security of the decoding method. A method is included for use of the I codes with cable channels.
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1. An apparatus for using compressed codes for information broadcast recording that comprises: an interface that receives compressed codes each having at least one digit and each representative of, and compressed in length from, a combination including a set of channel, time-of-day and length commands for an information broadcast; a decoder that decodes a compressed code having at least one digit into a set of channel, time-of-day and length commands; and a controller configured to have a recorder start recording according to the time-of-day command during the twenty-four hour period following receipt of the compressed code by the interface. 2. The apparatus for using compressed codes of claim 1, wherein each compressed code has a length less than the length of the concatenation of the set of channel, time-of-day and length commands. 3. The apparatus for using compressed codes of claim 1, wherein each compressed code comprises one or more alphanumeric characters. 4-17. (canceled) 18. A method for using compressed codes for information broadcast recording that comprises: receiving compressed codes, each having at least one digit and each representative of, and compressed in length from, the combination including a set of channel, time-of-day and length commands for an information broadcast; decoding a compressed code having at least one digit into a set of channel, time-of-day and length commands; and turning the recording function of a recorder on according to the time-of-day command during the twenty-four hour period following receiving the compressed code. 19-20. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to video cassette recorder systems and particularly to the timer preprogramming feature of video cassette recorders (VCRs) and to an apparatus and method for using encoded information to shorten the time required to perform timer preprogramming and also an apparatus and method for enabling a user to selectively record, for later viewing, detailed information that is associated with an earlier publication or broadcast of an advertisement. The video cassette recorder (VCR) has a number of uses, including playing back of tapes filmed by a video camera, playing back of pre-recorded tapes, and recording and playing back of broadcast and cable television programs. To record a television program in advance of viewing it, a two-step process is often used: (1) obtain the correct channel, date, time and length (CDTL) information from a television program guide, and (2) program this CDTL information into the VCR. Depending on the model, year and type of the VCR, the CDTL information can be programmed in various ways including: (i) pushing an appropriate sequence of keys in the console according to instructions contained in the user's manual, (ii) pushing an appropriate sequence of keys in a remote hand-held control unit according to instructions contained in the user's manual (remote programming), and (iii) executing a series of keystrokes in the remote hand-held control unit in response to a menu displayed on the television screen (on-screen programming). Other techniques for timer preprogramming have been suggested including: (iv) reading in certain bar-code information using a light pen (light pen programming), and (v) entering instructions through a computer or telephone modem. These various methods differ only in the physical means of specifying the information while the contents, being CDTL and certain power/clock/timer on-off commands are generally common although the detailed protocol can vary with different model VCRs. Methods (i) and (ii) described above can require up to 100 keystrokes, which has inhibited the free use of the timer preprogramming feature of VCRs. To alleviate this, new VCR models have included an “On-Screen Programming” feature, which permits remote input of CDTL information in response to a menu displayed on the television screen. Generally on screen programming of CDTL information requires an average of about 18 keystrokes, which is less than some of the prior methods but still rather substantial. Some of the other techniques such as (iv) above, require the use of special equipment such as a bar code reader. In general the present state of the art suffers from a number of drawbacks. First, the procedure for setting the VCR to record in advance can be quite complex and confusing and difficult to learn; in fact, because of this many VCR owners shun using the timer preprogramming record feature. Second, the transcription of the CDTL information to the VCR is hardly ever error-free; in fact, many users of VCR's timer preprogramming features express concern over the high incidence of programming errors. Third, even for experienced users, the process of entering a lengthy sequence of information on the channel, date, time and length of desired program can become tedious. Fourth, techniques such as reading in bar-code information or using a computer require special equipment. These drawbacks have created a serious impedance in the use of a VCR as a recording device for television programs. The effect is that time shifting of programs has not become as popular as it once was thought it would be. Accordingly, there is a need in the art for a simpler system for effecting VCR timer preprogramming which will enable a user to take advantage of the recording feature of a VCR more fully and freely. The prior art in the area of enabling a user to selectively record for later viewing, detailed information associated with an advertisement is the familiar advertisement by a network during a television channel commercial break that there will be “news at 11” or that there will be an “interview with the winning coach at 9”. A viewer watching the channel that sees/hears this announcement could preprogram his VCR to record the “news” or “interview” at the appropriate time. Thus, the concept of having a cue broadcast simultaneously with a advertisement that alerts a user that supplemental information regarding the advertisement will be broadcast at a later time can be implemented easily with standard apparatus such as a television and a VCR and is not new to the state of the art. The user could also be informed of an “interview with the winning coach” through print advertisement, which would indicate the channel time and date of the interview. When the user is informed either through a broadcast or a printed advertisement that a winning team's coach will be interviewed later that day, the viewer uses his standard remote controller to program his VCR to automatically record this later program. The VCR stores the schedule information from the controller and, via its display panel, provides acknowledgment to the user of his programming commands. U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,455 for a System and Process for VCR Scheduling discloses a television broadcast system in which a cue is broadcast and displayed simultaneously with a primary program. The cue alerts a user that supplemental information regarding the primary program will be broadcast at a later time. If the user responds to the cue via a remote controller, then data embedded in the primary program broadcast during the video blanking interval segment of the video signal, but not visible to the viewer, will be automatically stored and interpreted by a microprocessor and used to control a VCR to record the supplemental broadcast at the later time. Young does not contemplate the use of printed media at all and requires that a special unit be associated with the television receiver to store and interpret the data embedded in the primary program broadcast, and also to respond to the user cue, for the system to work at all, even for television advertisements, as shown in elements 4, 5, 9, 10, and 15 of FIG. 1, of U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,455.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A principal object of the invention is to provide an improved system for the selection and entering of channel, date, time and length (CDTL) information required for timer preprogramming of a VCR which is substantially simpler, faster and less error-prone than present techniques. Another principal object of the invention is to provide an improved apparatus and method for enabling a user to selectively record, for later viewing, detailed information that is associated with an earlier publication or broadcast of an advertisement. In accordance with the invention, to program the timer preprogramming feature of a video system, there is an apparatus and method for using encoded video recorder/player timer preprogramming information. The purpose is to significantly reduce the number of keystrokes required to set up the timer preprogramming feature on a VCR. In accordance with this invention it is only necessary for the user to enter a code with 1 to 7 digits or more into the VCR. This can be done either remotely or locally at the VCR. Built into either the remote controller or the VCR is a decoding means which automatically converts the code into the proper CDTL programming information and activates the VCR to record a given television program with the corresponding channel, date, time and length. Generally multiple codes can be entered at one time for multiple program selections. The code can be printed in a television program guide in advance and selected for use with a VCR or remote controller with the decoding means. Another principal object of the invention is to enable a user to selectively record information designated by a digital code, which would be associated with an advertisement. The advertisement could be print advertisement or a broadcast advertisement on television or radio. The additional information could be broadcast on a television channel early in the morning, for example, between midnite and six o'clock in the morning, when the broadcast rates are low and it is economical to broadcast detailed information or advertisements of many items, especially expensive ones, such as automobiles and real estate. In accordance with this invention it is only necessary for the user to enter a digital compressed code associated with an advertisement into a unit with a decoding means which automatically converts the code into CTL (channel, time and length). The unit activates a VCR to record information on the television channel starting at the right time and recording for the proper length of time. The information will be recorded within the next twenty four hours so it is not necessary to decode any date. The user can then view this information at his/her leisure. Other objects and many of the attendant features of this invention will be more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed descriptions and considered in connection with the accompanying drawings in which like reference symbols designate like parts throughout the figures.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of U.S. patent Ser. No. 10/272,232, filed Oct. 15, 2002, and to be issued on Dec. 23, 2003, as U.S. Pat. No. 6,668,133, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/374,137 filed Aug. 10, 1999, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/848,533 filed on Aug. 28, 1997, issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,974,222, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/327,140 filed on Oct. 20, 1994 (abandoned), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/806,152 filed on Dec. 11, 1991 (abandoned), which is continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/676,934 filed Mar. 27, 1991, issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,335,079, which is a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/371,054 filed Jun. 26, 1989 (abandoned), which itself is a continuation in part of Ser. No. 07/289,369, filed Dec. 23, 1988 (abandoned), each of which is incorporated by reference as if set forth herein in full. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to video cassette recorder systems and particularly to the timer preprogramming feature of video cassette recorders (VCRs) and to an apparatus and method for using encoded information to shorten the time required to perform timer preprogramming and also an apparatus and method for enabling a user to selectively record, for later viewing, detailed information that is associated with an earlier publication or broadcast of an advertisement. The video cassette recorder (VCR) has a number of uses, including playing back of tapes filmed by a video camera, playing back of pre-recorded tapes, and recording and playing back of broadcast and cable television programs. To record a television program in advance of viewing it, a two-step process is often used: (1) obtain the correct channel, date, time and length (CDTL) information from a television program guide, and (2) program this CDTL information into the VCR. Depending on the model, year and type of the VCR, the CDTL information can be programmed in various ways including: (i) pushing an appropriate sequence of keys in the console according to instructions contained in the user's manual, (ii) pushing an appropriate sequence of keys in a remote hand-held control unit according to instructions contained in the user's manual (remote programming), and (iii) executing a series of keystrokes in the remote hand-held control unit in response to a menu displayed on the television screen (on-screen programming). Other techniques for timer preprogramming have been suggested including: (iv) reading in certain bar-code information using a light pen (light pen programming), and (v) entering instructions through a computer or telephone modem. These various methods differ only in the physical means of specifying the information while the contents, being CDTL and certain power/clock/timer on-off commands are generally common although the detailed protocol can vary with different model VCRs. Methods (i) and (ii) described above can require up to 100 keystrokes, which has inhibited the free use of the timer preprogramming feature of VCRs. To alleviate this, new VCR models have included an “On-Screen Programming” feature, which permits remote input of CDTL information in response to a menu displayed on the television screen. Generally on screen programming of CDTL information requires an average of about 18 keystrokes, which is less than some of the prior methods but still rather substantial. Some of the other techniques such as (iv) above, require the use of special equipment such as a bar code reader. In general the present state of the art suffers from a number of drawbacks. First, the procedure for setting the VCR to record in advance can be quite complex and confusing and difficult to learn; in fact, because of this many VCR owners shun using the timer preprogramming record feature. Second, the transcription of the CDTL information to the VCR is hardly ever error-free; in fact, many users of VCR's timer preprogramming features express concern over the high incidence of programming errors. Third, even for experienced users, the process of entering a lengthy sequence of information on the channel, date, time and length of desired program can become tedious. Fourth, techniques such as reading in bar-code information or using a computer require special equipment. These drawbacks have created a serious impedance in the use of a VCR as a recording device for television programs. The effect is that time shifting of programs has not become as popular as it once was thought it would be. Accordingly, there is a need in the art for a simpler system for effecting VCR timer preprogramming which will enable a user to take advantage of the recording feature of a VCR more fully and freely. The prior art in the area of enabling a user to selectively record for later viewing, detailed information associated with an advertisement is the familiar advertisement by a network during a television channel commercial break that there will be “news at 11” or that there will be an “interview with the winning coach at 9”. A viewer watching the channel that sees/hears this announcement could preprogram his VCR to record the “news” or “interview” at the appropriate time. Thus, the concept of having a cue broadcast simultaneously with a advertisement that alerts a user that supplemental information regarding the advertisement will be broadcast at a later time can be implemented easily with standard apparatus such as a television and a VCR and is not new to the state of the art. The user could also be informed of an “interview with the winning coach” through print advertisement, which would indicate the channel time and date of the interview. When the user is informed either through a broadcast or a printed advertisement that a winning team's coach will be interviewed later that day, the viewer uses his standard remote controller to program his VCR to automatically record this later program. The VCR stores the schedule information from the controller and, via its display panel, provides acknowledgment to the user of his programming commands. U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,455 for a System and Process for VCR Scheduling discloses a television broadcast system in which a cue is broadcast and displayed simultaneously with a primary program. The cue alerts a user that supplemental information regarding the primary program will be broadcast at a later time. If the user responds to the cue via a remote controller, then data embedded in the primary program broadcast during the video blanking interval segment of the video signal, but not visible to the viewer, will be automatically stored and interpreted by a microprocessor and used to control a VCR to record the supplemental broadcast at the later time. Young does not contemplate the use of printed media at all and requires that a special unit be associated with the television receiver to store and interpret the data embedded in the primary program broadcast, and also to respond to the user cue, for the system to work at all, even for television advertisements, as shown in elements 4, 5, 9, 10, and 15 of FIG. 1, of U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,455. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A principal object of the invention is to provide an improved system for the selection and entering of channel, date, time and length (CDTL) information required for timer preprogramming of a VCR which is substantially simpler, faster and less error-prone than present techniques. Another principal object of the invention is to provide an improved apparatus and method for enabling a user to selectively record, for later viewing, detailed information that is associated with an earlier publication or broadcast of an advertisement. In accordance with the invention, to program the timer preprogramming feature of a video system, there is an apparatus and method for using encoded video recorder/player timer preprogramming information. The purpose is to significantly reduce the number of keystrokes required to set up the timer preprogramming feature on a VCR. In accordance with this invention it is only necessary for the user to enter a code with 1 to 7 digits or more into the VCR. This can be done either remotely or locally at the VCR. Built into either the remote controller or the VCR is a decoding means which automatically converts the code into the proper CDTL programming information and activates the VCR to record a given television program with the corresponding channel, date, time and length. Generally multiple codes can be entered at one time for multiple program selections. The code can be printed in a television program guide in advance and selected for use with a VCR or remote controller with the decoding means. Another principal object of the invention is to enable a user to selectively record information designated by a digital code, which would be associated with an advertisement. The advertisement could be print advertisement or a broadcast advertisement on television or radio. The additional information could be broadcast on a television channel early in the morning, for example, between midnite and six o'clock in the morning, when the broadcast rates are low and it is economical to broadcast detailed information or advertisements of many items, especially expensive ones, such as automobiles and real estate. In accordance with this invention it is only necessary for the user to enter a digital compressed code associated with an advertisement into a unit with a decoding means which automatically converts the code into CTL (channel, time and length). The unit activates a VCR to record information on the television channel starting at the right time and recording for the proper length of time. The information will be recorded within the next twenty four hours so it is not necessary to decode any date. The user can then view this information at his/her leisure. Other objects and many of the attendant features of this invention will be more readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed descriptions and considered in connection with the accompanying drawings in which like reference symbols designate like parts throughout the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic showing apparatus according to this invention with the code decoder means embedded in the video cassette recorder; FIG. 2 is a schematic of the VCR embedded processors for command control and code decoding; FIG. 3 is a schematic showing a preferred embodiment according to this invention with the code decoder means embedded in a remote controller; FIG. 4 is a schematic of the processor embedded in the remote controller; FIG. 5 is a schematic of a universal remote controller with the code decoder means embedded in the universal remote controller; FIG. 6 is a flow graph of the G-code decoding technique; FIG. 7 is a flow graph of the G-code encoding technique; FIG. 8 is an illustration of part of a television calendar according to this invention; FIG. 9 is a flowchart for decoding for cable channels; FIG. 10 is a flowchart for encoding for cable channels; FIG. 11 is a flow graph of the G-code decoding for cable channels including conversion from assigned cable channel number to local cable carrier channel number; FIG. 12 is a means for decoding including a stack memory; FIG. 13 is a flowchart for program entry into stack memory; FIG. 14 is an operation flowchart for sending programs from remote control to main unit VCR; FIG. 15 is a perspective view of an apparatus for using compressed codes for recorder preprogramming according to a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 16 is a front view of the apparatus of FIG. 15 showing a forward facing light emitting diode; FIG. 17 is a perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 15 placed in a mounting stand; FIG. 18 is a detail of the LCD display of the apparatus of FIG. 15; FIG. 19 is a perspective view showing a manner of placing the apparatus of FIG. 15 relative to a cable box and a VCR; FIG. 20 is a perspective view showing a manner of placing the mounting stand with the apparatus of FIG. 15 mounted thereon near a cable box and VCR; FIG. 21 is a schematic showing apparatus for using compressed codes for recorder preprogramming according to a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 22 is a detailed schematic showing a preferred embodiment of apparatus implementing the schematic of FIG. 21 FIG. 23 is a flow graph for program entry into the apparatus of FIG. 15; FIG. 24 is a flow graph for review and program cancellation of programs entered into the apparatus of FIG. 15; FIG. 25 is a flow graph for executing recorder preprogramming using compressed codes according to a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 26 is a flow graph for encoding program channel, date, time and length information into decimal compressed codes; FIG. 27 is a flow graph for decoding decimal compressed codes into program channel, date, time and length information; FIG. 28 is an embodiment of an assigned channel number/local channel number table; FIGS. 29a and 29b are examples of a printed advertisement and a television broadcast advertisement showing the use of a decimal code for information (I code); FIG. 30 is a flow graph for entry of an I code into the apparatus of FIG. 15; FIG. 31 is a flow graph for encoding channel, time and length (CTL) into an I code; FIG. 32 is a flow graph for decoding an I code channel, time and length (CTL); and FIG. 33 illustrates the relationship of time spans and validity period codes. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, and more particularly, to FIG. 1, there is shown an apparatus for using encoded video recorder/player timer preprogramming information 10 according to this invention. The primary components include a remote controller 12 and a video cassette recorder/player with G-code decoder 14, which can be controlled by remote controller 12 via a command signal 16. The remote controller 12 can have a number of keys, which include numerical keys 20, G-code switch 22, function keys 24, program key 26 and power key 27. There are means in the remote controller 12 that interprets each key as it is pressed and sends the proper command signal 16 to the VCR via an infra-red light emitting diode 28. Except for the G-code switch 22 on the remote controller 12 in FIG. 1, the remote controller 12 is essentially the same as any other remote controller in function. The G-code switch 22 is provided just to allow the user to lock the remote controller 12 in the G-code mode while using a G-code, which is the name given to the compressed code which is the encoded CDTL information, to perform timer preprogramming. A G-code consists of 1 to 7 digits, although more could be used, and is associated with a particular program. A user would lookup the G-code in a program guide and just enter the G-code on the remote controller 12, instead of the present state of the art, which requires that the user enter the actual channel, date, time and length (CDTL) commands. In order to understand the advantages of using a G-code, it is helpful to describe the best of the current state of the art, which is “on screen programming” with direct numerial entry. This technique involves about 18 keystrokes and the user has to keep switching his view back and forth between the TV screen and the remote controller while entering the CDTL information. This situation may be akin to a user having to dial an 18 digit telephone number while reading it from a phone book. The number of keys involved and the switching back and forth of the eye tend to induce errors. A typical keying sequence for timer recording using on-screen CDTL programming is as follows: PROG 2 1 15 07 30 2 08 00 2 04 PROG The first program (PROG) key 26 enters the programming mode. Then a sequence of numericals key 20 are pushed. The 2 means it is timer recording rather than time setting. The 1 means the user is now entering the settings for program 1. The 15 is the date. The 07 is starting hour. The 30 is a starting minute. The 2 means pm. The next sequence 08 00 2 is the stopping time. The 04 is channel number. Finally, the PROG is hit again to exit the program mode. By contrast, this command could have been “coded” and entered in a typical G-code sequence as follows: PROG 1138 PROG. To distinguish that the command is a coded G-code, the G-code switch 22 should be turned to the “ON” position. Instead of having a switch, a separate key “G” can be used. The G-code programming keystroke sequence would then be: G 1138 PROG. The use of a G-code does not preclude “on-screen” confirmation of the program information that has been entered. When the keystrokes “PROG 1138 PROG” are entered with the G-code switch in the “ON” position, the G-code would be decoded and the television could display the following message: PROGRAM DATE START TIME STOP TIME CHANNEL 1138 15 7:30 PM 8:00 PM 4 In order for the G-code to be useful it must be decoded and apparatus for that purpose must be provided. Referring to FIG. 1, a video cassette recorder/player with G-code decoder 14 is provided to be used in conjunction with remote controller 12. The command signal 16 sent from the remote controller 12 is sensed by the photodiode 32 and converted to electrical signals by command signal receiver 30. The electrical signals are sent to a command controller 36, which interprets the commands and determines how to respond to the commands. As shown in FIG. 1, it is also possible for the command controller 36 to receive commands from the manual controls 34 that are normally built into a VCR. If the command controller 36 determines that a G-code was received then the G-code will be sent to the G-code decoder 38 for decoding. The G-code decoder 38 converts the G-code into CDTL information, which is used by the command controller 36 to set the time/channel programming 40. Built into the VCR is a clock 42. This is normally provided in a VCR and is used to keep track of the date and time. The clock 42 is used primarily by the time/channel programming 40 and the G-code decoder 38 functions. The time/channel programming 40 function is set up with CDTL information by the command controller 36. When the proper date and time is read from clock 42, then the time/channel programming 40 function turns the record/playback 44 function “ON” to record. At the same time the tuner 46 is tuned to the proper channel in the television signal 18. Later the user can command the record/playback 44 function to a playback mode to watch the program via the television monitor 48. An alternate way to control the recorder is to have the command controller 36 keep all the CDTL information instead of sending it to the time/channel programming 40. The command controller would also keep track of the time by periodically reading clock 42. The command controller would then send commands to the time/channel programming 40 to turn on and off the recorder and to tuner 46 to cause it to tune to the right channel at the right time according to the CDTL information. The clock 42 is also an input to G-code decoder 38, which allows the G-code decoding to be a function of the clock, which lends a measure of security to the decoding technique and makes it harder to copy. Of course this requires that the encoding technique must also be a function of the clock. A possible realization of the command controller 36 and the G-code decoder 38 is shown in FIG. 2. The command controller 36 function can be realized with a microprocessor 50, a random access memory 52 and a read only memory 54, which is used for program storage. The input/output 56 function is adapted to receive commands from the command signal receiver 30, the manual controls 34 and the clock 42, and to output signals to a display 35, the clock 42, and the time/channel programming 40 function. If the microprocessor 50 interprets that a G-code has been received, then the G-code is sent to microcontroller 60 for decoding. The microcontroller 60 has an embedded random access memory 62 and an embedded read only memory 64 for program and table storage. The clock 42 can be read by both microprocessor 50 and microcontroller 60. An alternative to having microcontroller 60 perform the G-code decoding is to build the G-code decoding directly into the program stored in read only memory 54. This would eliminate the need for microcontroller 60. Of course, other hardware to perform the G-code decoding can also be used. The choice of which implementation to use is primarily an economic one. The blocks in FIGS. 1 and 2 are well known in the prior art and are present in the following patents: Fields, U.S. Pat. No. 4,481,412; Scholz, U.S. Pat. No. 4,519,003; and Brugliera, U.S. Pat. No. 4,631,601. For example, clock 42 is analogous to element 7 in Scholz and element 17 in Brugliera. Other analogous elements are: command signal receiver 30 and Scholz 14 and Brugliera 12; tuner 46 and Scholz 6 and Brugliera 10; time/channel programming 40 and Scholz 8, 11 and Brugliera 16; record & playback 44 and Scholz 1, 2, 4; command controller 36 and Scholz 11, 10 and Brugliera 12; microprocessor 50 and Fields 27; RAM 62 and Fields 34; ROM 54 and Fields 33; manual controls 34 and Scholz 15, 16; and remote controller 12 and Scholz 26 and Brugliera 18. FIG. 3 illustrates an alternate preferred embodiment of this invention. In FIG. 3 a remote controller with embedded G-code decoder 80 is provided. The remote controller with embedded G-code decoder 80 is very similar to remote controller 12, except for the addition of the G-code decoder 82. Note that it is also possible in any remote controller to provide a display 84. The remote controller with embedded G-code decoder 80 would be used in conjunction with a normal video cassette recorder/player 70, which would not be required to have an embedded G-code decoder. The numerals for the subelements of video cassette recorder/player 70 are the same as described above for the video cassette recorder/player with G-code decoder 14 and have the same function, except for the absence of G-code decoder 38. This preferred embodiment has the advantage that it can be used in conjunction with VCRs that are presently being used. These do not have a G-code decoding capability. Replacing their remote controllers with ones that have this capability built-in can vastly improve the capability to do timer preprogramming for a modest cost. FIG. 4 illustrates a possible realization of the G-code decoder 82 built into the remote controller with embedded G-code decoder 80. A microprocessor 60 can be used as before to decode the G-code, as well as interface with the display 84, a clock 85, the keypad 88 and the light emitting diode 28. Alternately, other hardware implementations can be used to perform the G-code decoding. The clock 85 is provided in the remote controller 80 so that the G-code decoder 82 can be made to have the clock 85 as one of its inputs. This allows the G-code decoding to be a function of the clock 85, which lends a measure of security to the decoding technique and makes it harder to copy. The remote controller with embedded G-code decoder as described above would send channel, date, time and length information to the video cassette recorder/player 70, which would use the CDTL information for tuning into the correct channel and starting and stopping the recording function. The remote controller may have to be unique for each different video cassette recorder/player, because each brand or model may have different infrared pulses for each type of information sent such as the channel number keys and start record and stop record keys. The particular infrared pulses used for each key type can be called the vocabulary of the particular remote controller. Each model may also have a different protocol or order of keys that need to be pushed to accomplish a function such as timer preprogramming. The protocol or order of keys to accomplish a function can be called sentence structure. If there is a unique remote controller built for each model type, then the proper vocabulary and sentence structure can be built directly into the remote controller. An alternate to having the remote controller with embedded G-code decoder send channel, date, time and length information to the video cassette recorder/player 70, is to have the remote controller with embedded G-code decoder perform more operations to simplify the interfacing problem with existing video cassette recorder/players. In particular, if the remote controller not only performs the G-code decoding to CDTL, but also keeps track of time via clock 85, then it is possible for the remote controller to send just channel, start record and stop commands to the video cassette recorder/player. The channel, start and stop are usually basic one or two key commands, which means there is no complicated protocol or sentence structure involved. Thus, to communicate with a diverse set of video cassette recorder/player models it is only necessary to have memory within the remote controller, such as ROM 64 of FIG. 4, for storing the protocol for all the models or at least a large subset. The G-code would be entered on the remote controller as before and decoded into channel, date, time and length information, which would be stored in the remote controller. Via clock 85, the time would be checked and when the correct time arrives the remote controller would automatically send out commands to the VCR unit for tuning to the correct channel and for starting and stopping the recording. It is estimated that only two (2) bytes per key for about 15 keys need to be stored for the vocabulary for each video cassette recorder/player model. Thus, to cover 50 models would only require about 30*50=1500 bytes of memory in the remote controller. It would be necessary to position the remote controller properly with respect to the VCR unit so that the infrared signals sent by the remote controller are received by the unit. Another preferred embodiment is to provide a universal remote controller 90 with an embedded G-code decoder. Universal remote controllers provide the capability to mimic a number of different remote controllers. This reduces the number of remote controllers that a user needs to have. This is accomplished by having a learn function key 94 function on the universal remote controller, as shown in FIG. 5. If the learn function key 94 is pushed in conjunction with another key, the unit will enter into the learn mode. Incoming infra-red (IR) pulses from the remote controller to be learned are detected by the infra-red photodiode 96, filtered and wave-shaped into recognizable bit patterns before being recorded by a microcontroller into a battery-backed static RAM as the particular IR pulse pattern for that particular key. This is done for all the individual keys. An example of more complex learning is the following. If the learn function key 94 in conjunction with the program key 26 are pushed when the G-code switch is “ON”, the unit will recognize that it is about to record the keying sequence of a predetermined specific example of timer preprogramming of the particular VCR involved. The user will then enter the keying sequence from which the universal remote controller 90 can then deduce and record the protocol of the timer preprogramming sequence. This is necessary because different VCRs may have different timer preprogramming command formats. If keys are pushed without the learn function key 94 involved, the microcontroller should recognize it is now in the execute mode. If the key is one of the direct command keys, the microcontroller will read back from its static RAM the stored pulse sequence and send out command words through the output parallel I/O to pulse the output light emitting diode 28. If the key is the PROG key and the G-code switch is “OFF”, then the microcontroller should recognize the following keys up to the next PROG key as a timer preprogramming CDTL command and send it out through the light emitting diode 28. If the G-code switch 22 is set to “ON” and the program key 26 is pushed, the microcontroller should recognize the following keys up to the next PROG key as a G-code command for timer preprogramming. It will decode the G-code into channel, date, start time and length (CDTL) and the microcontroller will then look up in it's static RAM “dictionary” the associated infra-red pulse patterns and concatenate them together before sending them off through the output parallel I/O to pulse the light emitting diode 28 to send the whole message in one continuous stream to the VCR. FIG. 4 illustrates a possible realization of the G-code decoder 92 that could be built into the universal remote controller with embedded G-code decoder 90. A microcontroller 60 can be used as before to decode the G-code, as well as for interfacing with the input/output functions including the photodiode 96. Alternately, the G-code decoding can be performed with other hardware implementations. The universal remote controller can also be used in another manner to simplify the interfacing problem with existing video cassette recorder/players. In particular, if the universal remote controller performs not only the G-code decoding to CDTL, but also keeps track of time via clock 85 in FIG. 4, then it is possible for the universal remote controller to send just channel, start record and stop commands to the video cassette recorder/player, which as explained before, are usually basic one key commands, which means there is no complicated protocol or sentence structure involved. Thus, to communicate with a diverse set of video cassette recorder/player models it is only necessary for the universal remote controller to “learn” each key of the remote controller it is replacing. The G-code would be entered on the universal remote controller as before and decoded into channel, date, time and length information, which would be stored in the universal remote controller. Via clock 85, the time would be checked and when the correct time arrives the universal remote controller would automatically send out commands to the VCR unit for tuning to the correct channel and for starting and stopping the recording. It would be necessary to position the universal remote controller properly with respect to the VCR unit so that the signals sent by the universal remote are received by the VCR unit. There are a number of ways that the G-code decoding can be performed. The most obvious way is to just have a large look up table. The G-code would be the index. Unfortunately, this would be very inefficient and result in a very expensive decoder due to the memory involved. The total storage involved is a function of the number of total combinations. If we allow for 128 channels, 31 days in a month, 48 on the hour and on the half hour start times in a twenty four hour day, and 16 length selections in half hour increments, then the total number of combinations is 128×31×48×16=3,047,424. This number of combinations can be represented by a 7 digit number. The address to the table would be the 7 digit number. In the worse case, this requires a lookup table that has about 4,000,000 rows by 15 to 16 digital columns, depending on the particular protocol. These digital columns would correspond to the CDTL information required for “on screen programming”. Each digit could be represented by a 4 bit binary number. Thus, the total storage number of bits required for the lookup table would be about 4,000,000×16×4=256,000,000. The present state of the art has about 1 million bits per chip. Thus, G-code decoding using a straightforward table lookup would require a prohibitively expensive number of chips. Fortunately, there are much more clever ways of performing the G-code decoding. FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of a preferred G-code decoding technique. To understand G-code decoding, it is easiest to first explain the G-code encoding technique, for which FIG. 7 is the flow chart. Then the G-code decoding technique, which is the reverse of the G-code encoding will be explained. The encoding of the G-codes can be done on any computer and is done prior to preparation of any program guide that would include G-codes. For each program that will be printed in the guide, a channel, date, time and length (CDTL) code 144 is entered in step 142. Step 146 separately reads the priority for the channel, date, time and length in the priority vector storage 122, which can be stored in read only memory 64. The priority vector storage 122 contains four tables: a priority vector C table 124, a priority vector D table 126, a priority vector T table 128 and a priority vector L table 130. The channel priority table is ordered so that the most frequently used channels have a low priority number. An example of the data that is in priority vector C table 124 follows. channel 4 7 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . Generally the dates of a month all have an equal priority, so the low number days in a month and the low number priorities would correspond in the priority vector D table as in the following example. date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . . . The priority of the start times would be arranged so that prime time would have a low priority number and programs in the dead of the night would have a high priority number. For example, the priority vector T table would contain: time 6:30 pm 7:00 pm 8:00 pm 7:30 pm . . . priority 0 1 2 3 . . . An example of the data that is in the priority vector L table 130 is the following: length of program (hours) 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 3.0 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 . . . Suppose the channel date time length (CDTL) 144 data is 5 10 19.00 1.5, which means channel 5, 10th day of the month, 7:00 PM, and 1.5 hours in length, then for the above example the Cp,Dp,Tp,Lp data 148, which are the result of looking up the priorities for channel, date, time and length in priority tables 124, 126, 128 and 130 of FIG. 7, would be 4 9 1 3. Step 150 converts Cp,Dp,Tp,Lp data to binary numbers. The number of binary bits in each conversion is determined by the number of combinations involved. Seven bits for Cp, which can be denoted as C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1, would provide for 128 channels. Five bits for Dp, which can be denoted as D5 D4 D3 D2 D1, would provide for 31 days in a month. Six bits for Tp, which can be denoted as T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1, would provide for 48 start times on each half hour of a twenty four hour day. Four bits for length, which can be denoted as L4 L3 L2 L1, would provide for a program length of up to 8 hours in half hour steps. Together there are 7+5+6+4=22 bits of information, which correspond to 2**22=4,194,304 combinations. The next step is to use bit hierarchy key 120, which can be stored in read only memory 64 to reorder the 22 bits. The bit hierarchy key 120 can be any ordering of the 22 bits. For example, the bit hierarchy key might be: L8 C3 . . . T2 C2 T1 C1 L1 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 22 21 . . . 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Ideally the bit hierarchy key is ordered so that programs most likely to be the subject of timer preprogramming would have a low value binary number, which would eliminate keystrokes for timer preprogramming the most popular programs. Since all the date information has equal priority, then the D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 bits are first. Next T1 C1 L1 are used, because for whatever date it is necessary to have a time channel and length and T1 C1 L1 are the most probable in each case due to the ordering of the priority vectors in priority vector storage 122. The next bit in the hierarchy key is determined by the differential probabilities of the various combinations. One must know the probabilities of all the channels, times and lengths for this calculation to be performed. For example, the probability for channels may be: channel 4 7 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . probability (%) 5 4.3 4 3 2.9 2.1 2 1.8 . . . The probabilities for times might be: time 6:30 pm 7:00 pm 8:00 pm 7:30 pm . . . priority 0 1 2 3 . . . probability (%) 8 7.8 6 5 . . . And, the probabilities for lengths might be: length of program (hours) 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 3.0 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 . . . probability (%) 50 20 15 5 4 . . . The probabilities associated with each channel, time and length, as illustrated above, are used to determine the proper ordering. Since the priority vector tables are already ordered by the most popular channel, time, and length, the order in which to select between the various binary bits for one table, for example selecting between the C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 bits, is already known. The C1 bit would be selected first because as the lowest order binary bit it would select between the first two entries in the channel priority table. Then the C2 bit would be selected and so on. Similarly, the T1 and L1 bits would be used before any of the other time and length bits. A combination of the C1, T1, L1 and D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 bits should be used first, so that all the information is available for a channel, date, time and length. The D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 bits are all used because the date bits all have equal priority and all are needed to specify a date even if some of the bits are binary zero. At this point the bit hierarchy key could be: T1 C1 L1 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 The first channel binary bit C, by itself can only select between 21=2 channels, and the first two channels have a probability percent of 5 and 4.3, respectively. So the differential probability of C1 is 9.3. Similarly, the differential probability of T1 is 8+7.8=15.8, and the differential probability of L1 is 50+20-70. If the rules for ordering the bit hierarchy key are strictly followed, then the first 8 bits of the bit hierarchy key should be ordered as: C1 T1 L1 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1, because L1 has the highest differential priority so it should be next most significant bit after D5, followed by T1 as the next most significant bit, and then C1 as the next most significant bit. Notice that the bit hierarchy key starts with the least significant bit D1, and then is filled in with the highest differential probability bits. This is for the purpose of constructing the most compact codes for popular programs. The question at this point in the encoding process is what should the next most significant bit in the hierarchy key be: T2, C2, or L2. This is again determined by the differential probabilities, which can be calculated from the above tables for each bit. Since we are dealing with binary bits, the C2 in combination with C1 selects between 22=4 channels or 2 more channels over C1 alone. The differential probability for C2 is then the additional probabilities of these two additional channels and for the example this is: 4+3=7. In a similar manner C3 in combination with C1 and C2 selects between 23=8 channels or 4=2(3−1) more channels over the combination of C1 and C2. So the differential probability of C3 is the additional probabilities of these four additional channels and for the example this is: 2.9+2.1+2+1.8=8.8. In a similar manner, the differential probabilities of T2 and L2 can be calculated to be 6+5=11 and 15+5=20, respectively. Once all the differential probabilities are calculated, the next step is determining which combinations of bits are more probable. Now for the above example, which combination is more probable: T2 with C1 L1, or C2 with T1 L1, or L2 with T1 C1. This will determine the next bit in the key. So, which is greater: 11×9.3×70=7161; 7×15.8×70=7742; or 20×15.8×9.3=2938.8? In this case the combination with the greatest probability is 7×15.8×70=7742, which corresponds to C2 with T1 L1. So, C2 is selected as the next bit in the bit hierarchy key. The next bit is selected in the same way. Which combination is more probable: C3 with T1 L1, or T2 with C1 or C2 and L1, or L2 with C1 or C2 and T1. For the example shown, which has the greatest probability: 8.8×15.8×70=9732.8; 11×(9.3+7)×70=12551; or 20×(9.3+7)×15.8=5150.8? In this case the combination with the greatest probability is 1×(9.3+7)×70=12551, which corresponds T2 with C1 or C2 and L1. So, T2 is selected as the next bit in the bit hierarchy key. This procedure is repeated for all the differential probabilities until the entire key is found. Alternately, the bit hierarchy key can be just some arbitrary sequence of the bits. It is also possible to make the priority vectors interdependent, such as making the length priority vector dependent on different groups of channels. Another technique is to make the bit hierarchy key 120 and the priority vector tables 122, a function of clock 42, as shown in FIG. 7. This makes it very difficult for the key and therefore the coding technique to be duplicated or copied. For example it is possible to scramble the date bits in the bit hierarchy key 120 as a function of the clock. Changing the order of the bits as a function of the clock would not change the effectiveness of the bit hierarchy key in reducing the number of binary bits for the most popular programs, because the date bits all are of equal priority. This could be as simple as switching the D, and D5 bits periodically, such as every day or week. Thus the bit hierarchy key 120 would switch between . . . C1 T1 L1 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 and . . . C1 T1 L1 D1 D4 D3 D2 D5. Clearly other permutations of the bit hierarchy key as a function of the clock are possible. The priority vector tables could also be scrambled as a function of the clock. For example, the first two channels in the priority channel table could just be swapped periodically. If this technique is followed, then the Cp of 148 in FIG. 7 would change as a function of the clock 42. For example, channel 4 7 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . would change periodically to: channel 7 4 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . This would be a fairly subtle security technique, because a decoder that was otherwise correct would only fail if those first two channels were being used. Other clock dependencies are also possible to provide security for the coding technique. However it is derived, the bit hierarchy key 120 is determined and stored. In step 154 the binary bits of Cp,Dp,Tp,Lp are rearranged according to the bit hierarchy key 120 to create one 22 bit binary number. Then the resulting 22 bit binary number is converted to decimal in the convert binary number to decimal G-code step 156. The result is G-code 158. If the priority vector and the bit hierarchy key are well matched to the viewing habits of the general population, then it is expected that the more popular programs would require no more than 3 or 4 digits for the G-code. Now that the encoding technique has been explained the decoding technique is just reversing the coding technique. This is done according to the flow chart of FIG. 6. This is the preferred G-code decoding that can be built into G-code decoder 38 in VCR 14 or the remote controller G-code decoders 82 and 92 in FIGS. 3 and 5. The first step 102 is to enter G-code 104. Next the G-code 104 is converted to a 22 bit binary number in step 106. Then the bits are reordered in step 108 according to the bit hierarchy key 120 to obtain the reordered bits 110. Then the bits are grouped together and converted to decimal form in step 112. As this point we obtain Cp,Dp,Tp,Lp data 114, which are the indices to the priority vector tables. For the above example, we would have at this step the vector 4 9 1 3. This Cp,Dp,Tp,Lp data 114 is then used in step 116 to lookup channel, date, time, and length in priority vector storage 122. The CDTL 118 for the example above is 5 10 19.00 1.5, which means channel 5, 10th day of the month, 7:00 PM, and 1.5 hours in length. If the coding technique is a function of the clock then it is also necessary to make the decoding technique a function of the clock. It is possible to make the bit hierarchy key 120 and the priority vector tables 122, a function 6f clock 42, as shown in FIG. 6. This again makes it very difficult for the key and therefore the coding technique to be duplicated or copied. It is also possible to have the decoding and encoding techniques dependent on any other predetermined or preprogrammable algorithm. Although the above G-code encoding and decoding technique is a preferred embodiment, it should be understood that there are many ways to perform the intent of the invention which is to reduce the number of keystrokes required for timer preprogramming. To accomplish this goal there are many ways to perform the G-code encoding and decoding. There are also many ways to make the encoding and decoding technique more secure besides just making the encoding and decoding a function of the clock. This security can be the result of any predetermined or preprogrammed algorithm. It is possible in the G-code coding and decoding techniques to use mixed radix number systems instead of binary numbers. For example, suppose that there are only 35 channels, which would require 6 binary bits to be represented; however, 6 binary bits can represent 64 channels, because 26=64. The result is that in a binary number system there are 29 unnecessary positions. This can have the effect of possibly making a particular G-code longer than it really needs to be. A mixed radix number system can avoid this result. For example, for the case of 35 channels, a mixed radix number system with the factors of 71 and 50 can represent 35 combinations without any empty space in the code. The allowed numbers for the 71 factor are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. The allowed numbers for the 50 factor are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. For example, digital 0 is represented in the mixed radix number system as 00. The digital number 34 is represented in the mixed radix number system as 46, because 4*71−6*50=34. The major advantage of a mixed radix number system is in prioritizing the hierarchy key. If the first 5 channels have about equal priority and the next 30 are also about equal, then the mixed radix number system allows the two tiers to be accurately represented. This is not to say that a mixed radix number system is necessarily preferable. Binary numbers are easier to represent in a computer and use of a fixed radix number system such as binary numbers allows a pyramid of prioritization to be easily represented in the hierarchy key. Another feature that is desirable in all of the embodiments is the capability to key in the G-code once for a program and then have the resulting CDTL information used daily or weekly. Ordinarily the CDTL information is discarded once it is used. In the case of daily or weekly recording of the same program, the CDTL information is stored and used until it is cancelled. The desire to repeat the program daily or weekly can be performed by having a “WEEKLY” or “DAILY” button on the remote controller or built into the VCR manual controls. Another way is to use one key, such as the PROG key and push it multiple times within a certain period of time such as twice to specify daily or thrice to specify weekly. For example, if the G-code switch is “ON” and the G-code for the desired program is 99 then daily recording of the program can be selected by the following keystrokes: “PROG 99 DAILY PROG” or by: “PROG 99 PROG PROG”. The G-code 99 would be converted to CDTL information, which would be stored and used daily in this case. The recording would begin on the date specified and continue daily after that using the same channel time and length information. A slight twist is that daily recording could be automatically suspended during the weekends, because most daily programs are different on Saturday and Sunday. Once a daily or weekly program is set up, then it can be used indefinitely. If it is desired to cancel a program and if there is a “CANCEL” button on the remote controller or manual control for the VCR, then one way to cancel a program (whether it is a normal CDTL, daily or weekly entry) is to key in the following: “PROG xx CANCEL”, where xx is the G-code. Again as before there are alternate ways of accomplishing this. If “on screen programming” is available, then the programs that have been selected for timer preprogramming could be reviewed on the screen. The daily and weekly programs would have an indication of their type. Also the G-codes could be displayed along with the corresponding CDTL information. This would make it quite easy to review the current “menu” and either add more programs or cancel programs as desired. A television calendar 200 according to this invention is illustrated in FIG. 8. As shown, the television calendar has multiple day of year sections 202, multiple day sections 204, multiple time of day sections 206, channel identifiers 208, and descriptive program identifiers 210, including the name of the program, arranged in a manner that is common in television guide publications. Arranged in relation to each channel identifier is a compressed code indication 212 or G-code containing the channel, date, time and length information for that entry in the television calendar. FIG. 8 shows how easy it is to perform timer programming. All one needs to do is find the program one wants to watch and enter the compressed code shown in the compressed code indication. This is in contrast to having to deal with all the channel, date, time and length entries separately. At least the channel, date and time are explicitly stated in the television guide. The length is usually only available by searching the guide to find the time of day section 204 where a new program begins and then performing some arithmetic to find the length of the program. Using the compressed G-code avoids all these complications. For cable television programs, there is an additional issue that needs to be addressed for the compressed G-code to be useful. In a normal television guide, CDTL information is available for all the normal broadcast channels in the form of numbers including the channel numbers, such as channel 4 or 7. However, for cable channels like HBO, ESPN etc., only the names of the channels are provided in most television listings. The reason for this is that in some metropolitan areas, such as Los Angeles, there may be only one (1) edition of television guide, but there may be quite a few cable carriers, each of which may assign HBO or ESPN to different cable channel numbers. In order for a compressed code such as the G-code to be applicable to the cable channels as published by a wide area television guide publication, the following approach can be used. First, all the cable channels would be permanently assigned a unique number, which would be valid across the nation. For example, we could assign ESPN to cable channel 1, HBO as cable channel 2, SHO as cable channel 3, etc. This assignment would be published by the television guide publications. The video cassette recorder apparatus, such as the remote controller, the VCR unit or both, could then be provided with two (2) extra modes: “set” and “cable channel”. One way of providing the user interface to these modes would be to provide two (2) extra buttons: one called SET and one called CABLE CHANNEL. The buttons could be located on the video cassette recorder unit itself or located on a remote controller, as shown in FIGS. 1, 3 and 5, where SET is element 168 and CABLE CHANNEL is element 170. Of course, other user interfaces are possible. Next, the television viewer would have to go through a one-time “setting” procedure of his VCR for all the cable channels that he would likely watch. This “setting” procedure would relate each of the assigned numbers for each cable channel to the channel number of the local cable carrier. For example, suppose that the local cable carrier uses channel 6 for ESPN, then cable channel number 1 could be assigned to ESPN, as shown in the following table. Cable Channel Assigned Channel Number in Name Cable Chan No. the local cable carrier EPSN 1 6 6HBO 2 24 SHO 3 25 . . . . . . . . . DIS 8 25 The user could perform the “setting” procedure by pushing the buttons on his remote controller as follows: SET 06 CABLE CHANNEL 1 PROGRAM SET 24 CABLE CHANNEL 2 PROGRAM SET 23 CABLE CHANNEL 3 PROGRAM SET 25 CABLE CHANNEL 8 PROGRAM The “setting” procedure would create a cable channel address table 162, which would be loaded into RAM 52 of command controller 36. For the above example, the cable channel address table 162 would have the following information. TABLE 162 CABLE CHANNEL ADDRESS 1 6 2 24 3 23 . . . . . . 8 25 After the “setting” procedure is performed, the TV viewer can now select cable channels for viewing by the old way: eg. pushing the key pad buttons 24 will select HBO. He can also do it the new way: eg. by pushing CABLE CHANNEL 2, which will also select HBO. The advantage of the new way is that the television guide will publish [C2] next to the program description, so the viewer will just look up the assigned channel number identifier instead of having to remember that HBO is local cable channel 24. When the CABLE CHANNEL button is pushed, command controller 36 knows that it will look up the local cable channel number in cable channel address table 162 to tune the VCR to the correct channel. For timer preprogramming and for using the compressed G-code, a way to differentiate between broadcast and cable channels is to add an eighth channel bit, which would be set to 0 for normal broadcast channels and 1 for cable channels such as HBO. This eighth channel bit could be one of the low order bits such as the third bit C3 out of the eight channel bits, so that the number of bits to specify popular channels is minimized, whether they be normal broadcast or cable channels. For a normal broadcast channel, the 7 other bits can be decoded according to priority vector C table 124. For a cable channel, the 7 other bits can be decoded according to a separate cable channel priority vector table 160, which could be stored in ROM 54 of microcontroller 36. The cable channel priority vector table can be set ahead of time for the entire country or at least for an area covered by a particular wide area television guide publication. A television guide that carries the compressed code known as the G-code will now print the cable channel information as follows: 6:30 pm [C2] HBO xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (4679) xxxxxx(program description)xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx The [C2] in front of HBO reminds the viewer that he needs only to push CABLE CHANNEL 2 to select HBO. The (4679) is the G-code indication for this particular program. FIG. 8 shows a section of a television guide. The cable channels all have an assigned cable channel number 188 after the cable channel mnemonic. Other than that the cable channel information is arranged the same as the broadcast channels with a compressed G-code 212 associated with the channel. For timer preprogramming, the viewer need only enter the number 4679 according to the unit's G-code entry procedure, eg. PROG 4679 PROG. The G-code decoder unit will decode this G-code into “cable channel 2” and will also signal the command controller 36 with a cable channel signal 164, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, because the extra channel bit will be “1” which distinguishes that the G-code is for a cable channel; then, since the association of “cable channel 2” with channel 24 has been established earlier in the “setting” procedure, the command controller, if it has received a cable channel signal, will immediately look up 2 in the cable channel address table 162 to translate it to cable channel 24, which will be used as the recording channel at the appropriate time. By associating the G-code with the assigned cable channel number rather than the local cable channel number, the G-code for that program will be valid in the whole local area, which may have many different cable carriers each of which may have different local cable channel numbers. To include the cable channel compressed G-code feature, the decoding and encoding algorithms are as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, respectively. The encoding should be explained first before the decoding. The primary change in FIG. 10 from FIG. 7 is that a cable channel priority vector table 160 has been added and is used in look up priority step 180 if a cable channel is being encoded. Also if a cable channel is being encoded then the cable channel bit is added in the correct bit position in the convert CpDpTpLp to binary numbers step 182. This could be bit C3, as discussed before. The bit hierarchy key could be determined as before to compress the number of bits in the most popular programs; however, it needs to be 23 bits long to accommodate the cable channel bit. The maximum compressed G-code length could still be 7 digits, because 223=8,388,608. The decoding is shown in FIG. 9 and is just the reverse of the encoding process. After step 108, test cable channel bit 174 is added and effectively tests the cable channel bit to determine if it is a “1”. If so then the command controller 36 is signaled via cable channel signal 164 of FIGS. 1 and 2 that the CDTL 118 that will be sent to it from G-code decoder 38 is for a cable channel. Then the command controller knows to look up the local cable carrier channel number based on the assigned cable channel number. In step 176 of FIG. 9, the priority vector tables including the cable channel priority vector table 160 are used to look up the CDTL 118 information. An alternate to having the command controller receive a cable channel signal 164 is for the G-code decoder to perform all of the decoding including the conversion from assigned cable channel number to local cable carrier number. This would be the case for the remote controller implementation of FIG. 3. FIG. 11 shows the implementation of the entire decode algorithm if this step is included. All that needs to be added is convert assigned channel to local cable carrier channel step 166, which performs a lookup in cable channel address table 162, if the cable channel bit indicates that a cable channel is involved. Step 166 effectively replaces step 174 in FIG. 9. Another issue that needs addressing is the number of programs that can be preprogrammed. Since the G-code greatly simplifies the process of entering programs, it is likely that the user will quickly learn and want to enter a large number of programs; however, some existing VCRs can only store up to four (4) programs, while some can store as many as eight. Thus, the user may get easily frustrated by the programming limitations of the VCR. One approach to this problem, is to perform the compressed G-code decoding in the remote controller and provide enough memory there to store a large number of programs, eg. 20 or 40. The remote controller would have the capability of transferring periodically several of these stored programs at a time to the VCR main unit. To provide this capability, extra memory called stack memory 76 is required inside the remote unit, as shown in FIG. 12, which other than that is identical to FIG. 4. Stack memory 76 can be implemented with a random access memory, which may in fact reside in the microcontroller itself, such as RAM 62. The stack memory 76 is where new entry, insertion & deletion of timer preprogramming information is carried out. It is also where editing takes place. The top memory locations of the stack, for example the first 4 locations, correspond exactly to the available timer preprogramming memory in the VCR main unit. Whenever the top of the stack memory is changed, the new information will be sent over to the VCR main unit to update it. FIG. 13 shows the sequence of events when the user enters a G-code program on the keypad of the remote controller. For illustration purposes, suppose the VCR main unit can only handle four (4) programs. Suppose also that the stack memory capacity is 20 timer preprograms. Referring to the flow chart in FIG. 13, when the user enters a G-code in step 230, the microcontroller 60 first decodes it into the CDTL information in step 234 and displays it on the display unit with the additional word “entered” also displayed. The microcontroller then enters the decoded program into the stack memory in step 236. If this is the first program entered, it is placed at the top location of the stack memory. If there are already programs in the stack memory, the newly entered program will first be provisionally placed at the bottom of the stack memory. The stack memory will then be sorted into the correct temporal order in step 240, so that the earliest program in time will appear in the top location and the last program in time will be at the bottom. Notice that the nature of the temporally sorted stack memory is such that if stack memory location n is altered, then all the locations below it will be altered. For example, suppose the stack memory has six (6) entries already temporally ordered, and a new entry is entered whose temporal ordering places it in location 3 (1 being the top location). If this entry is placed into location 3, information which was in location 3, 4, 5, 6 will be shifted to locations 4, 5, 6, and 7. Locations 1 and 2 will remain unchanged. The microcontroller 60, after doing the temporal ordering, checks in step 242 whether the first n entries have changed from before, where for the current example n equals 4. In this case, since a new program has been entered into location 3, what used to be in location 3 now moves to location 4. Since the VCR's main unit program menu of 4 entries should correspond exactly to location 1 through 4 of the stack memory, entries 3 and 4 on the VCR main unit must now be revised. The microcontroller therefore sends out the new entries 3 & 4 to the main unit, in step 244 of FIG. 13. If the newly entered program, after temporal ordering, gets entered into location 5, then entries 1 through 4 have not changed from before and the microcontroller will not send any message to the VCR main unit and the microcontroller will just resume monitoring the clock 85 and the keyboard 88 as per step 246. It is assumed that when the user enters the G-code in step 230, the remote controller is pointed at the VCR main unit. The other steps of FIG. 13 happen so fast that the changes are sent in step 244 while the remote controller is still being pointed at the VCR main unit. If the user decides to delete a program in step 232, the deletion is first carried out in the stack memory. If the first 4 entries are affected, the microcontroller will send the revised information over to the VCR main unit. If the first 4 entries are not affected, then again the remote controller unit will not send anything. The deletion will only change the lower part of the stack (lower meaning location 5 to 20). This new information will be sent over to the VCR main unit at the appropriate time. In the meantime, the VCR main unit will be carrying out its timer programming function, completing its timing preprogramming entries one by one. By the time all 4 recording entries have been completed, the stack in the remote must send some new entries over to “replenish” the VCR main unit (if the stack has more than 4 entries). The real time clock 85 in the remote controller unit is monitored by the microcontroller to determine when the programs in the main unit have been used up. Referring to the flow chart in FIG. 14, the microcontroller periodically checks the clock and the times for the programs at the top of the stack in step 250 (say the first 4 entries), which are identical to the VCR's main unit's menu. If on one of the periodic checks, it is determined that the recording of the main unit's menu is complete, then if there are more entries in the stack, which is tested in step 252, the display unit will be set to a blinking mode or display a blinking message in step 258 to alert the user to send more programs. Next time the user picks up the remote unit, the blinking will remind him that the VCR main unit's program menu has been completed and it is time to replenish the VCR main unit with program entries stored in the remote. The user simply picks up the remote and points it towards the VCR main unit and presses “ENTER”. This will “pop” the top of the stack memory in step, 260, ie. pop all the entries in the stack up by four locations. The microcontroller will then send the new “top of the stack” (ie. top 4 entries) over to the VCR main unit in step 262. This process will repeat until the whole stack has been emptied. Another preferred embodiment of an apparatus for using compressed codes for recorder preprogramming is the instant programmer 300 of FIG. 15. The instant programmer 300 has number keys 302, which are numbered 0 through 9, a CANCEL key 304, a REVIEW key 306, a WEEKLY key 308, a ONCE key 310 and a DAILY (M-F) key 312, which are used to program the instant programmer 300. A lid normally covers other keys, which are used to setup the instant programmer 300. When lid 314 is lifted, the following keys are revealed: SAVE key 316, ENTER key 318, CLOCK key 320, CH key 322, ADD TIME key 324, VCR key 326, CABLE key 328, and TEST key 330. Other features of instant programmer 300 shown on FIG. 15 are: liquid crystal display 350 and red warning light emitting diode 332. The front elevation view FIG. 16 of instant programmer 300 shows front infrared (IR) diode 340 mounted on the front side 338. By placing instant programmer 300 in front of the equipment to be programmed such as video cassette recorder 370, cable box 372, and television 374, as shown in FIG. 19, the front infrared (IR) diode 340 can transmit signals to control program recording. An IR transparent cover 336 covers additional IR transmission diodes, which are explained below. FIG. 18 shows a detail of the liquid crystal display 350. Certain text 354 is at various times visible on the display and there is an entry area 356. Time bars 352 are displayed at the bottom of the display and their function is described below. A companion element to the instant programmer 300 is the mounting, stand 360, shown in FIG. 17, which is designed to hold instant programmer 300 between left raised side 362 and right raised side 364. The instant programmer 300 is slid between left raised side 362 and right raised side 364 until coming to a stop at front alignment flange 365, which is at the front of mounting stand 360 and connected across left raised side 362 and right raised side 364. Together elements 362, 364 and the front alignment flange provide alignment for instant programmer 300 so that IR transparent cover 336 and the IR diodes 342, 344, 346 and 348, shown in FIG. 17 are properly aligned for transmission, when the instant programmer is used as shown in FIG. 20. The mounting stand 360 has an alignment flange 366, which has the purpose of aligning the back edge of mounting stand 360, which is defined as the edge along which alignment flange 366 is located, along the front side of a cable box or VCR, or similar unit as shown in FIG. 20. When aligned as shown in FIG. 20, the mounting stand 360 aligns the instant programmer 300 so that the left IR diode 342, down IR diode 344, two back IR diodes 346 and right IR diode 348, as shown in FIG. 17, are in position to transmit signals to video cassette recorder 370 and cable box 372, as necessary. If the VCR and/or cable box functions are located within the television 374 itself, then the instant programmer 300 could be positioned to transmit to the television 374, either in the manner of FIG. 19 or by placing the mounting stand on top of the television in the manner of FIG. 20. By using mounting stand 360, the user only need to align the mounting stand 360, and the instant programmer 300 once with the equipment to be programmed rather than having the user remember to keep the instant programmer 300 in the correct location to transmit via front infrared (IR) diode 340, as shown in FIG. 19. Current experience with various remote controllers shows that it is difficult at best to keep a remote controller in a fixed location, for example, on a coffee table. The mounting stand 360 solves this problem by locating the instant programmer 300 with the equipment to be controlled. The left IR diode 342, down IR diode 344, two back IR diodes 346 and right IR diode 348 are positioned to transmit to the left, downward, backward, and to the right. The downward transmitter assumes that mounting stand 360 will be placed on top of the unit to be programmed. The left and right transmission allows units to the left or right to be programmed. The backward transmission back IR diodes 346 are provided so that signals can bounce off walls and other objects in the room. The front IR diode 340, the left IR diode 342, the right IR diode 348 and the down IR diode 344 are implemented with 25 degree emitting angle diodes. Two back IR diodes are provided for greater energy in that direction and are implemented with 5 degree emitting angle diodes, which focus the energy and provide for greater reflection of the IR energy off of walls or objects in the room. Most VCR's and cable boxes can be controlled by an infrared remote controller; however, different VCR's and cable boxes have different IR codes. Although there are literally hundreds of different models of VCR's and cable boxes, there are fortunately only tens of sets of IR codes. Each set may have a few tens of “words” that represent the different keys required, e.g. “power”, “record”, “channel up”, “channel down”, “stop”, “0”, “1”, “2” etc. For the purpose of controlling the VCR and cable box to do recording, only the following “words” are required: “0”, “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”, “6”, “7”, “8”, “9”, “power”, “record”, “stop”. The IR codes for these words for all the sets are stored in the memory of the instant programmer 300, which is located in microcomputer 380 of FIGS. 21 and 22. During setup of the instant programmer 300, the user interactively inputs to the instant programmer 300 the type and model of his VCR and cable box. The correct set of IR codes will be recalled from memory during the actual control process. In the case where the user only has a VCR, the infrared (IR) codes for that particular VCR will be recalled to control the VCR. In the case where the user has a VCR and a cable box, the IR codes “power”, “record”, “stop” will be recalled from the set that corresponds to the VCR whereas the IR codes for “0” through “9” will be recalled from the set that corresponds to the cable box. The reason is that in this case, the cable box controls the channel switching. Hence the channel switching signals “0” through “9” must be sent to the cable box instead of the VCR. Initially, the user performs a setup sequence. First, the user looks up the number corresponding to the model/brand of VCR to be programmed in a table, which lists the VCR brand name and a two digit code. Then with the VCR tuned to Channel 3 or Channel 4, whichever is normally used, the user turns the VCR “OFF”. Then the user presses the VCR key 326. When the display shows VCR, the user presses the two-digit code looked up in the VCR model/brand table (for example 01 for RCA). The user points the instant programmer 300 at the VCR and then presses ENTER key 318. The red warning light emitting diode 332 will flash while it is sending a test signal to the VCR. If the VCR turned “ON” and changed to Channel 09, the user presses the SAVE key 316 and proceeds to the set clock step. If the VCR did not turn “ON” or turned “ON” but did not change to Channel 09 the user presses ENTER key 318 again and waits until red warning light emitting diode 332 stops flashing. The instant programmer 300 sends the next possible VCR code, while the red warning light emitting diode 332 is flashing. If the VCR turns “ON” and changed to Channel 09 the user presses SAVE key 316, otherwise the user presses ENTER key 318 again until the VCR code is found that works for the VCR. The display shows “END” if all possible VCR codes for that brand are tried. If so, the user presses. VCR key 326 code 00 and then ENTER key 318 to try all possible codes, for all brands, one at a time. Once the proper VCR code has been found and saved, the next setup step is to set the clock on instant programmer 300. First, the user presses the CLOCK key 320. When the display shows: “YR:”, the user presses the year (for example 90), then presses ENTER key 318. Then the display shows “MO:”, and the user presses the month (for example 07 is July), and then presses ENTER key 318. This is repeated for “DA:” date (for example 01 for the 1st), “Hr:” hour (for example 02 for 2 o'clock), “Mn:” minute (for example 05 for 5 minutes), and “AM/PM:” 1 for AM or 2 for PM. After this sequence, the display will show “SAVE” for a few seconds and then the display will show the current time and date that have been entered. It is no longer necessary for the user to set the clock on his/her VCR. Next, if the instant programmer 300 is also to be used as a cable box controller, then the setup steps are as follows. First, the number corresponding to the model/brand of cable box (converter) to be controlled is looked up in a cable box model brand table, that lists cable box brands and corresponding two digit codes. The VCR is tuned to Channel 03 or 04 and turned “OFF”. Then the cable box is tuned to Channel 02 or 03, whichever is normal, and left “ON”. Then the CABLE key 328 is pressed. When the display shows: “CA B-:” the user enters the two digit code looked up in cable box model brand table, points the instant programmer 300 at the cable box (converter) and presses ENTER key 318. The red warning light emitting diode 332 will flash while it is sending a test signal to the cable box. If the cable box changed to Channel 09: then the user presses SAVE key 316; however, if the cable box did not change to Channel 09 the user presses ENTER key 318 again and waits until red warning light emitting diode 332 stops flashing, while the next possible code is sent. This is repeated until the cable box changes to Channel 09 and when it does the user presses SAVE key 316. If the display shows “END” then the user has tried all possible cable box codes for that brand. If so, the user presses cable code 00 and then ENTER key 318 to try all possible brand's codes, one at a time. For some people (probably because they have cable or satellite), the channels listed in their television guide or calendar are different from the channels on their television or cable. If they are different, the user proceeds as follows. First, the user presses the CH key 322. The display will look like this: “Guide CH TV CH”. Then the user presses the channel printed in the television guide or calendar (for example, press 02 for channel 2), and then the user presses the channel number that the printed channel is received on through his/her local cable company. Then the user presses ENTER key 318. This is repeated for each channel listing that is on a different channel than the printed channel. When this procedure is finished the user presses SAVE key 316. Typically the television guide or calendar in the area will have a chart indicating the channel number that has been assigned to each Cable and broadcast channel, for example: HBO, CNN, ABC, CBS, NBC, etc. This chart would correspond, for example, to the left two columns of FIG. 28. For example, suppose the television guide or calendar has assigned channel 14 to HBO but the user's cable company delivers HBO on channel 18. Since the channel numbers are different, the user needs to use the CH key 322. The user will press the CH button (the two blank spaces under the display “Guide CH” will flash). The user then presses 14. (now the two blank spaces under the display “TV CH” will flash). The user then presses 18 and then ENTER key 318. This is repeated for each channel that is different. When finished, the user presses SAVE key 316. After the channel settings have been saved, the user may review the settings by pressing CH key 322 and then REVIEW key 306. By repeated pressing of the REVIEW key 306 each of the set channels will scroll onto the display, one at a time. Then the user can test to make sure that the location of the instant programmer 300 is a good one. First, the user makes sure that the VCR is turned “OFF” but plugged in and makes sure that the cable box (if there is one) is left “ON”. Then the user can press the TEST key 330. If there is only a VCR, then if the VCR turned “ON”, changed to channel 09 and started recording, and then turned “OFF”, then the VCR controller is located in a good place. If there is also a cable box, then if the VCR turned “ON”, the cable box turned to channel 09 and the VCR started recording, and then the VCR stopped and turned “OFF”, then the instant programmer 300 is located in a good place. To operate the instant programmer 300, the VCR should be left OFF and the cable box ON. The user looks up in the television guide the compressed code for the program, which he/she wishes to record. The compressed code 212 is listed in the television guide, as shown in FIG. 8. The television guide/calendar that would be used with this embodiment would have the same elements as shown on FIG. 8 except that element 188 of FIG. 8 is not required. The compressed code 212 for the program selected by the user is entered into the instant programmer 300 by using the number keys 302 and then the user selects how often to record the program. The user presses the ONCE key 310 to record the program once at the scheduled time, or the user presses the WEEKLY key 308 to record the program every week at the same scheduled time until cancelled or the user presses the DAILY (M-F) key 312 to record the program each day Monday through Friday at the same scheduled time until cancelled. This is most useful for programs such as soapbox operas that air daily, but not on the weekend. To confirm the entry, the instant programmer 300 will immediately decode the compressed code and display the date, channel and start time of the program entered by the user. The length of the entered program is also displayed by time bars 352 that run across the bottom of the display. Each bar represents one hour (or less) of program. Then the user just needs to leave the instant programmer 300 near the VCR and cable box so that commands can be transmitted, and at the right time, the instant programmer 300 will turn “ON” the VCR, change to the correct channel and record the program and then turn the VCR “OFF”. The user must just make sure to insert a blank tape. The REVIEW key 306 allows the user to step through the entered programs. These are displayed in chronological order, by date and time. Each time the REVIEW key 306 is pressed, the next program is displayed, until “END” is displayed, when all the entered programs have been displayed. If the REVIEW key 306 is pressed again the display will return to the current date and time. If the user wishes to cancel a program, then the user presses REVIEW key 306 until the program to cancel is displayed, then the user presses CANCEL key 304. The display will say “CANCELLED”. Also, any time the user presses a wrong number, pressing the CANCEL key 304 will allow the user to start over. Certain television programs, such as live sports, may run over the scheduled time slot. To ensure that the entire program is recorded, the user may press the ADD TIME key 324 to increase the recording length, even while the program is being recorded. The user presses the REVIEW key 306 to display the program, then presses ADD TIME key 324. Each time ADD TIME key 324 is pressed, 15 minutes is added to the recording length. When the current time and date is displayed, the amount of blank tape needed for the next 24 hours is also displayed by the time bars 352 that run across the bottom of the display. Each bar represents one hour (or less) of tape. The user should check this before leaving the VCR unattended to ensure that there is enough blank tape. Each time a program code is entered, the instant programmer 300 automatically checks through all the entries to ensure that there is no overlap in time between the program entries. If the user attempts to enter a program that overlaps in time with a program previously entered, then the message “CLASH” appears. Then, as summarized by step 432 of FIG. 23, the user has the following options: 1) if the user wishes to leave the program previously entered and forget about the new one, the user does nothing and after a short time delay, the display will return to show the current time and date; 2) if the user wishes the program which starts first to be recorded to its end, and then to record the remainder of the second program, then the user presses ONCE key 310, DAILY (M-F) key 312, or WEEKLY key 308 again (whichever one the user pushed to enter the code). If the programs have the same starting time, then the program most recently entered will be recorded first. If on being notified of the “CLASH”, the user decides the new program is more important than the previously entered program, then the user can cancel the previously entered program and then re-enter the new one. In some locations, such as in some parts of Colorado, the cable system airs some channels three (3) hours later/earlier than the times listed in the local television guide. This is, due to time differences depending on whether the channel is received on a east or west satellite feed. For the user to record the program 3 hours later than the time listed in the television guide the procedure is as follows. First the user enters the code for the program and then presses SAVE key 316 (for +) and then presses ONCE key 310, DAILY (M-F) key 312, or WEEKLY key 308, as desired. For the user to record the program 3 hours earlier than the time listed in the television guide the procedure is as follows. First the user enters the code for the program and then presses ENTER key 318 (for -) and then presses ONCE key 310, DAILY (M-F) key 312, or WEEKLY key 308, as desired. The instant programmer 300 will display the time that the program will be recorded, not the time shown in the television guide. There are certain display messages to make the instant programmer 300 more user friendly. The display “LO BATT” indicates that the batteries need replacement. “Err: ENTRY” indicates an invalid entry during set up. “Err: CODE” indicates that the program code number entered is not a valid number. If this is displayed the user should check the television guide and reenter the number. “Err: DATE” indicates the user may have: tried to select a daily recording (Monday to Friday) for a Saturday or Sunday program; tried to select weekly or daily recording for a show more than 7 days ahead, because the instant programmer 300 only allows the weekly or daily recording option to be used for the current weeks' programs (±7 days); or tried to enter a program that has already ended. “FULL” indicates that the stack storage of the programs to be recorded, which is implemented in random access memory (RAM) inside the instant programmer 300 has been filled. The user could then cancel one or more programs before entering new programs. “EMPTY” indicates there are no programs entered to be recorded. The number of programs to be recorded that can be stored in the instant programmer 300 varies depending on the density of RAM available and can vary from 10 to more. FIG. 21 is a schematic of the circuitry needed to implement the instant programmer 300. The circuitry consists of microcomputer 380, oscillator 382, liquid crystal display 384, key pad 386, five way IR transmitters 390 and red warning light emitting diode 332. The microcomputer 380 consists of a CPU, ROM, RAM, I/O ports, timers, counters and clock. The ROM is used for program storage and the RAM is used among other purposes for stack storage of the programs to be recorded. The liquid crystal display 384 is display 350 of FIGS. 15 and 18. The key pad 386 implements all the previously discussed keys. The five way IR transmitters 390 consists of front infrared (IR) diode 340, left IR diode 342, down IR diode 344, two back IR diodes 346 and right IR diode 348. FIG. 22 shows the detailed schematic of the instant programmer 300 circuitry and previously identified elements are identified by the same numbers. The microcomputer can be implemented with a NEC uPD7530x part, which can interface directly with the display, the keypad, the light emitting diodes and the oscillator. The 25 degree IR diodes can be implemented with NEC 313AC parts and the 5 degree IR diodes can be implement with Liton 2871 C IR diodes. The flowcharts for the program that is stored in the read only memory (ROM) of the microcomputer 380 that executes program entry, review and program cancellation, and record execution are illustrated in FIGS. 23, 24, and 25, respectively. The FIG. 23 for program entry, which process was described above, consists of the following steps: display current date, time and time bars step 402, which is the quiescent state of instant programmer 300; scan keyboard to determine if numeric decimal compressed code entered step 404; display code as it is entered step 406; user checks if correct code entered step 408 and user presses CANCEL key 304 step 428; user advances or retards start time by three hours by pressing SAVE key 316 or ENTER key 318 step 410; user presses ONCE key 310, WEEKLY key 308 or DAILY key 312 key step 412; microcomputer decodes compressed code into CDTL step 414; test if conflict with stored programs step 416, if so, display “CLASH” message step 420, user presses ONCE key 310, WEEKLY key 308 or DAILY key 312 step 422, then accommodate conflicting entries step 432, as described above in the discussion of the “CLASH” options, and entry not saved step 424; set display as date, channel, start time and duration (time bars) for ONCE, or DA, channel, start time and duration for DAILY, or day of week, channel, start time and duration for WEEKLY step 418; user presses ADD TIME key 324, which adds 15 minutes to record time step 426; user checks display step 430; enter program on stack in chronological order step 434 wherein the stack is a portion of the RAM of microcontroller 380; and calculate length of tape required and update time bars step 436. The FIG. 24 flowchart for review and cancellation, which process was described above, consists of the following steps: display current date, time and time bars step 402; REVIEW key 306 pressed step 442; test if stack empty step 444, display “EMPTY” step 446, and return to current date and time display step 448; display top stack entry step 450; user presses ADD TIME key 324 step 452 and update time bars step 460; user presses REVIEW key 306 step 454 and scroll stack up one entry step 462; user presses CANCEL key 304 step 456 and display “CANCELLED” and cancel program step 464; and user does nothing step 458 and wait 30 seconds step 466, wherein the 30 second timeout can be implemented in the timers of microcomputer 380. The FIG. 25 flowchart for record execution, which is the process of automatically recording a program and which was described above, consists of the following steps: compare start time of top program in stack memory with current time step 472; test if three minutes before start time of program step 474; start red warning LED 332 blinking for 30 seconds step 476; display channel, start time and blinking “START” message step 478, is correct start time reached step 480 and send power ON signal to VCR and display “REC” message step 482; test if a cable box is input to VCR step 484, send channel switching signals to VCR step 486 and send channel switching signals to cable box step 488; send record signals to VCR step 490; compare stop time with current time step 492, test if stop time reached step 494 and display “END” message step 496; send stop signals to VCR step 498; send power OFF signal to VCR step 500; and pop program stack step 502. FIG. 26 is a flowchart of the method for encoding channel, date, time and length (CDTL) into decimal compressed code 510. This process is done “offline” and can be implemented on a general purpose computer and is done to obtain the compressed codes 212 that are included in the program guide or calendar of FIG. 8. The first step in the encoding method is the enter channel, date, time and length (CDTL) step 512 wherein for a particular program the channel, date, start time and length CDTL 514 of the program are entered. The next step is the lookup assigned channel number step 516, which substitutes an assigned channel number 522 for each channel 518. Often, for example for network broadcast channels, such as channel 2, the assigned channel number is the same; however, for a cable channel such as HBO a channel number is assigned and is looked up in a cable assigned channel table 520, which would essentially be the same as the first two columns of the table of FIG. 28. Next, the lookup priority of channel, date and time/length in priority vector tables step 524 performs a lookup in priority vector channel (C) table 526, priority vector date (D) table 528 and priority vector time/length (TL) table 530 using the indices of channel, date and time/length, respectively, to produce the vector Cp, Dp, TLp 532. The use of a combined time/length (TL) table to set priorities recognizes that there is a direct relationship between these combinations and the popularity of a program. For example, at 6:30 PM, a short program is more likely to be popular than a 2 hour program, because it may be the dinner hour. The channel priority table is ordered so that the most frequently used channels have a low priority number. An example of the data that is in the priority vector C table 526 follows. channel 4 7 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . Generally the dates of a month all have an equal priority or equal usage, so the low number days in a month and the low number priorities would correspond in the priority vector D table 528 as in the following example. date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . . . The priority of the start times and length of the programs could be arranged in a matrix that would assign a priority to each combination of start times and program lengths so that more popular combinations of start time and length would have a low priority number and less popular combinations would have a high priority number. For example, a partial priority vector T/L table 530 might appear as follows. Priority TL TABLE TIME Length (hrs) 6:30 pm 7:00 pm 7:30 pm 8:00 pm .5 8 4 7 10 . . . 1.0 12 15 13 18 . . . 1.5 20 19 17 30 . . . Suppose the channel, date, time and length (CDTL) 514 data is channel 5, Feb. 10, 1990, 7:00 PM and 1.5 hours in length, then the Cp,Dp,TLp data 532 for the above example would be 4 9 19. The next step is the convert Cp, Dp, TLp to binary numbers and concatenate them into one binary number step 534, resulting in the data word . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 . . . D2D1 536. For the example given above, converting the . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 . . . D2D1 536 word to binary would yield the three binary numbers: . . . 0010011, . . . 0100, . . . 01001. The number of binary bits to use in each conversion is determined by the number of combinations involved. This could vary depending on the implementation; however one preferred embodiment would use eight bits for Cp, denoted as C8 C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1, which would provide for 256 channels, five bits for Dp, which can be denoted as D1 D4 D3 D2 D1, would provide for 31 days in a month, and fourteen bits for TLp, denoted as TL14 . . . TL3 TL2 TL1, which would provide for start times spaced every 5 minutes over 24 hours and program lengths in increments of 5 minute lengths for programs up to 3 hours in length and program length in increments of 15 minute lengths for programs from 3 to 8 hours in length. This requires about 288*(36+20)=16,128 combinations, which are provided by the 2**14=16,384 binary combinations. Altogether there are 8+5+14=27 bits of information TL14 . . . TL2TL1C8 . . . C2C1D5 . . . D2D1. For the above example padding each number with zeros and then concatenating them would yield the 27 bit binary number: 000000000100110000010001001. The next step is to use bit hierarchy key 540, which can be stored in read only memory 64 to perform the reorder bits of binary number according to bit hierarchy key step 538. As described previously, a bit hierarchy key 540 can be any ordering of the . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 . . . D2D1 536 bits and in general will be selected so that programs most likely to be the subject of timer preprogramming would have a low value compressed code 212, which would minimize keystrokes. The ordering of the bit hierarchy key can be determined by the differential probabilities of the various bit combinations as previously discussed. The details of deriving a bit hierarchy key 540 were described relative to bit hierarchy key 120 and the same method can be used for bit hierarchy key 540. For example, the bit hierarchy key might be: TL8 C3 . . . TL10 C2 TL1 C1 L1 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 27 26 . . . 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The next step is the combine groups of bits and convert each group into decimal numbers and concatenate into one decimal number step 542. For example, after reordering according to the bit hierarchy key, the code may be 000000001010010000010001001, which could be grouped as 00000000101001000, 0010001001. If these groups of binary bits are converted to decimal as 328,137 and concatenated into one decimal number, then the resulting decimal number is 328137. The last encoding step is the permutate decimal number step 546, which permutes the decimal number according to permutation function 544 that is dependent on the date 548 and in particular the month and year and provides a security feature for the codes. After the permutate decimal number step 546, the decimal compressed code G8 . . . G2G1 550 may, for example, be 238731. These encoded codes are then included in a program guide or calendar as in the compressed code indication 212 of FIG. 8. FIG. 27 is a flowchart of the method for decoding a decimal compressed code into channel, date, time and length 560, which is step 414 of FIG. 23. Once the decimal compressed code G8 . . . G2G1 564 is entered in step 562, it is necessary to invert the permutation function of steps 544 and 546 of FIG. 26. The first step is the extract day code step 566, which extracts the day code for the program in the decimal compressed code and passes the day code to step 568, which also receives the current day 574 from the clock 576, which is implemented by microcomputer 380 in FIGS. 21 and 22. The clock 576 also sends the current month and year to the permutation function 570, which is dependent on the month and year. Then step 568 performs the function: if day code is same or greater than current day from clock, then use permutation function for month/year on clock, otherwise use permutation function for next month after the month on the clock and use next year if the month on the clock is December. In other words, since there is provision for preprogramming recording for one month or 31 days ahead, if the day for the program is equal to or greater than the current day of the month, then it refers to a day in the present month; otherwise, if the day for the program is less than the current day of the month, it must refer to a program in the next month. The extract day code step 566, which must be performed before the invert permutation of decimal compressed code step 580, is accomplished by apriori knowledge of how the permutate decimal number step 546 of FIG. 26 is performed relative to the day code information. The selected permutation method 578 is used in the invert permutation of decimal compressed code step 580. For the example given above, the output of step 580 would be: 328137. The next step is the convert groups of decimal numbers into groups of binary numbers and concatenate binary groups into one binary number step 584, which is the inverse of step 542 of FIG. 26 and for the above example would result in the binary code: 000000001010010000010001001. Then the bit hierarchy key 588 is used in the reorder bits of binary number according to bit hierarchy key step 586, which inverts step 538 of FIG. 26 to obtain 000000000100110000010001001 for the above example, which is . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 . . . D2D1 582 corresponding to 536 of FIG. 26. The next step is to group bits to form three binary numbers TLb, Cb, Db and convert to decimal numbers step 590 resulting in Cp, Dp, TLp 592, which for the example above would be: 4, 9, 19, and which are priority vectors for channel, day and time/length, which in turn are used to lookup channel, day, time and length 604 in priority vector channel (C) table 598, priority vector date (D) table 600, and priority vector time/length (TL) table 602, respectively. The lookup local channel number step 606 looks up the local channel 612 given the assigned channel number 608, in the assigned/local channel table 610, which is setup by the user via the CH key 322, as explained above. An example of the assigned/local channel table 610 is the right two columns of the assigned/local channel table 620 of FIG. 28. The correspondence between the assigned channel numbers, such as 624 and 628, and the local channel numbers, such as 626 and 630 is established during setup by the user. For the example, FIG. 28 shows an exact correspondence between the assigned channel number 5 and the local channel number 5. The last step is the append month and year to day to form date step 614. The correct month and year are obtained from step 568 and are again dependent on whether the day code is equal to or greater than the day from the clock or less than the day from the clock. If the day code is equal to or greater than the day from the clock, the month and year as shown on the clock are used, otherwise the next month is used and the next year is used if the clock month is December. The result is the channel, date, time and length (CDTL) 618, which for the above example would be channel 5, Feb. 10, 1990, 7:00 PM and 1.5 hours in length. Another preferred embodiment is an apparatus and method to enable a user to selectively record information designated by a digital compressed code. Specifically this apparatus would allow a user to record for later viewing, detailed information associated with an advertisement or similar brief description of a service, product, or any information including public service information. The advertisement could be print advertisement or broadcast advertisement on television or any other media, such as radio, electronic networks or bulletin boards. The advertisement would have associated with it a digital code, herein referred to as an I code. In print advertisement the digital code would be printed along with the advertisement. FIG. 29a shows an example print advertisement 650 for an automobile and printed in the advertisement is a decimal code for information (I code) 652. This code can be identified as an I code 652, because the leading digit is a zero, as will be explained below. As shown in FIG. 29a, the use of I codes is very space efficient, which is very important in advertising. FIG. 29b shows an example television broadcast advertisement 654 with an I code 652. The user would identify this code as a I code 652, because the leading digit is zero. It may be very expensive to run a long advertisement during prime time when the majority of viewers are watching television; however, a short advertisement could be run during prime time with the I code and then the user could enter the I code into instant programmer 300, which would command the recording of the longer advertisement for the automobile during the nonprime time. The additional information could be broadcast early in the morning, for example, between midnite and six o'clock in the morning. At this time the broadcast rates are low and it is economical to broadcast detailed information or advertisements of many items such as automobiles and real estate. It would also be possible to transmit movie previews at that time of night. The reader of print advertisement, the viewer of television and the consumer of any other media, such as radio, would select what additional information was of interest and enter the associated I code into instant programmer 300, which would then command the recording of the detailed information late at night. The user could then view these at his/her leisure. The instant programmer 300 can be used for recorder preprogramming for information using I codes; however, there are some important differences when the device is used for 1 codes. A primary difference is that I codes that are entered into the instant programmer 300 are used within the next twenty four hours. The user would read, see or hear the advertisement and enter the I code associated with the advertisement into the instant programmer 300, which would then at the right time sometime in the next 24 hours, and generally in the middle of the night, record the advertisement, by tuning to the proper channel and turning recording on and off for a video cassette recorder. In normal recorder preprogramming, using G codes, the instant programmer 300 decodes the television broadcast advertisement 654 into CDTL (channel, date, time, and length). For an I code 652, the instant programmer 300 would decode the I code 652 into CTL (channel, time and length) only, because the date is known to be in the next twenty four hours. Suppose the time is now June 20th at 6 p.m. If a user enters an I code, which decodes to channel 2, start time 2:00 a.m., and length 10 minutes, then the VCR would start recording on June 21st at 2:00 a.m. for 10 minutes. The hardware for the instant programmer 300 used with decimal codes for information (I codes) can be identical to the design illustrated in FIGS. 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 and described in the associated specification. The flowcharts for the programs that are stored in the read only memory (ROM) of the microcomputer 380 that execute program entry, review and program cancellation, and record execution are illustrated in FIGS. 23, 24, and 25, respectively for use of G codes for preprogramming a VCR for program recording. The programs for use of the instant programmer 300 with I codes for recording information according to this preferred embodiment are in general different; however, the program for review and program cancellation (see FIG. 24) and record execution (see FIG. 25) are the same. However, the program that is stored in the read only memory (ROM) of the microcomputer 380 that executes on entry of an I code is different and is shown in FIG. 30. The entry of an I code is determined by inspecting the leading digit of the entered code. If the leading digit is not zero then a G code has been entered, because G codes never have leading zeros, and the flowgraph of FIG. 23 will be executed. If the leading digit is a zero then an I code has been entered. Steps 702, 704, 706, 708 and 710 of FIG. 30 are identical to steps 402, 404, 406, 408 and 410 in FIG. 23. The test for a G code or an I code is done in test whether leading digit is zero step 711, which will either branch to step 412 of FIG. 23 if the entered code is a G code, or continue with the next step of FIG. 30. The flowchart for entry of the I code in FIG. 30 consists of the following steps: display current date, time and time bars step 702, scan keyboard to determine if I code entered step 704, display I code as it is entered step 706, user checks if correct code entered step 708, user advances or retards start time by three hours by pressing SAVE key 316 or ENTER key 318 step 710, test whether leading digit is zero step 711, user presses ONCE key 310 step 712, microcomputer decodes I code into CTL step 714, test if conflict with stored programs step 716, set display as channel, start time and duration (time bars) step 718, display “CLASH” message step 720, user presses ONCE key 310 step 722, entry not saved step 724, accommodate conflicting entries step 732, user presses CANCEL key 304 step 728, enter program on stack in chronological order step 734, and calculate length of tape required and update time bars step 736. FIG. 30 illustrates the order and relationships between the steps for I code entry. If the user presses WEEKLY key 308 or DAILY (M-F) key 312 instead of the ONCE key 310, then the instant programmer 300 will interpret these as if the ONCE key 310 had been pressed. The stack memory of the enter program on stack in chronological order step 734 allows the user to enter multiple digital codes for information, which will all be decoded and entered in order into the stack for later execution when the proper time arrives. In order to use I codes with advertisements, the I codes have to first be encoded. FIG. 31 is a flowchart of the method for encoding channel, time and length (CTL) for an information broadcast into an I code. This process is done “offline” and can be implemented on a general purpose computer and is done to obtain a I code 854 that can be included in an advertisement, such as shown in FIGS. 29a and 29b. In general the I codes are encoded to be compressed coded indications, each representative of, and compressed in length from, the combination of separate channel, start time and a length indications. In print advertisement and also in television broadcasts, there is simply not enough area to separately spell out the channel, start time, and length. The I codes solve this problem by encoding channel, start time and length into one compressed digital code. The first step in one preferred encoding method is enter channel, time and length (CTL) and validity period step 812 for the supplemental information associated with an advertisement. The channel, time and length are self explanatory. The validity period is necessary, because the encoding and decoding algorithms have a step in which a scramble occurs. To guarantee that the I code associated with an advertisement will be able to be used, two overlapping scrambling time periods are used. For example suppose that a first scrambling method is constant for two months from January 1st to February 28th and then changes every succeeding two month period. An overlapping and skewed second scrambling method would be constant from February 1st to March 31st and then change every succeeding two month period. For an advertisement that would run from January 20th to February 10, the first scrambling method would be used for encoding and decoding; however, for an advertisement that would run from February 25th through March 9th, then the second scrambling method would be used. Thus, the validity period input at the beginning of the encoding process specifies which scrambling method to use. The next step is the lookup assigned channel number step 816, which substitutes an assigned channel number 822 for each channel 818 of the input CTL 814. Often, for example for network broadcast channels, such as channel 2, the assigned channel number is the same; however, for a cable channel such as HBO a channel number is assigned and is looked up in a cable assigned channel table 820, which would essentially be the same as the first two columns of the table of FIG. 28. Next, the lookup priority of channel, time and length in priority vector tables step 824 performs a lookup in priority vector channel (C) table 826 and priority vector time/length (TL) table 830 using the indices of channel and time/length, respectively, to produce the vector. Cp, TLp 832. The use of a combined time/length (TL) table to set priorities recognizes that there may be some relationship between these combinations for additional information. For example, at 2 AM movie previews could be broadcast and be somewhat longer than other information, but very popular. Alternately, it is possible to have separate priority tables for time and length. The channel priority table is ordered so that in general the least frequently used channels for I codes have high priority numbers and the most frequently used channels for 1 codes have a low priority number, which contributes to deriving shorter I codes for the most popular supplemental information broadcasts. Note that because the information broadcasts are least expensive if done on off hours on seldom used channels, that it is likely that the channels with the lowest priority numbers for G codes may have the highest priority numbers for I codes. For example, a short G code may be for channel 2 on Monday at 8 p.m. for 1 hour during prime time, while a short I code may be for channel 17 at 4 a.m. for 5 minutes. The typical information broadcast may be only about 3 to 5 minutes compared to the typical 30 to 60 minute program. An example of the data that is in the priority vector C table 826 follows. channel 4 7 2 3 5 6 11 13 . . . priority 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . . The priority of the start times and length of the information broadcasts corresponding to I codes are conceivably the inverse of the priorities of the G codes, because G codes are arranged so that prime time programs will have the shortest G codes. In the case of I codes, they would be arranged to have the shortest codes when the broadcast time is least expensive, which is certainly not prime time. Thus, if the G codes are encoded for prime time, then the I codes are encoded for nonprime time or the inverse of prime time. The priority for time and length could be arranged in a matrix that would assign a priority to each combination of start times and information broadcast lengths so that more popular combinations of start time and length would have a low priority number and less popular combinations would have a high priority number, which also contributes to deriving shorter codes for the most popular supplemental information broadcasts. For example, a partial priority vector T/L table 830 might appear as follows. Priority TL Table TIME Length (hrs) 2:30 am 3:00 am 3:30 am 4:00 am . . . .1 8 4 7 10 . . . .2 12 15 13 18 . . . .3 20 19 17 30 . . . Alternately as indicated before, separate priority tables could be constructed for start times and broadcast length with the lowest priority numbers given to the most likely start times for I code broadcasts and most likely broadcast lengths. Suppose the channel, time and length (CTL) 814 data is channel 5, 3:00 am and 0.3 hours in length, then the Cp, TLp 832 for the above example would be 4 19. The next step is the convert Cp, TLp to binary numbers and concatenate them into one binary number step 834, resulting in the data word . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 836. For the example given above, converting the TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 836 word to binary would yield the two binary numbers: . . . 0010011, . . . 0100. The number of binary bits to use in each conversion is determined by the number of combinations involved. This could vary depending on the implementation; however one preferred embodiment would use eight bits for Cp, denoted as C8 C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1, which would provide for 256 channels, and fourteen bits for TLp, denoted as TL14 . . . TL3 TL2 TL1, which would provide for start times spaced every 5 minutes over 24 hours and information broadcasts in increments of 5 minute lengths for information broadcasts up to 3 hours in length. This requires about 288*(36+20)=16,128 combinations, which are provided by the 2**14=16,384 binary combinations. Altogether there are 8+14=22 bits of information TL14 . . . TL2TL1C8 . . . C2C1. For the above example padding each number with zeros and then concatenating them would yield the 22 bit binary number: 0000000001001100000100. The next step is to use bit hierarchy key 840, which can be stored in read only memory 64 to perform the reorder bits of binary number according to bit hierarchy key step 838. A bit hierarchy key 840 can be any ordering of the . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 836 bits and in general will be selected so that information broadcasts most likely to be the subject of timer preprogramming would have a low value I code 854, which would minimize keystrokes. The ordering of the bit hierarchy key can be determined by the differential probabilities of the various bit combinations as previously discussed. The details of deriving a bit hierarchy key 840 were described relative to bit hierarchy key 120 and the same method can be used for bit hierarchy key 840. For example, the bit hierarchy key might be: TL8 C3 . . . TL10 C2 TL1 C1 22 21 . . . 4 3 2 1 The next step is the insert validity period code step 841. The validity period code 845 must be at least one bit; but could be more, and is set by the select scramble function step 844, which is dependent on the validity period of the information broadcast, as explained above. The select scramble function step 844 also selects an associated scramble method, which provides security for the resulting I code 854. The validity period code 845 is inserted into the I code and is used to designate the scramble method to be used during decoding. FIG. 33 is an illustration of the problem addressed by the validity period code 845. Suppose a particular scramble method is constant during time span 930 and then changes at the start of time span 932, and each succeeding two month time span. For most advertisements, the I code 854 would have to be constant for a period of time, for example a week for I codes in weekly publications. If the time spans 930 and 932 are two months as shown in FIG. 33, then a one week validity period might overlap both time spans 930 and 932, which would mean that the scramble method would change during the validity period. To compensate for this, a skewed and overlapping set of time spans for a second scramble method is provided. For example, time span 934 and time span 936, which are skewed from time span 930 and time span 932 by one month. The scramble time spans 930, 932 and so on, can be designated by a validity period code “0”. The offset scramble time spans 934, 936 and so on can be designated by a “1”. Suppose there is a validity period 938 for one week for a I code 854, then the scramble method selected would be those valid during time span 930, time span 932 and so on and the validity period code for that validity period would be set to “0”, as shown by validity period codes 944. The validity period code would also be “0” for the validity period 942. However, for validity period 940, the validity period code would be set to “1”, because that corresponds to the scramble method that is constant during time span 934. Note that if only two skewed time spans are used and the validity period code is placed in the least significant bit of the binary word in step 841, and the least significant digit is not scrambled in step 846, then once the I code is derived it is possible when decoding the I code to determine the validity period code merely by inspecting whether the I code is even or odd. The next step is the combine groups of bits and convert each group into decimal numbers and concatenate into one decimal number step 842. For example, after reordering according to the bit hierarchy key and insertion of the validity period code (suppose its “1” in this example, because the validity period is February 25th to March 9th, for which a validity period code of 1 would be used as shown in FIG. 33), the code may be 00000000110000000010011, which could be grouped as 0000000011, 0000000010011. If these groups of binary bits are converted to decimal as 3.19 and concatenated into one decimal number, then the resulting decimal number is 319. The next encoding step is the scramble decimal number step 846, which scrambles the decimal number according to scramble function 844 that is dependent on the validity period 848, such as February 25th through March 9th, for the information broadcast and provides a security feature for the codes. After the scramble decimal number step 846, the decimal code In . . . I2I1 850 may, for example, be 139. The last step is to insert a zero (0) for the first digit step 852, so that the code is distinguishable to the instant programmer 300 as a I code 854. The result for the example would be 0139. These encoded codes are then included in an advertisement, for example as in the I code 652 of FIGS. 29a and 29b. FIG. 32 is a flowchart 860 of the method for decoding an I code into channel, time and length, which is step 714 of FIG. 30. Note that step 711 of FIG. 30 has already determined that the entered code is an I code versus a G code, because the first digit is a zero. First, the I code 0In . . . I2I1 862 is entered. Then the zero is deleted in the remove leading zero step 864 to obtain In . . . I2I1 865. Next, it is necessary to invert the scramble method of steps 844 and 846 of FIG. 31. The first step is the extract validity period code step 866. The validity period code 867 indicates, which of two skewed in time scrambling methods to use. The scramble method 878 selected by scramble function 870 also depends on clock 876, which is implemented by microcomputer 380 in FIGS. 21 and 22. The clock 876 has the current time, day, month and year. The selected scramble method 878 is used in the invert scramble of I code step 880. For the example given above, the output of step 880 would be: 319. The next step is the convert groups of decimal numbers into groups of binary numbers and concatenate binary groups into one binary number step 884, which is the inverse of step 842 of FIG. 31 and for the above example would result in the binary code: 00000000110000000010011. Then the validity period code would be deleted in step 885, which inverts step 841 of FIG. 31, the result being: 0000000011000000001001. Then the bit hierarchy key 888 is used in the reorder bits of binary number according to bit hierarchy key step 886, which inverts step 838 of FIG. 31 to obtain 0000000001001100000100 for the above example, which is . . . TL2TL1 . . . C2C1 . . . D2D1 882 corresponding to 836 of FIG. 31. The next step is to group bits to form two binary numbers TLb, Cb and convert to decimal numbers step 890 resulting in Cp, TLp 892, which for the example above would be: 4, 19, and which are priority vectors for channel and time/length, which in turn are used to lookup channel, time and length 904 in priority vector channel (C) table 898 and priority vector time/length (TL) table 902, respectively. For the above example, this would result in looking up channel 5 and time/length of 3 a.m./0.3 hours. The lookup local channel number step 906 looks up the local channel 912 given the assigned channel number 908, in the assigned/local channel table 910, which is setup by the user via the CH key 322, as explained above. Another preferred method of encoding and decoding the I codes is the following, which is similar to the foregoing except where noted. Channel, time and length priority tables would be used to encode and decode the I codes, as described before. The key difference is that the bit hierarchy is no longer defined in base 2 arithmetic. Rather it is defined in a generalized base arithmetic as shown in the following table: Validity Per. # No. of Digits Ch Time Len Code Bits Combination Order 1 1 3 2 0* 6 TTL 2 16 3 2 0* 96 CCCC 3 16 30 2 0* 960 TTTT 4 32 75 4 0* 9600 TCTL 5 64 90 8 1 92160 TLCS 6 64 360 20 1 921600 LLTT 7 128 720 50 1 9216000 LLTC 8 129 1440 250 1 92160000 LLLT *validity period code bit assumed to be equal to zero. C = channel bit T = start time bit L = length bit S = validity period code bit For example, if only one digit is used, there are one channel (1C), three start times (3T's) and two length (2 L's), i.e. 6 combinations. It is assumed that the I code before appending the leading zero has only one digit and that in this case both the encoding and decoding methods understand that the validity period code is “0”. With two digits, there are in addition 16 times more C's (i.e. 16 C's), so that there are now 3×2×16=96 combinations in the first 2 digits. With three digits, there are now 10 times more T's so that there are now 3 (from digit 1)×10 (from digit 3)=30 T's. The total number of combinations equals 3×2×16×10=2×30×16=960 in the first 3 digits. With four digits, there are now 2 more time C's, 2 more times L's and 2.5 times more T's, so that the number of combinations increases by 2×2×2.5=10 times. There are now 9600 combinations in the first 4 digits. With five digits, there are 2 more times C, 1.2 more times T's, 2 more times L's and an extra bit for scrambling so that there are now 2×1.2×2×2=9.6 times more combinations=9600×9.6=92160 combinations. One way to obtain a non-integral number of times such as 1.2 or 1.25 or 2.5 times is essentially by providing a table which defines the range of values for each number of digits that corresponds to the above table. Thus, steps 834 and 838 in FIG. 31 would be implemented in this preferred embodiment in the manner indicated above and there are other subtle changes such as the handling of the assumed validity period code as indicated above for cases with four or fewer digits in the I code not counting the leading zero. I code decoding would be the reverse of the encoding method. An example of the encoding to reduce the number of digits in the I code is shown below. In this example, suppose one variable is represented by the digits DA1,DA2 and ranges from 0 to 24, where DA1 ranges from 0 to 2 and DA2 ranges from 0 to 9 and another variable DB ranges from 0 to 3, so the total number of values being encoded is 25*4=100. It is possible to represent the first variable by two digits and the second variable by one digit; however, that is inefficient, because it would require the listing of three digits. The number of combinations of the two variables is only 25*4=100, so it is possible to represent the combination of the variables in only 2 binary coded decimals. The desire is to encode the DA1,DA2 and DB, which are 3 digits into two binary coded decimal digits d1 and d2, where the permissible values of d1 and d2 range only between 0 and 9. This is possible as shown in the table below, where the encoding algorithm is the following: A3*2+A2*20=DA2 A1=DA1 unless DB≧2 & DA2=2, then A1=DA1+5 B2*21+B1*20=DB unless DB≧2 & DA2=2, then B2*2+B1*20=DB−2 The resulting binary coded decimals are denoted d2, which equals A3*23+A2*22+B2*21+B1*20 and ranges from 0 to 9, and d1, which ranges from 0 to 9 and equals A1. Once encoded, the binary coded decimals d2 and d1 can be decoded by first representing them in binary form and then deriving DA2,DA1 and DB as follows: Decimal d2 d1 Encoding DA1, DA2 DB A3 A2 B2 B1 A1 d2 d1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 9 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 11 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 1 12 0 0 1 0 0 2 4 2 13 0 0 1 0 0 3 4 3 14 0 0 1 0 0 4 4 4 15 0 0 1 0 0 5 4 5 16 0 0 1 0 0 6 4 6 17 0 0 1 0 0 7 4 7 18 0 0 1 0 0 8 4 8 19 0 0 1 0 0 9 4 9 20 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 21 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 1 22 0 1 0 0 0 2 8 2 23 0 1 0 0 0 3 8 3 24 0 1 0 0 0 4 8 4 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 3 1 0 0 0 1 3 1 3 4 1 0 0 0 1 4 1 4 5 1 0 0 0 1 5 1 5 6 1 0 0 0 1 6 1 6 7 1 0 0 0 1 7 1 7 8 1 0 0 0 1 8 1 8 9 1 0 0 0 1 9 1 9 10 1 0 1 0 1 0 5 0 11 1 0 1 0 1 1 5 1 12 1 0 1 0 1 2 5 2 13 1 0 1 0 1 3 5 3 14 1 0 1 0 1 4 5 4 15 1 0 1 0 1 5 5 5 16 1 0 1 0 1 6 5 6 17 1 0 1 0 1 7 5 7 18 1 0 1 0 1 8 5 8 19 1 0 1 0 1 9 5 9 20 1 1 0 0 1 0 9 0 21 1 1 0 0 1 1 9 1 22 1 1 0 0 1 2 9 2 23 1 1 0 0 1 3 9 3 24 1 1 0 0 1 4 9 4 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 2 2 2 3 2 0 0 1 0 3 2 3 4 2 0 0 1 0 4 2 4 5 2 0 0 1 0 5 2 5 6 2 0 0 1 0 6 2 6 7 2 0 0 1 0 7 2 7 8 2 0 0 1 0 8 2 8 9 2 0 0 1 0 9 2 9 10 2 0 1 1 0 0 6 0 11 2 0 1 1 0 1 6 1 12 2 0 1 1 0 2 6 2 13 2 0 1 1 0 3 6 3 14 2 0 1 1 0 4 6 4 15 2 0 1 1 0 5 6 5 16 2 0 1 1 0 6 6 6 17 2 0 1 1 0 7 6 7 18 2 0 1 1 0 8 6 8 19 2 0 1 1 0 9 6 9 20 2 1 0 0 0 5 8 5 21 2 1 0 0 0 6 8 6 22 2 1 0 0 0 7 8 7 23 2 1 0 0 0 8 8 8 24 2 1 0 0 0 9 8 9 0 3 0 0 1 1 0 3 0 1 3 0 0 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 0 0 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 0 0 1 1 3 3 3 4 3 0 0 1 1 4 3 4 5 3 0 0 1 1 5 3 5 6 3 0 0 1 1 6 3 6 7 3 0 0 1 1 7 3 7 8 3 0 0 1 1 8 3 8 9 3 0 0 1 1 9 3 9 10 3 0 1 1 1 0 7 0 11 3 0 1 1 1 1 7 1 12 3 0 1 1 1 2 7 2 13 3 0 1 1 1 3 7 3 14 3 0 1 1 1 4 7 4 15 3 0 1 1 1 5 7 5 16 3 0 1 1 1 6 7 6 17 3 0 1 1 1 7 7 7 18 3 0 1 1 1 8 7 8 19 3 0 1 1 1 9 7 9 20 3 1 0 0 1 5 9 5 21 3 1 0 0 1 6 9 6 22 3 1 0 0 1 7 9 7 23 3 1 0 0 1 8 9 8 24 3 1 0 0 1 9 9 9 DA2 = A3 * 21 + A2 * 20 DA1 = A1 unless A3 = 1 and A1 ≧ 5, then DA1 = A1 − 5 DB = B2 * 21 + B1 * 20 unless A1 ≧ 5, then DB = (B2 + 1) * 21 + B1 * 20 Note if the weights of the A3, A2, B2 and B1 bits are 20, 10, 50, and 25, that the weighted sum of the bits plus the A1 digit sequence properly from 0 through 99, for the example table above, except for what should be the weighted sums 70 through 74 and 95 through 99 combinations, which have instead a weighted sum of 25 through 29 and 50 through 54, respectively. This results in the logic above that recognizes that DA1 never exceeds the value 4. This is used to advantage to keep d2 within a binary coded decimal value of 0 to 9 by replacing what should be a 1 in B2 with a zero and adding 5 to A1, thereby resulting in the difference of 5−50=−45 between the expected 70 and resulting 25 and the expected 95 and resulting 50, for example. As shown in the logic above, simple tests determine the proper encoding and decoding. In summary the apparatus and methods described enable a user to selectively record additional information associated with a printed or broadcast advertisement, which would be broadcast on a television channel at a later time. The user enters the digital code (I code) associated with an advertisement into a unit with a decoding means which automatically converts the I code into CTL (channel, time and length). The unit within a twenty four hour period activates a VCR to record information on the television channel at the right start time for the proper length of time. The additional information could be broadcast on a television channel early in the morning, for example, between midnite and six o'clock in the morning, when the cost of broadcast time is low and it is economical to broadcast detailed information or advertisements of many items, such as automobiles, real estate and movie previews. The user can then view this information at his/her leisure. This invention will allow the user an unprecedented capability to control access to desired information without having to be continually glued to the television. It will also provide a new and cost effective means for advertisers to explain their goods and services. It is thought that the apparatus and method for using compressed codes for scheduling broadcast information recording of the present invention and many of its attendant advantages will be understood from the foregoing description and it will be apparent that various changes may be made in the form, construction and arrangement of the parts thereof without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention or sacrificing all of its material advantages, the form hereinbefore described being merely a preferred or exemplary embodiment thereof.
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7
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00
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11942578
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US20080117326A1-20080522
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OPTICAL DEVICE, IMAGING DEVICE, CONTROL METHOD FOR OPTICAL DEVICE, AND PROGRAM
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ACCEPTED
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20080509
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20080522
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[]
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H04N5225
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["H04N5225", "G02B300"]
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8031254
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20071119
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20111004
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348
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335000
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97956.0
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TREHAN
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AKSHAY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Nishio", "inventor_name_first": "Akihiro", "inventor_city": "Yokohama-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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An optical device which allows size and cost reductions and enables simultaneous capture of images taken by a first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and a second optical system. A first optical system is adapted to form a first image. A second optical system is disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and is adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system.
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1. An optical device for use in imaging, comprising: a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of said first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by said first optical system. 2. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said first optical system includes an optical member having an outer diameter that is larger than an outer diameter of an optical member of said second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by said second optical system. 3. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said first optical system includes an optical member being arranged on an optical axis of said second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by said second optical system. 4. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said first optical system has an angle of view of at least 90° and functions as a wide-angle lens or a fish-eye lens. 5. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said second optical system does not entirely block light rays incident on said first optical system. 6. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said second optical system has an outer lens diameter which allows transmission of at least a portion of off-axis light rays. 7. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said second optical system includes a reflective member for deflecting light rays incident on said second optical system toward said first optical system. 8. An optical device according to claim 7, wherein the reflective member is adapted to rotate around an optical axis of said first optical system. 9. An optical device according to claim 7, wherein the reflective member is adapted to rotate around an optical axis of said first optical system, together with an optical system disposed on a subject side in the second optical system. 10. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said second optical system is adapted to perform an primary image formation on the subject side of said first optical system, and said first optical system is adapted to perform a secondary image formation to the first image formation. 11. An optical device according to claim 10, wherein a positive lens group of said second optical system is disposed on an image plane side of a position where the primary image formation is performed, and said first optical system is disposed on the image plane side of the positive lens group. 12. An optical device according to claim 1, wherein said first optical system includes an optical member adapted to transmit only light rays passing through said second optical system. 13. An imaging device including the optical device of claim 1, comprising: an imaging unit adapted to photo-electronically convert a subject image formed by the optical device to electronic signals; a panning mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a panning direction; and a tilting mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a tilting direction. 14. A control method for an optical device including a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system, the optical device being adapted to be driven in a panning direction and a tilting direction, the control method comprising: a detecting step of recognizing a target subject from an image formed by the first optical system, and detecting a relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; a calculating step of calculating necessary driving angles in the panning direction and the tilting direction of the optical device based on the detected relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; and a driving step of driving the optical device in the panning direction and tilting direction when the calculated necessary driving angles are greater than or equal to prescribed values. 15. A program for causing a computer to execute the control method of the optical device of claim 14.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an optical device, an imaging device, a control method for the optical device, and a program applied to realize an imaging optical system suitable for an apparatus such as a monitoring-use digital camera or video camera. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, to find the subject (imaging target) and obtain a detailed image, it is normal to use a method in which a very wide-angle lens or fish-eye lens is used to image a wide field of view and the detailed image is obtained after distinguishing the target subject in the field of view. The following is an example of the type of method used to acquire an image of such a subject.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides an optical device, an imaging device, a control method for the optical device, and a program which allow size and cost reductions and enable simultaneous capture of images taken by a first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and a second optical system. In a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical device for use in imaging, comprising: a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system. The first optical system can include an optical member having an outer diameter that is larger than an outer diameter of an optical member of the second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by the second optical system. The first optical system can includes an optical member being arranged on an optical axis of the second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by the second optical system. The first optical system can have an angle of view of at least 90° and functions as a wide-angle lens or a fish-eye lens. The second optical system may not entirely block light rays incident on the first optical system. The second optical system can have an outer lens diameter which allows transmission of at least a portion of off-axis light rays. The second optical system can include a reflective member for deflecting light rays incident on the second optical system toward the first optical system. The reflective member can rotate around an optical axis of the first optical system. The reflective member can rotate around an optical axis of the first optical system, together with an optical system disposed on a subject side in the second optical system. The second optical system can perform an primary image formation on the subject side of the first optical system, and the first optical system can perform a secondary image formation to the first image formation. A positive lens group of the second optical system can be disposed on an image plane side of a position where the primary image formation is performed, and the first optical system can be disposed on the image plane side of the positive lens group. The first optical system can include an optical member adapted to transmit only light rays passing through the second optical system. In a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided an imaging device including the optical device, comprising: an imaging unit adapted to photo-electronically convert a subject image formed by the optical device to electronic signals; a panning mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a panning direction; and a tilting mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a tilting direction. In a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a control method for an optical device including a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system, the optical device being adapted to be driven in a panning direction and a tilting direction, the control method comprising: a detecting step of recognizing a target subject from an image formed by the first optical system, and detecting a relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; a calculating step of calculating necessary driving angles in the panning direction and the tilting direction of the optical device based on the detected relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; and a driving step of driving the optical device in the panning direction and tilting direction when the calculated necessary driving angles are greater than or equal to prescribed values. In a fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a program for causing a computer to execute the control method of the optical device. According to the present invention, a second optical system is provided so that light which has been transmitted through the first optical system passes through the second optical system to form another captured image within the formed image range. This makes it possible to realize a small-sized, reduced cost optical device which enables simultaneous capture of images taken by a first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and a second optical system. The above and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an optical device, an imaging device, a control method for the optical device, and a program applied to realize an imaging optical system suitable for an apparatus such as a monitoring-use digital camera or video camera. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, to find the subject (imaging target) and obtain a detailed image, it is normal to use a method in which a very wide-angle lens or fish-eye lens is used to image a wide field of view and the detailed image is obtained after distinguishing the target subject in the field of view. The following is an example of the type of method used to acquire an image of such a subject. (1) Method to obtain enlarged image of target subject using an electronic zoom. (2) Method to obtain image of target subject by constructing an optical system as a zoom lens and changing the magnification of the optical system (zoom lens) at the telephoto end. (3) Method in which a plurality of imaging systems are used, one being a wide angle imaging system and the other being a zoom imaging system, and the acquired image of the target subject is switched between the systems. In another proposed method, the subject light directed to the imaging element is switched by driving a reflective member provided in the optical system (see, for instance, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. H9-297350, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2003-9104, and Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2006-81089). In a further proposed method, a reflected image in a peripheral part of a convex reflective member is used to observe the entire surroundings of the subject, and with the central part of the reflective member having a transparent construction, another image is observed using a separate optical system (see, for instance, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2006-139234). However, the above-described conventional image acquiring methods have the following problems. In the method of (1), to obtain the enlarged image of the target subject by extracting a part of the image, it is necessary to use an imaging element having a high number of pixels to obtain a highly detailed image, and the performance requirements for the imaging optical system are more stringent. This causes costs to increase. In the method of (2), when the target subject is a moving body and the photographer sees the subject during zooming, it is necessary zoom out to a wide-angle image in order to follow the subject. It is not therefore possible to speedily observe of the subject. Moreover, it is difficult to realize an optical system which includes both wide-angle and telephoto functions. In the method of (3), since a plurality of optical system are used, a plurality of camera units must be used. Hence, the size and cost of the imaging device increase. In the method of (3) described above, in order to obtain characteristics resembling the characteristics seen when a plurality of imaging optical systems are used by switching a part of an imaging optical system using a single imaging element, a mechanism is typically required to insert/withdraw the part of the imaging optical system within the system. Conventionally, mechanisms for switching a part of an imaging optical system have been widely used in dual-focus type silver halide compact cameras. However, there is a problem in that inclusion of the mechanism to switch the part of the optical system complicates the construction. In a further method, light is directed onto the imaging medium by combining a plurality of subject images using a half-transmitting reflective member capable of both transmitting and reflecting light. However, with this method there is a problem in that images darken due to the reduction in transmissivity, and in that the image is built up from a plurality of subject images, making it difficult to observe the target image separately. Further, the technologies disclosed in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. H9-297350, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2003-9104, and Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2006-81089 have a construction which makes it difficult to implement large changes in imaging angle. Further, large changes in the direction of the target subject that is being imaged tend to occur. As a result, it is difficult to detect the target subject and acquire detailed information in a short time period. Moreover, the technology disclosed in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2006-139234 has the problem that it is difficult and costly to manufacture a large reflective member with a favorable profile irregularity. Moreover, in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 2006-139234, since the data values for implementing the optical construction is not disclosed, it is unclear if the device can be realized. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an optical device, an imaging device, a control method for the optical device, and a program which allow size and cost reductions and enable simultaneous capture of images taken by a first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and a second optical system. In a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optical device for use in imaging, comprising: a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system. The first optical system can include an optical member having an outer diameter that is larger than an outer diameter of an optical member of the second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by the second optical system. The first optical system can includes an optical member being arranged on an optical axis of the second optical system, and having a refractive function for forming the first image outside the second image formed by the second optical system. The first optical system can have an angle of view of at least 90° and functions as a wide-angle lens or a fish-eye lens. The second optical system may not entirely block light rays incident on the first optical system. The second optical system can have an outer lens diameter which allows transmission of at least a portion of off-axis light rays. The second optical system can include a reflective member for deflecting light rays incident on the second optical system toward the first optical system. The reflective member can rotate around an optical axis of the first optical system. The reflective member can rotate around an optical axis of the first optical system, together with an optical system disposed on a subject side in the second optical system. The second optical system can perform an primary image formation on the subject side of the first optical system, and the first optical system can perform a secondary image formation to the first image formation. A positive lens group of the second optical system can be disposed on an image plane side of a position where the primary image formation is performed, and the first optical system can be disposed on the image plane side of the positive lens group. The first optical system can include an optical member adapted to transmit only light rays passing through the second optical system. In a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided an imaging device including the optical device, comprising: an imaging unit adapted to photo-electronically convert a subject image formed by the optical device to electronic signals; a panning mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a panning direction; and a tilting mechanism adapted to drive the optical device in a tilting direction. In a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a control method for an optical device including a first optical system adapted to form a first image; and a second optical system disposed on a subject side of the first optical system, and adapted to form a second image within the first image formed by the first optical system, the optical device being adapted to be driven in a panning direction and a tilting direction, the control method comprising: a detecting step of recognizing a target subject from an image formed by the first optical system, and detecting a relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; a calculating step of calculating necessary driving angles in the panning direction and the tilting direction of the optical device based on the detected relative position of the target subject with respect to the optical device; and a driving step of driving the optical device in the panning direction and tilting direction when the calculated necessary driving angles are greater than or equal to prescribed values. In a fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a program for causing a computer to execute the control method of the optical device. According to the present invention, a second optical system is provided so that light which has been transmitted through the first optical system passes through the second optical system to form another captured image within the formed image range. This makes it possible to realize a small-sized, reduced cost optical device which enables simultaneous capture of images taken by a first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and a second optical system. The above and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view of the construction of the optical device of an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a composite image obtained using the first and second optical systems of the optical device. FIG. 3 is a view of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device of a first numerical example. FIG. 4 is a view of an example of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. FIG. 5 is a view showing schematically showing a construction of the mechanism of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. FIG. 6 is a view of an initial image state during subject recognition by the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. FIGS. 7A to 7C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device of a second numerical example. FIGS. 8A to 8C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in a third numerical example when an deflection angle of the second optical system is 60°. FIGS. 9A to 9C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device of a third numerical example when the deflection angle of the second optical system is 110°. FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an example electrical construction of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. FIG. 11 is a flowchart showing tracking operations for a moving body after subject recognition by the imaging device (optical apparatus) including the optical device. FIGS. 12A to 12D are views of aberrations in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the first numerical example and the second numerical example. FIGS. 13A to 13D are views of aberrations in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the first numerical example. FIGS. 14A to 14D are views of aberrations in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the second numerical example. FIGS. 15A to 15D are views of aberrations in the first optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 16A to 16D are views of aberrations at a telephoto end in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 17A to 17D are views of aberrations at an intermediate position in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 18A to 18D are views of aberrations at a wide-angle end of the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 19A to 19C are tables of specific values of the first numerical example. FIGS. 20A to 20C are tables of specific values of the second numerical example. FIGS. 21A to 21D are tables of specific values of the third numerical example. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings showing preferred embodiments thereof. It should be noted that the relative arrangement of the components, the numerical expressions and numerical values set forth in these embodiments do not limit the scope of the present invention unless it is specifically stated otherwise. FIG. 1 is a view of the construction of an optical device of an embodiment of the present invention. The optical device in FIG. 1 is constructed from a first optical system 1 and a second optical system 2. The imaging element 3 photo-electronically converts a subject image to an electronic signal, and is provided in a back stage of the first optical system 1. The optical device operates to perform primary image formation of a subject image that has passed through the second optical system 2 on a subject side of the first optical system 1, and then secondary image formation by passing the primary image through the first optical system 1. In the embodiment of the present invention, the first optical system and the second optical system are essential elements in the optical device, but the imaging element is not an essential element. Further, in the embodiment of the present invention, the imaging device (optical apparatus) includes the optical device as a main component and further includes, installed on the optical device, the imaging element, a panning mechanism, a tilting mechanism and the like. The first optical system 1 includes a front group A indicated by 1-1 having negative lens group 4 and a back group A indicated by 1-2 having a positive lens group 5. The first optical system 1 is an optical system having a wide-angle angle of view, and is arranged as a retrofocus type optical system including the front group A (negative lens group), indicated by 1-1, with the comparatively large lens diameter, and, on the image plane side, the back group A (positive lens group), indicated by 1-2. Using the above-described retrofocus type optical system arrangement allows the first optical system 1 to function as a wide angle lens or fish-eye lens, which are refractive optical systems having an angle of view of at least 90°, and thereby allows a wide image range to be obtained. In the drawings, the range indicated by the symbol 10 is the range defining the angle of view of the first optical system 1. The second optical system 2 includes a front group B, indicated by 2-1, having a negative lens group 6, a reflective member 7, and a positive lens group 8, and a back group B, indicated by 2-2, having a positive lens group 9. The second optical system 2 performs primary image formation on the subject side of the first optical system 1 with an angle of view that is narrower than that of the first optical system 1. The image resulting from the primary image formation is matched with the optical axis of the first optical system 1 at a back focus position equivalent to an image formation position of the first optical system 1, and image formation is performed again (secondary image formation). Hence, the second optical system 2 is so arranged that the back group B (positive lens group), indicated by 2-2, is disposed between the primary image formation position and the front group A (negative lens group), indicated by 1-1, and has a lens diameter smaller than that of the lens disposed furthest towards the subject side in the front group A. A reflective member 7 is constructed as a reflecting mirror for changing the inclination of the optical axis. By rotationally driving the reflective member 7, it is possible to freely set a deflection angle. In the drawings, the range indicated by the symbol 11 is the range of the angle of view for the second optical system 2. By equipping the first optical system with lens group 4 which has a refracting function, it is possible to form an image outside the image formed on the image plane by the second optical system. Also, use of the refracting function of the lens group 4 which has the outer diameter that is larger than the outer diameter of the optical member of the adjacent second optical system on the subject side prevents blocking of the incident light by the second optical system. In the present embodiment, the second optical system 2, which forms another image inside the image range of the first optical system 1, is disposed on the subject side of the first optical system 1 which, as described above, is a refracting optical system having a wide-angle lens or fish-eye lens function and an angle of view of at least 90°. This allows an imaging optical system capable of simultaneously imaging a wide-angle view and a detailed view with a narrower field than the wide-angle view to be realized. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a composite image obtained using the first and second optical systems of the optical device. In FIG. 2, the subject image with the wide angle of view obtained by the first optical system 1 is formed in an image range 21 corresponding to a peripheral region of an image circle. At the same time, a detailed subject image obtained by the composite optical system (re-imaging optical system) composed of the first optical system 1 and the second optical system 2 is formed in an image range 22 corresponding to the central region of the image circle. Since the second optical system 2 includes the reflective member 7 for inclining the optical axis direction, a part of the subject image within the angle of view of the first optical system 1 can be observed in detail. The following describes a light path diagram in a first numerical example using the optical device of the present embodiment with reference to FIG. 3. FIG. 3 is a view of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in a first numerical example. The optical device in FIG. 3 is constructed from a first optical system 31 and a second optical system 32. The first optical system 31 includes, from the subject side, a front group A, indicated by 31-1, and a back group A, indicated by 31-2. The front group A, indicated by 31-1, has a negative refractive power. The back group A, indicated by 31-2, has a positive refractive power. Filters 33 indicates the infra-red cut and low pass effects and the effects of the cover glass of the imaging element and the like, when light rays that have passed through the back group A, indicated by 31-2, form an image on the image plane of the imaging element. The second optical system 32 includes, from the subject end, a front group B, indicated by 32-1, and a back group B, indicated by 32-2. The front group B, indicated by 32-1, includes a reflective member (reflecting prism) 34, a B1 group 35 having a negative refractive power, a B2 group 36 having a positive refractive power, a composite optical system composed of the B1 group 35 and the B2 group 36, and a B3 group 37 having a positive refractive power and disposed in proximity to the image formation position. The back group B, indicated by 32-2, includes a lens group having a positive refractive power disposed between the primary image forming position and the first optical system 31. Note that specific values for the first to third numerical examples are described later. Example applications of the optical device proposed in the present embodiment are described based on FIG. 4 to FIG. 6. FIG. 4 is a view of an example of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. In FIG. 4, an imaging device 41 is installed on a ceiling surface 42 with the imaging element inside the imaging device (not shown in the drawing) pointing downwards so as to enable diagonally downward observation of a subject (person) 43. In FIG. 4, reference numeral 44 indicates an image taken by the first optical system of the optical device, and reference numeral 45 indicates an image taken by the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system. Further, the ranges indicated by the arrows are angles of view, and are described later with reference to FIG. 5. Further, ω in the drawings schematically expresses a subject direction angle, and is described later with reference to FIG. 6 to FIG. 11. FIG. 5 is a view schematically showing a construction of the mechanism of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. In FIG. 5, the imaging device 41 includes an optical device and an imaging element in a casing, a panning mechanism 41a for driving in the direction of arrow Ya (panning direction), a tilting mechanism 41b for driving in the direction of arrow Yb (tilting direction), and a protective dome 41c. In FIG. 5, the range indicated by symbol 51 is the angle of view for the first optical system of the optical device, and the range indicated by the symbol 52 is the angle of view of the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device. In the imaging device 41, the deflection angle of the reflective member is freely set (tilted) by rotationally driving the reflective member in the second optical system in the optical device. This enables the imaging axis for the second optical system to be adjusted in accordance with distance to the subject. Moreover, with the optical axis as an axis of rotation, the reflective member in the second optical system in the optical device and at least the optical system disposed on the subject side in the second optical system in the optical device are rotationally driven (panned). This enables the imaging direction of the second optical system to be altered in accordance with the direction of the subject. Note that although FIG. 5 is a view of a construction in which the entire optical system, including the imaging element, is capable of rotating around the optical axis, the present invention is not limited to such an arrangement. Any arrangement is acceptable provided that at least the B1 group, including the reflective member, in the second optical system are rotated around the optical axis of the first optical system. Further, in FIG. 4, to capture an image of the upper body of a walking subject (person) 43 using the imaging device 41, the subject direction is first recognized from the image taken by the first optical system, and the horizontal direction imaging axis of the second optical system is then panned accordingly. Thereafter, imaging of the upper body of the subject 43 is performed by tilting the imaging axis according to the distance of the subject 43. By repeating these operations, it is possible to accurately track a moving body (the walking subject) The following describes an example of a method for performing subject direction detection and correction movement. In the optical device, position detection is performed to find the current tilting direction and panning direction settings of the imaging axis of the optical system. Next, a panning rotation angle is calculated for performing correction movement by moving the target subject in a concentric circle direction so that the target subject taken by the first optical system and recognized by the shape recognizing unit or the like (not shown in the drawings) is in the image circle. At the same time, an amount of driving for tilt correction is calculated using the distance from the center of the image circle to the target subject in a radial direction. Then, the panning mechanism and the tilting mechanism are driven according to the results of the calculation. FIG. 6 is a view of an initial image state during subject recognition by the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. In FIG. 6, a control unit of the optical device recognizes (detects) the target subject 61, and calculates the amount of driving necessary in the panning direction and tilting direction to capture a detailed image of a target subject 61 using the second optical system. Note that the electrical construction that includes the control unit of the imaging device equipped with the optical device is described later with reference to FIG. 10. The current panning (horizontal) direction of the second optical system in the optical device is assumed to be the (P) direction shown in the drawings. With the (P) direction as reference, an angle θ for the concentric circle direction of the target subject 61 is judged based on the image captured by the first optical system in the peripheral region of the image circle. Next, a polynomial function with coefficients that reflect a relationship between the angle of light rays incident on the first optical system and an image height formed by the light rays on the image formation plane of the imaging element is coded in a driving algorithm. Next, a distance (screen image height) Y from the center of the image circle (screen center) to a target subject center is calculated, and a subject direction angle ω is calculated from the distance Y. With this approach, it is possible to obtain the tilt driving angle necessary for a tilt movement group (an optical structure on the subject side including the reflective member) of the second optical system. The following describes a light path diagram in a second numerical example using the optical device of the present embodiment, based on FIGS. 7A to 7C. FIGS. 7A to 7C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device of a second numerical example. In FIGS. 7A to 7C, the optical device is constructed from a first optical system 71 and a second optical system 72. The first optical system 71 includes a front group A, indicated by 71-1, and a back group A, indicated by 71-2. The symbol 73 indicates a filter. The second optical system 72 includes a front group B, indicated by 72-1, and a back group B, indicated by 72-2. The front group B, indicated by 72-1, includes a reflective member 74, a B group 75, a B2 group 76, and a B3 group 77. With the B group 75 and the reflective member 74 in the front group B, indicated by 72-1, fixed in the second optical system 72, the optical device allows changes in magnification factor by movement of the B2 group 76 and the B3 group 77 along the optical axis. FIG. 7A is a view of the case in which the B2 group 76 and the B3 group 77 are at the telephoto end side for telephoto image capture. FIG. 7B is a view of the case in which the B2 group 76 and the B3 group 77 are positioned between the telephoto end and the wide angle end. FIG. 7C is a view of the case in which the B2 group 76 and the B3 group 77 are at the wide-angle end for wide-angle image capture. The deflection angle is set to an acute angle (where the light axis direction is 0° when not inclined) so that the subject image taken by the second optical system 72 overlaps, as far as possible, the subject image taken within an effective angle of view by the first optical system 71. The first optical system 71 includes a lens member 78 which has a positive refractive index and only permits transmission of light rays that have passed through the second optical system 72. With this arrangement, the refractive power of the front group A, indicated by 71-1 and disposed in the first optical system 71, can be changed to be positive for the light rays passing through the lens member 78. Hence, it is no longer necessary to give the back lens group B, indicated by 72-2 and disposed on the subject side of the second optical system 72, a strongly positive refractive power. As a result, it is possible to prevent deterioration in optical performance and to shorten the optical system by reducing the number of lenses in the back group B, indicated by 72-2. The following describes light path diagrams in a third numerical example using the optical device of the present embodiment, based on FIGS. 8A to 8C and FIGS. 9A to 9C. FIGS. 8A to 8C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in a third numerical example when the deflection angle of the second optical system is 60°. In FIGS. 8A to 8C, the optical device is constructed from a first optical system 81 and a second optical system 82. The first optical system 81 includes a front group A, indicated by 81-1, and a back group A, indicated by 81-2. The symbol 83 indicates a filter. The second optical system 82 includes a front group B, indicated by 82-1, and a back group B, indicated by 82-2. The front group B, indicated by 82-1, includes the reflective member (reflective mirror) 84, a B1 group 85, a B2 group 86, and a B3 group 87. With the reflective member 84 disposed in the B1 group 85 in the second optical system 82 as a reflecting mirror, the inclination direction of the optical axis is changed by rotationally driving the reflective member 84. At the same time, the lenses of the B1 group 85 are rotationally driven so as to align with the optical axis on the subject side of the reflective member 84 whose incident optical axis is being inclined. In this example, the deflection angle can be changed freely in the range of 60° to 110° by rotationally driving the reflective member 84 and the lenses of the B1 group 85. FIGS. 9A to 9C are views of light paths in the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in a third numerical example, and show an example for when the deflection angle of the second optical system is 110°. FIGS. 9A to 9C show that the optical device of the present embodiment is not limited to performing tracking operations of a moving body, but further allows simultaneous observation of subject body in a different direction. The following describes an example electrical construction of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device of the present embodiment, and a control example, based on FIG. 10 and FIG. 11. FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing the electrical construction of the imaging device (optical apparatus) which includes the optical device. The imaging device in FIG. 10 includes an optical device having an optical system 101, an imaging element 102, a signal processing unit 103, a memory unit 104, an operation unit 105, a control unit 106, a storage unit 107, a display unit 108, a panning mechanism 109, and a tilting mechanism 110. The imaging element 102 photo-electronically converts a subject image formed by the optical system 101 into electronic signals. The signal processing unit 103 executes signal processing on the electronic signals outputted from the imaging element 102, and stores the result as image data in the memory unit 104. Besides a memory region for the image data, the memory unit 104 includes an operations region and a temporary data storage region for use by the control unit 106. The operation unit 105 is used for inputting various types of instruction to the optical device. As well as controlling the entire imaging device including the optical device, the control unit 106 controls the driving of the panning mechanism 109 and the tilting mechanism 110. The panning mechanism 109 performs panning operations based on the control of the control unit 106. The tilting mechanism 110 performs tilting operations based on the control of the control unit 106. The control unit 106 executes the processing shown in the flowchart of FIG. 11 based on a control program stored in the storage unit 107. The display unit 108 displays the captured image, and can be provided in a position away from the body of the imaging device (for instance, in a monitoring center when the imaging device is to be used for monitoring). FIG. 11 is a flowchart showing the flow of moving-body tracking operations after subject recognition by the imaging device (optical apparatus) including the optical device. As shown in FIG. 11, the control unit 106 of the imaging device detects a panning angle (angle for driving the panning direction) and a tilting angle (angle for driving the tilting direction) as specified via the operation unit 105 for the second optical system of the optical device, and stores the detected panning angle and tilting angle in the memory unit 104 (step S1). Next, the control unit 106 recognizes the target subject from a first image range (the peripheral region of the image circle in FIG. 6) provided by the first optical system of the optical device (step S2), and judges the angle θ (FIG. 6) for the concentric circle direction of the target subject from the first image range (step S3). Next, the control unit 106 detects, from the first image range, the length Y (FIG. 6) in the radial direction from the center of the target subject image (step S4), and detects the subject direction angle ω based on the length Y (step S5). Next, the control unit 106 calculates necessary driving angles from the current settings of the panning angle and tilting angle, the angle θ for the concentric circle direction of the target subject, and the subject direction angle ω (step S6), and judges whether the necessary driving angles are greater than or equal to prescribed values which have been set previously (step S7). The necessary driving angles are the panning direction and tilting direction driving angles necessary for tracking the target subject (moving body). When the calculated necessary driving angles are less than the prescribed values set in advance, the flow returns to the step S2. On the other hand, when the calculated necessary driving angles are greater than or equal to the prescribed values set in advance, the control unit 106 performs driving in the panning direction using the panning mechanism 109 and driving in the tilting direction using the tilting mechanism 110 (step S8). Thereafter, the control unit 106 stores the panning angle associated with the driving in the panning direction and the tilting angle associated with the driving in the tilting direction in the memory unit 104 (step S9), and followed by the flow returning to the step S2. Aberration diagrams for the optical devices in the first to third numerical examples are shown in FIGS. 12A to 19D. FIGS. 12A to 12D are views of aberrations in the first optical system of the optical device in the first numerical example and the second numerical example. FIGS. 13A to 13D are views of aberrations in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the first numerical example. FIGS. 14A to 14D are views of aberrations in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the second numerical example. FIGS. 15A to 15D are views of aberrations in the first optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 16A to 16D are views of aberrations at the telephoto end in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 17A to 17D are views of aberrations at an intermediate position in the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. FIGS. 18A to 18D are views of aberrations at the wide-angle end of the composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system of the optical device in the third numerical example. In FIGS. 12 to 18D, FIGS. 12A to 18A each show spherical aberration, FIGS. 12B to 18B each show astigmatism, FIGS. 12C to 18C each show distortion, and FIGS. 12D to 18D each show chromatic aberration of magnification. ΔS indicates the sagittal image surface and ΔM indicates the meridional image surface. The following indicates specific values for the first to third numerical examples. (1) Specific values for the first numerical example are shown below in FIG. 19A to FIG. 19D. (2) Specific values for the second numerical example are shown below in FIG. 20A to FIG. 20C. (3) Specific values for the third numerical example are shown below in FIG. 21A to FIG. 21D. In the first to third numerical examples described above, Ri indicates the lens thickness and air separation of an i-th lens from the subject side. Ni and vi are, respectively, the refractive index and Abbe number of the glass for constructing the i-th lens from the subject side. Further, the aspherical coefficients K, A, B, C, D, and E in the first to third numerical examples are given by the following formula. X=(H2/R)/(1+(1−(1+K)·(H/R)2)½+A·H2÷B·H4+C·H6+D·H8+E·H10) Here, X is an amount of displacement from the lens apex in the optical axis direction, H is a distance from the optical axis, and R is a radius of curvature. Further, in the first to third numerical examples, the values following “e” in the aspherical coefficient values are powers of 10. As described above, according to the present invention, the optical device has the following construction. The second optical system which forms another image inside the range of the image formed by the first optical system is disposed on the subject side of the first optical system which is a refracting optical system having a wide-angle lens or fish-eye lens function and an angle of view of at least 90°. This construction makes it possible to realize an optical device, of reduced size and cost, that simultaneously captures wide-angle images taken by the first optical system and images taken by a composite optical system composed of the first optical system and the second optical system. Thus, without using special optical parts, it is possible to realize an optical device of small size and with a simple construction for simultaneously forming a wide-angle subject image and a separate detailed subject image on a single imaging element. In the above-described embodiment, the second optical system was described as having a reflective member. A reflecting mirror or a reflecting prism may be used as the reflective member, provided the selected component functions to incline the optical axis. In the above embodiment, an example was described in which the imaging device including the optical device was installed in the ceiling. However, the imaging device including the optical device may be freely used, without limits on the field of use. In the above embodiment, specific values were indicated in the first to third numerical examples. However, the values recorded in the first to third numerical examples are simply examples, and do not limit the scope of the present invention. It is to be understood that the object of the present invention may be also be accomplished by supplying a system or an apparatus with a storage medium in which a program code of software which realizes the functions of the above-described embodiment is stored, and causing a computer (or CPU, MPU or the like) of the system or apparatus to read out and execute the program code stored in the storage medium. In this case, the functions of the above-described embodiment are realized by the program code itself, read from the storage medium, and the storage medium with the program code stored thereon is understood to constitute the present invention. Examples of the storage medium for supplying the program code include a floppy (registered trademark) disk, a hard disk, a magnetic-optical disk, a CD-ROM, a CD-R, a CD-RW, a DVD-ROM, a DVD-RAM, a DVD-RW, a DVD+RW, a magnetic tape, a nonvolatile memory card, and a ROM. Alternatively, the program code may be downloaded via a network. Further, it is to be understood that the functions of the above-described embodiment may be accomplished not only by executing program read out by a computer, but also by causing an operating system which operates on the computer to form a part or all of the actual operations based on instructions of the program code. Further, it is to be understood that the functions of the above-described embodiment may be accomplished by writing a program code read out from the storage medium into a memory provided on an expansion board inserted in a computer or in an expansion unit connected to the computer and then causing a CPU or the like provided in the expansion board or in the expansion unit to perform a part or all of the actual operations based on instructions of the program code. While the present invention has been described with reference to exemplary embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed exemplary embodiments. The scope of the following claims is to be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all modifications, equivalent structures and functions. This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-316117 filed Nov. 22, 2006, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.
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H
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52
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25
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11888062
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US20080131071A1-20080605
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Apparatus and method for transmission, apparatus and method for production, program, and recording medium
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ACCEPTED
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20080521
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20080605
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[]
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H04N591
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["H04N591"]
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8223210
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20070731
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20120717
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348
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207990
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76003.0
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HANNETT
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JAMES
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Ogikubo", "inventor_name_first": "Junichi", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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Transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including frame rate information and frame identification information of each frame included in a reference frame period is generated and output. If the main data is reproduced using this transmit data, a variable reproduction speed range is set based on the frame rate information. In accordance with a specified reproduction speed within the variable reproduction speed range, thinning-out or repeating processing is performed on the data of image and/or audio utilizing the frame identification information, thereby making a reproduction speed of the main data variable easily to generate image signals or audio signals.
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1-17. (canceled) 18. A reproduction apparatus comprising: setting means for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced; and reproduction means for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. 19. The reproduction apparatus according to claim 18, wherein if the accessory information includes information indicating a recommended reproduction speed of the main data and a user avoids specifying a reproduction speed thereof, the reproduction means reproduces the main data at the recommended reproduction speed. 20. The reproduction apparatus according to claim 18, wherein if the accessory information includes information indicating a reproduction-enabling maximum speed of the main data, the setting means sets the variable reproduction speed range using the information that indicates this maximum speed. 21. The reproduction apparatus according to claim 18, wherein the accessory information includes frame identification information of each frame included in a reference frame period and the reproduction means performs thinning-out or repeating processing on the main data utilizing the frame identification information, thereby making a reproduction speed of the main data variable. 22. A reproduction method comprising: a setting step for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced; and a reproduction step for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. 23. The reproduction method according to claim 22, wherein in the reproduction step, if the accessory information includes information indicating a recommended reproduction speed of the main data and a user avoids specifying the reproduction speed thereof, the main data is reproduced at the recommended reproduction speed. 24. The reproduction method according to claim 22, wherein in the setting step, if the accessory information includes information indicating a reproduction-enabling maximum speed of the main data, the variable reproduction speed range is set using the information that indicates this maximum speed. 25. The reproduction method according to claim 22, wherein the accessory information includes frame identification information of each frame included in a reference frame period and in the reproduction step, thinning-out or repeating processing is performed on the main data utilizing the frame identification information, thereby making a reproduction speed of the main data variable. 26. A program for causing a computer to perform a reproduction method, the method comprising: a setting step for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced; and a reproduction step for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. 27-28. (canceled)
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Conventionally, in generation of image and/or audio contents to be used in a broadcast, contents (or a content) in which a speed of movement of an object is partially varied has been often created in order to achieve results a creator intends. In this generation of the contents in which the speed of movement of the object is varied partially, for example, the contents are generated by setting it at a frame rate higher than a reference frame rate and then reproduced at the reference frame rate, thereby generating the contents expressing the movement of the object slow. Further, the contents are generated by setting it at a frame rate lower than the reference frame rate and then reproduced at the reference frame rate, thereby generating the contents expressing the movement of the object fast. Furthermore, by adjusting a frame rate to be set or a frame rate for reproduction, the speed of movement of the object can be varied at will. In such a manner, the creator generates broadcast contents using not only the contents generated at the reference frame rate but also the contents having a varied speed of movement of the object, in order to achieve results he or she intends when the contents are reproduced at the reference frame rate. Further, a video camera that can contract and expand a time axis to generate the contents having a varied frame rate in such a manner is described in, for example, Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. Hei 11-177930. On the other hand, with an increase in bandwidth and a decrease in cost of a communication network, it has been put to practical use to transmit contents via this communication network interactively. In transmission of the contents via the communication network, the transmitted contents are stored in a buffer temporarily and then reproduced, thereby absorbing variations occurring over the communication network (fluctuations in arrival of data) to continuously reproduce the contents. Further, with an increase in bandwidth of the communication networks, a larger amount of data can be transmitted. However, even in this interactive transmission for the contents, as in the case of broadcasting, the contents generated so that an intended result may be achieved when they are reproduced at the reference frame rate have been used as the transmit contents. Therefore, even if the reproduction is performed at a desired speed that is different from the creator's intended speed, a portion of such the contents generated at a varied frame rate cannot be reproduced at the desired speed.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a diagram for showing an overall configuration of a contents-transmission system; FIG. 2 is a diagram for showing a configuration of an image pick-up apparatus; FIG. 3 is a diagram for showing an operation of adding a sub-frame number; FIG. 4 is a diagram for showing another configuration of the image pick-up apparatus; FIGS. 5A-5E are diagrams each for showing a (first) relationship of image data to accessory information; FIGS. 6A-6E are diagrams each for showing a (second) relationship between image data and accessory information; FIG. 7 is a diagram for showing a configuration of an editing apparatus; FIG. 8 is a diagram for showing a configuration of a contents-transmission apparatus; FIG. 9 is a diagram for showing a configuration in a case where contents are transmitted by software; FIG. 10 is a flowchart for showing contents-transmission processing operation; FIG. 11 is a diagram for showing a configuration of a contents-reproduction apparatus; FIG. 12 is a diagram for showing a configuration in a case where contents are reproduced by software; FIG. 13 is a flowchart for showing a contents-reproduction processing operation; FIG. 14 is a diagram for showing an image displayed on a contents-presentation apparatus; FIG. 15 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to an image; FIGS. 16A-16M are diagrams each for showing a (first) image reproduction operation; FIGS. 17A-17M are diagrams each for showing a (second) image reproduction operation; FIGS. 18A-18M are diagrams each for showing a (third) image reproduction operation; FIG. 19 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to sound; FIGS. 20A-20E are diagrams each for showing a (first) audio reproduction operation; and FIGS. 21A-21E are diagrams each for showing a (second) audio reproduction operation. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an apparatus and method for transmission, an apparatus and method for reproduction, a program, and a recording medium. BACKGROUND ART Conventionally, in generation of image and/or audio contents to be used in a broadcast, contents (or a content) in which a speed of movement of an object is partially varied has been often created in order to achieve results a creator intends. In this generation of the contents in which the speed of movement of the object is varied partially, for example, the contents are generated by setting it at a frame rate higher than a reference frame rate and then reproduced at the reference frame rate, thereby generating the contents expressing the movement of the object slow. Further, the contents are generated by setting it at a frame rate lower than the reference frame rate and then reproduced at the reference frame rate, thereby generating the contents expressing the movement of the object fast. Furthermore, by adjusting a frame rate to be set or a frame rate for reproduction, the speed of movement of the object can be varied at will. In such a manner, the creator generates broadcast contents using not only the contents generated at the reference frame rate but also the contents having a varied speed of movement of the object, in order to achieve results he or she intends when the contents are reproduced at the reference frame rate. Further, a video camera that can contract and expand a time axis to generate the contents having a varied frame rate in such a manner is described in, for example, Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. Hei 11-177930. On the other hand, with an increase in bandwidth and a decrease in cost of a communication network, it has been put to practical use to transmit contents via this communication network interactively. In transmission of the contents via the communication network, the transmitted contents are stored in a buffer temporarily and then reproduced, thereby absorbing variations occurring over the communication network (fluctuations in arrival of data) to continuously reproduce the contents. Further, with an increase in bandwidth of the communication networks, a larger amount of data can be transmitted. However, even in this interactive transmission for the contents, as in the case of broadcasting, the contents generated so that an intended result may be achieved when they are reproduced at the reference frame rate have been used as the transmit contents. Therefore, even if the reproduction is performed at a desired speed that is different from the creator's intended speed, a portion of such the contents generated at a varied frame rate cannot be reproduced at the desired speed. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION A transmission apparatus related to the present invention comprises transmit data generation means for generating transmit data by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information on a frame rate of this main data, and transmission processing means for performing output processing on the transmit data via a transmission channel. A transmission method related to the present invention comprises a transmit data generation step for generating transmit data by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information on a frame rate of this main data, and a transmission processing step for performing output processing on the transmit data via a transmission channel. A reproduction apparatus related to the present invention comprises setting means for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced; and reproduction means for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. A reproduction method related to the present invention comprises a setting step for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced, and a reproduction step for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. A program related to the present invention causes a computer to perform a transmission method, the method comprising: a transmit data generation step for generating transmit data by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information on a frame rate of this main data; and a transmission processing step for performing output processing on the transmit data via a transmission channel. It also causes a computer to perform a reproduction method, the method comprising: a setting step for, based on information of a frame rate of transmit data composed by linking to main data representing an image and/or audio accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data, setting a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced; and a reproduction step for reproducing the main data at a frame rate in the variable reproduction range. A recording medium related to the present invention records main data representing an image and/or sound with accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data being linked to the main data. According to the present invention, to main data representing an image and/or sound, accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data is linked so that they can be output as transmit data. It is to be noted that the main data is stored, for example, temporarily, which main data thus stored is read in accordance with a band of a transmission channel to adjust a frame rate of the main data, so that in accordance with this frame rate adjustment, the frame rate information included in the accessory information is modified and linked. This accessory information includes information indicating a recommended reproduction speed of the main data and information indicating a maximum speed at which the main data can be reproduced. Further, as the accessory information, at least frame rate information and frame identification information of each frame included in a reference frame period are linked to the main data, so that by utilizing this frame identification information, reading of the main data is controlled in accordance with an informed band, thereby adjusting the frame rate of the main data. In a case where the main data is reproduced using the transmit data in which the accessory information is linked to the main data, based on information of a frame rate, a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced is set, so that at a frame rate within this variable reproduction range the main data is reproduced. Further, in a case where the accessory information includes information indicating a recommended reproduction speed of the main data and a reproduction speed is not specified by a user, the main data is reproduced at this recommended reproduction speed. Further, in a case where the accessory information includes information indicating a maximum speed at which the main data can be reproduced, a variable reproduction speed range is set using the information indicating the maximum speed. Further, the accessory information includes frame identification information of each frame included in the reference frame period, so that by thinning out or repeating this main data by utilizing the frame identification information, the reproduction speed of the main data is varied. According to the present invention, to the main data representing an image and/or sound, accessory information including information of a frame rate of this main data is linked and output as the transmit data. Further, when reproducing the main data using this transmit data, based on the frame rate information included in the accessory information, a variable reproduction range indicating a range of the frame rate of the main data to be reproduced is set, so that at a frame rate in this variable reproduction range the main data is reproduced. Therefore, by linking the accessory information to a portion of the contents, which can be reproduced in a range of a speed different from that intended by a creator of the contents, that portion can be reproduced at this different speed. Further, the main data is stored temporarily and then read in accordance with a band of a transmission channel, thereby adjusting a frame rate of the main data. Thus, the frame rate of the main data can be adjusted easily. Further, it is possible to prevent an image or sound from being interrupted during reproduction. Furthermore, in accordance with adjustment of the frame rate, frame rate information contained in the accessory information is modified, so that the accessory information corresponding to the main data to be transmitted can be linked to it. Further, if a reproduction speed including information indicating a recommended reproduction speed of main data is not specified in the accessory information when the main data is reproduced, the main data is reproduced at a recommended reproduction speed, so that this reproduction speed thereof can be specified by a creator side of the main data. Further, information indicating a maximum speed at which the main data can be reproduced is included in the accessory information as well as a variable reproduction speed range are set using this information indicating the maximum speed when the main data is reproduced, so that the variable reproduction speed range can be regulated by the creator side of the main data. Furthermore, as the accessory information, at least frame rate information and frame identification information of each frame included in the reference frame period are linked to the main data, so that by utilizing this frame identification information, a frame rate of the main data is adjusted to generate transmission data. Further, when the main data is reproduced using transmission data, by utilizing the frame identification information, the main data is thinned out or repeated to vary a reproduction speed of the main data. Therefore, the main data can be reproduced at a desired speed according to a simple configuration. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram for showing an overall configuration of a contents-transmission system; FIG. 2 is a diagram for showing a configuration of an image pick-up apparatus; FIG. 3 is a diagram for showing an operation of adding a sub-frame number; FIG. 4 is a diagram for showing another configuration of the image pick-up apparatus; FIGS. 5A-5E are diagrams each for showing a (first) relationship of image data to accessory information; FIGS. 6A-6E are diagrams each for showing a (second) relationship between image data and accessory information; FIG. 7 is a diagram for showing a configuration of an editing apparatus; FIG. 8 is a diagram for showing a configuration of a contents-transmission apparatus; FIG. 9 is a diagram for showing a configuration in a case where contents are transmitted by software; FIG. 10 is a flowchart for showing contents-transmission processing operation; FIG. 11 is a diagram for showing a configuration of a contents-reproduction apparatus; FIG. 12 is a diagram for showing a configuration in a case where contents are reproduced by software; FIG. 13 is a flowchart for showing a contents-reproduction processing operation; FIG. 14 is a diagram for showing an image displayed on a contents-presentation apparatus; FIG. 15 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to an image; FIGS. 16A-16M are diagrams each for showing a (first) image reproduction operation; FIGS. 17A-17M are diagrams each for showing a (second) image reproduction operation; FIGS. 18A-18M are diagrams each for showing a (third) image reproduction operation; FIG. 19 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to sound; FIGS. 20A-20E are diagrams each for showing a (first) audio reproduction operation; and FIGS. 21A-21E are diagrams each for showing a (second) audio reproduction operation. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION The following will describe the present invention with reference to accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows an overall configuration of a contents-transmission system for transmitting contents (or a content), for example, image and/or audio contents. An image pick-up apparatus 10 generates image data having a varied frame rate and links accessory information associated with this image data thereto and then supplies it as materials-data DTm to an editing apparatus 30. Further, when equipped with an audio input apparatus 20, the image pick-up apparatus 10 generates audio data and supplies this audio data also to the editing apparatus 30 as materials-data DTm. It is to be noted that the materials-data DTm may be supplied not only from the image pick-up apparatus 10 but also from any other appliances. The editing apparatus 30 performs edit processing by using the supplied materials-data DTm, to generate data which represents images and/or sound desired by an editor. Further, the data representing the images and/or sound is provided as main data and, accessory information is linked to this main data to generate contents data DC for transmission, which is supplied to a contents-transmission apparatus 50. The editing apparatus 30 generates an image signal Svm associated with editing and supplies it to an edited-image display 40. Accordingly, a user can confirm image edit processes, results, etc. using an image displayed on the edited-image display 40. Similarly, it generates an audio signal Sam associated with editing and supplies it to an edited-audio output apparatus 41. Thus, the user can confirm audio edit processes, results, etc. using a sound output from the edited-audio output apparatus 41. A contents-transmission apparatus 50 accumulates contents-data DC supplied from the editing apparatus 30. Further, if receiving a request for contents-data from, for example, a contents-reproduction apparatus 70, it adjusts a frame rate of the contents-data in accordance with a band of a transmission channel 60, generates transmit data DTc based on the contents-data after being adjusted in terms of frame rate, and supplies this transmit data DTc to the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 via the wireline or wireless transmission channel 60. The contents-reproduction apparatus 70 generates an image signal Svz or an audio signal Saz of the contents based on the transmit data DTc supplied via the transmission channel and supplies it to a contents-presentation apparatus 80. Further, the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 controls reproduction operation of the contents based on the accessory information. The contents-presentation apparatus 80 displays an image based on the image signal Svz or outputs a sound based on the audio signal Saz, thereby presenting the contents. Regarding linkage, in this context, it may be such a condition that the main data and the accessory information including a frame rate concerning this main data are linked to each other. For example, even if the main data and the accessory information have been transmitted via different transmission channels, they can be correlated with each other as far as a frame number corresponding to the accessory information is contained therein. The linkage in the present embodiment includes such a case. FIG. 2 shows a configuration of an image pick-up apparatus 10. Light passing through an image pick-up lens system 11 impinges on an image pick-up portion 12, so that an image of an object is formed on an image pick-up surface of an image pick-up device such as a charge coupled device (CCD) equipped to the image pick-up portion 12. The image pick-up device generates imaged charge of the object image by utilizing photoelectric transfer. Further, the image pick-up portion 12 reads the imaged charge, which has been generated, on the basis of a drive signal CR from a timing generator 142, described later, generates an image pick-up signal Sp of a frame rate in accordance with the drive signal CR, and supplies it to a camera-processing circuit 131 in a signal-processing portion 13. The camera-processing circuit 131 performs a various kinds of signal processing at a timing synchronized with the image pick-up signal Sp based on a timing signal CT supplied from the timing generator 142. For example, the camera processing circuit 131 performs processing to filter out a noise component from the image pick-up signal Sp by utilizing correlated double sampling etc., processing to convert the noise-free image signal Sp into digital image data, processing to clamp the image data, shading correction or defect correction of the image pick-up device, γ processing or profile compensation processing, Knee correction processing, etc. Further, the camera processing circuit 131 performs various kinds of signal processing under processing conditions that are based on an operation control signal CS supplied from an image pick-up control circuit 141 in a control portion 14 or the like. In such a manner, image data DV obtained as a result of the various kinds of signal processing performed at the camera-processing circuit 131 is supplied to an output portion 15. The timing generator 142 in the control portion 14 generates the drive signal CR in accordance with the operation control signal CS from the image pick-up control circuit 141 and supplies it to the image pick-up portion 12 to thus vary a cycle at which the imaged charge is read at the image pick-up portion 12, thereby regulating a frame rate of the image pick-up signal Sp to a set frame rate FRs based on an operation signal PSa from a user interface portion 16. The timing generator 142 conducts such control that, by assuming, for example, a frame frequency of 59.94 Hz or 29.97 Hz in the case of NTSC system or a frame frequency of 50 Hz or 25 Hz in the case of the PAL system as a frame frequency of a reference frame rate FRr, a frame rate of the image pick-up signal Sp may be k (which is a positive value but not limited to an integer) times the reference frame rate FRr if an operation to make the set frame rate FRs k times the reference frame rate FRr is performed. It is to be noted that the cycle for reading the imaged charge is varied by, for example, altering a cycle of a read pulse (sensor gate pulse) for moving the imaged charge accumulated in each pixel of the image pick-up device such as a CCD to a transfer portion, thereby varying the frame rate. Further, in this case, the common data rate (CDR) method may be employed. By using the CDR method, valid frame rates can be varied while the frame rate of a signal output from the CCD stays unchanged, thereby setting a processing rate of the camera-processing circuit 131 etc. constant. This CDR method is disclosed in PCT application No. PCT/JP03/00551, filed on 2003 Jan. 22. Further, the timing generator 142 generates the timing signal CT synchronized with the drive signal CR and supplies it to the camera-processing circuit 131 and the audio-processing circuit 132. Furthermore, the timing generator 142 generates frame rate information DM-FRs indicating the set frame rate FRs, which is a frame rate of image data DV, and supplies it to the output portion 15. Further, the timing generator 142 generates a sub-frame number BN. This sub-frame number BN is a number that enables to be identified each frame included in a frame period of the reference frame rate FRr when the set frame rate FRs is set higher than the reference frame rate FRr. This sub-frame number BN is supplied to the output portion 15 as frame identification information DM-BN. FIG. 3 is a flowchart for showing an operation of adding the sub-frame number at the timing generator 142. The timing generator 142 divides an oscillation frequency having, for example, a predetermined frequency and sets a frame period of the reference frame rate FRr and that of the set frame rate FRs so that they can be synchronized with each other, thereby generating the drive signal CR and a frame reference timing that indicates a breakpoint of the frame period of the reference frame rate FRr, based on the frame period of the set frame rate FRs. The timing generator 142 identifies whether the frame reference timing is detected at step ST1. If the frame reference timing is detected, the process goes to step ST2. If no frame reference timing is detected, the process returns to step ST1. If the frame reference timing is detected at step ST1 and the process goes to step ST2, the timing generator 142 initializes the sub-frame number BN at step ST2 so that the sub-frame number BN is set to, for example, “0” and the process goes to step ST3. At step ST3, the timing generator 142 identifies whether the frame reference timing is detected during a one-frame period of time lapse of the set frame rate FRs starting from a moment of detection of the frame reference timing. If no frame reference timing is detected, the process goes to step ST4 where the timing generator 142 adds “1” to the sub-frame number BN to update it and the process then returns to step ST3. In such a manner, if no frame reference timing is detected during a one-frame period of time lapse of the set frame rate FRs, the sub-frame numbers BN are sequentially assigned every one-frame period of the set frame Fate FRs. Then, if the frame reference timing is detected before a one-frame period of the set frame rate FRs elapses, the process returns to step ST2 to initialize the sub-frame number BN. Therefore, in each frame period of the reference frame rate FRr, the sub-frame number BN can be added to a frame image in the set frame rate FRs which is provided during this frame period. To the image pick-up control circuit 141 in the control portion 14 shown in FIG. 2, the user interface portion 16 is connected. If the image pick-up apparatus 10 switches its operation or varies a frame rate, the user interface portion 16 generates an operation signal PSa in accordance with these operations and supplies it to the image pick-up control circuit 141. Further, the user interface 16, if supplied with the operation signal PSa from an external appliance such as a remote controller, not shown, supplies this operation signal PSa to the image pick-up control circuit 141. Based on the operation signal PSa from the user interface portion 16, the image pick-up control circuit 141 generates the control signal CS so that the image pick-up apparatus 10 may operate in accordance with the operation signal PSa and supplies it to the camera-processing circuit 131 and the timing generator 142. The audio-processing circuit 132 is supplied with an analog audio signal Sin from the audio input apparatus 20. The audio-processing circuit 132 performs sampling processing on the audio signal Sin based on the timing signal CT supplied from the timing generator 142 to generate digital audio data DA and supplies it to the output portion 15. The output portion 15 generates accessory information DM including frame rate information DM-FRs and frame identification information DM-BN and links it to the image data DV and the audio data DA to generate materials-data DTm and supplies it to the editing apparatus. It is to be noted that by recording in a recording medium the materials-data DTm or a record signal generated on the basis of the materials-data DTm, it is possible to reproduce the recording medium in which this materials-data DTm or the record signal generated on the basis of the materials-data DTm, thereby supplying the materials-data DTm to the editing apparatus via the recording medium. Further, the accessory information DM may contain not only information on the set frame rate FRs and the sub-frame number BN but also information indicating an imaged date/time, image conditions, image details, etc. As one example of a method for linking the accessory information DM to the image data DV or the audio data DA, such an approach may be considered for, when the image data DV or the audio data DA is compressed to generate materials-data DTm as a data stream, inserting the accessory information DM into the data stream of an image or inserting the accessory information DM into a header of the data stream. Further, in the case of using an SDI format standardized as SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) 259M “Television—10-Bit 4:2:2 Component and 4fsc Composite Digital Signals—Serial Digital Interface” to transmit non-compressed image data or audio data, an SDTI format standardized as SMPTE305M “Television—Serial Data Transport Interface (SDTI)” to transmit compressed image data or audio data, or an SDTI-CP format standardized as SMPTE326M “Television—SDTI Content Package Format (SDTI-CP)” which is a further restricted version of the SDTI format, the accessory information DM is given as data of an UMID standardized as SMPTE330M “Television—Unique Material Identifier (UMID)” and inserted into a signal in each of the formats. It is to be noted that the method of linking the accessory information to the image data DV or the audio data DA is not limited to it but a variety of other methods may be considered. Further, linkage may require only that a relationship between one and another can be known by any means, that is, they can be linked to each other. For example, even if they are sent through different transmission channels, they can be correlated to each other as far as they are provided with the same UMID, which case is also categorized as linkage. Note here that the above-mentioned image pick-up apparatus 10 varies a cycle for reading imaged charge at the image pick-up portion 12 to thereby generate materials-data DTm having a desired set frame rate FRs, so that the set frame rate FRs can be varies continuously. However, if the set frame rate FRs needs only to be varied step-wise, the materials-data DTm having a desired set frame rate FRs can be generated by thinning out frames. That is, by generating image data DVa having a constant frame rate higher than the set frame rate FRs and extracting image data as much as the set frame rate FRs from this image data DVa, it is possible to generate the image data DV having the set frame rate FRs. A configuration in this case is shown in FIG. 4. It is to be noted that in FIG. 4, components that corresponds to those of FIG. 2 are indicated by the same symbols and their detailed description is omitted. A timing generator 182 in a control portion 18 generates a drive signal CRa in accordance with a maximum value of the set frame rate FRs, which is set via the user interface portion 16, and supplies it to the image pick-up portion 12. The image pick-up portion 12 generates, based on the drive signal CRa, an image pick-up signal, i.e., an image pick-up signal Spa having a fixed frame rate FRq higher than the reference frame rate FRr and supplies it to the camera-processing circuit 131 in the signal processing portion 17. If the set frame rate FRs can be changed up to n (which is positive) times the reference frame rate FRr, the image pick-up portion 12 generates an image pick-up signal Spa having n times the reference frame rate FRr and supplies it to the camera-processing circuit 131. That is, the image pick-up portion 12 generates the image pick-up signal Spa having a fixed frame rate without being influenced by the set frame rate FRs which is set via the user interface portion 16. Further, the timing generator 182 generates a timing signal CTa synchronized with the drive signal CRa and supplies it to the camera-processing circuit 131, the audio-processing circuit 132, and a valid frame signal generation circuit 183 in the signal processing portion 17. The camera-processing circuit 131 supplies a valid data picking circuit 171 with image data DVa having the fixed frame rate FRq generated on the basis of the image pick-up signal Spa. The audio-processing circuit 132 supplies the valid data picking circuit 171 with audio data DAa generated by performing sampling based on the timing signal CTa having a constant frequency. The image pick-up control circuit 181 generates a set information signal CF indicating a set frame rate FRs based on the operation signal PSa from the user interface portion 16 and supplies it to the valid frame signal generation circuit 183. The valid frame signal generation circuit 183 generates an extraction control signal CC for extracting data from the image data DVa by the frame unit to generate image data DV having the set frame rate FRs, based on a ratio between a frame rate FRq that is a constant value of the image data DVa and a set frame rate FRs indicated by the set information signal CF. Furthermore, the valid frame signal generation circuit 183 supplies the valid data picking circuit 171 with this extraction control signal CC in synchronization with the timing signal CTa. For example, if a frame rate FRq of the image data DVa is n times the reference frame rate FRr and a set frame rate FRs is (n/2) of the reference frame rate FRr, the valid frame signal generation circuit 183 generates the extraction control signal CC for extracting data from the image data DVa every other frame by frame unit and supplies it to the valid data picking circuit 171 in synchronization with the timing signal CTa. Further, the valid frame signal generation circuit 183 generates frame rate information DM-FRs indicating a set frame rate FRs based on the set information signal CF and supplies it to the output portion 15. Furthermore, since the number of frames in a frame period having the reference frame rate FRr can be identified by the extraction control signal CC, the valid frame signal generation circuit 183 sets a sub-frame number BN to each of the frames in each frame period having the reference frame rate FRr and supplies this sub-frame number BN also to the output portion 15 as frame identification information DM-BN. The valid data picking circuit 171 extracts the image data DVa and thw audio data DAa of a frame indicated by the extraction control signal CC and supplies them as image data DV and audio data DA respectively to the output portion 15. Further, although not shown, the valid frame signal generation circuit 183 supplies the valid data picking circuit 171 with frame rate information DM-FR indicating a set frame rate FRs, so that the valid data picking circuit 171 may thin out the audio data DAa in accordance with a ratio between the set frame rate FRs and a frame rate at which the audio data DAa has been generated. For example, if a frame rate FRq at which the audio data DAa has been generated is n times the reference frame rate FRr and the set frame rate FRs is (n/2) of the reference frame rate FRr, it thins out the audio data DAa for every other sample. In this case, a thinning-out interval can be made smaller than that in the case of thinning out the audio data by frame unit, so that a sound based on the audio data DA can be provided with a better sound quality. In such a manner, by making the frame frequency of the image data DVa constant, it becomes unnecessary to vary an operating frequency at the image pick-up portion 12 or the camera-processing circuit 131 in the signal-processing portion 17, thereby simplifying a configuration of the image pick-up portion 12 and that of the camera-processing circuit 131. Further, only by extracting data from the image data DVa by frame unit, image data DV having a set frame rate FRs can be generated, so that the image data DV having a desired set frame rate FRs can be easily generated from the image data DVa. Further, the image pick-up apparatus may be provided with an image memory or an adder and a divider to add up image data for each predetermined number of frames, thereby generating the image data DV. In this case, a variable range of the frame rate of the image signal Sp can be made smaller. That is, by adding up n number of frames of the image signal Sp and dividing a signal level by n, it is possible to obtain a signal having the frame rate (1/n) even if the frame rate of the image pick-up signal Sp is not divided by n. FIGS. 5A-5E and FIGS. 6A-6E are explanatory illustrations of relationships between the image data DV generated at the image pick-up apparatuses 10 and 10a and the accessory information DM. As shown in FIG. 5A, by making a set frame rate FRs equal to the reference frame rate FRr or twice it, to image data DV shown in FIG. 5B (in this figure, a frame image based on the image data DV is shown), accessory information DM which contains frame rate information DM-FRs of FIG. 5C showing the set frame rate FRs and frame identification information DM-BN of FIG. 5D showing the sub-frame number BN is linked. It is to be noted that FIG. 5E shows a relationship between a lapse of time and a frame image. Further, the frame rate information DM-FRs may indicate not only the set frame rate FRs but also a magnification of the set frame rate FRs with respect to the reference frame rate FRr. The frame rate information DM-FRs shown in FIG. 5C and the subsequent indicates the magnification thereof. If a set frame rate FRs is made equal to the reference frame rate FRr or half that, as shown in FIG. 6A, to image data DV shown in FIG. 6B (in this figure, a frame image based on the image data DV is shown), accessory information DM which contains frame rate information DM-FRs of FIG. 6C showing the set frame rate FRs and frame rate information DM-BN of FIG. 6D showing the sub-frame number BN is linked. FIG. 6E shows a relationship between a lapse of time and a frame image. The following will describe the editing apparatus 30. FIG. 7 shows a configuration of the editing apparatus 30. Materials-data DTm supplied to the editing apparatus 30 is supplied to an information detection circuit 311 in a materials-take-in portion 31. The information detection circuit 311 detects accessory information DM from the materials-data DTm. This detected accessory information DM is supplied to a data-basing processing circuit 312. Further, image data DV and audio data DA contained in the materials-data DTm are supplied to the data-basing processing circuit 312. The data-basing processing circuit 312 correlates the image data DV and the audio data DA with the accessory information DM detected by the information detection circuit 311 and stores them in a data storage 321 in an edit processing-portion 32. Further, based on the accessory information DM stored in the data storage 321 and the image data DV and the audio data DA correlated with this accessory information DM, the data-basing processing circuit 312 generates database information DB that enables details of the materials-data to be easily confirmed and supplies it to an edit control portion 33. For example, the database information DB comprises information for enabling details of materials-data (e.g., thumbnail) to be identified, time length of the materials-data, a set frame rate FRs, a sub-frame number BN, and information such as storage locations in the data storage 321. The edit control portion 33 generates image data DVg for enabling edit processing to be carried out in a GUI (Graphical User Interface) environment and image data DVi for displaying details of database information and supplies them to an image output signal generation circuit 351. The image output signal generation circuit 351 generates an image signal Svm based on the supplied image data pieces DVg and DVi and outputs it to the edited-image display 40. By thus supplying the image signal Svm to the edited-image display 40, it is possible to display what-like materials-data is stored etc. on a screen of the edited-image display 40. Further, the edit control portion 33 controls post-production processing. That is, a user interface portion 34 connected to the edit control portion 33 supplies an operation signal PSe that utilizes display in the GUI environment, so that if the operation signal PSe instructs to select any materials-data, the edit control portion 33 generates a read control signal RC in accordance with this operation signal PSe and supplies it to a read/write processing circuit 322 in an edit processing portion 32. Further, if the operation signal PSe involves an edit operation such as working or combination of read materials-data, the edit control portion 33 generates an edit control signal ET in accordance with the operation signal PSe and supplies it to a signal edit circuit 323 in the edit processing portion 32. Furthermore, when editing of the materials-data is finished to complete contents-data and if the operation signal PSe indicates an operation to store the contents-data in the data storage 321, the edit control portion 33 generates a write control signal WC in accordance with the operation signal PSe and supplies it to the read/write processing circuit 322. Further, if the operation signal PSe indicates output of the contents-data, the edit control portion 33 generates an output control signal RP in accordance with the operation signal SPe and supplies it to the read/write processing circuit 322. If the operation signal PSe regulates a speed range for reproduction of the contents-data, the edit control portion 33 generates a speed range setting signal LP in accordance with the operation signal PSe and supplies it to the signal edit circuit 323. The read/write processing circuit 322 reads requested materials-data from the data storage 321 based on the read/write control signal RC and supplies it to the signal edit circuit 323. Further, the read/write processing circuit 322 stores the completed contents-data DC in the data storage 321 based on the write control signal WC. Further, the read/write processing circuit 322 reads requested contents-data DC from the data storage 321 based on the output control signal RP and outputs it. The signal edit circuit 323 performs edit processing such as processing, combining, and deleting of images and audio based on the edit control signal ET, using the image data DV and/or the audio data DA contained in the materials-data read from the data storage 321. In this process, the signal edit circuit 323 supplies the image output signal generation circuit 351 with image data DVe which is before or after being edited or being edited and supplies an audio output signal generation circuit 352 with audio data DAe which is before or after being edited or being edited. Further, when altering a frame rate of image data DV or audio data DA in edit processing, the signal edit circuit 323 alters accessory information DM also in such a manner that it may match the image data and the audio data as edited. Furthermore, the signal edit circuit 323 generates contents-data DC by interlinking edited image data DV or audio data DA and accessory information DMc that includes frame rate information DM-FRs indicating set frame rate FRs corresponding to the edited image data DV or audio data DA and frame identification information DM-BN. When supplied with the speed range setting signal LP, the signal edit circuit 323 links also speed range information that indicates a reproduction speed range of the contents-data DC as the accessory information DMc based on this speed range setting signal LP. Furthermore, the signal edit circuit 323, when receiving a title and a recommended reproduction speed of contents from the user interface portion 34, links such the information as the accessory information DMc. Further, when obtaining reproduction time length information of the contents-data in edit processing, this information may also be linked as the accessory information DMc. Furthermore, when receiving a maximum possible reproduction speed of contents-data, this maximum speed is also linked as the accessory information DMc. Further, no sub-frame number BN is added to materials-data, the signal edit circuit 323 or the edit control portion 33 performs the above-mentioned processing shown in FIG. 3, to set a sub-frame number BN, thereby providing frame identification information DMc-BN. The image output signal generation circuit 351 in the edit output signal generation portion 35, as described above, generates an image signal Svm based on image data DVg and DVi supplied from the edit control portion 33 and supplies it to the edited-image display 40. Therefore, information concerning materials-data can be displayed in the GUI environment. Furthermore, the image ID output signal generation circuit 351 generates the image signal Svm based on the image data DVe supplied from the signal edit circuit 323. Accordingly, the user can confirm images which are before or after being edited or being edited, on the screen of the edited-image display 40. The audio output signal generation circuit 352 converts audio data DAe supplied from the signal edit circuit 323 into an analog audio signal Sam and supplies it to the edited-audio output apparatus 41 constituted of, for example, a speaker or headphone according to a desired signal level. Accordingly, the user can confirm sounds which are before or after being edited or being edited according to a sound output from the edited-audio output apparatus 41. When, in such a manner, post-production processing by use of the materials-data DTm is performed at the editing apparatus 30 to complete contents-data DC, this completed contents-data DC is supplied to the contents-transmission apparatus 50 and then, from this contents-transmission apparatus 50 it is supplied to the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 of the user. FIG. 8 shows a configuration of the contents-transmission apparatus 50. The transmit contents-data DC supplied from the editing apparatus 30 is supplied to a write-processing portion 51. The write-processing portion 51, which is connected to a contents-accumulation apparatus 521 in a transmit data generation portion 52, stores the supplied transmit contents-data in the contents-accumulation apparatus 521. It is to be noted that contents-data DC is not limited to that supplied from the editing apparatus 30; for example, materials-data etc. generated by the image apparatus 10 may be used as the contents-data DC. The transmit data generation portion 52 is adapted to generate transmit data DTz based on the contents-data DC and includes the contents-accumulation apparatus 521; to which a read-processing circuit 522 is connected. This read-processing circuit 522 receives band information WB of a transmission channel at the time of transmission of the transmit contents-data and contents-request signal RQ from the side of the contents-reproduction apparatus from a transmission-processing portion 53, described later. The read processing circuit 522, based on the band information WB and the accessory information DMc of requested contents-data accumulated in the contents-accumulation apparatus 521, adjusts a frame rate by controlling reading of the requested contents-data and supplies an information modification circuit 523 with the contents-data DCza after the frame rate is adjusted. For example, if a quantity of one frame of data is BD number of bits when encoding processing is performed by a later-described encoder 524 and a set frame rate FRs indicated by the frame rate information DMc-FRs is n (which is positive) times the reference frame rate FRr, an amount of data BT transmitted in a unit time is “BT=BD×n×FRr+BH”. It is to be noted that the amount of data BH is given as a quantity that includes header information etc. added when the contents-data is transmitted in a packet. If, in this case, an amount of transmittable data BA (bandwidth) indicated by the band information WB is not smaller than the amount of data BT, the frame rate of the contents-data is not adjusted, so that the contents-data is sequentially read from the contents-accumulation apparatus 521 and supplied to the information modification circuit 523. If the bandwidth BA is smaller than the amount of data BT, on the other hand, the frame rate adjustment is performed on image data etc. in the contents-data, to decrease the amount of data so that an image or a sound may not be interrupted during a streaming operation for reproducing the transmit data with it being received. For example, from a set frame rate FRs indicated by the accessory information DMc and the reference frame rate FRr, a multiple “m” of the set frame rate FRs with respect to the reference frame rate FRr is identified. Furthermore, divisors of the identified multiple “m” are obtained, so that a maximum value of the divisors except “m” and the reference frame rate FRr are multiplied by each other to provide a set frame rate after adjustment. That is, since the maximum divisor value is “5” when “m=10”, such frame rate adjustment that “m=5” is performed. In this frame rate adjustment, contents-data in every other frame, that is, the frames having even sub-frame numbers of “0, 2, 3, 6, 8” is read by utilizing the frame identification information DMc-BN, thereby generating contents-data having a frame rate five times the reference frame rate FRr. If “m=9”, for example, such frame rate adjustment that “m=3” is performed, at an interval of two frames, that is, contents-data in the frames having sub-frame numbers of “0, 3, 6” is read by utilizing the frame identification information DMc-BN, thereby generating contents-data after having an adjusted frame rate. Further, if the amount of data BT after adjustment is larger than the bandwidth BA, further frame rate adjustment is performed. In such a manner, if the maximum value of the divisors except “m” is used to determine a frame rate after adjustment, only by performing thinning-out operation for each frame utilizing the frame identification information DMc-BN when reading contents-data, the contents-data with the frame rate as adjusted can be generated easily. Then, if the amount of data BT after adjustment is larger than the bandwidth BA even with “m=1”, such a frame thinning-out operation that “m−1/k” (k: natural number) can be performed, thereby further reducing the amount of data BT. Further, if the bandwidth BA is changed, the frame rate is varied in accordance with this change in bandwidth BA. Further, a sample thinning-out operation is performed on the audio data of the contents-data in accordance with frame rate adjustment for the image data, so that the audio data having an adjusted frame rate can be generated. For example, if the image data is read for every other frame, the audio data is read for every other sample. If the image data is read at an interval of two frames, the audio data is read at an interval of two samples, thereby generating the audio data having an adjusted frame rate. When frame rate adjustment is performed by the read-processing circuit 522, the information modification circuit 523 modifies accessory information DMza of contents-data DCza so that it may match the adjusted frame rate, thereby providing accessory information DMz that indicates a frame rate properly. Furthermore, contents-data DCz to which this accessory information DMz is linked is supplied to the encoder 524. For example, if “m=10” is adjusted to “m=5”, the set frame rate FRs is altered from “×10” to “×5” by modification, so that frame rate information DMza-FRs indicating that the set frame rate FRs is “×10” is changed to frame rate information DMz-FRs indicating that the set frame rate FRs is “×5”. Corresponding to this change in the set frame rate FRs, the frame identification information DMza-BN is also changed. That is, it is changed to such frame identification information DMz-BN that sub-frame numbers BN “0-9” are replaced by sub-frame numbers BN “0-4”. Furthermore, using these frame rate information DMz-FRs and frame identification information DMz-BN after being changed, the accessory information DMc is changed to the accessory information DMz. The encoder 524 encodes the image data DVz and the audio data DAz of the supplied contents-data DCz into a signal suitable for transmission, thereby generating encoded data DZ. For example, using an encoding system standardized as MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) 4, they are encoded into a signal suitable for streaming transmission. To the encoded data DZ obtained by this encoding processing, the accessory information DMz is linked and they are supplied as transmit data DTz to the transmission-processing portion 53. In such a manner, by performing encoding processing, it is possible to transmit contents-data efficiently. When requested for contents-data by a transmit signal TMrq supplied from the contents-reproduction apparatus 70, the transmission-processing portion 53 supplies the read-processing circuit 522 with the contents-request signal RQ that indicates the requested contents-data. Further, the transmission-processing portion 53 generates the band information WB concerning a band of the transmission channel 60 and supplies it to the read-processing circuit 522. Furthermore, based on the request for the contents-data, the transmission-processing portion 53 supplies the transmit data DTz supplied from the encoder 524 as a transmit signal in accordance with a predetermined protocol to the contents-reproduction apparatus 70, which has requested for the contents-data, through the transmission channel 60. As the band information WB to be supplied to this read-processing circuit 522, traffic information can be used that can be obtained from a management information base (MIB) of a network appliance such as a router that constitutes the transmission-processing portion 53. Further, a measuring packet can be transmitted to the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 to identify a band by measuring a response time etc. from the contents-reproduction apparatus 70, thereby using a result of this identification as the band information WB. Further, the amount of data BT may be varied in accordance with the bandwidth BA not only by performing frame rate adjustment at the read-processing circuit 522 based on the band information WB but by varying a data compression ratio at the encoder 524 based on the band information WB. In this case, the amount of data can be controlled further finely, so that it is possible to suppress deterioration in quality of images and sounds to be transmitted even if the bandwidth BA is decreased. Furthermore, the amount of data BT can be adjusted at the encoder 524 by making constant an adjusted frame rate irrespective of the band information WB during a frame period when the set frame rate FRs stays constant. In this case, it is possible to prevent a portion of contents having a desired frame rate set by the image pick-up apparatus 10 or the editing apparatus 30 from being adjusted to a different frame rate in accordance with the bandwidth BA. Furthermore, if a recommended reproduction speed is set to the accessory information DMc, frame rate adjustment may be performed within a range in which reproduction is possible at the recommended reproduction speed, to adjust the amount of data BT at the encoder 524 if the number of frames needs to be made smaller than that at the time of reproduction at the recommended reproduction speed. In this case, contents can be reproduced at the recommended reproduction speed even if the bandwidth of the transmission channel 60 is decreased. Incidentally, the contents-transmission processing performed by the above-mentioned contents-transmission apparatus 50 can be realized also by software processing by use of a computer. A configuration employed in the case of contents-transmission by means of software processing is shown in FIG. 9. As shown in FIG. 9, the computer has a built-in CPU (Central Processing Unit) 551, and to CPU 551 via a bus 560 an ROM 552, an RAM 553, a data accumulation portion 554 constituted of a mass-capacity hard disk drive etc., and an input/output interface 555 are connected. Further, to the input/output interface 555, a signal input portion 561, a communication portion 562, and a recording medium drive 563 are connected. The CPU 551 executes programs stored in the ROM 552, the RAM 553, or the data accumulation portion 554, thereby performing contents-transmission processing. Contents-data, which is input to the signal input portion 561, is stored in the data accumulation portion 554 via the input/output interface 555 and the bus 560. Further, when being supplied with the contents request signal RQ via the communication portion 562, the CPU 551 reads requested contents-data from among the contents-data stored in the data accumulation portion 554 and controls such the reading to adjust a frame rate so that the contents-data may have an amount of data that matches a capacity of the transmission channel 60. Furthermore, the CPU 551 generates transmit data DTz by performing encoding suitable for transmission. The transmit data DTz thus generated is output through the communication portion 562. It is to be noted that a program used to transmit contents may be stored beforehand in the ROM 552 or the data accumulation portion 554 or the program used to transmit contents may be recorded in a recording medium by the recording medium drive 563 or the program recorded in the recording medium may be read and executed by it. Furthermore, the program may be transmitted or received by the communication portion 562 through a wireline or wireless transmission channel so that the received program can be executed by a computer. FIG. 10 is a flowchart for showing a contents-transmission processing operation. At step ST11, the CPU 551 takes in contents-data DC and stores the contents-data DC as input to the signal input portion 561 in the data accumulation portion 554. It is to be noted that the contents-data is not limited to that supplied from the editing apparatus 30; materials-data etc. generated by the image pick-up apparatus 10 may be stored as contents-data in the data accumulation portion 554. At step ST12, the CPU 551 decides whether contents-data is requested. If no contents-data is requested, the process returns to step ST12 and, if contents-data is requested through, for example, the communication portion 562, the process goes to step ST13. At step ST13, the CPU 551 reads accessory information of the requested contents-data and the process goes to step ST14. At step ST14, the CPU 551 detects a band of the transmission channel and, in accordance with the detected band, controls the contents-data to be read from the data accumulation portion 554 utilizing the frame identification information, thereby adjusting the frame rate. At step ST15, the CPU 551 modifies the accessory information DMza of the read contents-data DCza so that it may match the adjusted frame rate, thereby providing accessory information DMz. At step ST16, the CPU 551 performs encoding processing suited to the transmission channel using the contents-data DCz having the modified accessory information, thereby generating encoded data DZ. Furthermore, it generates transmit data DTz using the encoded data DZ thus generated and the accessory information DMz thus modified and the process goes to step ST17. At step ST17, the PCU 551 outputs the transmit data DTz thus generated from the communication portion 562 toward a destination of the requested contents-data. Next, the following will describe the contents-reproduction apparatus. FIG. 11 shows a configuration of the contents-reproduction apparatus 70. A transmit signal TMz supplied from the contents-transmission apparatus 50 is supplied to a communication circuit 711 in an input portion 71. The input portion 71 is adapted to take in contents-data, while the communication circuit 711 in the input portion 71 generates transmit data DTz from the transmit signal TMz thus supplied and extracts the encoded data DZ and the accessory information DMz from this transmit data DTz. Furthermore, the communication circuit 711 supplies the extracted accessory information DMz to an information storage circuit 712 and the encoded data DZ to a data-holding circuit 713. Further, the communication circuit 711 generates the transmit signal TMrq based on the contents request signal RQ from a later-described reproduction control portion 72 and supplies it to the contents-transmission apparatus 50. The information storage circuit 712 stores the supplied accessory information DMz. The data-holding circuit 713 stores the encoded data DZ thus supplied. To the reproduction control portion 72, a user interface portion 73 is connected. If an operation signal PSp from the user interface portion 73 requests for contents-data, the reproduction control portion 72 generates the contents request signal RQ based on the operation signal PSp and supplies it to the communication circuit 711, thereby requesting the contents-transmission apparatus 50 to transmit the contents-data. Further, if the operation signal PSp instructs to reproduce contents-data, the reproduction control portion 72 supplies a read control signal CN to the data-holding circuit 713 to read from the data-holding circuit 713 the encoded data DZ of contents instructed to be reproduced and supplies it to a reproduction processing portion 74. Furthermore, the reproduction control portion 72 reads from the information storage circuit 712 the accessory information DMz that corresponds to the encoded data DZ thus read, generates image data DVs for displaying information contained in the accessory information DMz, for example, such image data as to indicate reproduction-enabling speed range based on restriction information contained in the accessory information DMz or if this accessory information DMz contains time information such as a time code, image data that indicates a total sum lapse of time, a moment of a reproduction position, etc. indicated by this time information, and supplies it to the reproduction processing portion 74. Accordingly, the reproduction-enabling speed range, the total sum lapse of time, the moment of the reproduction position, etc. are displayed on a screen of the contents-presentation apparatus 80 such as a TV set or a monitor apparatus. Further, if the accessory information DMz contains no speed range information, a reproduction-enabling speed range is set as described for the above-mentioned editing apparatus 30. The reproduction-enabling speed range thus set is displayed on the screen of the contents-presentation apparatus 80. If the operation signal PSp instructs to vary a contents-reproduction speed FP, the reproduction control portion 72 generates a presentation control signal CP for controlling operations of the reproduction processing portion 74 based on the accessory information DMz and supplies it to the reproduction processing portion 74. Further, if a maximum reproduction-enabling speed of contents is indicated by the accessory information DMz, the reproduction control portion 72 sets a maximum speed in a variable range of the reproduction speed FP as the maximum speed indicated by the accessory information DMz. Furthermore, in a case where a recommended reproduction speed is indicated by the accessory information DMz, if no reproduction speed is indicated by the operation signal PSp, the reproduction control portion 72 generates the presentation control signal CP so that reproduction may be performed at this recommended reproduction speed. It is to be noted that if a title or a time length of contents is indicated by the accessory information DMz, the reproduction control portion 72 displays these pieces of information on the screen of the contents-presentation apparatus 80. The reproduction processing portion 74 for reproducing contents at a variable speed decodes the encoded data DZ supplied from the data-holding circuit 713, to generate image data DVz and audio data DAz of the contents. The reproduction processing portion 74 further performs thinning-out or repeating processing by use of the frame identification information DMz-BN on the generated image data DVz and audio data DAz based on the presentation control signal CP, to generate an image signal Svz and an audio signal Saz in accordance with a reproduction speed FP that is set by the user or equal to the recommended reproduction speed and supplies them to the contents-presentation apparatus 80, thereby presenting the contents. Further, when being supplied with the image data DVs that indicates a variable range of the reproduction speed FP, the reproduction processing portion 74 generates the image signal Svz for displaying a variable range of this reproduction speed FP on the screen of the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that if the encoded data DZ is composed of intra-frame encoded data, the reproduction processing portion 74 may, based on the presentation control signal CP from the data-holding circuit 713, read the encoded data DZ by thinning it out by a frame unit. In this case, it is unnecessary to decode the thinned out portion of the image data, thereby enabling decoding processing to be easily performed. Further, the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 may use a recording medium in which contents-data is recorded. In this case, the data can be processed similarly by separating the accessory information DMz and the encoded data DZ from a reproduction signal generated by reproducing the recording medium, storing this accessory information DMz in the information storage circuit 712, and storing the encoded data DZ in the data-holding circuit 713. Incidentally, the above-mentioned contents-reproduction processing by the contents-reproduction apparatus 70 can be realized by software processing executed by a computer. A configuration of contents-reproduction by means of this software processing is shown in FIG. 12. As shown in FIG. 12, the computer has a built-in CPU 751, to which an ROM 752, an RAM 753, a data accumulation portion 754, and an input/output interface 755 are connected via a bus 760. Furthermore, to the input/output interface 755, a communication portion 761, a user interface portion 762, a signal output portion 763, and a recording medium drive 764 are connected. The CPU 751 executes programs stored in the ROM 752, the RAM 753 or the data accumulation portion 754, thereby performing contents-transmission processing based on the operation signal PSp from the user interface portion 762. In this case, if being supplied with transmit data DTz, the communication portion 761 extracts the encoded data DZ and the accessory information DMz. The encoded data DZ and the accessory information DMz thus extracted at this communication portion 761 are stored in the data accumulation portion 754. Further, the CPU 751 reads or decodes the encoded data DZ stored in the data accumulation portion 754 based on the operation signal PSp from the user interface portion 762, to generate image data DVz and audio data DAz and supply them to the signal output portion 763. The signal output portion 763 generates an image signal Svz and an audio signal Saz suitable for the contents-presentation apparatus 80 based on the image data DVz and the audio data DAz and outputs them. It is to be noted that a program used for contents-reproduction processing may be stored beforehand in the ROM 752 or the data accumulation portion 754 or a program used for contents-reproduction processing may be recorded in a recording medium by the recording medium drive 764 or a program recorded in a recording medium may be read and executed thereby. Furthermore, the program may be transmitted or received by the communication portion 761 through a wireline or wireless transmission channel so that the received program can be executed by a computer. FIG. 13 is a flowchart for showing a contents-reproduction processing operation. When contents-data is reproduced, the CPU 751 performs input operations to allow an image required to constitute a GUI environment to be displaying on the contents-presentation apparatus 80 and the user interface portion 762 to perform operations in accordance with this displayed image. FIG. 14 shows an example of an image displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80, which displays images for GUI. On the screen of the contents-presentation apparatus 80, a viewer portion 801 for displaying an image on contents, a speed varying console portion 802 serving as an interface for varying the reproduction speed FP, a reproduction speed display portion 803 for displaying the reproduction speed FP, an operation control portion 804 for switching an operation mode, a sound volume, etc., a title display portion 805 for displaying a title of the contents, a time display portion 806 for displaying a reproduction time of the contents and a current time, a reproduction position display portion 807 for indicating a current reproduction position, etc. are provided. At step ST21 of FIG. 13, the CPU 751 reads the accessory information DMz on contents from the data accumulation portion 754 and outputs the image signal Svz and the audio signal Saz generated on the basis of the accessory information DMz to the contents-presentation apparatus 80 from the signal output portion 763 via the input/output interface 755. Accordingly, display in accordance with the accessory information DMz is provided on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. For example, a title and a time length of the contents are displayed at the title display portion 805 and the time display portion 806, respectively. Further, based on speed range information, a minimum speed and a maximum speed are displayed at the speed varying console portion 802. At step ST22, the CPU 751 identifies whether a reproduction start operation of the contents is performed on the basis of the operation signal PSp utilizing the operation control portion 804. If no reproduction start operation is performed, the CPU 751 is performed so that the process returns to step ST22 and, otherwise, goes to step ST23. At step ST23, the CPU 751 sets reproduction processing conditions in accordance with a reproduction speed FP and a set frame rate FRs, that is, determines an interval for data thinning out and the number of data repeating which are performed when generating the image signal Svz and the audio signal Saz from the respective image data DVz and audio data DAz obtained by decoding the encoded data DZ. At step ST24, the CPU 751 reads the encoded data DZ from the data accumulation portion 754 and decodes it to generate the image data DVz and the audio data DAz and, based on the reproduction processing conditions determined at step ST23, thins out or repeats the data by utilizing the frame identification information DMz-BN, thereby generating the image signal Svz and the audio signal Saz for presentation of contents. The CPU 751 supplies these generated image signal Svz and audio signal Saz to the contents-presentation apparatus 80, so that a reproduced image having a reproduction speed FP indicated by a cursor position (which is expressed in a heavy line) in the speed varying console portion 802 is displayed in the viewer portion 801 of the contents-presentation apparatus 80. Further, the reproduction speed FP used in this case is displayed in the reproduction speed display portion 803, while a reproduction time and a reproduction position are displayed in the time display portion 806 and the reproduction position display portion 807, respectively. Further, the contents-presentation apparatus 80 outputs a reproduced audio having a reproduction speed FP indicated at the cursor position in the speed varying console portion 802. At step ST25, the CPU 751 identifies whether the reproduction speed FP is changed by moving the cursor position in the speed varying console portion 802. If the CPU 751 identifies that the reproduction speed FP is changed, the process returns to step ST23 and, if the CPU 751 identifies that no reproduction speed FP is changed, the process goes to step ST26. At step ST26, the CPU 751 identifies whether the reproduction operation is finished. If the CPU 751 identifies that no operation is performed to stop reproduction or that the contents-reproduction position is not an end position, the process returns to step ST25. If the stop operation is performed or if the reproduction position is at the end position, the CPU 751 finishes the speed varying operation. FIG. 15 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to an image. At step ST31, the CPU 751 identifies the reproduction speed FP based on the cursor position in the speed varying console portion 802 and the process goes to step ST32. At step ST32, by multiplying the reference frame rate FRr by one and multiplying a cursor initialization position in the speed varying console portion 802 by one, the reproduction speed FP upon start of reproduction operation is set. Further, if a reproduction speed FP is recommended by the editing apparatus 30, the CPU 751 sets a position of this recommended reproduction speed Fp as the cursor initialization position and the recommended reproduction speed FP as the reproduction speed FP upon start of reproduction operation. Furthermore, if a cursor position is moved by the user, the CPU 751 sets a speed in accordance with the cursor position as the reproduction speed FP. At step ST32, the CPU 751 identifies a set frame rate FRs based on frame rate information DMz-FRs contained in the accessory information DMz and the process goes to step ST33. At step ST33, the CPU 751 multiplies the reproduction speed FP and the set frame rate FRs by each other, thereby calculating an identification value FD for determining reproduction processing conditions. At step ST34, the CPU 751 determines the reproduction processing conditions based on the identification value FD. In this case, if the identification value FD is not less than one and contains no fractions below decimal point, the CPU 751 determines the reproduction processing conditions so that images may be output after being thinned out at a frame interval in accordance with the identification value FD. If the identification value FD is not less than one and contains fractions below decimal point, the CPU 751 thins out images by utilizing the frame identification information DMz-BN at a frame interval in accordance with an integral portion of the identification value FD and, if images are obtained as many as a number of frames that matches a desired reproduction speed, determines the reproduction processing conditions so that positions of the images may be moved over to the next initial value of a sub-frame number BN. If the identification value FD is less than one, the CPU 751 determines the reproduction processing conditions so that the same image may be output repeatedly until the number of frames that matches a desired reproduction speed is reached. Based on the thus determined reproduction processing conditions, the processing at step ST24 is performed, to enable presenting an image on contents at a desired reproduction speed properly. FIGS. 16A-16M show a reproduction operation in a case where the identification value FD is not less than one and contains no fractions below decimal point. FIG. 16A shows images based on such image data DVz that its set frame rate FRs may be 10 times the reference frame rate FRr. FIG. 16B shows frame rate information DMz-FRs that indicates a set frame rate FRs of a frame image, FIG. 16C shows frame identification information DMz-BN that indicates a sub-frame number BN of a frame image, and FIG. 16D shows an absolute frame number AN. If, in this case, the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-⅕ speed, the identification value FD becomes “10×(⅕)=2”. Accordingly, as shown in FIGS. 16E-16G, at an interval of “FD=2” frames, that is, for every other frame, image data is used by utilizing the frame identification information DMz-BN to generate an image signal Svz, thereby enabling a reproduced image at a multiplied-by-⅕ speed to be display on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 16E indicates frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 16F indicates an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 16F indicates frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 16G shows a frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. If the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-1 speed, the identification value FP becomes “10×1=10”. Accordingly, as shown in FIGS. 16H-16J, by generating the image signal Svz by using the image data DVz at an interval of “FD=10” frames, that is, as skipping nine frames of every 10 frames by utilizing frame identification information DMz-BN, a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-1 speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 16H indicates frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 16I indicates an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 16J shows a-frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. Further, if the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-2 speed, the identification value FD becomes “10×2=20”. Accordingly, as shown in FIGS. 16K-16M, by generating the image signal Svz by using the image data DVz at an interval of “FD=20” frames, that is, as skipping 19 frames of every 20 frames by utilizing the frame identification information DMz-BN, a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-2 speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 16K indicates frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 16L indicates an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 16M shows a frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. FIGS. 17A-17M show a reproduction operation in a case where the identification value FD is not less than one and contains no fractions below decimal point. FIG. 17A shows a frame image in a case where a set frame rate FRs is seven times the reference frame rate FRr. FIG. 17B shows frame rate information DMz-FRs that indicates a set frame rate FRs of a frame image, FIG. 17C shows frame identification information DMz-BN that indicates a sub-frame number BN of a frame image, and FIG. 17D indicates an absolute frame number AN. If, in this case, the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-⅓ speed, the identification value FD becomes “7×(⅓)=2.33 . . . ”. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 17E-17G, in accordance with an integral portion of the identification value FD, the image data DVz is used at an interval of two frames, that is, for every other frame by utilizing the frame identification information DMz-BN. Furthermore, since the number of frames matches the desired reproduction speed, that is, the speed is multiplied by (⅓), if the image as many as three frames is output in one frame period having the reference frame rate FRr, the position of the image data DVz to be used over to the next initial value of the sub-frame number BN is moved. In this case, image signals Svz are sequentially generated using the pieces of image data DVz having sub-frame numbers BN of “0”, “2”, and “4”, so that a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-⅓ speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 17E indicates frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 17F indicates an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 17G shows a frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. FIGS. 18A-18M show a reproduction operation in a case where the identification value FD is less than one. FIG. 18A shows a frame image in a case where a set frame rate FRs is (¼) of the reference frame rate FRr. FIG. 18B shows frame rate information DMz-FRs that indicates a set frame rate FRs of a frame image, FIG. 18C shows frame identification information DMz-BN that indicates a sub-frame number BN of a frame image, and FIG. 18D indicates an absolute frame number AN. If, in this case, the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-1 speed, the identification value FD becomes “(¼)×1=¼”. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 18E-18G, by generating the image signal Svz by using the number of frames in accordance with the reproduction speed, that is, by repeatedly using the image data DVz four times for each frame, a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-1 speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 18E shows frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 18F shows an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 18G shows an image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. If the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-2 speed, the identification value FD becomes “(¼)×2=½”. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 18H-18J, by generating the image signal Svz by repeatedly using the image data DVz twice for each frame, a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-2 speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 18H shows frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 18I shows an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 18J shows a frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. If the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-4 speed, the identification value FD becomes “(¼)×4=1”. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 18K-18M, by generating the image signal Svz by sequentially using the image data DVz for each frame, a reproduced image having a multiplied-by-4 speed can be displayed on the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 18K shows frame identification information DMz-BN of an image to be displayed, FIG. 18L shows an absolute frame number AN of an image to be displayed, and FIG. 18M shows a frame image to be displayed by the image signal Svz. In such a manner, by reading image data at a reading interval based on a recording speed and a reproduction speed utilizing frame identification information, an image having a desired reproduction speed can be displayed easily. The following will describe an audio. FIG. 19 is a flowchart for showing an operation of setting reproduction processing conditions to the audio. If audio data DAz is used for each frame, the sound does not continue between the frames, so that a discontinuity occurs in sound. Therefore, the sound is reproduced for each sample. At step ST41, the CPU 751 decides a reproduction speed as in the case of step ST31 and the process goes to step ST42. At step ST42, the CPU 571 reads a set frame rate FRs as in the case of step ST32 and the process goes to step ST43. At step ST43, the CPU 751 calculates an identification value FD as in the case of step ST33 and the process goes to step ST44. At step ST44, the CPU 751 determines the reproduction processing conditions based on the identification value FD. In this case, if the identification value FD is not less than one and contains no fractions below decimal point, it determines the reproduction processing conditions so that audio data may be thinned out at a sampling interval in accordance with the identification value FD. If the identification value FD is not less than one and contains fractions below decimal point, it determines the reproduction processing conditions so that the audio data may be thinned out at a sampling interval in accordance with an integral portion of the identification value FD from a multiple frames of the set frame rate FRs with respect to the reference frame rate FRr to thereby read the audio data as much as a reproduction speed. If the identification value FD is less than one, it determines the reproduction processing conditions so that the audio data may be used repeatedly until a number of sample frames that matches a desired reproduction speed is reached. Based on the thus determined reproduction processing conditions, the above-mentioned processing at step ST24 is performed, to enable a sound on the contents at a desired reproduction speed to be properly presented. FIGS. 20A-20E show an audio reproduction operation in a case where the identification value FD is not less than one and contains no fractions below decimal point. FIG. 20A shows an absolute frame number AN, FIG. 20B shows frame rate information DMz-FRs that indicates a set frame rate FRs of a frame image, FIG. 20C shows frame identification information DMz-BN that indicates a sub-frame number BN of a frame image. If, in this case, the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-⅕ speed, the identification value FD becomes “10×(⅕)=2” because the set frame rate FRs is supposed to be 10 times the reference frame rate FRr. Accordingly, at an interval of “FD=2” samples, that is, for every other sample, the audio data DAz is used to generate an audio signal Saz, thereby enabling a reproduced sound having a multiplied-by-1 speed to be output from the contents-presentation apparatus 80. It is to be noted that FIG. 20D shows a frame which is used to generate the image signal Svz and FIG. 20E shows audio data which is used in the audio signal Saz if the audio data DAz has 14 samples/frame. FIGS. 21A-21E show an audio reproduction operation in a case where the identification value FD is not less than one and contains fractions below decimal point. FIG. 21A shows an absolute frame number AN, FIG. 21B shows frame rate information DMz-FRs that indicates a set frame rate FRs of a frame image, and FIG. 21C shows frame identification information DMz-BN that indicates a sub-frame number BN of a frame image. If, in this case, the reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-⅓ speed, the identification value FD becomes “7×(⅓)=2.3 . . . ” because the set frame rate FRs is supposed to be seven times the reference frame rate FRr. Further, if the audio data DAz has 14 samples/frame, the number of samples per frame at a multiplied-by-⅓ speed is “14× 3/7=6”. Accordingly, in accordance with an integral portion of the identification value FD, the audio data DAz is output at an interval of two samples, that is, for every other sample and, if the audio data DAz of six samples, which constitute one frame, is output, the audio data DAz skips to the beginning of the next frame and is output for every other sample. By thus selecting the audio data DAz and outputting it, a reproduced sound having a multiplied-by-⅓ speed can be obtained. Further, if filtering processing is performed in a case where a sound is output on the basis of the audio signal Saz, a good reproduced sound can be output by suppressing an influence due to thinning-out of the audio data DAz. Furthermore, samples are skipped fixedly in accordance with a set frame rate FRs and a reproduction speed FP to match the number of samples at the end of a frame, thereby enabling the audio signal Saz to be easily output in accordance with a reproduction speed. It is to be noted that FIG. 21C shows a frame which is used to generate the image signal Svz and FIG. 21D shows audio data which is used in the audio signal Saz when the audio data DAz has 14 samples/frame. Further, in the case of generating the audio signal Saz by thinning out the audio data DAz, to prevent a reproduced sound to be discontinuous due to an increase in interval between items of the audio data DAz, the items of audio data which are used to generate the audio signal Saz may be thinned out so that they may have a roughly constant interval. For example, if a set frame rate FRs is KA times the reference frame rate FRr and a reproduction speed FP is a multiplied-by-1/KB speed, the audio data is taken out as many as KB number of samples at a roughly constant interval from the consecutive KB number of samples of the audio data DAz and, based on this taken out audio data, the audio signal Saz is generated. It is thus possible to output a reproduced sound having a further better sound quality, although the processing becomes complicated as compared to the case shown in FIGS. 21A-21E. In a case where the identification value FD is less than one, although not shown, audio data is sequentially used repeatedly as many times as the number of repetitions of frames of an image, thereby enabling the audio data DAz having a desired reproduction speed to be generated. In such a manner, a contents-transmission side transmits contents-data DCz in which the accessory information DMz including frame rate information and frame identification information for identifying frames included in a reference frame period is linked to main data indicating an image and/or a sound. Further, a contents-reproduction side reproduces the image and/or the sound by varying a reproduction speed utilizing the accessory information DMz that contains the frame rate information and the frame identification information. Accordingly, the user not only can view an image etc. having a predetermined reproduction speed as in the case of a broadcast program but also can view the image etc. at his desired reproduction speed. For example, by generating contents such as a relayed sports program at a set frame rate FRs higher than the reference frame rate FRr, the user need not wait until a slow-speed reproduction image is supplied from a contents-provider as in the case of a conventional broadcast program but can view only a desired scene at a slow reproduction speed while viewing the image at a multiplied-by-1 speed usually. Further, on the contents-transmission side, a frame rate is adjusted in accordance with a band of a transmission channel by utilizing the frame identification information, thereby enabling frame rate adjustment to be easily executed. Further, on the contents-reproduction side, data can be, for example, thinned out for each frame easily by utilizing the frame identification information, thereby varying the contents-reproduction speed easily. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY As described above, the present invention is useful in the case of transmitting image contents etc. and reproducing them and well suited particularly to a case where a frame rate at the time of reproduction is varied.
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11974690
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US20090009633A1-20090108
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Lens apparatus, image capture apparatus, and method for correcting image quality
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ACCEPTED
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20081222
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20090108
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[]
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H04N5217
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["H04N5217", "H04N5225"]
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8508655
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20071015
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20130813
|
348
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360000
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74135.0
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KAO
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YIH-SIEN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Suto", "inventor_name_first": "Hidekazu", "inventor_city": "Tokyo", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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An image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted, may include an image capture device, an image-signal processor, a communication unit, and a control unit. The image capture device may generate an image signal obtained by photoelectric conversion of subject light forming an image through a lens of the image capture apparatus. The image-signal processor may carry out image processing on the image signal photo-electrically converted by the image capture device. The communication unit may communicate with the lens apparatus. The control unit may carry out control to receive the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges through the communication unit. The image-signal processor may correct image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are received through the communication unit.
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1. A lens apparatus having a lens, which is detachably mounted on an image capture apparatus, comprising: a lens-information storage unit configured to store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens; a communication unit configured to communicate with the image capture apparatus; and a control unit configured to carry out control of transmitting the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges stored in the lens-information storage unit to the image capture apparatus through the communication unit upon receiving an instruction from the image capture apparatus through the communication unit. 2. A lens apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges are stored in the lens-information storage unit as a three-dimensional array including a zoom position, a focus position, and an iris position of the lens. 3. An image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted, comprising: an image capture device configured to generate an image signal obtained by photoelectric conversion of subject light forming an image through a lens of the lens apparatus; an image-signal processor configured to carry out image processing on the image signal photo-electrically converted by the image capture device; a communication unit configured to communicate with the lens apparatus; and a control unit configured to carry out control of receiving correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens and stored in the lens apparatus, through the communication unit, wherein the image-signal processor corrects image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are received through the communication unit. 4. An image capture apparatus according to claim 3, wherein the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges stored in the lens apparatus are received through an initialization process carried out between the lens apparatus and the image capture apparatus upon turning on the image capture apparatus, upon connecting the lens apparatus to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or upon replacing the lens apparatus. 5. An image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted, comprising: an image capture device configured to generate an image signal obtained by photoelectric conversion of subject light forming an image through a lens of the lens apparatus; an image-signal processor configured to carry out image processing on the image signal photo-electrically converted by the image capture device; a communication unit configured to communicate with the lens apparatus; and a control unit configured to carry out control of obtaining correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens and stored in the lens apparatus, at predetermined timing, wherein the image-signal processor corrects image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges obtained through the control by the control unit. 6. An image capture apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the predetermined timing is timing of once a field. 7. An image capture apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are stored in the lens apparatus, are transmitted to the image capture apparatus by periodical communication between the lens apparatus and the image capture apparatus through the communication unit. 8. An image capture apparatus, comprising: an image capture device configured to generate an image signal obtained by photoelectric conversion of subject light forming an image through a lens; a lens-information storage unit configured to store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens; an image-signal processor configured to carry out image processing on the image signal photo-electrically converted by the image capture device; a communication unit configured to carry out communication with the lens-information storage unit; a control unit configured to carry out control of receiving the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are stored in the lens-information storage unit, through the communication unit, wherein the image-signal processor corrects image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are received through the communication unit. 9. An image capture apparatus, comprising: an image capture device configured to generate an image signal obtained by photoelectric conversion of subject light forming an image through a lens; a lens-information storage unit configured to store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens; an image-signal processor configured to carry out image processing on the image signal photo-electrically converted by the image capture device; a communication unit configured to carry out communication with the lens-information storage unit; and a control unit configured to carry out control of obtaining the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are stored in the lens-information storage unit, at predetermined timing, wherein the image-signal processor corrects image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges obtained through the control of the control unit. 10. A method for correcting image degradation caused by aberration of a lens mounted on an image capture apparatus, comprising: storing correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are correction information about the aberration of the lens, in a lens apparatus including the lens; receiving the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges upon turning on the image capture apparatus, upon connecting the lens to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or upon replacing the lens; and correcting the aberration caused by the lens using the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges received. 11. A method for correcting image degradation caused by aberration of a lens mounted on an image capture apparatus, comprising: storing correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about the aberration of the lens, in a lens apparatus including the lens; reading the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and/or the correction information for light falloff at edges, which are stored in the lens apparatus, at predetermined timing; and using the correction information read out to correct the image degradation caused by the aberration of the lens.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image capture apparatus suitably applied to a video camera or the like, a lens apparatus to be mounted on such an image capture apparatus, and a method for correcting image quality. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, optical lenses may cause a phenomenon called aberration, which causes an unfavorable colored portion, an out of focus, and an image distortion when an image is formed. For example, one kind of aberration is known as a lateral chromatic aberration (chromatic aberration of magnification) by which a blur occurs on the boundary area of a subject image. The lateral chromatic aberration is caused such that, when an image is formed, rays of red (R), green (G), and blue (B) passed through a lens have focal positions varied in the direction perpendicular to an optical axis depending on wavelengths. FIG. 1 illustrates an appearance of an image formation, in which rays of R, G, and B passed through a lens have focal positions varied in the direction perpendicular to an optical axis. A degree of displacement varies depending on characteristics of a lens and a zoom position, focus position and iris condition of an image capture apparatus using such lens. FIG. 2 shows an example representing a relationship between an amount of displacement of focal positions and the zoom setting. In FIG. 2 , the vertical axis represents an amount of displacement in focal positions and the horizontal axis represents a zoom position (from wide to telescopic views). In FIG. 2 , the focal position of G is used as a standard. Displacements of R and B are relatively represented with reference to G. In particular, a video camera used for shooting television programs may require a decrease in lateral chromatic aberration because it appears as a varied registration error. A lens material such as fluorite which shows stable optical performance without a difference in focal lengths over the broad range of wavelengths may be used for reducing the lateral chromatic aberration, for example. On the other hand, the reduction of aberration can also be expected by the use of a combination of lenses made of materials with different refractive indexes. However, fluorite is expensive. If fluorite is used, production costs may increase as a result. Similarly, in the case of combining a plurality of lenses, production costs may increase all the same. Thus, a technique has been devised to correct the lateral chromatic aberration by carrying out image signal processing on digital image data captured by an image capture apparatus. In addition to the aberration, a phenomenon of light falloff at edges, which causes an image degradation attributed to characteristics of a lens, has also been known. The “light falloff at edges” is a phenomenon in which an amount of light at the edges of a screen falls compared with the center thereof. Such a phenomenon may be caused by obstructing part of peripheral rays with a lens barrel. The degree of light falloff varies extensively depending on the zoom setting and focus and iris conditions of an image capture apparatus using the lens. FIGS. 3A and 3B are graphical representations respectively showing an example of a light intensity ratio of the center to the periphery of the lens under each state of normal or wide angle of view. In FIGS. 3A and 3B , the light intensities (%) are plotted on the vertical axis and the locations from the center to the corner are plotted on the horizontal axis. In each figure, two curves are represented. A lower curve is one obtained when the iris position is set to full-aperture and an upper curve is one obtained when the iris is narrowed. FIG. 3A is a graphical representation of a light intensity ratio of the center to the corner of the screen when the zoom is set to a wide angle. FIG. 3B is a graphical representation of a light intensity ratio of the center to corner of the screen when the zoom is set to normal. The common phenomenon in both FIGS. 3A and 3B is that the larger the iris opens the more the light intensity of the periphery (corners) of the screen drops compared with that of the center thereof. In addition, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B , the reduction of the light intensity also varies with the state of the zoom position. The light falloff at edges can be prevented by enlarging the diameter of the lens. Alternatively, similarly to the correction to the lateral chromatic aberration, the light falloff at edges may be corrected by carrying out image signal processing on digital data obtained by shooting. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2000-3437 (JP 2000-3437 A) discloses the correction of a decrease in image quality attributed to the aberration of a lens with respect to digital image data obtained by a digital camera.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Video cameras, in particular, used for shooting television programs and so on typically use interchangeable lenses. However, an image capture apparatus, such as a video camera using an interchangeable lens, may need to prepare correction data for each model of the lens if the lateral chromatic aberration is corrected and the light falloff at edges is corrected. In addition, since moving images are captured, the correction should be carried out in real time. However, a technique for the real-time correction has not been devised for a video camera using such interchangeable lens. It is desirable to correct an image degradation attributed to aberration of a lens in real time in an image capture apparatus including a lens, such as an interchangeable lens, detachably mounted thereto. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted. In the case of correcting the aberration of a lens, the lens apparatus may store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about the aberration of the lens. The image capture apparatus may communicate with the lens apparatus when the image capture apparatus is powered on, when the lens apparatus is attached to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or when the lens apparatus is replaced. As a result, the image capture apparatus may receive the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges stored in the lens apparatus. Subsequently, the received correction information may be used to correct both the lateral chromatic aberration and the correct light falloff at edges, which are attributed to the lens. Since the image capture apparatus and the lens apparatus may be configured as described above, when the image capture apparatus is powered on, when the lens apparatus is attached to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or when the lens apparatus is replaced, correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges may be transmitted to the image capture apparatus. Thus, at the time of correction, the required information may be read out in the image capture apparatus in each case and a real-time correction can be then carried out. According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted. The lens apparatus may store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens. The image capture apparatus may communicate with the lens apparatus to read out the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges which are stored in the lens apparatus at timing of once a field (indicating vertical scanning of a video signal, e.g., 1/60 sec). Then, the read-out correction information may be used to carry out the correction of lateral chromatic aberration and the correction of light falloff at edges, which are attributed to the lens. Since the image capture apparatus and the lens apparatus may be configured as described above, the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges may be transmitted from the lens apparatus in each case at timing of once a field. Therefore, the read-out correction information about the lens may be used in real-time correction. According to embodiments of the present invention, an image capture apparatus on which a lens, such as an interchangeable lens, is detachably mounted may carry out the real-time correction of image degradation attributed to the lens.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. JP 2006-281611 filed in the Japanese Patent Office on Oct. 16, 2006, the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image capture apparatus suitably applied to a video camera or the like, a lens apparatus to be mounted on such an image capture apparatus, and a method for correcting image quality. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, optical lenses may cause a phenomenon called aberration, which causes an unfavorable colored portion, an out of focus, and an image distortion when an image is formed. For example, one kind of aberration is known as a lateral chromatic aberration (chromatic aberration of magnification) by which a blur occurs on the boundary area of a subject image. The lateral chromatic aberration is caused such that, when an image is formed, rays of red (R), green (G), and blue (B) passed through a lens have focal positions varied in the direction perpendicular to an optical axis depending on wavelengths. FIG. 1 illustrates an appearance of an image formation, in which rays of R, G, and B passed through a lens have focal positions varied in the direction perpendicular to an optical axis. A degree of displacement varies depending on characteristics of a lens and a zoom position, focus position and iris condition of an image capture apparatus using such lens. FIG. 2 shows an example representing a relationship between an amount of displacement of focal positions and the zoom setting. In FIG. 2, the vertical axis represents an amount of displacement in focal positions and the horizontal axis represents a zoom position (from wide to telescopic views). In FIG. 2, the focal position of G is used as a standard. Displacements of R and B are relatively represented with reference to G. In particular, a video camera used for shooting television programs may require a decrease in lateral chromatic aberration because it appears as a varied registration error. A lens material such as fluorite which shows stable optical performance without a difference in focal lengths over the broad range of wavelengths may be used for reducing the lateral chromatic aberration, for example. On the other hand, the reduction of aberration can also be expected by the use of a combination of lenses made of materials with different refractive indexes. However, fluorite is expensive. If fluorite is used, production costs may increase as a result. Similarly, in the case of combining a plurality of lenses, production costs may increase all the same. Thus, a technique has been devised to correct the lateral chromatic aberration by carrying out image signal processing on digital image data captured by an image capture apparatus. In addition to the aberration, a phenomenon of light falloff at edges, which causes an image degradation attributed to characteristics of a lens, has also been known. The “light falloff at edges” is a phenomenon in which an amount of light at the edges of a screen falls compared with the center thereof. Such a phenomenon may be caused by obstructing part of peripheral rays with a lens barrel. The degree of light falloff varies extensively depending on the zoom setting and focus and iris conditions of an image capture apparatus using the lens. FIGS. 3A and 3B are graphical representations respectively showing an example of a light intensity ratio of the center to the periphery of the lens under each state of normal or wide angle of view. In FIGS. 3A and 3B, the light intensities (%) are plotted on the vertical axis and the locations from the center to the corner are plotted on the horizontal axis. In each figure, two curves are represented. A lower curve is one obtained when the iris position is set to full-aperture and an upper curve is one obtained when the iris is narrowed. FIG. 3A is a graphical representation of a light intensity ratio of the center to the corner of the screen when the zoom is set to a wide angle. FIG. 3B is a graphical representation of a light intensity ratio of the center to corner of the screen when the zoom is set to normal. The common phenomenon in both FIGS. 3A and 3B is that the larger the iris opens the more the light intensity of the periphery (corners) of the screen drops compared with that of the center thereof. In addition, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the reduction of the light intensity also varies with the state of the zoom position. The light falloff at edges can be prevented by enlarging the diameter of the lens. Alternatively, similarly to the correction to the lateral chromatic aberration, the light falloff at edges may be corrected by carrying out image signal processing on digital data obtained by shooting. Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2000-3437 (JP 2000-3437 A) discloses the correction of a decrease in image quality attributed to the aberration of a lens with respect to digital image data obtained by a digital camera. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Video cameras, in particular, used for shooting television programs and so on typically use interchangeable lenses. However, an image capture apparatus, such as a video camera using an interchangeable lens, may need to prepare correction data for each model of the lens if the lateral chromatic aberration is corrected and the light falloff at edges is corrected. In addition, since moving images are captured, the correction should be carried out in real time. However, a technique for the real-time correction has not been devised for a video camera using such interchangeable lens. It is desirable to correct an image degradation attributed to aberration of a lens in real time in an image capture apparatus including a lens, such as an interchangeable lens, detachably mounted thereto. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted. In the case of correcting the aberration of a lens, the lens apparatus may store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about the aberration of the lens. The image capture apparatus may communicate with the lens apparatus when the image capture apparatus is powered on, when the lens apparatus is attached to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or when the lens apparatus is replaced. As a result, the image capture apparatus may receive the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges stored in the lens apparatus. Subsequently, the received correction information may be used to correct both the lateral chromatic aberration and the correct light falloff at edges, which are attributed to the lens. Since the image capture apparatus and the lens apparatus may be configured as described above, when the image capture apparatus is powered on, when the lens apparatus is attached to the image capture apparatus for the first time, or when the lens apparatus is replaced, correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges may be transmitted to the image capture apparatus. Thus, at the time of correction, the required information may be read out in the image capture apparatus in each case and a real-time correction can be then carried out. According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an image capture apparatus on which a lens apparatus is detachably mounted. The lens apparatus may store correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and correction information for light falloff at edges, which are characteristic information about aberration of the lens. The image capture apparatus may communicate with the lens apparatus to read out the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges which are stored in the lens apparatus at timing of once a field (indicating vertical scanning of a video signal, e.g., 1/60 sec). Then, the read-out correction information may be used to carry out the correction of lateral chromatic aberration and the correction of light falloff at edges, which are attributed to the lens. Since the image capture apparatus and the lens apparatus may be configured as described above, the correction information for lateral chromatic aberration and the correction information for light falloff at edges may be transmitted from the lens apparatus in each case at timing of once a field. Therefore, the read-out correction information about the lens may be used in real-time correction. According to embodiments of the present invention, an image capture apparatus on which a lens, such as an interchangeable lens, is detachably mounted may carry out the real-time correction of image degradation attributed to the lens. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a graphical representation indicating an amount of displacement in focal positions of respective colors on lateral chromatic aberration. FIG. 2 is a graphical representation of the relationship between a lateral chromatic aberration and a focal length. FIGS. 3A and 3B are graphical representations of a light intensity ratio of the center to the periphery of the lens under each state of normal and wide field of view. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplified inner configuration of a video camera according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 5A and 5B are explanatory diagrams illustrating an exemplified configuration of coefficient data of optical correction data according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an exemplified configuration of optical correction data according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating a process example for acquiring optical correction data during an initialization process according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an example of data formant at the time of communication according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a process example for acquiring optical correction data during an initialization process according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating a process example for periodically acquiring optical correction data according to another embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a process example for periodically acquiring optical correction data according to another embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Hereinafter, embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 to 11. FIG. 4 shows an exemplified configuration of a video camera as an example of an image capture apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, a video camera 100 includes a lens unit 1 and a camera unit 2. The lens unit 1 is an interchangeable lens and designed to be detachably mounted on the camera unit 2 through a lens mount 20. The camera unit 2 provides the lens unit 1 with instructions or the like for changing the zoom setting and the focal position. Such a data communication between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 can be carried out through a communication line 30 in a state that the lens unit 1 is being attached on the camera unit 2. The lens unit 1 shown in FIG. 4 includes a lens group 10, a lens drive mechanism 11, a lens drive unit 12, an iris 13, an iris drive unit 14, a position detector 15, a lens control unit 16, and a lens memory 17. That is, the lens group 10 includes an image-capture lens, a focus lens for focusing a subject image on an imaging area, and a zoom lens for changing a focal length by changing the distance between the lenses (each of the lenses not shown in the figure). The lens drive mechanism 11 shifts the position of each lens of the lens group 10 in the optical axis direction. The lens drive unit 12 controls the movement of the lens drive mechanism 11. The iris 13 adjusts the light intensity of light incident on the lens group 10. The iris drive unit 14 actuates the iris 13. The position detector 15 detects the position of each lens of the lens group 10. The lens control unit 16 controls the actuation of each lens. The lens memory 17 stores the position of each lens detected by the position detector 15, and so on. In this embodiment, optical correction data, such as correction data for lateral chromatic aberration and correction data for light falloff at edges, can be stored in the lens memory 17 for each kind of lens, while the information can be read out by the camera unit 2 as necessary to carry out optical correction. Optical correction data is unique to each lens and the details of which will be described later. Iris-position information, focus-position information, and zoom-position information, which are the information necessary for the correction of the lateral chromatic aberration and the light falloff at edges can be detected by the position detector 15 at any time and stored as detected signals in the lens memory 17, respectively. The lens control unit 16 includes a lens CPU and so on and generates control signals in response to commands from a control unit of the camera unit 2 as described later, followed by supplying the control signals to the lens drive unit 12 and the iris drive unit 14. In addition, the lens control unit 16 responds to requests of transferring various kinds of information (e.g., information about zoom position, focus position, and iris position) and then transfers information corresponding to the requests to the camera unit 2 through the communication line 30. The lens drive unit 12 is a drive circuit for driving the lens drive mechanism 11. The lens drive unit 12 is controlled upon receiving a control signal input from the lens control unit 16. The iris drive unit 14 is a drive circuit for providing an iris drive mechanism (not shown) with a control signal, where the iris drive mechanism is provided for opening and closing the iris. The iris drive unit 14 is also driven under the control of the lens control unit 16. The camera unit 2 includes the lens mount 20, an image capture device 21, a signal processor 22, a control unit 23, a memory 24, and so on. The lens mount 20 is a junction of the camera unit 2 with the lens unit 1. The image capture device 21 is provided for generating a captured image signal by photoelectrical conversion of the captured image light of the subject incident through the lens group 10 of the lens unit 1. The signal processor 22 is provided for carrying out the image signal processing on the captured image signal output from the image capture device 21. The control unit 23 is provided for controlling each part of the camera unit 2. The memory 24 is provided for storing the captured image signal subjected to the image processing in the signal processor 22, and so on. Subject light incident through the lens group 10 of the lens unit 1 forms an image in a light-receiving surface (not shown) of the image capture device 21 and then photo-electrically converted into a captured image signal. Subsequently, the captured image signal output from the image capture device 21 is subjected to the removal of a reset noise and the adjustment of a signal level in an analog signal processor (not shown). The captured image signal is converted into a digital signal in an analog/digital converter (not shown). The captured image signal, which has been converted into the digital signal in the analog/digital converter, is then supplied to the signal processor 22. After that, the signal processor 22 carries out the image signal processing on the captured image signal. The signal processor 22 carries out knee correction that compresses a predetermined level or more of the image signal, γ correction for correcting the level of the image signal based on a predetermined γ curve, white-clip processing for adjusting the signal level of an image signal within a predetermined range and so on. In addition, the correction of lateral chromatic aberration and the collection of light falloff at edges may also be carried out. The signal processor 22 of the camera unit 2 carries out the correction of lateral chromatic aberration and the correction of light falloff at edges on the basis of optical correction data stored in the lens memory 17 of the lens unit 1. The optical correction data stored in the lens memory 17 is arranged so as to be read into the memory 24 of the camera unit 2 when the correction is carried out in the signal processor 22. The reading of the data may be carried out as a part of the initialization process when the video camera 100 is powered on, the lens unit 1 is attached on the camera unit 2 for the first time, or the lens unit 1 is replaced. Alternatively, the reading may be carried out after inquiring the data of the lens unit side every time the correction is carried out. In any case, the camera unit 2 acquires the optical correction data retained in the lens unit by the communication through the communication line 30. Next, a method of calculating optical correction data and a method of preparing a data table will be described. The optical correction data can be represented by a general polynomial of degree n. For example, in the case of expressing with a polynomial of degree 3, the number of coefficients thereof is four (“n+1”). As the lateral chromatic aberration is represented by an amount of displacement (i.e., the shift of R or B with reference to G), the optical correction data is calculated for each of R-G and R-B. In the following equations, four coefficients in the 3-degree polynomial are represented by A to D, respectively: y=Ax̂3+Bx̂2+Cx+D R-G y=A′x̂3+B′x̂2+C′x+D′ B-G The correction equation of the light falloff at edges can also be obtained in the same way: y=Ax̂3+Bx̂2+Cx+D Note that in the present embodiment, the correction equation is expressed by 3-degree polynomials. Alternatively, however, the correction equation may be expressed a polygonal of degree n, for example one of degree 4, 5, or more. The optical correction data thus obtained may be provided in a table format as illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B and then stored in the lens memory 17 as a structure. FIG. 5A illustrates an example of the correction data structure of lateral chromatic aberration. Members of the structure include eight different coefficients (A to D and A′ to D′) of the correction data for lateral chromatic aberration. FIG. 5B illustrates an example of the correction data structure of light falloff at edges. Members of the structure include four different coefficients (A to D) of the correction data of light falloff at edges. Each of the degree of the lateral chromatic aberration and the degree of the light falloff at edges varies with an iris position, a focus position, and a zoom position. Thus, it may be required to prepare the optical correction data corresponding to the iris position, focus position, and zoom position, respectively. Therefore, a data array is provided as a three-dimensional array of [iris position], [focus position], and [zoom position]. For representing the three-dimensional array, each position of the iris, each position of the focus, and each position of the zoom are applied to the structural members in the array. For example, the iris position has two types of “full-aperture” and “F4”; the focus position has four types of “INF (infinity)”, “3 m”, “1.5 m”, and “0.8 m”, and the zoom position has ten types of “Wide”, “1.4 x”, “1.8 x”, “2.5 x”, “3.6 x”, “4.6 x”, “6.2 x”, “8.4 x”, “9.8 x”, and “Tele”. In this case, each value may be assigned in order to the members of the structure represented by IRIS [0] to [xx], FOCUS [0] to [yy], ZOOM [0] to [zz], and so on. For example, in the case of the iris position, the assignment may be IRIS [0]=Full-aperture, IRIS [1]=F4, but no assignment in any of IRIS [2] to [xx]. FIG. 6 shows an example of the configuration of the three-dimensional array. In other words, FIG. 6 is an example of the configuration of the correction data for lateral chromatic aberration, where a three-dimensional array of [iris position], [focus position], and [zoom position] is represented in matrix. FIG. 6 represents optical correction data at the whole zoom positions (ZOOM [0] to [xx]) when the iris position is Full-aperture (IRIS [0]) and the focus position is Infinity (FOCUS [0]). FIG. 6 also represents optical correction data when the iris position is Full-aperture (IRIS [0]), the focus position is 1.4 x (FOCUS [1]), and the zoom position is Wide (ZOOM [0]). Thus, the optical correction data is prepared as a table of the three-dimensional array to allow every combination of the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position to be specified in the array. For example, if the correction data when the iris position is F4, the focus position is 1.5 m, and the zoom position is 2.5 x is acquired, the intended optical correction data can be obtained by specifying [2nd iris (IRIS [1])], [3rd Focus (FOCUS [2]), and [4th Zoom (ZOOM [3])]. Next, referring to the flowchart of FIG. 7, a process example, in which the camera unit 2 reads out the optical correction data stored in the lens memory 17 of the lens unit 1, will be described. FIG. 7 illustrates an example of the process when the lens unit 1 is attached to the camera unit 2 for the first time. Whether the lens unit 1 is the first lens to be attached may be determined such that the camera unit 2 confirms the lens name of the lens unit 1 when the lens unit 1 is attached to the camera unit 2. First, when the video camera 100 is powered on (Step S1), the process of communication connection between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 is carried out (Step S2). The details of such a process of communication connection between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 will be described later. Subsequently, whether the communication is established at the process of communication connection between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 is determined (Step S3). During the period of no communication established, the process of communication connection at Step S2 is carried out. When it is determined that the communication is established, the communication for data initialization is carried out between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 (Step S4). In the communication for data initialization, the lens unit 1 may transmit the characteristic information of the lens, such as the lens name and manufacturer name, to the camera unit 2. Alternatively, data requiring initialization may be transmitted and received between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2. Next, the camera unit 2 obtains the status of the lens retaining the optical correction data from the lens unit 1 (Step S5) and then determines whether the lens unit 1 is the lens retaining the optical correction data (Step S6). If it is determined that the lens unit 1 is the lens not retaining the optical correction data, then the process proceeds to Step S10 and a normal communication process is carried out. The details of the process of determining whether the lens unit 1 is the lens retaining the optical correction data will be described later. If it is determined that the lens unit 1 is the lens retaining the optical correction data, then the control unit 23 of the camera unit 2 transmits a command that requests the acquisition of the optical correction data to the lens unit 1 (Step S7). When the lens control unit 16 of the lens unit 1 receives the command transmitted from the camera unit side, then optical correction data stored in the lens memory 17 is transmitted to the camera unit side (Step S8). At the time of completing the transmission of the optical correction data, it is determined whether the initialization process is completed (Step S9). The initialization process is continued until the completion of the initialization process is determined. If it is determined that the initialization process is completed, then the normal communication process is carried out (Step S10). Here, the flowchart of FIG. 7 represents an exemplified process for obtaining the optical correction data when power is on. In this example, in the case of replacing the lens unit 1 with another one while power being powered on, the same process will be conducted. Next, the details of the procedures in the respective steps described in the flowchart of FIG. 7 will be described with reference to FIGS. 8 and 9. First, referring now to FIG. 8, an example of the format of the command or response data, which can be received and transmitted between the camera unit 2 and the lens unit 1, will be described. As shown in FIG. 8, the data received and transmitted between the camera unit 2 and the lens unit 1 contains command (1 byte), function (1 byte), function data (0 to 15 bytes, variable in length), and checksum (1 byte). Four bits at the top of 1 byte of the command represents the main class of the command. The bits “0000” corresponds to a camera command, “1111” corresponds to a lens-maker user command, and “0001 to 1110” corresponds to reservation. In addition, four bits at the end of 1 byte of the command represents the data length of function data described later. The function is a code that indicates data actually exchanged between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2, such as the request and response of F number and the request and response of serial number, and represented by “01”, or the like. The checksum is provided for inspecting whether an error occurs in data transmitted between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2. The checksum is provided with a value that gives a total value of 0 (zero) from the command to the checksum. The total of data row sent from the receiving side is calculated. There is no error or lack of data in the received data row when the total is 0 (zero). By having provided the checksum, it can be checked whether all data has been transmitted without fail. Referring again to the flowchart of FIG. 7, the determination of whether the lens unit 1 is a lens that retains optical correction data, which is carried out in Step S5, can be carried out by obtaining and securing a flag on the side of the camera unit 2. Here, the flag indicates whether the lens unit 1 is a lens that retains optical correction data. In other words, the camera unit 2 transmits a command with the frame construction as shown in FIG. 8 to the lens unit 1 for making an inquiry about the flag. If there is no response from the lens unit 1, then it is determined that the lens does not retain the optical correction data. Next, the acquisition of a lens status of retaining the optical correction data at the camera unit 2 from the lens unit 1 (Step S5) and the details of the process of the determination (Step S6) as described in FIG. 7 will be described with reference to FIG. 9. FIG. 9 shows an exchange of data between the camera unit 2 and the lens unit 1 and an exemplified construction of the data to be transmitted and received. In this embodiment, the correction data for lateral chromatic aberration and light falloff at edges are used as the optical correction data. A coefficient for the correction of lateral chromatic aberration or light falloff at edges varies with the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position. The number of sections of these positions varies with the kind of the lens. When the camera unit 2 reads an optical correction data table stored in the lens memory 17 of the lens unit 1, there is a need of obtaining the number of kinds of the iris position, the focus position, and zoom position (i.e., the number of partitions), respectively. In addition, it may be necessary to obtain on what kind of numerical value the partitions are bordered. The value on the boundary between partitions is expressed by an actual value, that is, F number at a position represented by “full-aperture” or “F4” when, for example, there are two different kinds of iris position, “full-aperture” and “F4”. Similarly, the focus position is represented by a focal distance, and the zoom position is represented by the magnification of the zoom setting. FIG. 9 illustrates a process example when the lens unit 1 retains the table for the correction data for lateral chromatic aberration as shown in FIG. 6. According to the table exemplified in FIG. 6, there are two different iris positions, four different focus positions, and ten different zoom positions. First, the camera unit 2 inquires of the lens unit 1 about the number of types of the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position in order and then forms the format of a correction data table based on a response from the lens unit 1. Then, after constructing the format of the correction data table, the camera unit 2 inquires about “ordinal iris position in a sequence”, “ordinal focus position in a sequence”, and “ordinal zoom position in a sequence” and obtains the responses thereof, thereby acquiring all correction data stored in the lens unit 1. Note that in this embodiment the case in which the camera unit 2 inquires of the lens unit 1 about the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position in this order has been descried. However, any of other orders of inquiries may be employed. An explanation will be given to the sequence shown on the left side in FIG. 9. First, the camera unit 2 transmits a command inquiring about the number of partitions of the iris position to the lens unit 1 (1). The command structure at this time is shown on the right side of a sequence diagram. “0001” is used as the command, for example. However, actually, it may use any of other numerical values which have not been assigned in reservation codes of “0001 to 1110”. In this example, “AA” is the function used for an acquisition request for the number of partitions of the iris position, so that “AA” is described in the function. In addition, the function data is set to “0”. Upon receiving the command from the camera unit 2, the lens unit 1 responds to the number of partitions of the iris and the value on the boundary between the partitions (2). As described above, in the lens unit 1, the number of partitions is 2. Since the values on the boundaries between the partitions are 1.6 (the value of “full-aperture”) and 4.1 (the value of F4), respectively, the information is described in the function data and transmitted to the camera unit 2. In this example, the number of partitions is described on the first two bytes (strictly the latter one of these two bytes) of the function data. The value of the boundary of the division is described on the third byte or later. Therefore, in the data transmitted from the lens unit 1 to the camera unit 2, the function is the same “AA” as that of the request command. On the first two bytes of the function data, the values of the partition boundaries are described on the second, third, and fourth bytes, which correspond to the numbers of partitions of the iris. The values of the partition boundaries are assigned sequentially from [0] in such a manner that they are assigned 1.6=IRIS [0], 4.1=IRIS [0], and so on in order. Subsequent to acquiring the number of partitions and the number of partition boundaries of iris, the camera unit 2 requests both the number of partitions and the number of partition boundaries of the focus (3). If “BB” is used as the function when requiring the number of partitions of the focus, “BB” is placed in the function while there is nothing in the function data (i.e., “0”) and then transmitted to the lens unit 1. On the other hand, the lens unit 1 responds to the camera unit 2 by describing “BB” in the function, “4” (the number of partitions) on the first two bytes of the function data, and the value of partition boundary on the third byte or later of the function data (4). Subsequent to acquiring both the number of partitions and the number of partition boundaries of the focus, both the number of partitions and the number of partition boundaries of zoom setting are required (5). If “CC” is used as the function set when requiring the number of partitions of the zoom, “CC” is placed in the function while there is nothing in the function data (i.e., “0”) and then transmitted to the lens unit 1. On the other hand, the lens unit 1 responds to the camera unit 2 by describing “CC” in the function, “10” (the number of partitions) on the first two bytes of the function data, and the value of partition boundary on the third byte or later of the function data (6). As described above, when the number of partitions and the value of partition boundary of each of the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position is acquired, the format of the optical correction data table is formed on the camera unit 2. If the format of the table is formed, then the optical correction data, which is the actual value stored in the table, is acquired. If “DD” is used as a function when requiring the acquisition of the correction data for lateral chromatic aberration (R-G), “DD” is described in the function. Then, requested sequence of correction data is specified at the first 3 bytes of function data. The designation of the sequence is carried out in such a manner that the “ordinal iris position in a sequence”, “ordinal focus position in a sequence”, and “ordinal zoom position in a sequence” are described. The camera unit 2 transmits the request command as described above to the lens unit 1 (7). Upon receiving a request command for acquiring the lateral chromatic aberration correction data transmitted from the camera unit 2, then the lens unit 1 reads out the lateral chromatic aberration correction data in a sequence designated in the command from the lens memory 17. The read data is transmitted to the camera unit 2 (8). In the first two bytes of the function data of the response data, ID, which represents the ordinal position of the response in a sequence, is described. The lens unit 1 in the present embodiment, there are two different iris positions, four different focus positions, and ten different zoom positions. Therefore, the exchange between the request command and the response thereof is carried out 80 times (2×4×10=80). Thus, numerical values from 1 to 80 are assigned to the response IDs in order. The lateral chromatic aberration correction data may require data in R-B in addition to the data in R-G. Therefore, also in R-B, the acquisition of correction data is carried out by the same procedures as those described above. “DD” is described in the function of the response data and “1” is assigned as a response ID to the first two bytes of the function data. On the third byte to the fifth byte of the function data, sequence positions of the optical correction data are described. A value representing the ordinal iris position in a sequence is placed in the third byte. A value representing the ordinal focus position in a sequence is placed in the fourth byte. A value representing the ordinal zoom position in a sequence is placed in the fifth byte. A coefficient of the actual correction data is described on the sixth byte or later. Two bytes are used for representing one coefficient. If the correction data is represented by a polynomial cubic equation, then the first coefficient “A” is described on the sixth byte and the seventh byte, the next coefficient “B” is described on the eighth byte and the ninth byte, the next coefficient “C” is described on the tenth byte and the eleventh byte, and the last coefficient D is described on twelfth byte and the thirteenth byte. It should be noted that specific numbers of bytes are used to describe the function data, A to D and the like; however, the numbers are not limited thereto, and other numbers of bytes may also be used. The request and response of correction data is carried out the number of times corresponding to the result of the following multiplication: The number of partitions of the iris position×the number of partitions of the focus position×the number of partitions of the zoom position (in this embodiment, 80 times (2×4×10=80)). Thus, the optical correction data table stored in the lens memory 17 of the lens unit 1 is read out by the memory 24 of the camera unit 2. The procedures for acquiring the light falloff at edges correction data can also be performed in a manner similar to one described above. Furthermore, if the camera unit 2 actually performs an optical correction, then coefficients based on the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position are read from the optical correlation data table previously read in its memory 24, followed by carrying out correction using the read coefficient. As described above, the lateral chromatic aberration correction data and the light falloff at edges correction data are stored in the lens unit 1 in advance. Then, the camera unit 2 reads the correction data tables stored in the lens unit 1 through communication. The camera unit 2 carries out optical correction based on the read correction data. Therefore, the optical correction can be carried out in conformity to the characteristics of the lens in the case where various kinds of interchangeable lens having different optical characteristics are used. In addition, the optical correction data table is read into the memory 24 of the camera unit 2 from the lens unit 1 when an initialization communication is carried out between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2. Therefore, any required correction data can be read from the optical correction data table stored in the memory 24 at the time of performing an optical correction in the camera unit 2. Consequently, in the case of using an interchangeable lens, the correction can be carried out in real time while shooting a moving image. The corrections of lateral chromatic aberration and light falloff at edges are designed to be carried out by image signal processing on the camera unit 2. Therefore, there is no need of using an expensive lens and the production costs can be reduced. Furthermore, in the embodiment described above, the optical correction data stored in the lens unit 1 is acquired entirely as a data table when the video camera 100 is powered on, when the lens unit 1 is connected to the camera unit 2 for the first time, or when the lens unit 1 is replaced. Alternatively, in a normal communication process carried out between the camera unit 2 and the lens unit 1, the camera unit 2 may only acquire the required optical correction data from the lens unit 1. In this case, the acquisition of optical correction data by the camera unit 2 is carried out at timing of once a field. The process example of this case will be described with reference to the flowchart of FIG. 10 and the sequence diagram and the data configuration diagram of FIG. 11. It should be noted that the above described timing is not limited to once a field, but may be once for two fields or other periods. In the flowchart of FIG. 10, first, when the video camera 100 is powered on (Step S31), the process of communication connection between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 is carried out (Step S32). Subsequently, whether a communication between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 is established by the process of communication connection is determined (Step S33). While no communication being established, the process of communication connection at Step S32 is carried out. When the establishment of the communication is determined, communication for data initialization is carried out between the lens unit 1 and the camera unit 2 (Step S34). Next, in the communication for data initialization at Step S34, if the lens unit 1 acquires the status of the lens that retains optical correction data (Step S35), whether the initialization process is completed is determined (Step S36). The initialization process is successively carried out until it is determined that the initialization process is completed. If it is determined that the initialization process is completed, then it is determined whether the lens unit 1 is a lens retaining optical correction data on the basis of the status acquired in Step S35 (Step S37). If it is determined that the lens unit 1 is a lens not retaining any optical correction data, the process proceeds to step S39 to carry out a normal communication process. If it is determined that the lens unit 1 is a lens that uses the optical correction data, then a command for requesting the acquisition of optical correction data is added to the normal communication items (Step S38), followed by carrying out the normal communication process (Step S39). Next, at Step S38 of the flowchart of FIG. 10, the command added to the normal communication items and the response transmitted from the lens unit 1 to the camera unit 2 will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 11. FIG. 11 illustrates a process example at the time of acquiring the lateral chromatic aberration correction data. First, a command, which requires lateral chromatic aberration correction data transmission, is transmitted from the camera unit 2 to the lens unit 1 (1). At this time, “DD”, which means an acquisition request for lateral chromatic aberration correction data (R-G), is described in the function of the data transmitted to the lens unit 1, so that the function data is set to “0”. The lens unit 1, which has received the command from the camera unit 2, makes a determination about the iris position, the focus position, and the zoom position at that time and then reads out the corresponding correction data from the lens memory 17, followed by responding to the camera unit 2 (2). “DD” is described in the function of the response data. The coefficient of the lateral chromatic aberration correction data is described on the function data. Two bytes are used for representing one coefficient. If the correction data is represented by a polynomial cubic equation, then the first coefficient “A” is described on the first byte and the second byte, the next coefficient “B” is described on the third byte and the fourth byte, the next coefficient “C” is described on the fifth byte and the sixth byte, and the last coefficient D is described on the seventh byte and the eighth byte. It should be noted that specific numbers of bytes are used to describe the function data, A to D and the like; however, the numbers are not limited thereto, and other numbers of bytes may also be used. Thus, every time the optical correction is carried out on the camera unit 2, the lens memory 17 of the lens unit 1 is requested to transmit optical correction data and a correction is carried out on the camera unit 2 using a coefficient contained in the response data from the lens memory 17 of the lens 1. Thus, the optical correction can be carried out in real time while shooting a moving image. Although the aforementioned embodiment has described the example applied to the video camera, not limited thereto. Any of other apparatus or the like having the same functions as those of the video camera may be employed, thereby being applicable to various kinds of the apparatuses. Although the aforementioned embodiment stores optical correction data for each kind of lens. Alternatively, the optical correction data based on the individual difference of the lens may be stored. Further, in the above described embodiments, description is given to the two kinds of correction, that is, the correction of lateral chromatic aberration and the correction of light falloff at edges. However, it should be appreciated that one of them alone may be corrected. It should be understood by those skilled in the art that various modifications, combinations, sub-combinations and alterations may occur depending on design requirements and other factors insofar as they are within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof.
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H
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52
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17
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11755002
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US20070291178A1-20071220
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NOISE REDUCTION APPARATUS FOR IMAGE SIGNAL AND METHOD THEREOF
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ACCEPTED
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20071206
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20071220
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[]
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H04N500
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["H04N500", "H04N514"]
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8212935
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20070530
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20120703
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348
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607000
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64656.0
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LEE
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MICHAEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Chao", "inventor_name_first": "Po-Wei", "inventor_city": "Taipei Hsien", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ou", "inventor_name_first": "Hsin-Ying", "inventor_city": "Hsin-Chu City", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "TW"}]
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The present invention provides a noise reduction apparatus and method thereof. The noise reduction apparatus includes a first detecting logic, a second detecting logic, a first noise filtering logic, a second noise filtering logic, and an output logic. The first detecting logic detects if a video signal has a first noise characteristic. The second detecting logic detects if the video signal has a second noise characteristic. The first noise filtering logic performs a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal. The second noise filtering logic performs a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal. The output logic receives the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal, and references detection results provided by the first detecting logic and the second detecting logic when generating an output signal.
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1. A noise reduction apparatus, comprising: a first detecting logic, for detecting if a video signal has a first noise characteristic; a second detecting logic, for detecting if the video signal has a second noise characteristic; a first noise filtering logic, for performing a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal; a second noise filtering logic, for performing a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal; and an output logic, coupled to the first detecting logic, the second detecting logic, the first noise filtering logic and the second noise filtering logic, for receiving the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal, and referencing detection results provided by the first detecting logic and the second detecting logic when generating an output signal. 2. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a memory device, coupled to the first detecting logic, the second detecting logic, the first noise filtering logic and the second noise filtering logic, for storing the video signal; wherein the first detecting logic, the second detecting logic, the first noise filtering logic and the second noise filtering logic read the video signal from the memory device. 3. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output logic also receives the video signal. 4. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output logic selects one of a plurality of received signals as the output signal. 5. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output logic performs a weighted average operation on at least a portion of the plurality of received signals to generate the output signal. 6. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a third detecting logic, for detecting if the video signal has a third noise characteristic; and a third noise filtering logic, for performing a third noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a third filtered signal; wherein the output logic is further coupled to the third detecting logic and the third noise filtering logic, and also receives the third filtered signal. 7. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first noise filtering process performed by the first noise filtering logic is an impulse noise filtering process, a temporal noise filtering process or a spatial noise filtering process. 8. The noise reduction apparatus of claim 7, wherein the second noise filtering process performed by the second noise filtering logic is an impulse noise filtering process, a temporal noise filtering process or a spatial noise filtering process. 9. A noise reduction method, comprising: detecting a video signal to determine if the video signal has a first noise characteristic; detecting the video signal to determine if the video signal has a second noise characteristic; performing a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal; performing a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal; and according to detection results of the first noise characteristic and the second noise characteristic, generating and outputting an output signal, wherein a value of the output signal is associated with at least one of the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal. 10. The noise reduction method of claim 9, wherein the step of generating and outputting the output signal further comprises: selecting one of a plurality of received signals as the output signal, wherein the plurality of received signals comprises the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal. 11. The noise reduction method of claim 9, wherein the step of generating and outputting the output signal further comprises: performing a weighted average operation on at least a portion of a plurality of received signals to generate the output signal, wherein the plurality of received signals comprises the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal. 12. The noise reduction method of claim 9, wherein the first noise filtering process is an impulse noise filtering process, a temporal noise filtering process or a spatial noise filtering process. 13. The noise reduction method of claim 12, wherein the second noise filtering process is an impulse noise filtering process, a temporal noise filtering process or a spatial noise filtering process. 14. The noise reduction method of claim 9, further comprising: storing the video signal in a memory device; in the step of determining if the video signal has the first noise characteristic, reading the video signal from the memory device; and in the step of determining if the video signal has the second noise characteristic, reading the video signal from the memory device. 15. A noise reduction method, comprising: (a) storing a first video signal; (b) reading the first video signal stored in step (a); (c) performing a first noise filtering process upon the first video signal read in step (b), wherein the first noise filtering process is performing a temporal noise filtering process upon the first video signal to generate a second video signal; (d) storing the second video signal; (e) reading the second video signal stored in step (d); and (f) performing a second noise filtering process upon the second video signal read in step (e). 16. The noise reduction method of claim 15, wherein step (f) further comprises: selecting one of a plurality of noise filtering processes to perform the second noise filtering process upon the second video signal. 17. The noise reduction method of claim 15, wherein the second noise filtering process is an impulse noise filtering process. 18. The noise reduction method of claim 15, wherein the second noise filtering process is a spatial noise filtering process.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image processing technology, and more particularly, to a noise reduction apparatus for image signal and method thereof. 2. Description of the Prior Art In the field of image processing, such as television video signal processing, interference on image quality from various types of noise is a frequently confronted problem; for example, such noise types as impulse noise, spatial noise, temporal noise, and other well-known sources of noise. In general during noise processing, one dedicated circuit is adopted for detecting and suppressing noise interference contributed by each type of noise. Please refer to FIG. 1 . FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a typical noise reduction apparatus. The noise reduction apparatus 100 has a plurality of memory devices 110 , 130 , 150 , an impulse noise filtering circuit 120 , a spatial noise filtering circuit 140 , and a temporal noise filtering circuit 160 . Firstly, the memory device 110 receives and stores video data in an input video signal, and the impulse noise filtering circuit 120 detects the video data stored in the memory device 110 and determines whether to perform impulse noise filtering processes upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, an impulse noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then stored in the memory device 130 ; otherwise, the video data is directly stored in the memory device 130 without being processed. Next, the spatial noise filtering circuit 140 detects the video data stored in the memory device 130 and determines whether to perform spatial noise filtering processes upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, a spatial noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then stored in the memory device 150 ; otherwise, the video data is directly stored in the memory device 150 without being processed. Lastly, the temporal noise filtering circuit 160 detects the video data stored in the memory device 150 and determines whether to perform a temporal noise filtering process upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, a temporal noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then outputted to the next stage; otherwise, the video data is directly outputted to the next stage without being processed. Besides of the implementation as shown in FIG. 1 where every stage has its respective memory devices 110 , 130 , and 150 , there is also another implementation of making use of a shared memory device. That is, every stage reads the video data from a shared memory device and then writes the video data back to the shared memory device after signal detecting, determining, and processing operations are finished, allowing the next stage access to the data stored in the shared memory device. Noise detection and noise reduction processing techniques of the above-mentioned noise types, such as impulse noise, spatial noise, and temporal noise, are well known in image processing fields, and have already been discussed and disclosed in various publications, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,385,261, 6,137,917, 4,694,342, and 6,430,318, etc. The detailed operations and principles are thus omitted herein for brevity. In the cascade architecture as shown in FIG. 1 , because the different noise detecting and processing operations are performed in a sequential and orderly fashion, it is required that the impulse noise filtering circuit 120 , spatial noise filtering circuit 140 , and temporal noise filtering circuit 160 have their respective and individual computing units. Moreover, because every stage of the noise filtering circuit requires a memory device for temporarily storing, or buffering, the video data of respective stages, the costs of circuit manufacturing increase. Although manufacturing costs can be reduced by adopting a shared memory architecture, the bandwidth of accessing the memory bus becomes heavily burdened due to the fact that the noise filtering circuits need to repetitively access the shared memory.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore one of the objectives of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of decreasing the demand on memory device, thereby reducing manufacturing costs. It is another objective of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of decreasing the demand on bandwidth of accessing memory bus, thereby increasing design flexibility. It is still another objective of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of smoothing or removing the unwanted artifacts in the image generated due to temporal noise filtering process by performing other type(s) of noise filtering process after the temporal noise filtering process. According to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction apparatus is disclosed. The apparatus comprises: a first detecting logic, a second detecting logic, a first noise filtering logic, a second noise filtering logic, and an output logic. The first detecting logic is used to detect if a video signal has a first noise characteristic. The second detecting logic is used to detect if the video signal has a second noise characteristic. The first noise filtering logic is used to perform a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal. The second noise filtering logic is used to perform a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal. The output logic is coupled to the first detecting logic, the second detecting logic, the first noise filtering logic and the second noise filtering logic, for receiving the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal, and referencing detection results provided by the first detecting logic and the second detecting logic when generating an output signal. According to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction method is also disclosed. The method comprises: detecting a video signal to determine if the video signal has a first noise characteristic; detecting the video signal to determine if the video signal has a second noise characteristic; performing a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal; performing a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal; and according to detection results of the first noise characteristic and the second noise characteristic, generating and outputting an output signal, wherein a value of the output signal corresponds to at least one of the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal. According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction method is also disclosed. The method comprises: (a) storing a first video signal; (b) reading the first video signal stored in step (a); (c) performing a first noise filtering process upon the first video signal read in step (b), wherein the first noise filtering process is performing a temporal noise filtering process upon the first video signal to generate a second video signal; (d) storing the second video signal; (e) reading the second video signal stored in step (d); and (f) performing a second noise filtering process upon the second video signal read in step (e). These and other objectives of the present invention will no doubt become obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art after reading the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment that is illustrated in the various figures and drawings.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image processing technology, and more particularly, to a noise reduction apparatus for image signal and method thereof. 2. Description of the Prior Art In the field of image processing, such as television video signal processing, interference on image quality from various types of noise is a frequently confronted problem; for example, such noise types as impulse noise, spatial noise, temporal noise, and other well-known sources of noise. In general during noise processing, one dedicated circuit is adopted for detecting and suppressing noise interference contributed by each type of noise. Please refer to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a typical noise reduction apparatus. The noise reduction apparatus 100 has a plurality of memory devices 110, 130, 150, an impulse noise filtering circuit 120, a spatial noise filtering circuit 140, and a temporal noise filtering circuit 160. Firstly, the memory device 110 receives and stores video data in an input video signal, and the impulse noise filtering circuit 120 detects the video data stored in the memory device 110 and determines whether to perform impulse noise filtering processes upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, an impulse noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then stored in the memory device 130; otherwise, the video data is directly stored in the memory device 130 without being processed. Next, the spatial noise filtering circuit 140 detects the video data stored in the memory device 130 and determines whether to perform spatial noise filtering processes upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, a spatial noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then stored in the memory device 150; otherwise, the video data is directly stored in the memory device 150 without being processed. Lastly, the temporal noise filtering circuit 160 detects the video data stored in the memory device 150 and determines whether to perform a temporal noise filtering process upon the stored video data. If it is determined to perform, a temporal noise filtering process is performed and the processed video data is then outputted to the next stage; otherwise, the video data is directly outputted to the next stage without being processed. Besides of the implementation as shown in FIG. 1 where every stage has its respective memory devices 110, 130, and 150, there is also another implementation of making use of a shared memory device. That is, every stage reads the video data from a shared memory device and then writes the video data back to the shared memory device after signal detecting, determining, and processing operations are finished, allowing the next stage access to the data stored in the shared memory device. Noise detection and noise reduction processing techniques of the above-mentioned noise types, such as impulse noise, spatial noise, and temporal noise, are well known in image processing fields, and have already been discussed and disclosed in various publications, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,385,261, 6,137,917, 4,694,342, and 6,430,318, etc. The detailed operations and principles are thus omitted herein for brevity. In the cascade architecture as shown in FIG. 1, because the different noise detecting and processing operations are performed in a sequential and orderly fashion, it is required that the impulse noise filtering circuit 120, spatial noise filtering circuit 140, and temporal noise filtering circuit 160 have their respective and individual computing units. Moreover, because every stage of the noise filtering circuit requires a memory device for temporarily storing, or buffering, the video data of respective stages, the costs of circuit manufacturing increase. Although manufacturing costs can be reduced by adopting a shared memory architecture, the bandwidth of accessing the memory bus becomes heavily burdened due to the fact that the noise filtering circuits need to repetitively access the shared memory. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore one of the objectives of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of decreasing the demand on memory device, thereby reducing manufacturing costs. It is another objective of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of decreasing the demand on bandwidth of accessing memory bus, thereby increasing design flexibility. It is still another objective of the present invention to provide a noise reduction apparatus and method, capable of smoothing or removing the unwanted artifacts in the image generated due to temporal noise filtering process by performing other type(s) of noise filtering process after the temporal noise filtering process. According to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction apparatus is disclosed. The apparatus comprises: a first detecting logic, a second detecting logic, a first noise filtering logic, a second noise filtering logic, and an output logic. The first detecting logic is used to detect if a video signal has a first noise characteristic. The second detecting logic is used to detect if the video signal has a second noise characteristic. The first noise filtering logic is used to perform a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal. The second noise filtering logic is used to perform a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal. The output logic is coupled to the first detecting logic, the second detecting logic, the first noise filtering logic and the second noise filtering logic, for receiving the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal, and referencing detection results provided by the first detecting logic and the second detecting logic when generating an output signal. According to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction method is also disclosed. The method comprises: detecting a video signal to determine if the video signal has a first noise characteristic; detecting the video signal to determine if the video signal has a second noise characteristic; performing a first noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a first filtered signal; performing a second noise filtering process upon the video signal to generate a second filtered signal; and according to detection results of the first noise characteristic and the second noise characteristic, generating and outputting an output signal, wherein a value of the output signal corresponds to at least one of the first filtered signal and the second filtered signal. According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a noise reduction method is also disclosed. The method comprises: (a) storing a first video signal; (b) reading the first video signal stored in step (a); (c) performing a first noise filtering process upon the first video signal read in step (b), wherein the first noise filtering process is performing a temporal noise filtering process upon the first video signal to generate a second video signal; (d) storing the second video signal; (e) reading the second video signal stored in step (d); and (f) performing a second noise filtering process upon the second video signal read in step (e). These and other objectives of the present invention will no doubt become obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art after reading the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment that is illustrated in the various figures and drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a typical noise reduction apparatus for processing impulse noise, spatial noise and temporal noise. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a noise reduction apparatus for video signals according to a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a detailed circuit diagram of the noise reduction apparatus shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a noise reduction apparatus for video signals according to a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a detailed circuit diagram of the noise reduction apparatus shown in FIG. 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Please refer to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a noise reduction apparatus 200 for video signals according to a first embodiment of the present invention. The noise reduction apparatus 200 comprises a memory device 230, a detector 210, and a noise reduction circuit 220, and is for performing noise detection and reduction process upon a received video signal on a pixel-by-pixel basis. That is to say, the noise reduction apparatus 200 detects every pixel in the above-mentioned video signal individually to determine the appropriate filtering process, so that the filtering process for different pixels differs according to the detection results. The detector 210 detects a plurality of noise characteristics of the video data stored in the memory device 230 and generates respective corresponding detection results. The noise reduction circuit 220 then determines whether to perform a filtering process upon the video data in response to at least one of the noise characteristics according to the detection results, so as to reduce the noise effect induced by said noise characteristic. Please refer to FIG. 3. FIG. 3 is a detailed circuit diagram of the noise reduction apparatus 200 shown in FIG. 2. The detector 210 further comprises an impulse noise detector 212, a motion detector 214, and a spatial noise detector 216. The three detectors all receive and perform detection upon the video signal stored in the memory device 230. The impulse noise detector 212 is for detecting the impulse noise characteristic of the video data; the motion detector 214 is for detecting the degree of motion of the video data, and determining the temporal noise characteristic of the video signal according to the detected degree of motion; and the spatial noise detector 216 is for detecting the spatial noise characteristic of the video data. Please note that the impulse noise detector 212, motion detector 214, and spatial noise detector 216 respectively perform detection upon the video data stored in the memory device 230, and generate respective detection results. In this embodiment, the above-mentioned detection results are one-bit values for respectively representing whether the video signal has impulse noise characteristic, temporal noise characteristic, and spatial noise characteristic. As mentioned previously, the above-mentioned noise characteristic detection techniques are well known to those skilled in the art, and therefore further details are omitted herein for brevity. The noise reduction circuit 220 comprises an impulse noise filter 222, a temporal noise filter 224, a spatial noise filter 226, and a selecting unit 228. The impulse noise filter 222 performs an impulse noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 230, and generates an impulse noise filtered signal. The temporal noise filter 224 performs a temporal noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 230, and generates a temporal noise filtered signal. The spatial noise filter 226 performs a spatial noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 230, and generates a spatial noise filtered signal. The selecting unit 228 receives said impulse noise filtered signal, temporal noise filtered signal, spatial noise filtered signal, and the original, unfiltered video data stored in the memory device 230, and then determines which one of the four inputs is to be output according to the detection results provided by the impulse noise detector 212, motion detector 214, and spatial noise detector 216. In this embodiment, if the detection result provided by the impulse noise detector 212 indicates that the video signal has an impulse noise characteristic, the selecting unit 228 then chooses the impulse noise filtered signal as an output; if the video signal does not has an impulse noise characteristic, and the detection result provided by the motion detector 214 indicates that the video signal has a temporal noise characteristic, the selecting unit 228 then chooses the temporal noise filtered signal as an output; if the video signal has neither an impulse noise characteristic nor a temporal noise characteristic, and the detection result provided by the spatial noise detector 216 indicates that the video signal has a spatial noise characteristic, the selecting unit 228 then chooses the spatial noise filtered signal as an output; if the video signal does not have any of the noise characteristics mentioned above, the selecting unit 228 then chooses the original video data as an output. In other words, in this embodiment, the output signal is determined by the selecting unit 228, following the priority of: impulse noise filtered version, then temporal noise filtered version, and then spatial noise filtered version of the video signal. This exemplary priority, however, should not be taken as a limitation of the present invention, and other priorities can also be adopted depending upon design choice. Please note that in the above-mentioned embodiment, although the noise reduction apparatus 200 makes use of the selecting unit 228 to choose one of the filtering results from a plurality of noise filters as the output according to the detection results provided by detectors 212, 214, and 216, however, this is not meant to be a limitation of the present invention. In other embodiments of the present invention, the selecting unit 228 can be replaced with a computing unit. Unlike the selecting unit 228 choosing one input signal as an output, the computing unit can perform specific computing processes upon a plurality of input video signals (for example, impulse noise filtered signal, temporal noise filtered signal, spatial noise filtered signal, and the original video data stored in the memory device 230) according to the actual requirement for noise reduction. For example, a weighted average operation can be performed upon a portion or all of the above-mentioned video signals, to render an output, wherein the weighting factors of the weighted average operation can be determined according to the above-mentioned detection results or other parameters. Please refer to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a noise reduction apparatus 400 for video signals according to a second embodiment of the present invention. The noise reduction apparatus 400 comprises a temporal noise filtering circuit 410, a plurality of memory devices 420, 450, a detector 430, and a noise reduction circuit 440, and is for performing noise detection and reduction processes upon a received video signal on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The temporal noise filtering circuit 410 determines whether to perform temporal noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 450, in order to reduce the temporal noise of the video signal, and then stores its output to the memory device 420. The detector 430 detects a plurality of noise characteristics of the video data stored in the memory device 420 and generates respective corresponding detection results. The noise reduction circuit 440 determines whether to perform a filtering process upon the video data in response to at least one of the noise characteristics according to the detection results, in order to reduce the noise effect of said noise characteristic. Please refer to FIG. 5. FIG. 5 is a detailed circuit diagram of the noise reduction apparatus 400 shown in FIG. 4. The temporal noise filtering circuit 410 comprises a motion detector 412, a temporal noise filter 414, and a selecting unit 416. The motion detector 412 is for detecting the degree of motion of the video signal, and determining the temporal noise characteristic of the video signal according to the detected degree of motion. The motion detector 412 performs detection upon the video data stored in the memory device 450, and generates a detection result. In this embodiment, the above-mentioned detection result is a one-bit value for representing whether the video signal has a temporal noise characteristic. The temporal noise filter 414 performs a temporal noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 450 and generates a temporal noise filtered signal. The selecting unit 416 receives the temporal noise-filtering signal and the original video data stored in the memory device 450, and then determines which of the two inputs is to be outputted according to the detection result provided by the motion detector 412. In this embodiment, if the detection result provided by the motion detector 412 indicates that the video signal has a temporal noise characteristic, the selecting unit 416 then chooses the temporal noise filtered signal as an output; otherwise, the selecting unit 416 chooses the original video data as an output. Lastly, the output signal chosen by the selecting unit 416 is stored in the memory device 420. The detector 430 further comprises an impulse noise detector 432 and a spatial noise detector 434. Both the above-mentioned detectors receive and detect the video data stored in the memory device 420, wherein the impulse noise detector 432 is aimed at detecting an impulse noise characteristic of the video signal and the spatial noise detector 434 is aimed at detecting a spatial noise characteristic of the video signal. Please note that the impulse noise detector 432 and the spatial noise detector 434 detect the video data stored in the memory device 420 and generate respective detection results. In this embodiment, the above-mentioned detection results are one-bit values for respectively representing whether the video signal has impulse noise and spatial noise characteristics. The noise reduction circuit 440 comprises an impulse noise filter 442, a spatial noise filter 444, and a selecting unit 446. The impulse noise filter 442 performs an impulse noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 420 and generates an impulse noise filtered signal. The spatial noise filter 444 performs a spatial noise filtering process upon the video data stored in the memory device 420 and generates a spatial noise filtered signal. The selecting unit 446 receives the impulse noise-filtering signal, the spatial noise-filtering signal, and the video data stored in the memory device 420, and then determines which one of the three inputs is to be outputted according to the detection results provided by the impulse noise detector 432 and the spatial noise detector 434. In this embodiment, if the detection result provided by the impulse noise detector 432 indicates that the video signal has an impulse noise characteristic, the selecting unit 446 then chooses the impulse noise filtered signal as an output; if the video signal does not have an impulse noise characteristic and the detection result provided by the spatial noise detector 434 indicates that the video signal has a spatial noise characteristic, the selecting unit 446 then chooses the spatial noise filtered signal as an output; if the video signal does not have any of the noise characteristics mentioned above, the selecting unit 446 then chooses the video data stored in the memory device 420 as an output. Please note that in the above-mentioned embodiment, although the noise reduction apparatus 400 makes use of the selecting unit 446 to choose one of the filtering results from a plurality of noise filters as the output according to the detection results provided by detectors 432 and 434, however, this is not meant to be a limitation of the present invention. In other embodiments of the present invention, the selecting unit 446 can be replaced with a computing unit, which can perform specific computing processes upon a plurality of input video signals (for example, an impulse noise filtered signal, a spatial noise filtered signal, and the video data stored in the memory device 420) according to the actual requirements for noise reduction. For example, a weighted average operation can be performed upon a portion or all of the above-mentioned video signals to render an output, wherein the weighting factors of the weighted average operation can be determined according to the above-mentioned detection results or other parameters. In this embodiment, the process performed by the noise reduction apparatus 400 is divided into two stages, separated by the video data stored in the memory device 450 and the video data stored in the memory device 420. In the first stage, a temporal noise reduction process is performed if it is justified by the noise detection result. After storing the result into the memory device 420, other noise reduction processes, such as an impulse noise reduction process or a spatial noise reduction process, are performed. Under such a system design, as is well understood in the art, the unwanted image artifacts, such as sawtooth or zigzag generated accompanying the temporal noise filtering process, can be smoothed or removed by performing other types of noise filtering processes, thereby improving the image quality. Please note that, in the above-mentioned embodiments, although individual memory blocks are used for representing storage, such as memory devices 130, 420, and 450, in practice storage can be implemented using line buffers, frame buffers, or other such dedicated memory devices. However, a skilled artisan can readily appreciate that this is not the only embodiment of the present invention. The buffering function can also be implemented by other storage arrangements, such as accessing a shared memory device with a common bus (e.g., a DRAM or FLASH). Further, in the above-mentioned embodiments individual circuit blocks are used for representing the detectors, the filters, and the selecting units. However, a person familiar with circuit design techniques can readily appreciate that these functions can be implemented with dedicated circuits, such as ASICs, or general-purpose circuits, for example, processors with computing capacity for executing suitable instruction sets. Moreover, in the above-mentioned embodiments, only the detections and the filtering processes for impulse noise, temporal noise, and spatial noise are disclosed, but the noise reduction apparatus and method of the present invention are not limited to process these listed noise characteristics. The noise reduction apparatus and method of the present invention can also be used to account for detecting and processing other conventional or new noise types. According to the foregoing illustration, the noise reduction apparatus 200, 400 in the embodiments of the present invention require less memory devices or less bandwidth for bus when accessing the shared memory device than the conventional apparatus shown in FIG. 1. Therefore, manufacturing costs are reduced, and design flexibility is improved. Those skilled in the art will readily observe that numerous modifications and alterations of the device and method may be made while retaining the teachings of the invention. Accordingly, the above disclosure should be construed as limited only by the metes and bounds of the appended claims.
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5
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00
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11810962
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US20080007655A1-20080110
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Image signal processing apparatus, image display and image display method
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ACCEPTED
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20071226
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20080110
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[]
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H04N514
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["H04N514"]
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8098328
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20070606
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20120117
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348
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558000
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61920.0
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YENKE
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BRIAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Fujisawa", "inventor_name_first": "Tomoichi", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Miyazaki", "inventor_name_first": "Shinichiro", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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An image signal processing apparatus capable of detecting a black band region included in an input image signal in a shorter time is provided. The image signal processing apparatus may include a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means.
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1. An image signal processing apparatus comprising: a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means. 2. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 1, comprising: a threshold value setting means for setting the threshold value. 3. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the black band detecting means detects the pixel number of pixels with a signal level less than a threshold value which continues from an end of the measurement region, and performs the detecting process along an end of a measurement region to determine the minimum value of the detected pixel number as the width of a black band region. 4. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 1, comprising: a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; and a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value. 5. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. 6. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the measuring means concurrently measures the measurement region in two directions, that is, a horizontal direction and a vertical direction. 7. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the measurement region determining means assigns both end positions in a horizontal direction and a top end position in a vertical direction in a basic region to both end positions in a horizontal direction and a top end position in a vertical direction in the measurement region, respectively, and assigns a position determined by adding an initial increment/decrement value to the top end position in the basic region to an initial bottom end position in the measurement region, and from then on, the measurement region determining means repeatedly determines a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the increment/decrement value to or from the previous bottom end position in the measurement region, and the black band detecting means detects a top side black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of the measurement results on the measurement regions set by the measurement region determining means. 8. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the measurement region determining means assigns both end positions in a horizontal direction and a bottom end position in a vertical direction in a basic region to both end positions in a horizontal direction and a bottom end position in a vertical direction in the measurement region, respectively, and assigns a position determined by subtracting an initial increment/decrement value from the bottom end position in the basic region to an initial top end position in the measurement region, and from then on, the measurement region determining means repeatedly determines a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the increment/decrement value to or from the previous top end position in the measurement region, and the black band detecting means detects a bottom side black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of the measurement results on the measurement regions set by the measurement region determining means. 9. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the measurement region determining means assigns both end positions in a vertical direction and a left end position in a horizontal direction in the basic region to both end positions in a vertical direction and a left end position in a horizontal direction in the measurement region, respectively, and assigns a position determined by adding an initial increment/decrement value to the left end position in the basic region to an initial right end position in the measurement region, and from then on, the measurement region determining means repeatedly determines a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the increment/decrement value to or from the previous right end position in the measurement region, the black band detecting means detects a left side black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of the measurement results on the measurement regions set by the measurement region determining means. 10. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the measurement region determining means assigns both end positions in a vertical direction and a right end position in a horizontal direction in the basic region to a both end positions in a vertical direction and a right end position in a horizontal direction in the measurement region, respectively, and assigns a position determined by subtracting an initial increment/decrement value from the right end position in the basic region to an initial left end position in the measurement region, and from then on, the measurement region determining means repeatedly determines a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the increment/decrement value to or from the previous left end position in the measurement region, and the black band detecting means detects a right side black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of the measurement results on the measurement regions set by the measurement region determining means. 11. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: an image processing means for determining a corrected region of the input image signal on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means, and performing predetermined image processing on an input image signal in the corrected region. 12. An image signal processing apparatus comprising: a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. 13. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 12, wherein the black band detecting means detects the pixel number of pixels with a signal level less than a threshold value which continues from an end of the measurement region, and performs the detecting process along an end of the measurement region to determine the minimum value of the detected pixel number as the width of a black band region. 14. The image signal processing unit according to claim 12, wherein the measuring means concurrently measures the measurement region in two directions, that is, a horizontal direction and a vertical direction. 15. The image signal processing apparatus according to claim 12, further comprising: an image processing means for determining a corrected region of the input image signal on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means, and performing predetermined image processing on an input image signal in the corrected region. 16. An image display comprising: a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means; and a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means. 17. The image display according to claim 16, comprising: a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; and a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the previous increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. 18. The image display according to claim 16, further comprising: an image processing means for determining a corrected region of the input image signal on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means, and performing predetermined image processing on an input image signal in the corrected region, wherein the display means displays an image on the basis of the input image signal after the image processing. 19. An image display comprising: a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means; and a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. 20. The image display according to claim 19, further comprising: an image processing means for determining a corrected region of the input image signal on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means, and performing predetermined image processing on an input image signal in the corrected region, wherein the display means displays an image on the basis of the input image signal after the image processing. 21. An image display method comprising: measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region. 22. The image display method according to claim 21 comprising: providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; and determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value, wherein the increment/decrement value is reset to half of the previous value, a new measurement region is selectively reset by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected from the measurement result, and the measurement is performed on a new measurement region. 23. The image display method according to claim 21, wherein a corrected region of the input image signal is determined on the basis of a detection result of the black band region, and predetermined image processing is performed on an input image signal in the corrected region, and an image is displayed on the basis of the input image signal after the image processing. 24. An image display method comprising: measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region, wherein the increment/decrement value is reset to half of the previous value, a new measurement region is selectively reset by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected from the measurement result, and the measurement is performed on a new measurement region. 25. The image display method according to claim 24, wherein a corrected region of the input image signal is determined on the basis of a detection result of the black band region, and predetermined image processing is performed on an input image signal in the corrected region, and an image is displayed on the basis of the input image signal after the image processing. 26. An image signal processing apparatus comprising: a measuring section measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; and a black band detecting section detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring section. 27. An image signal processing apparatus comprising: a measuring section measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing section providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing section providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining section determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; and a black band detecting section detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring section, wherein the increment/decrement value providing section resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining section selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting section, and the measuring section performs the measurement on a new measurement region. 28. An image display comprising: a measuring section measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a black band detecting section detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring section; and a display section displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting section. 29. An image display comprising: a measuring section measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing section providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing section providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining section determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; a black band detecting section detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring section; and a display section displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting section, wherein the increment/decrement value providing section resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining section selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting section, and the measuring section performs the measurement on a new measurement region.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image signal processing apparatus and an image display each having a function of detecting a black band region included in an image signal, and an image display method performing such a black band detecting process. 2. Description of the Related Art Image displays such as television receivers (TVs) typically have an image processing function which makes image quality correction to an input image (for example, functions such as luminance or contrast control, and contour correction). Such an image processing function is performed by acquiring, for example, the average peak level (APL) of an input image signal or the histogram distribution of a luminance level, and is effectively applied, because gradation is improved by preventing an image from appearing too dark or preventing poor reproduction of black. Among image signals from DVDs containing Cinemascope size images or image signals transmitted from broadcast stations, there are a signal called a letterbox including black band regions above and below an image region, and a signal called a side panel including black band regions on the right and the left of an image region. When the above-described image processing is performed on such an image signal including the black band regions, the image processing is performed also on the black band regions which are independent of the contents of the image region, so image quality is not appropriately corrected, and the effect of the image processing is reduced. Therefore, to effectively detect a black band region included in an input image signal in such a manner, various methods are proposed (for example, refer to Japanese Patent No. 3429842 and Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication Nos. H05-27736 and 2005-203933.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>However, in detection methods shown in Japanese Patent No. 3429842 and Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication Nos. H05-27736 and 2005-203933, the presence or absence of the black band region is determined on a line-by-line basis in each frame, so it takes a very long time to detect the whole black band region. Therefore, for example, when scenes are changed, a detecting process goes back to the beginning during the middle of the detecting process, thereby the detecting process may not be completed. In recent years, for example, like full HD (High Definition) TVs, the resolutions of image displays are increased, so it is very important to appropriately perform a black band detecting process in a short time. In view of the foregoing, it may be desirable to provide an image signal processing apparatus, an image display and an image display method capable of detecting a black band region included in an input image signal in a shorter time. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image signal processing apparatus which may include a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means. In this case, the above-described black band detecting means may detect the pixel number of pixels with a signal level less than a threshold value which continues from an end of the measurement region, and may perform the detecting process along an end of the measurement region to determine the minimum value of the detected pixel number as the width of a black band region. In addition, “a unit frame” may mean one or a few image frames or one or a few image fields. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image display which may include a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means in addition to the measuring means and the black band detecting means in the first image signal processing apparatus according to the embodiment of the invention. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image display method which may include measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region. In the first image signal processing apparatus, the first image display and the first image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal is detected. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image signal processing apparatus which may include a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image display which may include a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means in addition to the above-mentioned means. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image display method which may include measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region, wherein the increment/decrement value is reset to half of the previous value, a new measurement region is selectively reset by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected from the measurement result, and the measurement is performed on a new measurement region. In the second image signal processing apparatus, the second image display and the second image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal is detected. At this time, a basic region as a basic part to be measured and an increment/decrement value in the measurement region may be provided, and on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value, the above-described measurement region may be determined. Moreover, depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region may be detected from the measurement result, a new measurement region may be set by adding or subtracting ½ of the previous increment/decrement value as a new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region. Then, the measurement may be performed on a new measurement region. In the first image signal processing apparatus, the first image display or the first image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected, so compared to related arts, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected in a shorter time. Moreover, in the second image signal processing apparatus, the second image display or the second image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, from a measurement result of whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value, the boundary between a black band region and an image region may be detected, and a new measurement region may be determined by adding or subtracting ½ of the previous increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary is detected, and a new measurement region may be repeatedly measured, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region may be detected, so compared to related arts, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected in a shorter time. Other and further objects, features and advantages of the invention will appear more fully from the following description.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. JP 2006-159316 filed in the Japanese Patent Office on Jun. 8, 2006, the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image signal processing apparatus and an image display each having a function of detecting a black band region included in an image signal, and an image display method performing such a black band detecting process. 2. Description of the Related Art Image displays such as television receivers (TVs) typically have an image processing function which makes image quality correction to an input image (for example, functions such as luminance or contrast control, and contour correction). Such an image processing function is performed by acquiring, for example, the average peak level (APL) of an input image signal or the histogram distribution of a luminance level, and is effectively applied, because gradation is improved by preventing an image from appearing too dark or preventing poor reproduction of black. Among image signals from DVDs containing Cinemascope size images or image signals transmitted from broadcast stations, there are a signal called a letterbox including black band regions above and below an image region, and a signal called a side panel including black band regions on the right and the left of an image region. When the above-described image processing is performed on such an image signal including the black band regions, the image processing is performed also on the black band regions which are independent of the contents of the image region, so image quality is not appropriately corrected, and the effect of the image processing is reduced. Therefore, to effectively detect a black band region included in an input image signal in such a manner, various methods are proposed (for example, refer to Japanese Patent No. 3429842 and Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication Nos. H05-27736 and 2005-203933. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, in detection methods shown in Japanese Patent No. 3429842 and Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication Nos. H05-27736 and 2005-203933, the presence or absence of the black band region is determined on a line-by-line basis in each frame, so it takes a very long time to detect the whole black band region. Therefore, for example, when scenes are changed, a detecting process goes back to the beginning during the middle of the detecting process, thereby the detecting process may not be completed. In recent years, for example, like full HD (High Definition) TVs, the resolutions of image displays are increased, so it is very important to appropriately perform a black band detecting process in a short time. In view of the foregoing, it may be desirable to provide an image signal processing apparatus, an image display and an image display method capable of detecting a black band region included in an input image signal in a shorter time. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image signal processing apparatus which may include a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means. In this case, the above-described black band detecting means may detect the pixel number of pixels with a signal level less than a threshold value which continues from an end of the measurement region, and may perform the detecting process along an end of the measurement region to determine the minimum value of the detected pixel number as the width of a black band region. In addition, “a unit frame” may mean one or a few image frames or one or a few image fields. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image display which may include a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means in addition to the measuring means and the black band detecting means in the first image signal processing apparatus according to the embodiment of the invention. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a first image display method which may include measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region. In the first image signal processing apparatus, the first image display and the first image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal is detected. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image signal processing apparatus which may include a measuring means for measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; a basic region providing means for providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; an increment/decrement value providing means for providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; a measurement region determining means for determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; and a black band detecting means for detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result from the measuring means, wherein the increment/decrement value providing means resets the increment/decrement value to half of the previous value, the measurement region determining means selectively resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected by the black band detecting means, and the measuring means performs the measurement on a new measurement region. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image display which may include a display means for displaying an image on the basis of a detection result from the black band detecting means in addition to the above-mentioned means. According to an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a second image display method which may include measuring in a unit frame period whether each pixel in a designated measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value; providing a basic region as a basic part to be measured; providing an increment/decrement value in the measurement region; determining the measurement region on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value; detecting a black band region included in the input image signal on the basis of a measurement result; and displaying an image on the basis of a detection result of the black band region, wherein the increment/decrement value is reset to half of the previous value, a new measurement region is selectively reset by adding or subtracting the new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region is detected from the measurement result, and the measurement is performed on a new measurement region. In the second image signal processing apparatus, the second image display and the second image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal is detected. At this time, a basic region as a basic part to be measured and an increment/decrement value in the measurement region may be provided, and on the basis of the basic region and the increment/decrement value, the above-described measurement region may be determined. Moreover, depending on whether the boundary between a black band region and an image region may be detected from the measurement result, a new measurement region may be set by adding or subtracting ½ of the previous increment/decrement value as a new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region. Then, the measurement may be performed on a new measurement region. In the first image signal processing apparatus, the first image display or the first image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value may be measured in a unit frame period, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected, so compared to related arts, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected in a shorter time. Moreover, in the second image signal processing apparatus, the second image display or the second image display method according to the embodiment of the invention, from a measurement result of whether each pixel in a measurement region of an input image signal has a signal level less than a threshold value, the boundary between a black band region and an image region may be detected, and a new measurement region may be determined by adding or subtracting ½ of the previous increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement region depending on whether the boundary is detected, and a new measurement region may be repeatedly measured, and on the basis of the measurement result, a black band region may be detected, so compared to related arts, a black band region included in the input image signal may be detected in a shorter time. Other and further objects, features and advantages of the invention will appear more fully from the following description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the whole structure of an image display according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a detailed structure of a black band detecting section shown in FIG. 1; FIGS. 3A and 3B are schematic views for describing an input image signal including black band regions; FIGS. 4A and 4B are schematic views for describing a measuring process by a measuring section; FIG. 5 is a schematic view for describing an increment/decrement value in a measurement region; FIG. 6 is a schematic view for describing a lower limit value of the width of an image region; FIG. 7 is a timing chart for describing a process of measuring a horizontal back porch length; FIG. 8 is a timing chart for describing a process of measuring a horizontal front porch length; FIG. 9 is a timing chart for describing a process of measuring a vertical back porch length; FIG. 10 is a timing chart for describing a process of measuring a vertical front porch length; FIG. 11 is a flowchart showing a black band detecting process; FIGS. 12A and 12B are schematic views for describing the black band detecting process; FIGS. 13A and 13B are schematic views for describing binary search of a black band region in a vertical direction; FIGS. 14A and 14B are schematic views for describing binary search of a black band region in a horizontal direction; FIG. 15 is a flowchart showing the details of a black band detection starting process in FIG. 11; FIG. 16 is a flowchart showing the details of a boundary determining process 1 in FIG. 11; FIG. 17 is a flowchart showing the details of the boundary determining process 1 following FIG. 16; FIGS. 18A and 18B are schematic views for describing the boundary determining process 1; FIG. 19 is a flowchart showing the details of a boundary determining process 2 in FIG. 11; FIG. 20 is a flowchart showing the details of the boundary determining process 2 following FIG. 19; FIGS. 21A and 21B are schematic views for describing the boundary determining process 2; FIG. 22 is a flowchart showing the details of a black band detection determining process in FIG. 11; FIG. 23 is a flowchart showing the details of the black band detection determining process following FIG. 22; FIG. 24 is a flowchart showing an aspect ratio adjustment process on an input image signal; FIGS. 25A, 25B and 25C are schematic views for describing a process of determining whether only a black band is present in a measurement region; FIG. 26 is a flowchart showing the details of a scaling ratio computing process in FIG. 24; FIG. 27 is a flowchart showing the details of the scaling ratio computing process following FIG. 26; FIG. 28 is a schematic view for describing a measurement result in the case where a black band region is not present; and FIGS. 29A, 29B and 29C are schematic views for describing an input image signal scaling process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A preferred embodiment will be described in detail below referring to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows the whole structure of an image display according to an embodiment of the invention. The image display includes a tuner 11, a Y/C separation circuit 12, a chroma decoder 13, a switch 14, a black band detecting section 2, an image processing section 3, a matrix circuit 41, a driver 42 and a display section 5. An image signal processing apparatus and an image display method according to an embodiment of the invention are embodied by the image display according to the embodiment, so they will be also described below. Image signals inputted into the image display may be outputs from a VCR (Video Cassette Recorder), a DVD or the like in addition to a TV signal from a TV. It has become common practice for recent televisions and personal computers (PCs) to obtain image information from a plurality of kinds of media and display an image corresponding to each of the media. The tuner 11 receives and demodulates the TV signal from the TV, and outputs the TV signal as a composite video burst signal (CVBS). The Y/C separation circuit 12 separates the composite video burst signal from the tuner 11 or a composite video burst signal from a VCR or a DVD1 into a luminance signal Y1 and a chrominance signal C1 to output them. The chroma decoder 13 outputs the luminance signal Y1 and the chrominance signal C1 separated by the Y/C separation circuit 12 as YUV signals (Y1, U1, V1) including the luminance signal Y1 and color-difference signals U1 and The YUV signals are image data of a two-dimensional digital image, and a set of pixel values corresponding to a position on an image. A luminance signal Y represents a luminance level, and takes an amplitude value between a white level which is 100% white and a black level. Moreover, a 100% white image signal is 100 (IRE) in a unit called IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers) representing a relative ratio of an image signal. The black level is 0 IRE. On the other hand, the color-difference signals U and V correspond to a signal B-Y produced by subtracting the luminance signal Y from blue (B), and a signal R-Y produced by subtracting the luminance signal Y from red (R), respectively, and when the signals U and V are combined with the luminance signal Y, colors (hue, chroma saturation, luminance) can be shown. The switch 14 switches YUV signals from a plurality of kinds of media (in this case, the YUV signals (Y1, U1, V1) and YUV signals (Y2, U2, V2) from a DVD2) so as to output selected signals as YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin). The black band detecting section 2 detects a black band region included in the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as input image signals, and more specifically, the black band detecting section 2 detects the black band region on the basis of the luminance signal Yin so as to output a detection result Kout to the image processing section 3 which will be described later. The black band detecting section 2 includes a signal type identifying section 21, a measuring section 22 and a detecting section 23. FIG. 2 shows a detailed structure of the black band detecting section 2. The signal type identifying section 21 identifies the type of the input image signal, and more specifically, the signal type identifying section 21 identifies signal types such as, for example, an NTSC 480i signal and a PAL (Phase Alternating Line) 576i signal. The measuring section 22 includes a signal level comparing section 221 and a measurement result output section 222, and performs predetermined measurement on a designated measurement region in the input image signals in a unit frame period. More specifically, the measuring section 22 measures whether the signal level of each pixel in the measurement region is less than a threshold value Vt set on the basis of the luminance signal Yin. FIGS. 3A and 3B schematically show each region in the case where black band regions are included in an input image signal 6. FIG. 3A shows the case where black band regions 61A and 61B are arranged above and below an image region 62, and corresponds to, for example, a Cinemascope size image signal. Moreover, in the black band region 61A, an OSD (On Screen Display) 63A is inserted, and in the black band region 61B, subtitles 63B are inserted. Further, a blanking region 60 is arranged around the image region 62 and the black band regions 61A and 61B. On the other hand, FIG. 3B shows the case where black band regions 65A and 65B are arranged on the right and the left of an image region 66, and corresponds to, for example, a side panel image signal or the like. The blanking region 60 is arranged around the image region 66 and the black band regions 65A and 65B. In addition, there is the case where an OSD or subtitles are inserted in black band regions or the case where an OSC or subtitles are not inserted in black band regions, and even in the case where an OSC or subtitles are inserted, the OSC or the subtitles may be inserted in either or both of black band regions above and below an image region or on the right and the left of an image region. For example, as shown in FIG. 4A, the signal level comparing section 221 compares between the signal level of the luminance singal Yin in each pixel and the signal level of the set threshold value Vt in the designated measurement region 64A of the input image signal 6 in the unit frame period, and outputs the pixel position with a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt. For example, the threshold value Vt is set so that the pixel position of the image region 62 is outputted and the pixel positions of the blanking region 60 and the black band regions 61A and 61B are not outputted. Moreover, the measurement result output section 222 determines and outputs a horizontal back porch length Hbp, a horizontal front porch length Hfp, a vertical back porch length Vbp and a vertical front porch length Vfp in the measurement region 64A as shown in FIG. 4A on the basis of the pixel position with a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt which is outputted from the signal level comparing section 221. The measurement region 64A in FIG. 4A shows the case where the measurement region 64A is a basic region as a basic part for detecting a black band; however, for example, like a measurement region 64B shown in FIG. 4B, the zone of a measurement region can be freely determined. The increase or degrease in the zone of the measurement region will be described later. The detecting section 23 detects a black band region actually included in the input image signal 6 on the basis of the measurement results of the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hbp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measuring section 22 and a signal type identifying result Sout by the signal type identifying section 21. The detecting section 23 includes a black band determining section 230, a basic region providing section 231, an initial increment/decrement value setting section 232, an increment/decrement value providing section 233, a boundary determining section 234, a redetection number setting section 235, a lower limit value setting section 236, a detection determining section 237, a measurement region determining section 238 and a threshold value setting section 239. The black band determining section 230 determines whether a measurement result Mout including the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measuring section 22 is a measurement result of a black band. The basic region providing section 231 provides the basic region as a basic part for detecting a black band, and provides the basic region according to the signal type identifying result Sout by the signal type identifying section 21, for example, as in the case of the basic region 64A in the input image signal 6 shown in FIG. 5. Moreover, the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 is a section setting an initial change amount (an initial increment/decrement value) at the time of changing the measurement zone by the measuring section 22. The increment/decrement value is shown like an increment/decrement value 64V in the case where the measurement zone is changed from the measurement region 64A to the measurement region 64B in a vertical direction as shown in FIG. 5, and is shown in the same manner in the case where the measurement zone is changed in a horizontal direction. Further, the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 sets an initial increment/decrement value to a power-of-two value (2n (n: natural number)) according to the signal type identifying result Sout by the signal type identifying section 21. More specifically, for example, in the case where the input image signal 6 is an NTSC 525i signal, the initial increment/decrement value is set to 64, and in the case where the input image signal 6 is a 525p signal converted into a progressive signal, the initial increment/decrement value is set to 128. The increment/decrement value providing section 233 provides the increment/decrement value in the measurement zone on the basis of the initial increment/decrement value set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 and the determination result by the black band determining section 230. More specifically, the absolute value of the increment/decrement value starts from the initial value set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232, and resets a new increment/decrement value to ½ of the previous increment/decrement value in each measurement of one unit frame. Moreover, whether the absolute value of the increment/decrement value is added to or subtracted from the present measurement zone is determined on the basis of the determination result by the black band determining section 230 which will be described later. The boundary determining section 234 determines boundaries between the black band regions 61A, 61B, 65A and 65B and the image regions 62 and 66 on the basis of the determination result by the black band determining section 230 and the increment/decrement value in the measurement zone provided by the increment/decrement value providing section 233. The redetection number setting section 235 sets the redetection number at the time of finally specifying a black band region in the detection determining section 237 which will be described later. The redetection number is represented by an integer of 0 or more. Moreover, the lower limit value setting section 236 sets the lower limit value of the horizontal width or the vertical width of the image region 62 determined by calculation from the boundary of the black band region determined by the boundary determining section 234 on the basis of the signal type identifying result Sout by the signal type identifying section 21. In the case of the vertical width of the image region 62 is represented by, for example, a vertical width 62V shown in FIG. 6, and when the lower limit value is set to the vertical width 62V, false detection in a dark scene or the like (FIG. 6 shows the case where a black band region is not present in the input image signal 6, and a dark scene or the like by an image signal 6 is displayed) is prevented. The detection determining section 237 finally determines the black band region included in the input image signal 6 on the basis of the boundary determination result of the black band region by the boundary determining section 234, the redetection number set by the redetection number setting section 235 and the lower limit value of the image region width set by the lower limit value setting section 236, and outputs the determined black band detection result Kout to the image processing section 3. The measurement region determining section 238 determines a measurement region in the measuring section 22 on the basis of the increment/decrement value in the measurement zone provided by the increment/decrement value providing section 233, and successively outputs the measurement region to the signal level comparing section 221. Moreover, the threshold value setting section 239 sets the threshold value Vt of the signal level used in the measurement in the measuring section 22, and outputs the threshold value Vt to the signal level comparing section 221. As described above, a region with a signal level less than the threshold value Vt in the measurement region may be a black band region. Referring back to FIG. 1, the image processing section 3 performs image processing on the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals on the basis of the black band detection result Kout by the black band detecting section 2 and the type identifying result Sout of the input image signal by the signal type identifying section 21 in the black band detecting section 2. More specifically, while maintaining the aspect ratio of the input image signal, a process of increasing or decreasing the input image signal (an aspect ratio adjustment process) is performed, and the image processing section 3 includes a computing section 31 computing the scaling ratio of the input image signal on the basis of the display size (pixel number) of the display section 5, the black band detection result Kout and the type identifying result Sout, a scaling section 32 scaling the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals on the basis of a computing result Cout (the scaling ratio) by the computing section 31, and a position adjusting section 33 performing position adjustment on the scaled image signals so as to prevent subtitles from being missed in the black band region by the scaling section 32. The matrix circuit 41 reproduces RGB signals from the YUV signals (Yout, Uout, Vout) after image processing (aspect ratio adjustment process) by the image processing section 3, and outputs the reproduced RGB signals (Rout, Gout, Bout) to the driver 42. The driver 42 produces a driving signal for the display section 5 on the basis of the RGB signals (Rout, Gout, Bout) outputted from the matrix circuit 41, and outputs the driving signal to the display section 5. The display section 5 displays an image on the basis of the YUV signals (Yout, Uout, Vout) after the image processing (the aspect ratio adjustment process) by the image processing section 3 according to the driving signal outputted from the driver 42. The display section 5 may be any kind of display device. For example, a CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube), a LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), a PDP (Plasma Display Panel), an organic or inorganic EL (ElectroLuminescence) display or the like is used. Next, the operation of the image display according to the embodiment will be described below. At first, the basic operation of the image display will be described below. At first, an image signal to be inputted into the image display is demodulated into the YUV signals. More specifically, a TV signal from the TV is demodulated into a composite video burst signal by the tuner 11, and a composite video burst signal is directly inputted into the image display from the VCR or the DVD1. Then, the composite video burst signals are separated into the luminance signal Y1 and the chrominance signal C1 in the Y/C separation circuit 12, and then the luminance signal Yl and the chrominance signal C1 are decoded into the YUV signals (Y1, U1, V1) in the chroma decoder 13. On the other hand, YUV signals (Y2, U2, V2) are directly inputted into the image display from the DVD2. Next, in the switch 14, either the YUV signals (Y1, U1, V1) or the YUV signals (Y2, U2, V2) are selected to be outputted as the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin). Then, the luminance signal Yin of the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) is outputted into the signal type identifying section 21 and the measuring section 22 in the black band detecting section 2 and the scaling section 32 in the image processing section 3, and the color-difference signals Uin and Vin are outputted to the scaling section 32 in the image processing section 3. In this case, in the black band detecting section 2, the black band region included in the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals is detected. Specifically, the black band region is detected on the basis of the luminance signal Yin, and the detection result Kout is outputted to the image processing section 3. More specifically, the measuring section 22 measures in the unit frame period whether the luminance signal Yin in each pixel in the designated measurement region of the input image signals has a signal level less than the threshold value Vt, and the detecting section 23 detects the black band region included in the input image signal 6 on the measurement results of the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measuring section 22 and the signal type identifying result Sout by the signal type identifying section 21, and the black band detection result Kout is outputted to the image processing section 3. Moreover, on the basis of the black band detection result Kout by the black band detecting section 2 and the type identifying result Sout of the input image signal by the signal type identifying section 21, the image processing section 3 performs image processing, more specifically a process of scaling the input image signal while maintaining the aspect ratio of the input image signal (the aspect ratio adjustment process) on the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals. Then, the matrix circuit 41 reproduces RGB signals (Rout, Gout, Bout) from the YUV signals (Yout, Uout, Vout) after image processing, (the aspect ratio adjustment process) by the image processing section 3, and the driver 42 produces a driving signal on the basis of the RGB signals (Rout, Gout, Bout), and an image is displayed on the display section 5 on the basis of the driving signal. Next, referring to FIGS. 7 through 10, a measuring process by the measuring section 22 as one of characteristic parts of the invention will be described in detail below. FIGS. 7 through 10 show examples of a method of measuring the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measuring section 22 with timing charts. In these drawings, Hsync indicates a horizontal synchronizing signal, Vsync indicates a vertical synchronizing signal, Clock indicates a clock (dot clock) signal corresponding to the period of each pixel, H_act indicates a horizontal active signal corresponding to the pixel position with a signal level equal to or higher than the threshold value Vt in a horizontal direction, V_act indicates a vertical active signal which becomes active in the case where the horizontal active signal H_act attains “H” level even in one pixel in each horizontal period, Hbp_cnt indiates a horizontal back porch counter output, Hfp_cnt indicates a horizontal front porch counter output, Vbp_cnt indicates a vertical back porch counter output, Vfp_cnt indicates a vertical front porch counter output, Hbp_lat indicates a horizontal back porch latch output corresponding to a latched (maintained) fixing value of the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt in the previous horizontal period, Hfp_lat indicates a horizontal front porch latch output corresponding to a latched fixing value of the horizontal front porch counter output Hfp_cnt in the previous horizontal period, Hbp_out indicates a horizontal back porch length output finally outputted as the fixing value of the horizontal back porch length Hbp, Hfp_out indicates a horizontal front porch length output finally outputted as the fixing value of the horizontal front porch length Hfp, Vbp_out indicates a vertical back porch length output corresponding to a latched fixing value of the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt in the previous vertical period and finally outputted as the fixing value of the vertical back porch length Vbp, and Vfp_out indicates a vertical front porch length output corresponding to a latched fixing value of the vertical front porch counter output Vfp_cnt in the previous vertical period and finally outputted as the fixing value of the vertical front porch length Vfp. Moreover, “<” in the luminance signal Yin indicates a signal level less than the threshold value Vt, and “>” indicates a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value. At first, the horizontal back porch length Hbp shown in FIG. 7 is measured as will be described below. When the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync (refer to FIG. 7(B)) attains “H” level at a timing t0, at the rising edge of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync, the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt (refer to FIG. 7(F)) is reset, and “0” is outputted. After the timing t0, the value of the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt is incremented by one at each of the rising edges (timings t1, t 2, . . .) of the clock signal Clock (refer to FIG. 7(C)). Next, when the luminance signal Yin (refer to FIG. 7(D)) has a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt at a timing t4, the horizontal active signal H_act (refer to FIG. 7(E)) attains “H” level at a timing t5 which is the next rising edge of the clock signal Clock. Thereby, while the horizontal active signal H_act is in “H” level (from the timing t5 to a timing t7), the value of the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt is fixed (in FIG. 7, the value is fixed at “4”). The value of the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt at this time is a fixing value in the horizontal period, and is updated and maintained as the horizontal back porch latch output Hbp_lat (refer to FIG. 7(G)). Moreover, at this time, the value (“6” in FIG. 7) of the horizontal back porch latch output Hbp_lat in the previous horizontal period (before updating) and the value (“10” in FIG. 7) of the horizontal back porch length output Hbp_out (refer to FIG. 7(H)) corresponding to the minimum value of the horizontal back porch length Hbp in previous measurement are compared, and a smaller value is updated (in FIG. 7, from “10” to “6”) as a new horizontal back porch length output Hbp_out. Next, when the luminance signal Yin has a signal level less than the threshold value Vt again at a timing t6, at the timing t7 which is the next rising edge of the clock signal Clock, the horizontal active signal H_act returns to “L” level, and the value of the horizontal back porch counter output Hbp_cnt is incremented by one again. Then, at a timing t8, when the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync attains “H” level, the measurement of one horizontal period is completed. As such measurement of one horizontal period is performed throughout the unit frame period, the horizontal back porch length Hbp determined by the minimum value of the number of pixels with a signal level less than the threshold value Vt which continues from the left end of the measurement region 64A or 64B is outputted from the measuring section 22 in a short time in the unit frame period. Moreover, as will be described later, the horizontal front porch length Hfp shown in FIG. 8 is measured basically as in the case of the horizontal back porch length Hbp. At first, when the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync (refer to FIG. 8(B)) attains “H” level at a timing t10, and the luminance signal Yin (refer to FIG. 8(D)) has a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt at a timing t11, the horizontal active signal H_act (refer to FIG. 8(E)) attains “H” level at a timing t12 which is the next rising edge of the clock signal Clock (refer to FIG. 8(C)). Thereby, while the horizontal active signal H_act is in “H” level (from the timing t12 to a timing t14), the horizontal front porch counter output Hfp_cnt (refer to 8(F)) is reset, and “0” is outputted. Next, when the luminance signal Yin has a signal level less than the threshold value Vt again at a timing t13, the horizontal active signal H_act returns to “L” level at the timing t14 which is the next rising edge of the clock signal Clock. Thereby, after the timing t14 (timing t14, t15, . . .), the value of the horizontal front porch counter output Hfp_cnt is incremented by one. Next, when the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync attains “H” level again at a timing t18, the value of the horizontal front porch counter output Hfp_cnt at this time is a fixing value in the horizontal period, and is updated and maintained as the horizontal front porch latch output Hfp_lat (refer to FIG. 8(G)). Moreover, at this time, the value (“6” in FIG. 8) of the horizontal front porch latch output Hbp_lat in the previous horizontal period (before updating) and the value (“10” in FIG. 8) of the horizontal front porch length output Hfp_out (refer to FIG. 8(H)) corresponding to the minimum value of the horizontal porch length Hfp in the previous measurement are compared, and a smaller value is updated (from “10” to “6” in FIG. 8) as a new horizontal front porch length output Hfp_out. Thus, the measurement of one horizontal period is completed. As such measurement of one horizontal period is performed throughout the unit frame period, the horizontal front porch length Hfp corresponding to the minimum value of the number of pixels with a signal level less than the threshold value Vt which continue from the right end of the measurement region 64A or 64B is outputted from the measuring section 22 in a short time in the unit frame period. Moreover, as will be described below, the vertical back porch length Vbp shown in FIG. 9 is measured. When the vertical synchronizing signal Vsync (refer to FIG. 9(A)) attains “H” level at a timing t20, at the rising edge of the vertical synchronizing signal Vsync, the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt (refer to FIG. 9(E)) is reset, and “0” is outputted. Then, after the timing t20, the value of the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt is incremented by one at each of the rising edges (timings t21, t22, . . .) of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync (refer to FIG. 9(B)). Next, when, from a timing t23 to a timing t24 in one horizontal period from a timing t22 to a timing t25, the luminance signal Yin has a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt, and the horizontal active signal H_act (refer to FIG. 9(C)) attains “H” level, at the timing t25 which is the next rising edge of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync, the vertical active signal V_act (refer to FIG. 9(D)) attains “H” level. Thereby, while the vertical active signal V_act is in “H” level (from the timing t25 to a timing t28), that is, while a period in which the horizontal active signal H_act is in “H” level in one horizontal period is present, the value of the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt is fixed (in FIG. 9, the value is fixed to “2”). Moreover, the value of the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt at this time is a fixing value in the vertical period, and is updated and maintained as the vertical back porch length output Vbp_out (refer to FIG. 9(F)). Next, when the horizontal active signal H_act is fixed at “L” level in one horizontal period from a timing t27 to the timing t28, at the timing t28 which is the next rising edge of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync, the vertical active signal V_act returns to “L” level, and the value of the vertical back porch counter output Vbp_cnt is incremented by one again. Then, when the vertical synchronizing signal Vsync attains “H” level at a timing t29, the measurement of one vertical period is completed. As such measurement of one vertical period is performed throughout the unit frame period (in the case where the unit frame period is one vertical period, only one vertical period), the vertical back porch length Vbp corresponding to the minimum value of the number of pixel with a signal level less than the threshold value Vt which continue from the top end of the measurement region 64A or 64B is outputted from the measuring section 22 in a short time in the unit frame period. Moreover, as will be described below, the vertical front porch length Vfp shown in FIG. 10 is measured basically as in the case of the vertical back porch length Vbp. At first, when the vertical synchronizing signal Vsync (refer to FIG. 10(A)) attains “H” level at a timing t30, and the luminance signal Yin has a signal level equal to or larger than the threshold value Vt so that the horizontal active signal H_act (refer to FIG. 10(C)) attains “H” level from a timing t31 to a timing t32, at a timing t33 which is the next rising edge of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync (refer to FIG. 10(B)), the vertical active signal V_act (refer to FIG. 10(D)) attains “H” level. Thereby, while the vertical active signal V_act is in “H” level (from the timing t33 to a timing t35), the vertical front porch counter output Vfp_cnt (refer to FIG. 10(E)) is reset, and “0” is outputted. Next, when the horizontal active signal H_act is fixed to “L” level in one horizontal period from the timing t34 to the timing t35, at the timing t35 which is the next rising edge of the horizontal synchronizing signal Hsync, the vertical active signal V_act returns to “L” level. Thereby, after the timing t35 (timings t35, t36, . . .), the value of the vertical front porch counter output Vfp_cnt is incremented by one. Next, when the vertical synchronizing signal Vsync attains “H” level again at a timing t38, the value of the vertical front porch counter output Vfp_cnt at this time is a fixing value in the vertical period, and is updated and maintained as the vertical front porch length output Vfp_out (refer to FIG. 10(F)). Thus, the measurement of one vertical period is completed. As such measurement of one vertical period is performed throughout the unit frame period, the vertical front porch length Vfp corresponding to the minimum value of the number of pixels with a signal level less than the threshold value Vt which continue from bottom end of the measurement region 64A or 64B is outputted from the measuring section 22 in a short time in the unit frame period. The horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measuring section 22 may be measured in order, or two or more of them may be measured concurrently. In the case where they are measured concurrently, all of the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp can be measured in the unit frame period, so the measurement can be performed at a higher speed. Next, referring to FIGS. 11 through 23, a black band detecting process by the black band detecting section 2 which is one of characteristic parts of the invention will be described in detail below. FIG. 11 shows a flowchart of the black band detecting process by the black band detecting section 2. In the black band detecting process, for example, as shown in FIG. 12A, in the case where the black band regions 61A and 61B are arranged above and below the image region 62, and the OSD 63A and the subtitles 63B are included in the black band regions 61A and 61B, the horizontal back porch length H1A and the horizontal front porch length H1B of the input image signal 6, a length V0A from the top end of the input image signal 6 to the top end of the OSD 63A and the vertical length V1A from the top of the input image signal 6 to the bottom of the black band region 61A, a length V0B from the bottom end of the input image signal 62 to the bottom end of the subtitle 63B and the vertical length V1B from the bottom of the input image signal 6 to the top of the black band region 61B, the vertical width V2 of the image region 62 and the like are detected. Moreover, for example, as shown in FIG. 12B, in the case where the black regions 65A and 65B are arranged on the right and the left of the image region 66, the vertical back porch length V1A and the vertical front porch length V1B of the input image signal 6, the horizontal length H1A from the left end of the input image signal 6 to the right end of the black band region 65A, the horizontal length H1B from the right end of the input image signal 6 to the left end of the black band region 65B, the horizontal width H2 of the image region 62 and the like are detected. Further, in the black band detecting process, for example, as shown by the measurement region 64A (the basic region), measurement regions 64B1 through 64B3 and arrows P21, P22, P31, P32, P41, P42, P51 and P52 in FIGS. 13A, 13B, 14A and 14B, while the increment/decrement values 64V and 64H of the measurement regions are reset to ½ of the previous increment/decrement values, black band detection is performed. In other words, in the black band detecting process, black band detection using binary search is performed, thereby, as will be described in detail later, the black band can be detected at a high speed (in the case where the initial increment/decrement value is set to 2n, the black band detecting process is completed in (n+1) unit frame periods at the latest, and various parameters as shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B are outputted). In the black band detecting process, at first, a black band detection starting process is performed (step S111). More specifically, as shown in the flowchart of FIG. 15, at first, the threshold value setting section 239 sets the threshold value Vt of the signal level, and outputs the threshold value Vt to the signal level comparing section 221 (step S111 in FIG. 15). Next, on the basis of the signal type identifying result Sout, the basic region providing section 231 provides the basic region (step S112). Then, the measurement region determining section 238 determines the basic region as the measurement region 64A, and outputs the measurement region 64A to the signal level comparing section 221 (step S113). Then, after standby until shifting to the next unit frame (step S114), the black band determining section 230 acquires the measurement result Mout (the measurement results of the horizontal back porch length Hbp, the horizontal front porch length Hfp, the vertical back porch length Vbp and the vertical front porch length Vfp in the measurement region 64A) from the measuring section 22 (step S115). Then, the black band determining section 230 determines whether a black band region is present in the measurement region 64A on the basis of the measurement result Mout (step S116), and when the presence of the black band region is determined (step S116: Y), the black band detecting process moves into the next boundary determining process 1 (step S12 in FIG. 11). On the other hand, in the case where the absence of the black band region is determined in step S116 (step S116: N), whether the black band detection process is terminated is determined (step S117). In the case where the termination of black band detecting process is determined (step S117: Y), the black band detecting process is terminated (“END” in FIG. 11). On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that the black band detection process is not terminated, and continues (step S117: N), the detection determining section 237 resets the value of the detection number counter showing the detection number of the black band region to 0 (step S118), and the basic region 64A is outputted to the image processing section 3 as the detection result Kout (step S119). Then, the processes from step Slll to step S119 are repeated until the presence of the black band region or the termination of the black band detecting process is determined. Next, the boundary determining process 1 is performed (step S12 in FIG. 11). More specifically, processes shown in the flowcharts of FIGS. 16 and 17 are performed. In the boundary determining process 1, through the use of the above-described binary search technique, a boundary position between the black band region 61A on the top side or the black band region 65A on the left side and the image region 62 or the image region 66 in the input image signal 6 is determined. Specifically, at first, the measurement region determining section 238 determines a first measurement region, and outputs the first measurement region to the signal level comparing section 221 (step S121 in FIG. 16). More specifically, in the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 61A on the top side, the start position and the end position in a horizontal direction and the start position in a vertical direction in the basic region 64A are assigned to the start position and the end position in a horizontal direction and the start position in a vertical direction, and a position determined by adding an increment/decrement value in a vertical direction which is set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 to a vertical start position in the basic region 64A is assigned to the end position in a vertical direction. Moreover, in the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 65A on the left side, the start position and the end position in a vertical direction and the start position in a horizontal direction in the basic region 64A are assigned to the start position and the end position in a vertical direction and the start position in a horizontal direction, and a position determining by adding an initial increment/decrement value in a horizontal direction which is set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 to a horizontal start position in the basic region 64A is assigned to the end position in a horizontal direction. The initial increment/decrement values in a horizontal direction and a vertical direction are set on the basis of the signal type identifying result Sout, and in the boundary determining process 1, the boundary position on the top side or the left side is determined, so it is desirable to set the initial increment/decrement values to ½ or less of the widths in a horizontal direction and a vertical direction of the basic region 64A, because the boundary position of the black band region can be determined in a shorter time. Next, after standby until shifting to the next unit frame (step S122), the black band determining section 230 acquires the measurement result Mout from the measuring section 22 (step S123). Then, the increment/decrement value providing section 233 reduces the increment/decrement value of the measurement region by half. In other words, the increment/decrement value is reset to ½ of the increment/decrement value of the previous measurement region as a new increment/decrement value. Next, the increment/decrement value providing section 233 determines whether the new increment/decrement value set in such a manner is less than 1 (step S125), and in the case where the increment/decrement value is less than 1 (step S125: Y), it is determined that it is not necessary to use the binary search technique any more, and the black band detecting process moves into the next process (step S129 of FIG. 17). On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that the new increment/decrement value is not less than 1 in step S125 (step S125: N), the black band determining section 230 determines whether only the black band region (the black band region including the blanking region 60) is present in the measurement region 64B on the basis of the measurement result Mout (step S126). Then, according to the determination result, the measurement region determining section 238 resets a new measurement region by adding or subtracting the increment/decrement value of a new measurement zone provided by the increment/decrement value providing section 233 in step S124 to or from the previous measurement region (steps S127 and S128). More specifically, for example, as shown in FIG. 18A, in the case where in addition to the black band region, the image region 62 is present in a measurement region 64B1 (step S126: N), as shown by an arrow P61 in the drawing, a new measurement region 64B2 is reset by subtracting a new increment/decrement value from the end position of the previous measurement region 64B1 (step S127). On the other hand, for example, as shown in FIG. 18B, in the case where only the black band region is present in a measurement region 64B3 (step S126: Y), as shown by an arrow P62 in the drawing, a new measurement region 64B4 is reset by adding a new increment/decrement value to the end position of the previous measurement region 64B3 (step S128). After steps S127 and S128, until it is determined that a new increment/decrement value is less than 1 in step S125, that is, the boundary position between the black band region and the image region is detected (step S125: Y), the processes from step S122 to step S127 or S128 are repeated. In addition, FIGS. 18A and 18B show the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 61A on the top side; however, the same processes are performed in the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 65A on the left side. Next, as in the case of step S126, on the basis of the measurement result Mout, the black band determining section 230 determines whether only the black band region is present in the measurement region 64B (step S129 in FIG. 17). In the case where it is determined that only the black band region is not present (step S129: N), as in the case of step S127, a new measurement region is reset by subtracting a new increment/decrement value from the end position of the previous measurement region (step S130). On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that only black band region is present (step S129: Y), as in the case of step S128, a new measurement region is reset by adding a new increment/decrement value to the end position of the previous measurement region (step S131). Next, after standby until shifting to the next unit frame (step S132), the black band determining section 230 acquires the measurement result Mout from the measuring section 22 (step S133). Then, the boundary determining section 234 determines the boundary position on the top side or the left side of the black band region at this time by calculation (step S134), and outputs the boundary position to the detection determining section 237, thereby the boundary determining process 1 is terminated, and the black band detecting process moves into the next process. Next, a boundary determining process 2 is performed (step S14 in FIG. 11). More specifically, processes shown in the flowcharts of FIGS. 19 and 20 are performed. In the boundary determining process 2, basically as in the case of the above-described boundary determining process 1, the boundary position between the black band region 61B on the bottom side or the black band region 65B on the right side and the image region 62 or the image region 66 in the input image signal 6 is determined. Specifically, at first, the measurement region determining section 238 determines a first measurement region, and outputs the first measurement region to the signal level comparing section 221 (step S141 in FIG. 19). More specifically, in the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 61B on the bottom side, the start position and the end position in a horizontal direction and the end position in a vertical direction in the basic region 64A are assigned to the start position and the end position in a horizontal direction and the end position in a vertical direction, and a position determined by subtracting the initial increment/decrement value in a vertical direction which is set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 from the vertical end position of the basic region 64A is assigned to the start position in a vertical direction. Moreover, in the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 65B on the right side, the start position and the end position in a vertical direction and the end position in a horizontal direction in the basic region 64A are assigned to the start position and the end position in a vertical direction and the end position in a horizontal direction, and a position determined by subtracting the initial increment/decrement value in a horizontal direction which is set by the initial increment/decrement value setting section 232 from the horizontal end position of the basic region 64A is assigned to the start position in a horizontal direction. Next, in following steps S142 through S153, the same processes as those in step S122 through S133 of the boundary determining process 1 are performed. However, in steps S147 and S150, for example, as shown by an arrow P71 in FIG. 21A, a new measurement region 64B2 is reset by subtracting a new increment/decrement value or 1 from the start position of the previous measurement region 64B1 (steps S147 and S150). Moreover, in steps S148 and S151, for example, as shown by an arrow P72 in FIG. 21B, a new measurement region 64B4 is reset by adding a new increment/decrement value or 1 to the start position of the previous measurement region 64B3 (steps S148 and S151). Then, the boundary determining section 234 determines the boundary position on the bottom side or the right side of the black band region by calculation, and outputs the boundary position to the detection determining section 237 in step S154 in FIG. 20, thereby the boundary determining process 2 is terminated, and the black band detecting process moves into the next process. In addition, FIGS. 21A and 21B show the case of determining the boundary position of the black band region 65B on the right side; however, the same process is performed in the case of determining the boundary of the black band region 61B on the bottom side. Next, a black band detection determining process is performed (step S16 in FIG. 11). More specifically, processes shown in flowcharts in FIGS. 22 and 23 are performed. At first, the detection determining section 237 determines the width (the vertical width V2 or the horizontal width H2) of the image region 62 by calculation on the basis of the boundary positions of the black band regions 61A and 61B or the black band regions 65A and 65B determined in the boundary detecting processes 1 and 2 by the boundary determining section 234, and the resolution of the input image signal 6 obtained by the signal type identifying result Sout (step S161 in FIG. 22). Next, the detection determining section 237 determines whether the width of the image region 62 is equal to or larger than the lower limit value set by the lower limit value setting section 236 (step S162). In the case where it is determined that the width is less than the lower limit value (step S162: N), it is determined that it is because the image region 62 is a dark scene or the like, and to prevent false detection of the black band region, the value of the detection number counter of the black band region is reset to 0 (step S163). Then, except for the case where the black band detection determining process is terminated (“return”), and the whole black band detecting process is terminated in step S18 in FIG. 11 (step S18: Y), the black band detecting process returns to the black band detection starting process (step S11), and starts from the beginning. On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that the width is equal to or larger than the lower limit value (step S162: Y), the detection determining section 237 determines whether conditional expressions (the value of the detection number counter =0) and (the redetection number set by the redetection number setting section 235±0) are satisfied (step S164). In the case where it is determined that the conditional expressions are satisfied (step S164: Y), since this is the first black band detection, the detection result is not able to be compared with the previous detection result. Therefore, the boundary positions of two detected black band regions (on the top and bottom sides or on the right and left sides) and the width of the image region 62 are maintained as it is (step S165), and the value of the detection number counter is incremented by one, thereby except for the case where the black band detection determining process is terminated (“return”), and the whole black band detecting process is terminated in step S18 in FIG. 11 (step S18: Y), the black band detecting process returns to the black band detection starting process (step S11) and is performed again. On the other hand, in the case where the conditional expressions in step S164 are not satisfied (step S164: N), the detection determining section 237 determines whether the redetection number is set to 0 (step S167 in FIG. 23). In the case where it is determined that the redetection number is set to 0 (step S167: Y), except for the case where it is determined that the black band detection is confirmed (step S170: Y), the boundary positions of two detected black band regions (on the top and bottom sides or on the right and left sides) and the width of the image region 62 are outputted to the image processing section 3 as it is as the black band detection result Kout (step S172), and the value of the detection number counter is reset to 0 (step S163), thereby except for the case where the black band detection determining process is terminated (“return”), and the whole black band detecting process is terminated in step S18 in FIG. 11 (step S18: Y), the black band detecting process returns to the black band detecting starting process (step S11), and is performed again. Moreover, in the case where it is determined in step S170 that the black band detection is confirmed (step S170: Y), the detection determining section 237 determines whether the width of the black band region is changed, and in the case where the width is changed, the detection determining section 237 determines whether only either of the widths of two black band detection regions is largely changed (step S171). In the case where only one of them is largely changed (step S171: Y), it is determined the image region 62 is a dark scene or the like, and to prevent false detection of the black band region, the value of the detection number counter of the black band region is reset to 0 (step S163), thereby the black band detection determining process is terminated without outputting the black band detection result Kout (“return”). On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that not only one of them is largely changed (step S171: N), the process moves into step S172, and the black band detection result Kout is outputted (step S172), and the value of the detection number counter of the black band region is set to 0 (step S163), thereby the black band detection determining process is terminated (“return”). In the case where it is determined in step S167 that the redetection number is set to a value except for 0 (a value of 1 or more) (step S167: N), the detection number of the black band region is 1 or more, so the detection determining section 237 determines whether the width of the image region 62 in the previous detection matches the width of the image region 62 in this detection (step S168). In the case where they do not match each other (step S168: N), there is high possibility of false detection, so to prevent such false detection, the value of the detection number counter of the black band region is reset to 0 (step S163), thereby the black band detection determining process is terminated without outputting the black band detection result Kout (“return”). On the other hand, in the case where it is determined that they match each other (step S168: Y), the detection determining section 237 determines whether the value of the detection number counter is less than the set redetection number (step S169). In the case where it is determined that the value is less than the redetection number (step S169: Y), the boundary positions of two detected black band regions and the width of the image region 62 are maintained as it is (step S165), and the value of the detection number counter is incremented by one, thereby the black band detection determining process is terminated (“return”), and except for the case where the whole black band detecting process is terminated in step S18 in FIG. 11 (step S18: Y), the black band detecting process returns to the black band detection starting process (step S11), and is performed again. On the other hand, in the case where the value is not less than the redetection number (that is, the value is equal to the redetection number) in step S169 (step S169: N), the process moves into steps S170 through S172, and the black band detection result Kout is outputted as described above, and whether the black band detection determining process is terminated is determined. As described above, when the black band detection determining process is terminated, whether the whole black band detecting process is terminated is determined in step S18, and in the case where the process is not terminated (step S18: N), processes of step S11 through S16 are repeated, and in the case where the process is terminated (step S18: Y), the whole black band detecting process is terminated. Next, referring to FIGS. 24 through 28, the aspect ratio adjustment process including the above-described black band detecting process on the input image signal in the black band detecting section 2 and the image processing section 3 will be described in detail as one of characteristic parts of the invention. FIG. 24 shows a flowchart of the aspect adjustment process. At first, the signal type identifying section 211 in the black band detecting section 2 identifies the type of the input image signal 6 (step S0), and outputs the identifying result Sout to the detecting section 23 and the computing section 31 in the image processing section 3. Next, the black band detecting section 2 performs a series of black band detecting processes S11 through S18 shown in FIG. 11 (and FIGS. 12A and 12B through 23) on the basis of the signal type identifying result Sout and the luminance signal Yin of the input image signals (step S11), and outputs the black band detection result Kout to the computing section 31. In this case, in the black band detecting process S1, in steps S126, S129, S146 and S149 in the boundary determining processes 1 and 2 shown in FIGS. 16, 17, 19 and 20, when whether only the black band region including the blanking region 60 is present in the measurement region 64B is determined, it is determined, for example, as shown in FIGS. 25A, 25B and 25C. In other words, for example, as shown in the drawings, when determining whether only the black band region 61A (including the blanking region 60) is present on the top side of the image region 62, it is determined also by using the values of the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp. More specifically, for example, as shown in FIG. 25A, in the case where both of the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp match the width in a horizontal direction of the measurement region 64B (in this case, the width in a horizontal direction of the basic region 64A), it is determined that the image region 62 or subtitles or the like in the black band region are not present in the measurement region 64B, and only the black band region is present. Moreover, for example, as shown in FIG. 25B, in the case where the image region 62 is present in the measurement region 64B, the presence or absence of the image region 62 is determined depending on whether the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp by the measurement result match a preset horizontal back porch length Hbp0 and a preset horizontal front porch length Hfp0. More specifically, when at least either the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal back porch length Hbp0, or the horizontal front porch length Hfp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp0 match each other, it is determined that the image region 62 is present. As shown in FIG. 25B, the horizontal back porch length Hbp0 is determined by a difference between a horizontal length Hbp1 determined by the type of the input image signal and a horizontal length Hbp2 determined at the time of determining the measurement region 64B (Hbp0=Hbp1−Hbp2), and the horizontal front porch length Hfp0 is determined by a difference between a horizontal length Hfp1 determined by the type of the input image signal and a horizontal length Hfp2 determined at the time of determining the measurement region 64B (Hfp0=Hfp1−Hfp2). Moreover, for example, as shown in FIG. 25C, in the case where the image region 62 is not present in the measurement region 64B (only the black band region 61A is present), but the subtitles 63B are present in the black band region 61A, the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp by the measurement result are large, compared to the preset horizontal back porch length Hbp0 and the preset horizontal front porch length Hfp0, so it is basically determined that the image region 62 is not present. It is because when it is determined that an image region including the region of the subtitles 63B is present, at the time of adjusting the aspect ratio which will be described later, the aspect ratio is wrongly adjusted. However, not to miss the subtitles 63B, the positions of the subtitles 63B are detected by using the vertical back porch length Vbp or the vertical front porch length Vfp by the measurement result (in the case of FIG. 25C, by using the vertical back porch length vbp) in addition to the horizontal back porch length Hbp and the horizontal front porch length Hfp by the measurement result. In addition, the subtitles 63B are displayed or not depending on the unit frame, so the smallest value of the vertical back porch length Vbp or the vertical front porch length Vfp until confirming the detection by the black band detecting process is considered as the positions of the subtitles 63B. Thus, when whether only the black band region including the blanking region 60 is present in the measurement region 64B is determined, it is determined also by using the value of the horizontal back porch length Hbp or the horizontal front porch length Hfp, so in addition to the presence of the image region 62, the presence or absence of the subtitles 63B in the black band region can be determined. Referring back to FIG. 24, next, the computing section 31 in the image processing section 3 performs a process (a scaling ratio computing process) of determining the expansion ratio or the reduction ratio of the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals by computation on the basis of the result (the black band detection result Kout) of the black band detecting process by the above-described black band detecting section 2 and the type identifying result Sout of the input image signals by the signal type identifying section 21 (step S2). More specifically processes shown in flowcharts of FIGS. 26 and 27 are performed. At first, when the computing section 31 acquires the black band detection result Kout (and the type identifying result Sout) (step S201), the computing section 31 determines whether the black band region is present in the input image signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) on the basis of the results (step S202). More specifically, whether the black band region is present is determined depending on whether the horizontal back porch length, the horizontal front porch length, the vertical back porch length and the vertical front porch length of the input image signals on the basis of the type identifying result Sout meet the horizontal back porch length H1A, the horizontal front porch length H1B, the vertical back porch length V1A and the vertical front porch length V1B on the basis of the black band detection result Kout. It is because, for example, in the case where the black band region is not present in the input image signal, for example, as shown in FIG. 28, these values on the basis of the type identifying result Sout match the value on the basis of the black band detection result Kout. In the case where the absence of the black band region is determined in such a manner in step S202 (step S202: N), the computing section 31 computes the scaling ratios in a horizontal direction and a vertical direction according to the display size of the image region on the basis of the signal type identifying result Sout (steps S204 and S205). Then, the computing result Cout is outputted to the scaling section 32 (step S205), thereby the scaling ratio computing process is terminated. On the other hand, in the case where the presence of the black band region is determined in step S202 (step S202: Y), the computing section 31 determines whether the current black band detection result Kout is changed from the result in the previous unit frame (whether the values of the horizontal back porch length H1A, the horizontal front porch length H1B, the vertical back porch length V1A and the vertical front porch length V1B and the like are changed) (step S206). In the case where it is determined that the current black band detection result Kout is not changed from the previous result (step S206: N), it is not necessary to change the scaling ratio, and the scaling ratio is maintained as it is, so the scaling ratio computing process is terminated. On the other hand, in the case where it is determined in step S206 that the current black band detection result Kout is changed from the previous result (step S206: Y), the computing section 31 determines whether the image region is changed on the basis of the black band detection result Kout (for example, whether the widths H2 and V2 of the image region shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B are changed) (step S207). In the case where it is determined that the image region is not changed (step S207: N), the computing section 31 determines whether a subtitle region is expanded on the basis of the black band detection result Kout (step S209). More specifically, the computing section 31 determines whether the length V0A from the top end of the input image signal 6 to the top end of the OSD 63A or the length V0B from the bottom end of the input image signal 6 to the bottom end of the subtitle 63B as shown in FIG. 12A is reduced. In the case where it is determined that the subtitle region is reduced or not changed by these values (step S209: N), it is not necessary to change the scaling ratio, and the scaling ratio is maintained as it is, so the scaling ratio computing process is terminated. On the other hand, in the case where it is determined in step S207 that the image region is changed (step S207: Y), and it is determined in step S209 that the subtitle region is expanded (step S209: Y), the computing section 31 determines the aspect ratio of the image region except for the black band region in the input image signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) by calculation on the basis of the black band detection result Kout (more specifically the widths H2 and V2 of the image region and the like) (step S208). Then, the computing section 31 determines the scaling ratios in a horizontal direction and a vertical direction by computation so as not to miss the subtitles according to the display size while maintaining the aspect ratio of the image region in the input image signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) on the basis of the determined aspect ratio and the black band detection result Kout (steps S210 and S211). Thereby, the scaling ratio computing process is terminated. More specifically, for example, as shown in FIG. 29A, in the case where the subtitles are not present in the black band regions 61A and 61B in the input image signal 6, to prevent the black band regions 61A and 61B from blocking views, while maintaining the aspect ratio of the input image signal 6, scaling (aspect ratio adjustment) is performed on the input image signal 6 so as to display only the image region 62 as a display region 7 on the whole display screen of the display section 5. On the other hand, for example, as shown in FIG. 29B, in the case where the subtitles 63B1 and 63B2 are present in the black band regions 61A and 61B, scaling is performed so as not miss the subtitles 63B1 and 63B2 while maintaining the aspect ratio of the input image signal 6. Moreover, for example, as shown in FIG. 29C, in the case where the subtitles (the subtitles 63B) are present only either of a pair of black band regions (in this case, in the black band region 61B on a bottom side of the black band regions 61A and 61B on top and bottom sides), as shown by an arrow P1 in the drawing the position adjusting section 33 performs the position adjustment on the image signal, which is scaled so as not to miss the subtitles 63B by the scaling section 32, so as not to include the other black band region (in this case, the black band region 61A on a top side) in the display region 7. In addition, in the case where a sub-window is arranged in a part of the display screen of the display section 5, and an image signal is displayed in the sub-window, the image processing section 3 may perform the aspect ratio adjustment process so as to display an input image signal on the whole sub-window. Next, referring back to FIG. 24, the scaling section 32 scales the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signals on the basis of the computing result Cout (the scaling ratio) by the computing section 31 (step S3). Next, the position adjusting section 33 performs position adjustment shown in, for example, FIG. 29C on the image signals which are scaled by the scaling section 32 so as not to miss the subtitles in the black band region (step S4). Finally, whether the aspect ratio adjustment process is terminated is determined (step S5), and in the case where it is determined that the process is not terminated (step S5: N), the processes of step S0 through S4 are repeated, and in the case where it is determined that the process is terminated (step S5: Y), the aspect ratio adjustment process is terminated. Thus, on the basis of the black band detection result Kout by the black band detecting section 2, the image processing section 3 performs the image processing (the aspect ratio adjustment process on the input image signal). As described above, in the embodiment, the measuring section 22 measures in the unit frame period whether each pixel in the measurement regions 64A and 64B of the YUV signals (Yin, Uin, Vin) as the input image signal 6 has a signal level less than the threshold value Vt, and the detecting section 23 detects the black band region included in the input image signal 6 on the basis of the measurement result, so compared to related arts, the black band region included in the input image signal can be detected in a shorter time. Moreover, in the measuring section 22 and the detecting section 23, the boundary between the black band region and the image region is detected from the measurement result whether each pixel has a signal level less than the threshold value Vt, and a new measurement region is determined by adding or subtracting ½ of the previous increment/decrement value as a new increment/decrement value to or from the previous measurement range depending on whether the boundary is detected, and the new measurement region is repeatedly measured, and the black band region is detected on the basis of the measurement result, so the black band region included in the input image signal 6 can be detected in a shorter time. Further, the detection determining section 237 in the detecting section 23 determines whether the width of the black band region is changed, and in the case where the width is changed, whether only either of the widths of two black band detection regions is largely changed is determined, so in the case where only either of them is largely changed, it can be determined that the image signal is a dark scene or the like, and false detection of the black band region can be prevented. Therefore, such false detection can be prevented, and the black band detection can be performed with high precision. Moreover, as described above, black band detection can be performed in a short time with high precision, so the image processing section 3 can perform optimum image processing through the use of the black band detection result Kout in a short time. Further, while the aspect ratio of the image region except for the black band region in the input image signal is maintained, the input image signal can be scaled. Therefore, when an image is displayed through the use of the scaled image signal, an easily viewable image can be displayed, compared to related arts. The expansion or reduction of the image signal is performed in consideration of the presence or absence of the subtitles in the black band region, so without missing the subtitles, an image including the black band region can be displayed. The display position of the image signal can be adjusted by the position adjusting section 33 depending on the presence or absence of the subtitles in the black band region. Therefore, a more easily viewable image can be provided. Image processing is performed through the use of the black band detection result Kout detected by the black band detecting section 2 at a high speed, so the scaling ratio can be determined by calculation again according to a change in the input image signal, and the aspect ratio can be adjusted in real time. Although the present invention is described referring to the embodiment, the invention is not limited to the embodiment, and can be variously modified. For example, in the above-described embodiment, black band detection on the Cinemascope image signal including the black band regions above and below the image region or the side panel image signal including the black band region on the right and the left of the image region is described; however, the black band region can be detected from four directions, that is, on the top, bottom, right and left sides of the image region by the combination of such black band detection. Moreover, in the above-described embodiment, the case where the image processing section 3 performs the aspect ratio adjustment process on the input image signal through the use of the black band detection result Kout by the black band detecting section 2 is described; however, image processing through the use of the black band detection result Kout is not limited to the case, and the image processing can be applied to, for example, a contrast adjustment process, a luminance adjustment process or the like. In the case where the image processing is applied to such image processing, optimum image processing can be performed in a short time by the black band detection performed by the black band detecting section 2 in a short time with high precision. Moreover, in the above-described embodiment, the image display to which the YUV signals are inputted is described; however, the invention can be applied to an image display to which RGB signals are directly inputted such as a PC. In addition, in the case where the RGB signals are directly inputted in such a manner, matrix conversion is not necessary, so the matrix circuit 41 is not necessary. Further, in the above-described embodiment, the invention is described referring the TV as a specific example of the image display; however, the image display of the invention can be applied to a PDA (Personal Digital Assistants), a cellular phone or the like. It should be understood by those skilled in the art that various modifications, combinations, sub-combinations and alterations may occur depending on design requirements and other factors insofar as they are within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof.
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H
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5
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14
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10561488
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US20080036909A1-20080214
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Method and Apparatus for Selective Data Reception
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ACCEPTED
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20080130
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20080214
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[]
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H04N700
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["H04N700"]
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7668261
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20070222
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20100223
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375
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326000
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93052.0
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TRAN
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KHAI
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Paila", "inventor_name_first": "Toni", "inventor_city": "Koisjaroi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "FI"}]
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A terminal 13 for selectively receiving broadcast data in a transport stream 7 over a first network, the broadcast data including a series of bursts of associated data packets (B1), comprises a controller 16 and a receiver 19. The controller 16 is configured to extract information identifying a group of data packets from the data packets within a first burst, e.g. Packet Identifier (PID) PID1, PID2, calculate a burst length and burst interval for the series on the basis of the times at which data packets are received by the receiver and to calculate one or more instances of time ts at which one or more subsequent bursts in the series will be received based on the calculated burst length ts3 and/or burst interval t1. The receiver 19 is operated to selectively receiving the transport stream 7, e.g. by switching the receiver 19 between its on and off states, the receiver 19 being switched on at time is for a period equal to the burst length in order to receive subsequent data bursts in the series. The terminal 13 may be further configured to enable mobile telephone communication via a second network.
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1. A terminal for selectively receiving broadcast data in a data stream, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of associated data packets, comprising: a receiver; and a controller; wherein the controller is configured to: extract information identifying a group of data packets from the data packets within a first burst; calculate a burst length and burst interval for the series on the basis of the instances of time at which data packets are received by the receiver; determine a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series is expected to be received based on at least one of said burst length and burst interval; and operate the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream. 2. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein address information relating to a source of the data is included within the bursts. 3. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein address information relating to a source of the data is extracted from a session announcement. 4. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein the extraction of information identifying a group of data packets and the calculation of the burst length and the burst interval are performed in response to a request for reception of a particular service. 5. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to operate the receiver to selectively receive the subsequent bursts by switching the receiver between two operation modes. 6. A terminal according to claim 5, wherein the two operation modes are on and off states. 7. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to repeat the extraction of identifying information from the data packets and the calculation of the burst interval and the burst length at regular intervals. 8. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to repeat the steps of extracting identifying information from the data packets and calculating burst interval and burst length in response to notification that a configuration of the data stream has changed. 9. A terminal according to claim 1, wherein the receiver is configured to receive a data stream broadcast over a first network, further comprising means for enabling communication over a second network. 10. A terminal according to claim 9, wherein the second network is a cellular telecommunications network. 11. A method of operating a receiver to selectively receive broadcast data in a data stream, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of associated data packets, comprising: extracting information identifying a group of data packets from the data packets within a first burst; calculating a burst length and burst interval for the series on the basis of the instances of time at which data packets are received by the receiver; determining a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series is expected to be received; and operating the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream. 12. A method according to claim 11, further comprising extracting address information relating to a source of the data from data packets within a burst. 13. A method according to claim 11, further comprising extracting address information relating to a source of the data from a session announcement. 14. A method according to claim 11, wherein the steps of extracting information identifying a group of data packets and calculating the burst length and the burst interval are performed in response to a request for reception of a particular service. 15. A method according to claim 11, wherein the receiver is operated to selectively receive the subsequent burst by switching the receiver between two operation modes. 16. A method according to claim 15, wherein the two operation modes are on and off states. 17. A method according to claim 11, wherein the steps of extracting identifying information from the data packets and calculating burst interval and burst length are repeated at regular intervals. 18. A method according to claim 11, further comprising repeating the steps of extracting identifying information from the data packets and calculating burst interval and burst length in response to notification that a configuration of the data stream has changed. 19. A communication system for broadcasting data, comprising: a multiplexer; a transmitter; a communication network; and a terminal according to claim 1.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An Internet protocol (IP) service can include plural items delivered using an IP session. An IP session may include an IP stream carrying primary content, such as live or recorded music, and further IP streams carrying secondary content, such as error correction or song lyrics. Such services can be broadcast in a multiplexed transport stream using terrestrial digital video broadcast, for example DVB-T, ISDB-T or ATSC-T, or DVB-S (satellite), DVB-C (cable) or Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) networks. Wireless IP networks typically serve one or more mobile terminals having stringent power requirements. Such a terminal may be required to operate for lengthy periods on an internal source of power. In the case of simplex broadcast systems supporting unidirectional data delivery, for example DVB-T or DVB-S networks, a large proportion of the power consumption in a terminal is due to the demands of a receiver when receiving data transmissions. It is desirable to conserve power by reducing the amount of data received, i.e. by receiving only selected data. Selective data reception can be implemented for receiving a particular stream of data in a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) transmission by switching the receiver between its on and off states, so that data reception is suspended during time slots relating to services or content that are not required. In our co-pending application, GB0216240.2, a method is disclosed in which a session announcement is transmitted on a first channel in a transport stream. If a service is of interest to a user of the terminal, the information conveyed in the service announcement can be used to control the operation of the receiver in order to selectively receive broadcast or multicast data relating to that service. This information may include the frequency of the broadcast channel carrying a particular service, a description of the service in terms of a category, e.g. news, sport, entertainment, and a sub-category, for example, the sports category may be divided into football, hockey, athletics sub-categories. The information may also include the number of messages containing the relevant content that will be sent and a time out value. When data reception is not required, i.e. when data relating to the selected service is not being transmitted, the receiver is disabled, in order to conserve power. In another co-pending application, PCT/IB02/04823, a receiver is controlled to selectively receive data using a schedule of delivery time slots, where the schedule is extracted from information relating to the IP address of the content source provided in a session announcement. Tie receiver may be switched off or operated at a lower power between the delivery time slots, when data reception is not required. The performance of these methods may be improved by grouping related data packets into bursts before their transmission. The transmission takes the form of a sequence of bursts taking up most or all of the available bandwidth for a relatively short period of time, each burst carrying a significant amount of interrelated data. Information relating to the burst duration and the interval between related bursts is encoded into the headers of the data packets in the bursts, while information describing the contents of the burst are signalled using external address mapping functionality provided by the transmission network baseline, such as the network information table (NIT) table in a DVB system. This fisher reduces the period of time for which the receiver is actively receiving data.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to the invention, a terminal for selectively receiving broadcast data in a data stream, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of data packets, comprises a receiver and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to extract information identifying a group of data packets in a first burst, calculate a burst length and burst interval for the series of bursts on the basis of instances of time at which bursts of data packets belonging to said group are received by the receiver, determine a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series of bursts is expected to be received based on at least one of said burst length and burst interval and operate the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream. As the burst length and burst interval are derived by the controller using the reception times of data bursts, the need to broadcast this information explicitly, for example in the data packet headers or in an external table, is removed. Therefore, in comparison to prior arrangements, a reduced amount of data is transmitted and received. The available bandwidth is used more efficiently and the power consumption of the receiver is reduced. Address information relating to a source of the data may be included within the bursts or, alternatively, extracted from a session announcement. Selective reception of the data bursts may be effected by switching the receiver between two operation modes. Preferably, these operation modes are on and off states, so that the receiver power consumption is minimsed. The extraction of information identifying a group of data packets and the calculation of the burst length and the burst interval are preferably performed for each series of associated data bursts in all data streams received by the terminal when the terminal is switched on. However, this procedure may be performed in response to a request for reception of a particular service from a user of the terminal. The extraction of identifying information from the data packets and the calculation of the burst interval and the burst length may also be repeated at regular intervals and/or in response to notification that a configuration of the data stream has changed. The invention further provides a system for broadcasting data comprising a multiplexer, a transmitter and one or more of said terminals. A method of operating a receiver to selectively receive broadcast data in a data stream according to the invention, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of data packets, comprises extracting information identifying a group of data packets in a first burst, calculating a burst length and burst interval for the series of bursts on the basis of the instances of time at which data packets belonging to said group are received by the receiver, determining a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series is expected to be received and operating the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to the selective reception of data from a broadcast service. The invention is particularly suitable for, but not limited to, IP data broadcasting over unidirectional networks. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION An Internet protocol (IP) service can include plural items delivered using an IP session. An IP session may include an IP stream carrying primary content, such as live or recorded music, and further IP streams carrying secondary content, such as error correction or song lyrics. Such services can be broadcast in a multiplexed transport stream using terrestrial digital video broadcast, for example DVB-T, ISDB-T or ATSC-T, or DVB-S (satellite), DVB-C (cable) or Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) networks. Wireless IP networks typically serve one or more mobile terminals having stringent power requirements. Such a terminal may be required to operate for lengthy periods on an internal source of power. In the case of simplex broadcast systems supporting unidirectional data delivery, for example DVB-T or DVB-S networks, a large proportion of the power consumption in a terminal is due to the demands of a receiver when receiving data transmissions. It is desirable to conserve power by reducing the amount of data received, i.e. by receiving only selected data. Selective data reception can be implemented for receiving a particular stream of data in a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) transmission by switching the receiver between its on and off states, so that data reception is suspended during time slots relating to services or content that are not required. In our co-pending application, GB0216240.2, a method is disclosed in which a session announcement is transmitted on a first channel in a transport stream. If a service is of interest to a user of the terminal, the information conveyed in the service announcement can be used to control the operation of the receiver in order to selectively receive broadcast or multicast data relating to that service. This information may include the frequency of the broadcast channel carrying a particular service, a description of the service in terms of a category, e.g. news, sport, entertainment, and a sub-category, for example, the sports category may be divided into football, hockey, athletics sub-categories. The information may also include the number of messages containing the relevant content that will be sent and a time out value. When data reception is not required, i.e. when data relating to the selected service is not being transmitted, the receiver is disabled, in order to conserve power. In another co-pending application, PCT/IB02/04823, a receiver is controlled to selectively receive data using a schedule of delivery time slots, where the schedule is extracted from information relating to the IP address of the content source provided in a session announcement. Tie receiver may be switched off or operated at a lower power between the delivery time slots, when data reception is not required. The performance of these methods may be improved by grouping related data packets into bursts before their transmission. The transmission takes the form of a sequence of bursts taking up most or all of the available bandwidth for a relatively short period of time, each burst carrying a significant amount of interrelated data. Information relating to the burst duration and the interval between related bursts is encoded into the headers of the data packets in the bursts, while information describing the contents of the burst are signalled using external address mapping functionality provided by the transmission network baseline, such as the network information table (NIT) table in a DVB system. This fisher reduces the period of time for which the receiver is actively receiving data. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the invention, a terminal for selectively receiving broadcast data in a data stream, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of data packets, comprises a receiver and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to extract information identifying a group of data packets in a first burst, calculate a burst length and burst interval for the series of bursts on the basis of instances of time at which bursts of data packets belonging to said group are received by the receiver, determine a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series of bursts is expected to be received based on at least one of said burst length and burst interval and operate the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream. As the burst length and burst interval are derived by the controller using the reception times of data bursts, the need to broadcast this information explicitly, for example in the data packet headers or in an external table, is removed. Therefore, in comparison to prior arrangements, a reduced amount of data is transmitted and received. The available bandwidth is used more efficiently and the power consumption of the receiver is reduced. Address information relating to a source of the data may be included within the bursts or, alternatively, extracted from a session announcement. Selective reception of the data bursts may be effected by switching the receiver between two operation modes. Preferably, these operation modes are on and off states, so that the receiver power consumption is minimsed. The extraction of information identifying a group of data packets and the calculation of the burst length and the burst interval are preferably performed for each series of associated data bursts in all data streams received by the terminal when the terminal is switched on. However, this procedure may be performed in response to a request for reception of a particular service from a user of the terminal. The extraction of identifying information from the data packets and the calculation of the burst interval and the burst length may also be repeated at regular intervals and/or in response to notification that a configuration of the data stream has changed. The invention further provides a system for broadcasting data comprising a multiplexer, a transmitter and one or more of said terminals. A method of operating a receiver to selectively receive broadcast data in a data stream according to the invention, wherein the broadcast data includes a series of bursts of data packets, comprises extracting information identifying a group of data packets in a first burst, calculating a burst length and burst interval for the series of bursts on the basis of the instances of time at which data packets belonging to said group are received by the receiver, determining a further instance of time at which a subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information in the series is expected to be received and operating the receiver to receive the subsequent burst corresponding to the extracted information by selectively receiving the data stream. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 depicts a communication system according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 shows the structure of a transport stream data packet header; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a terminal for use in the communication system of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 depicts the transmission of two sets of data bursts in a transport stream; FIG. 5 is a flowchart showing the operation of a receiver according to the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 shows the structure of a data burst for reception by a receiver according to a second embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing the operation of a receiver according to a third embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 shows a broadband digital broadcast head-end 1 connected to a variety of sources 2, 3, 4 of content, so that data packets relating to services and/or content, e.g. audio-visual content, data files, images, are delivered to the head-end 1. In this example, these data packets are in the form of IPv4 or IPv6 datagrams. The data packets arc encapsulated by a data processor 5 at the head-end 1 and grouped together into one or more bursts, which have a bandwidth equal to or approaching the maximum bandwidth available to the transport stream, and a relatively short duration. A set of data packets relating to a particular service or the same content are arranged in the same burst or series of bursts, although a single burst may contain a plurality of sets of data packets that are unrelated to each other to ensure efficient use of bandwidth. The bursts are multiplexed by a multiplexer 6 according to a TDMA scheme and transmitted in a transport stream 7 over a DVB network. In this example, the transport stream 7 is an MPEG-2 transport stream. The structure of a transport stream data packet 8 is described in “A Guide to MPEG Fundamentals and Protocol Analysis (Including DVB and ATSC)”, Textronix, Inc., USA 1997, and is shown in FIG. 2. The data packet 8 is divided into a header 9 and payload 10. The header 9 includes a packet identifier (PID) 11, used to distinguish between different groups of packets, and a continuity counter 12, which is incremented each time a new packet having the same PID 11 is transmitted so that the received data packets can be assembled in the correct order at their destination. The transport stream 7 is broadcast to one or more terminals 13. In the case of a satellite network, the transport stream 7 may be broadcast to terminals falling under the satellite footprint. In a terrestrial system, the transport stream 7 is broadcast to terminals 13 that are located within areas of coverage of one or more network transmitters 14. Each terminal 13 is under the control of a user who is able to select a particular service or content from those transmitted in the transport stream 7. A suitable terminal 13, which, in this example is a mobile handheld telecommunications device, is shown in detail in FIG. 3 and comprises an internal power supply in the form of a rechargeable battery 15, a controller 16, with an associated clock 17, a user interface 18, a receiver 19, a cellular transceiver 20, codecs 21, 22, memory 23 and a data storage facility 24, such as RAM and/or ROM memory. The receiver 19 is configured to receive the transport stream 7 broadcast over the DVB network while the cellular transceiver 20 enables mobile telephone communication via a cellular network. The receiver 19 has a relatively large power requirement when compared with other components of the terminal 13. In order to minimise drain on the battery 15, the receiver 19 can be switched on and off in response to instructions received from the controller 16. When the terminal 13 is first switched on, the controller 16 begins compiling a mapping table comprising information such as a Packet Identifier (PID), burst length and burst interval associated with various services transmitted in one or more transport streams 7. In conventional devices, this information would be provided either in the headers of the encapsulated data packets or in a session announcement received separately from the transport stream 7. However, in accordance with the invention, this information is derived by the terminal 13, having been conveyed implicitly by the transport stream 7. A procedure for deriving this information will now be described with reference to FIG. 4 and Table 1. FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary transport stream 7 comprising two sets of bursts, with PIDs B1, B2, comprising data packets associated with first and second services respectively. Table 1 shows the information held in the mapping table maintained by the controller 16 during the procedure. In this example, as the mapping table is being compiled in response to the terminal 13 being switched on, it is presumed that a user of the terminal 13 has not yet instructed the terminal to receive either of the first and second services. TABLE 1 Time PID Interval Length t1 — — — t3 B1 — tB1 t4 B1 t11 tB1 t7 B1 t11 tB1 B2 — tB2 t12 B1 t11 tB1 B2 t12 tB2 The receiver 19 is tuned to the baseband of the transport stream 7 at time t1. A first burst of data packets with a first PID B1 is received, beginning at time t2. As there is no information in the mapping table relating to PID B1, the receiver 19 remains switched on. At time t3, the PID of the data packets in the transport stream 7 changes from B1 to another PID (not shown). The receiver 19 detects the change in the PID of the received data and the controller 16 stores a value for the burst length of: tB1=(t3−t2), as part of an entry in the mapping table relating to PID B1. The start of the burst may be detected from a field in the header 9, as shown in FIG. 2, such as the PID field 11 or the adaptation field 22, or from a field in the payload 10, such as a Media Access Control (MAC) field, not shown, or by using s combination of fields in the header 9 and/or in the payload 10. Where the payload 10 comprises data packets with one or more data packet headers and payloads, the start of the burst may be detected using one or more fields or a combination of them from these headers or payloads. The controller 16 may have access to information regarding the time delay between the ‘real’ start time of the burst, i.e. the time at which reception of the burst begins at the terminal 13, and the instant of time when the detection of a particular field, e.g. PID field 11, takes place. This information may be used to correct the start time t2 of the burst. Furthermore, the start time t2 may be corrected to take into account possible jitter by introducing a suitable correction term. This correction term may be of the order of 1 to 5 ms. The jitter correction term may be predetermined or it may be determined by the controller 16 based on received data. In a similar way, the end time of the burst t3 may be corrected to take jitter into account by introducing a second correction term of substantially the same size as the jitter correction term and obtained in a similar way. As the user has not instructed the terminal to receive the first service, when the first of the next burst of data packets with PID B1 is received at time t4, the receiver 19 is switched off for a first time period of tB1 in order to conserve battery power. At this point, a value of: tl1=(t4−t2), for the interval between bursts for PID B1 is stored in the mapping table. Alternatively, the interval may be defined as the time from the end of the burst to the end of the next burst with the same PID, for example, as: tl1 =(t5−t3). When time period tB1, expires at time5, the receiver 19 is switched on again and continues receiving data. In this example, a burst of data packets with a PID B2 is received at a time t6. The receiver 19 detects that the PID has changed and, as there is no information relating to PID B2 in the mapping table, remains switched on. When the PID changes at time t7, a value for burst length of: tB2=(t7−t6), is stored in the mapping table in an entry relating to PID B2 and the receiver 19 continues receiving the transport stream 7. The start time t6 of the burst with the PID B2 may be corrected for jitter as explained above in relation to start time t2. As the mapping table now holds the burst length and burst interval for PID B1, the controller 16 will use this information to switch off the receiver 19 during subsequent bursts with this PID, so that no data is received during time periods t8 to t9 and t10 to t11. As the user has not requested the second service, when the first of the data packets in a second burst with PID B2 is received at t12, the controller 16 ensures that the receiver 19 is switched off for a time period of length tB2, ending at time t13, and stores a burst interval value: t12=(t12−t6), in the mapping table for use in receiving subsequent bursts with PID B2. As this procedure continues, a mapping table is compiled containing the information necessary for the controller 16 to maintain and suspend reception of the transport stream 7. The reception of unwanted data is minimised, thereby reducing the power consumption of the receiver 19. A separate mapping table is compiled for each transport stream 7 received by the terminal 13. In the above example, the mapping table is compiled in response to the mobile terminal 13 being switched on by a user. However, a terminal 13 may instead be configured so that a mapping table is compiled in response to an instruction from the user for the terminal 13 to receive a service. Such an instruction may result in the terminal 13 sending a request for the service to a relevant service provider. However, in the following example, no such request is sent and the instruction to receive the service is acted on locally, i.e. by the terminal 13 only. If the user instructs the terminal 13 to receive the second service, the mapping table is compiled as described above, with the exception that the controller 16 ensures that the receiver 19 is switched on at the appropriate times for receiving data packets with PID B2. At time t12, the controller 16 calculates the start time ts of the next data burst associated with PID B2 using the derived burst length tB2 and burst interval t12, and ensures that the receiver 19 is switched on at time ts=t12+t12for a period equal to the burst length tB2. The controller 16 then repeats this process, calculating subsequent start times tsn=t12+n t12 (n≧2) and operating the receiver 19 accordingly, in order to receive subsequent bursts of data packets with PID B2. In either of the examples discussed above, the derivation of the burst interval and burst lengths may be repeated in order to reduce errors caused by lost data packets. The compilation of the mapping table may also be repeated at regular intervals in order to allow for changes in the configuration of the transport stream 7. The transport stream 7 may further include update notifications using data packets with a specified PID 11 that are scheduled with a constant interval and length. The update notifications are used to indicate whether the configuration of the transport stream 7 is changed. Where a change has been made, the controller 16 may respond to the reception of the update notification by recompiling the mapping table. Where the mapping table is compiled in response to the terminal 13 being switched on, an instruction from a user to receive a particular service is handled as follows. With reference to FIG. 5 and starting at step s0, on reception of an instruction (step s1), the controller 16 obtains an IP address associated with an originating source of that service or an address mapping along with the PID and information identifying the relevant transport stream 7 (step s2). An address mask may be used instead of a single unique IP address, in particular where the burst comprises data packets associated with multiple IP addresses. For example, an address mask 224.1.1.0/8 can be used to indicate 256 addresses in the range 224.1.1.0 to 224.1.1.255. For example, this information could be extracted from a session announcement message transmitted to the terminal 13. The controller 16 then accesses its mapping tables and determines whether they contain an entry corresponding to that service (step s3). If so, the controller 16 reads the entry associated with that service from its mapping tables in order to extract the burst length and interval (step s4). A start time ts for the next burst is calculated (step s5), based on the current time, burst length and interval. The receiver 19 is then tuned to the appropriate transport stream 7 at time ts (step s6) and bursts of data packets with the relevant PID are received and are filtered using the relevant address or address mapping. The controller 16 uses the burst length and interval to suspend reception by switching off the receiver 19 to avoid receiving and processing unwanted data packets. If transmission of the content or service has not been completed (step s7), the process is repeated by calculating the start time ts of the next burst and tuning the receiver 19 to the transport stream 7 at the appropriate time (steps s5, s6). When the transmission has been completed, the PID of data packets received at the next calculated start time ts will not match that given in the mapping table. The change in PID will indicate completion of the transmission of the required content (step s7) and the receiver 19 is switched off. If the mapping tables do not contain a corresponding entry, an error may be reported to the user via the user interface 18 (step s8). Alternatively, the mapping table compilation process described above may be repeated in order to derive the burst length and burst interval data associated with the requested service. The process is then complete (step s9). In a second embodiment of the invention, address information is provided within the data packets of transport stream 7, removing the need for an external source of address information. With reference to FIG. 6, a burst of data packets with PID B1 comprises two portions. The data packets of the first portion B1H contain the address mappings of the source IP addresses of the data packets in the second portion B1B, so that the receiver 19 can filter the received data packets to extract the requested service. Again referring to FIG. 4, in this embodiment, the procedure for compiling the mapping table is similar to that described above, differing in that the source IP addresses, address masks or address mappings are also stored in the mapping table. The addresses are obtained by the controller 16 when the first data burst with a given PID is received. Table 2 shows the information stored in the mapping table at various stages in the transmission as shown in FIG. 4. In this embodiment, the terminal 13 responds to an instruction to receive for a particular service as follows. With reference to FIG. 7 and starting at step s10, on reception of an instruction (step s11), the controller 16 accesses its mapping tables TABLE 2 Time PID Interval Length Address/Mask t1 — — — — t3 B1 — tB1 known t4 B1 t11 tB1 known t7 B1 t11 tB1 known B2 — tB2 known t12 B1 t11 tB1 known B2 t12 tB2 known and determines whether they contain an entry corresponding to that service (step s12). If so, the controller 16 reads the address or address mapping, burst length and interval from that entry (step s13). A start time ts for receiving the data is then calculated (step s14), based on the current time, burst length and interval. The receiver 19 is then tuned to the appropriate transport stream 7 at time ts (step s15) and a burst of data packets with the relevant PID is received and filtered using the relevant address or address mapping. The controller 16 uses the burst length and interval to suspend reception by switching off the receiver 19 to avoid receiving and processing unwanted data packets. If the data transmission has not yet been completed (step s16), the start time ts for the next burst is calculated and receiver 19 is tuned to the transport stream 7 to selectively receive the next burst (steps s14, s15). When the data transmission has been completed (step s16), as indicated by the change in PID 11 of the received data packets, the receiver 19 is switched off. If the mapping tables do not contain a corresponding entry, an error may be reported to the user via the user interface 18 (step s15). The process is then complete (step s16). The embodiments described above are examples showing how the invention may be implemented. For example, instead of being switched between on and off states, selective data reception may be implemented by switching the receiver between high and low power operating modes. The invention is not limited to mobile terminals 13 and other forms of receiving device may be suitable for implementing the invention. With the example given, the receiver may be any one with DVB, ISDB or ATSC is baseband capability, such as a suitably equipped laptop computer. Where a network other than DVB-T is used, the receiver may take any suitable form, such as a personal digital assistant (PDA) or a portable sound reproduction device, such as a personal stereo. Alternatively, the receiver could be a wireless local area network (WLAN) module.
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11887116
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US20090046183A1-20090219
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Solid state imaging device and manufacturing method thereof
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ACCEPTED
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20090204
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20090219
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[]
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H04N5335
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["H04N5335", "H01L2102"]
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8034652
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20070925
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20111011
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438
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066000
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97617.0
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NGUYEN
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THINH
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Nishida", "inventor_name_first": "Kazuhiro", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shimamura", "inventor_name_first": "Hitoshi", "inventor_city": "Miyagi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Takasaki", "inventor_name_first": "Kosuke", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A plurality of sensor packages (4) are fixed to a circuit assembly board (47) and placed on a lower mold die (56) of a transfer molding apparatus (54). Attached inside a cavity (58a) of an upper mold die (58) is a protection sheet (65), which will make contact with the upper face of a cover glass (6) of each sensor package (4). When the upper mold die (58) meshes with the lower mold die (56), the upper face of the cover glass (6) is tightly covered with the protection sheet (65). A plunger (62) is activated to fill the cavities (56a, 58a) with sealing resin (7). The upper face of the cover glass (6) is not stained or damaged when the peripheries of the sensor packages (4) are sealed.
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1. A method for manufacturing solid state imaging devices comprising: a die bonding step for adhering sensor packages to each of a plurality of bonding areas formed on a circuit assembly board, each of said sensor packages having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a wire bonding step for connecting said input/output pads to internal electrodes with using bonding wires, said internal electrodes being provided in said circuit assembly board and corresponding to said sensor packages; a sealing step for holding an upper face of said cover and a lower face of said circuit assembly board between an upper mold die and a lower mold die, and for filling sealing resin to a cavity created between said upper mold die and lower mold die to seal peripheries of said sensor packages; a mold curing step for heating to cure said sealing resin; and a singulation step for cutting said circuit assembly board and said sealing resin into individual sensor packages. 2. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sensor packages are adhered to said bonding areas of said circuit assembly board with sheets of die attach material. 3. A method as described in claim 1, further comprising: a protection step for covering an upper face of said cover with a protection sheet before said sealing step. 4. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet is held in said cavity of said upper mold die and covers said upper face of said cover in said sealing step. 5. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet is larger than said image sensor but smaller than said upper face of said cover, and is attached to said upper face of said cover such that an edge of said protection sheet stay at between edges of said image sensor and said upper face of said cover. 6. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet is larger than said upper face of said cover and covers a plurality of said sensor packages. 7. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet has at least approximately the same size as said circuit assembly board and covers all of said sensor packages adhered on said circuit assembly board. 8. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet protects said upper face of said cover from said sealing resin. 9. A method as described in claim 3, wherein said protection sheet protects said sensor package from pressing force of said upper mold die. 10. A method as described in claim 1, further comprising: an external electrode formation step between said mold curing step and said singulation step for forming external electrodes on an exterior face of said circuit assembly board, said external electrodes being connected to said internal electrodes. 11. A method as described in claim 10, wherein said circuit assembly board is a substrate board, and wherein said external electrode formation step includes a ball formation step for forming solder balls on wiring of said substrate board. 12. A method as described in claim 10, wherein said circuit assembly board is a lead frame, and wherein said external electrode formation step includes a plating step for plating outer leads of said lead frame. 13. A method as described in claim 10, wherein said circuit assembly board is a tape substrate. 14. A method as described in claim 13, wherein said tape substrate is made of a super heat resistant polyimide film. 15. A method as described in claim 13, further comprising: a cleaning step between said die bonding step and said wire bonding step for cleaning said sensor packages and said circuit assembly board. 16. A method as described in claim 15, wherein said cleaning step is to perform UV cleaning. 17. A method as described in claim 15, wherein said cleaning step is to perform plasma cleaning. 18. A method as described in claim 2, wherein said die attach material has a glass transition temperature lower than a heat curing temperature in said mold curing step. 19. A method as described in claim 18, wherein said die attach material has said glass transition temperature of 50° C. to 80° C. and a thermal expansion coefficient of 80 to 100 ppm/° C. 20. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said cover is attached to said imaging chip by an adhesive agent, having a glass transition temperature higher than a heat curing temperature in said mold curing step. 21. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing step is performed under a sealing temperature of 165° C. to 180° C. and an injection pressure of 50 to 100 kg/cm2. 22. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin is high adhesion resin, which makes tight contact to said sensor packages and said circuit assembly board. 23. A method as described in claim 22, wherein said high adhesion resin is biphenyl type epoxy resin. 24. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a spiral flow of 110 cm and above. 25. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a thermal expansion coefficient of no more than 20 ppm/° C. and preferably no more than 8 ppm/° C. 26. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a flexural modulus of 28 Gpa and below. 27. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a mold shrinkage factor of 0.12% and below. 28. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a water absorption coefficient of no more than 0.3% by weight and preferably no more than 0.15% by weight. 29. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a ratio of a filler material of 80% and above. 30. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a glass transition temperature of 130° C. and above. 31. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a hardness of 90 shore D and above. 32. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin has a curing temperature of approximately 150° C. 33. A method as described in claim 1, wherein said sealing resin contains halogen and an alkali metal of no more than 10 ppm respectively. 34. A method for manufacturing solid state imaging devices comprising: a die bonding step for adhering a set of sensor package and at least one cooperating chip to each of a plurality of bonding areas formed on a circuit assembly board, each of said sensor packages having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor, said cooperating chip having input/output pads, said sensor package being adhered to said bonding area so as an upper face of said cover not to be covered by said cooperating chip; a wire bonding step for connecting said input/output pads of both said sensor package and cooperating chip to internal electrodes with using bonding wires, said internal electrodes being provided in said circuit assembly board and corresponding to said sensor packages and cooperating chip; a sealing step for holding said upper face of said cover and a lower face of said circuit assembly board between an upper mold die and a lower mold die, and for filling sealing resin to a cavity created between said upper mold die and lower mold die to seal peripheries of said sensor packages and said cooperating chips; a mold curing step for heating to cure said sealing resin; and a singulation step for cutting said circuit assembly board and said sealing resin into individual sensor packages with their cooperating chips. 35. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; at least one cooperating chip which works with said sensor package, said cooperating chip having input/output pads; a circuit board on which said sensor package and said cooperating chip are adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads of said sensor package and cooperating chip to internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package and said cooperating chip without covering said upper face of said cover; and external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin. 36. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 35, wherein said sensor package and said cooperating chip are adhered side by side on said circuit board. 37. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 35, wherein said sensor package and said cooperating chip are stacked on said circuit board such that said sensor package is placed atop to expose said upper face of said cover. 38. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 35, wherein said circuit assembly board is a substrate base-board, on whose wirings solder balls being formed. 39. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 35, wherein said circuit assembly board is a lead frame, on which outer leads being plated. 40. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a circuit board on which said sensor package is adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads and internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package without covering said upper face of said cover; and external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin, wherein an peripheral edge of said cover is chamfered or provided with a step. 41. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a circuit board on which said sensor package is adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads and internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package without covering said upper face of said cover; and external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin, wherein side faces of one or both of said imaging chip and said cover are rough surfaces. 42. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a circuit board on which said sensor package is adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads and internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package without covering said upper face of said cover; a high adhesion film attached on an upper surface of said imaging chip, said high adhesion film making tight contact to said sealing resin; and external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin. 43. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 42, wherein said high adhesion film is a polyimide film. 44. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a circuit board on which said sensor package is adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads and internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package without covering said upper face of said cover; external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin; and a moisture penetration preventive film stretching over the outer side faces of said imaging chip, said spacer, and said cover for enhancing said sealing of said sensor package. 45. A solid state imaging device as described in claim 44, wherein said moisture penetration preventive film is a nitride film. 46. A solid state imaging device comprising: a sensor package having an imaging chip provided with an image sensor and input/output pads and a translucent cover attached to said imaging chip for sealing said image sensor; a circuit board on which said sensor package is adhered such that an upper face of said sensor package is exposed; bonding wires for connection between said input/output pads and internal electrodes of said circuit board; sealing resin for sealing periphery of said sensor package without covering said upper face of said cover; and external electrodes connected to said internal electrodes and exposed from said sealing resin, wherein inside a cavity enclosed by said imaging chip, said spacer, and said cover is a vacuum or filled with an inactive gas.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Digital cameras and video cameras with a solid state imaging device of either CCD type or CMOS type are in widespread use. Often, the solid state imaging device, together with a memory device, is incorporated in electrical equipments such as personal computers, mobile phones, and personal digital assistances to provide them with an image capturing function. An increasing demand for the solid state imaging devices is downsizing so that it does not affect the size of the electrical equipments greatly. Solid state imaging device of chip scale package type (hereinafter “CSP”) are known in the art. The CSP type solid state imaging device is composed of, for example, an imaging chip provided with both an image sensor (such as CCD) and input/output pads on the upper surface, a cover glass (i.e. cover) attached on the upper surface of the imaging chip through a spacer for sealing the imaging sensor, and external electrodes for connection to external devices. The CSP type solid state imaging device is packaged in approximately the size of the imaging chip, which is very small (see, for example, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334). Generally, the CSP type solid state imaging device is made in the following procedure: 1. forming a plurality of the image sensors (each with a photoelectric conversion section and a charge transfer section) and the corresponding input/output pads on the upper surface of a silicon wafer. 2. forming the spacers atop of the silicon wafer to enclose the image sensors individually. 3. attaching a glass substrate, i.e. a base material of the cover glass, to the silicon wafer through the spacer to seal each of the image sensors. 4. forming on the silicon wafer the external electrodes that correspond to the image sensors. 5. dicing the silicon wafer and the glass substrate into individual image sensors. Since the CSP type solid state imaging device is as small as the imaging chip, the external electrodes are usually formed on the lower surface of the imaging chip. Therefore, with the conventional technique, the external electrodes on the lower surface are connected to the input/output pads on the upper surface of the image sensor in the formation process of the external electrodes. Concretely, they are connected either by through wirings that pass through the imaging chip or side wirings formed on the side faces of the imaging chip. The external electrode with the through wiring may be formed in the following procedure (see, for example, “Press release, a next generation packaging method with a through electrode on a semiconductor chip is established at practical level” from Association of Super-Advanced Electronics Technologies, searched on Feb. 15, 2005, via the Internet, <URL:http://www.aset.or.jp/press_release/si — 20040218/si — 20040218.html>): 1. forming the through holes on the silicon wafer to extend from the lower surface to the input/output pads. 2. forming insulating thin layer on the inner walls of the through holes. 3. forming the through wirings of copper plate in the through holes. 4. forming, on the lower surface of the silicon wafer, secondary wirings to be connected with the through wirings. 5. forming solder balls on the secondary wirings. On the other hand, the external electrode with the side wiring may be formed in the following procedure (see, for example, the U.S. Pat. No. 6,777,767 B2): 1. attaching a reinforcing board to the lower surface of the silicon wafer. 2. forming secondary wirings on the lower surface of the reinforcing board. 3. forming cutouts, which pass through between the lower surface of the reinforcing board and the input/output pads, at the portions that would become the side faces of the solid state imaging device. 4. forming conductive films inside the cutouts to connect the input/output pads and the secondary wirings. 5. forming solder balls on the secondary wirings. When the silicon wafer is diced, the conductive films appear on the side faces of the solid state imaging device and become the side wirings. Forming of the above through wirings requires a large number of processes, such as etching, film formation, and plating. Moreover, certain dedicated machines (for example, the etcher, the CVD machine, the plating machine) are required, which will raise the cost. Also required is much time for listing and evaluating the conditions, such as the shape of the through hole, the thickness of the insulating film and a conductive paste and so force, in order to ensure a certain level of the electric property and the reliability. For the same reason, forming of the side wirings also raises the cost. Moreover, the side wirings cause to enlarge the solid state imaging device because the input/output pads have to be spaced at no less than 350 μm interval for the wires passing through the side faces to the lower surface. When it is enlarged, fewer solid state imaging devices can be produced from a single silicon wafer and the cost will be raised. The Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 discloses a packaging method of the CSP type solid state imaging device. This method begins by fixing a sensor package (composed of an imaging chip and its cover glass) without external electrodes onto a circuit board made from a glass epoxy substrate. Then, input/output pads of the sensor package and conductive pads of the circuit board are joined by bonding wires. Finally, the periphery of the sensor package is sealed with sealing resin. This packaging method enables to use the conventional post-process technique and facilities for semiconductor devices. Although it becomes somewhat large, this kind of resin sealed package enables to produce the reliable solid state imaging devices at low cost, and solve the above mentioned drawbacks of the through wirings and the side wirings as well. In addition, the sealing resin seals a cavity enclosed by the imaging chip, the spacer, and cover glass, preventing electrical problems in the image sensor. However, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 is silent about how to protect the upper face of the cover glass in the sealing process. If the upper face of the cover glass is overlaid, stained, or damaged by the resin, the yield is decreased and the cost is raised. Therefore, a development of an effective resin sealing method able to protect the upper surface of the cover glass is highly demanded. In the meanwhile, one of the interests of the art is a so-called “system-in-package” (hereinafter “SIP”), which packs a plurality of IC chips, normally mounted separate on the circuit board, into a single package as a system. For the SIP of a CPU and memories, there is no need to expose the IC chips. In contrast, when the above sensor package is packed in the SIP, the cover glass has to be exposed and, therefore, care must be taken for arrangement of the sensor package. While the resin sealed sensor packages have been used in various semiconductor devices, they are known for a problem of moisture absorption by the sealing resin. This problem occurs when the semiconductor device in the resin seal package is soldered by a solder reflow machine. The moisture in the sealing resin is heated and causes a steam explosion, which makes some cracks in the sealing resin or at the boundary of the sealing resin and the sensor package. Therefore, the sealing resin peels off from the sensor package or the circuit board. If this problem occurs in the solid state imaging device of the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334, the cracks or the peeling off of the sealing resin lead to remove the bonding wires connected to the input/output pads and the conductive pads. At the end, the solid state imaging device becomes inoperative. In addition, the moisture in the sealing resin dissolves ionic impurities out of the sealing resin, and an electrochemical decomposition reaction is thereby stimulated to possibly corrode the aluminum-made input/output pads. Furthermore, when the sealing resin peels off from the sensor package or the circuit board, the spacer and the cover glass may also come off, along with the sealing resin, from the imaging chip. This will cause other problems, such as fog on the cover glass and electrical malfunctions of the image sensor. Despite the fact that the moisture absorption of the sealing resin causes various problems to the solid state imaging devices as described above, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 is silent about a solution to the moisture related problems. Therefore, a proper countermeasure to the moisture of the solid state imaging devices is highly demanded. In view of the above, an object of the present invention is to provide a manufacturing method of the solid state imaging device that enables to seal the sensor package with resin while effectively protecting the cover glass for the image sensor. This manufacturing method of the solid state imaging device can also prevent negative effects of moisture. The resulting solid state imaging devices are also within the scope of the present invention.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a solid state imaging device made according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 3 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device; FIG. 4 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for a sensor package; FIG. 5 is an explanatory view illustrating formation of a spacer of the sensor package; FIG. 6 is an explanatory view illustrating attachment operation of substrates and dicing operation of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a glass substrate and a silicon wafer; FIG. 8 is an explanatory view illustrating the manufacturing process of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a circuit assembly board; FIG. 10 is a cross sectional view illustrating operation of a transfer molding machine; FIG. 11 is a plane view of a lower mold die; FIG. 12 is a cross sectional view of a cover glass with an individual protection sheet attached thereon; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a FBGA package; FIG. 14 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in the FBGA package; FIG. 15 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device in the FBGA package; FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a QFN package; FIG. 17 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in the QFN package; FIG. 18 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device in the QFN package; FIG. 19 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a system-in-package; FIG. 20 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in a stacked system-in-package; FIG. 21 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device provided with a chamfered section on the outer edge of the cover glass; FIG. 22 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device provided with a step section on the outer edge of the cover glass; FIG. 23 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with rough surfaces shaped on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 24 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with polyimide films formed on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 25 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with nitride films formed on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 26 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with an inactive gas filled in a cavity enclosed by the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 27 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process including an UV cleaning or plasma cleaning step; and FIG. 28 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device, in which the circuit board is a tape substrate made of a super heat resistant polyimide film. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a manufacturing method of solid state imaging devices, and more particularly to a manufacturing method of a solid state imaging device with a resin sealed sensor package, and the resulting solid state imaging device. BACKGROUND ART Digital cameras and video cameras with a solid state imaging device of either CCD type or CMOS type are in widespread use. Often, the solid state imaging device, together with a memory device, is incorporated in electrical equipments such as personal computers, mobile phones, and personal digital assistances to provide them with an image capturing function. An increasing demand for the solid state imaging devices is downsizing so that it does not affect the size of the electrical equipments greatly. Solid state imaging device of chip scale package type (hereinafter “CSP”) are known in the art. The CSP type solid state imaging device is composed of, for example, an imaging chip provided with both an image sensor (such as CCD) and input/output pads on the upper surface, a cover glass (i.e. cover) attached on the upper surface of the imaging chip through a spacer for sealing the imaging sensor, and external electrodes for connection to external devices. The CSP type solid state imaging device is packaged in approximately the size of the imaging chip, which is very small (see, for example, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334). Generally, the CSP type solid state imaging device is made in the following procedure: 1. forming a plurality of the image sensors (each with a photoelectric conversion section and a charge transfer section) and the corresponding input/output pads on the upper surface of a silicon wafer. 2. forming the spacers atop of the silicon wafer to enclose the image sensors individually. 3. attaching a glass substrate, i.e. a base material of the cover glass, to the silicon wafer through the spacer to seal each of the image sensors. 4. forming on the silicon wafer the external electrodes that correspond to the image sensors. 5. dicing the silicon wafer and the glass substrate into individual image sensors. Since the CSP type solid state imaging device is as small as the imaging chip, the external electrodes are usually formed on the lower surface of the imaging chip. Therefore, with the conventional technique, the external electrodes on the lower surface are connected to the input/output pads on the upper surface of the image sensor in the formation process of the external electrodes. Concretely, they are connected either by through wirings that pass through the imaging chip or side wirings formed on the side faces of the imaging chip. The external electrode with the through wiring may be formed in the following procedure (see, for example, “Press release, a next generation packaging method with a through electrode on a semiconductor chip is established at practical level” from Association of Super-Advanced Electronics Technologies, searched on Feb. 15, 2005, via the Internet, <URL:http://www.aset.or.jp/press_release/si—20040218/si—20040218.html>): 1. forming the through holes on the silicon wafer to extend from the lower surface to the input/output pads. 2. forming insulating thin layer on the inner walls of the through holes. 3. forming the through wirings of copper plate in the through holes. 4. forming, on the lower surface of the silicon wafer, secondary wirings to be connected with the through wirings. 5. forming solder balls on the secondary wirings. On the other hand, the external electrode with the side wiring may be formed in the following procedure (see, for example, the U.S. Pat. No. 6,777,767 B2): 1. attaching a reinforcing board to the lower surface of the silicon wafer. 2. forming secondary wirings on the lower surface of the reinforcing board. 3. forming cutouts, which pass through between the lower surface of the reinforcing board and the input/output pads, at the portions that would become the side faces of the solid state imaging device. 4. forming conductive films inside the cutouts to connect the input/output pads and the secondary wirings. 5. forming solder balls on the secondary wirings. When the silicon wafer is diced, the conductive films appear on the side faces of the solid state imaging device and become the side wirings. Forming of the above through wirings requires a large number of processes, such as etching, film formation, and plating. Moreover, certain dedicated machines (for example, the etcher, the CVD machine, the plating machine) are required, which will raise the cost. Also required is much time for listing and evaluating the conditions, such as the shape of the through hole, the thickness of the insulating film and a conductive paste and so force, in order to ensure a certain level of the electric property and the reliability. For the same reason, forming of the side wirings also raises the cost. Moreover, the side wirings cause to enlarge the solid state imaging device because the input/output pads have to be spaced at no less than 350 μm interval for the wires passing through the side faces to the lower surface. When it is enlarged, fewer solid state imaging devices can be produced from a single silicon wafer and the cost will be raised. The Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 discloses a packaging method of the CSP type solid state imaging device. This method begins by fixing a sensor package (composed of an imaging chip and its cover glass) without external electrodes onto a circuit board made from a glass epoxy substrate. Then, input/output pads of the sensor package and conductive pads of the circuit board are joined by bonding wires. Finally, the periphery of the sensor package is sealed with sealing resin. This packaging method enables to use the conventional post-process technique and facilities for semiconductor devices. Although it becomes somewhat large, this kind of resin sealed package enables to produce the reliable solid state imaging devices at low cost, and solve the above mentioned drawbacks of the through wirings and the side wirings as well. In addition, the sealing resin seals a cavity enclosed by the imaging chip, the spacer, and cover glass, preventing electrical problems in the image sensor. However, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 is silent about how to protect the upper face of the cover glass in the sealing process. If the upper face of the cover glass is overlaid, stained, or damaged by the resin, the yield is decreased and the cost is raised. Therefore, a development of an effective resin sealing method able to protect the upper surface of the cover glass is highly demanded. In the meanwhile, one of the interests of the art is a so-called “system-in-package” (hereinafter “SIP”), which packs a plurality of IC chips, normally mounted separate on the circuit board, into a single package as a system. For the SIP of a CPU and memories, there is no need to expose the IC chips. In contrast, when the above sensor package is packed in the SIP, the cover glass has to be exposed and, therefore, care must be taken for arrangement of the sensor package. While the resin sealed sensor packages have been used in various semiconductor devices, they are known for a problem of moisture absorption by the sealing resin. This problem occurs when the semiconductor device in the resin seal package is soldered by a solder reflow machine. The moisture in the sealing resin is heated and causes a steam explosion, which makes some cracks in the sealing resin or at the boundary of the sealing resin and the sensor package. Therefore, the sealing resin peels off from the sensor package or the circuit board. If this problem occurs in the solid state imaging device of the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334, the cracks or the peeling off of the sealing resin lead to remove the bonding wires connected to the input/output pads and the conductive pads. At the end, the solid state imaging device becomes inoperative. In addition, the moisture in the sealing resin dissolves ionic impurities out of the sealing resin, and an electrochemical decomposition reaction is thereby stimulated to possibly corrode the aluminum-made input/output pads. Furthermore, when the sealing resin peels off from the sensor package or the circuit board, the spacer and the cover glass may also come off, along with the sealing resin, from the imaging chip. This will cause other problems, such as fog on the cover glass and electrical malfunctions of the image sensor. Despite the fact that the moisture absorption of the sealing resin causes various problems to the solid state imaging devices as described above, the Japanese patent laid-open publication No. 2001-257334 is silent about a solution to the moisture related problems. Therefore, a proper countermeasure to the moisture of the solid state imaging devices is highly demanded. In view of the above, an object of the present invention is to provide a manufacturing method of the solid state imaging device that enables to seal the sensor package with resin while effectively protecting the cover glass for the image sensor. This manufacturing method of the solid state imaging device can also prevent negative effects of moisture. The resulting solid state imaging devices are also within the scope of the present invention. DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION In order to achieve the above and other objects, a manufacturing method of solid state imaging devices according to the present invention includes a die bonding step, a wire bonding step, a sealing step, a mold curing step, and a singulation step. In the die bonding step, sensor packages each having an image sensor covered by a cover are adhered onto a circuit assembly board. In the wire bonding step, input/output pads of each sensor package is connected to corresponding internal electrodes of the circuit assembly board with using bonding wires. In the sealing step, the upper face of the covers and under surface of the circuit assembly board are held between an upper mold die and a lower mold die, and sealing resin is filled into a cavity between said upper mold die and lower mold die to seal peripheries of the sensor packages. In the mold curing step, the sealing resin is heated for curing. In the singulation step, the circuit assembly board together with the sealing resin is cut into individual sensor packages. According to the above manufacturing method, the upper mold die protects the upper face of the cover in the sealing step, and prevents the sealing resin to stick onto the cover. It is therefore possible to prevent the decrease in yield resulted from the stain of the cover caused by the sealing resin. Furthermore, the solid state imaging device except for the cover glass can be properly sealed. In addition, a plurality of solid state imaging devices can be manufactured at one time, and the cost will be reduced. When the sensor package and at least one cooperating chip are adhered on the circuit assembly board to form a system-in-package, they are adhered such that the upper face of the cover is not hidden by the cooperating chip. Then the circuit assembly board is sealed while the upper mold die makes tight contact with the upper face of the cover to keep it off from the sealing resin. In this way, even for the SIP, the decrease in yield will also be prevented and the solid state imaging device can be properly sealed except for the cover glass. In addition, a plurality of solid state imaging devices in SIP can be manufactured at one time, and the cost will be reduced. To adhere the sensor packages to the circuit assembly board, sheets of die attach material are used. If the die attach material is paste or liquid and the thickness of coating is not accurately controlled, the cover glass are not level with each other on the circuit assembly board. This may result to create a gap between the upper mold die and the cover glass, and the cover glass will be stained by the sealing resin. On the other hand, the sheet of die attach material has uniform thickness. Since the covers are level with each other on the circuit assembly board, the upper face thereof will be surely protected. Therefore, it is prevented that the sealing resin stains the cover to decrease the yield. For even better protection of the cover from the sealing resin, a protection step may be provided to put protection sheets on the covers individually. With this step, the upper face of each cover is surely protected, and the decrease in yield due to the stain of the cover glass by the sealing resin can be prevented. The protection sheet should have resiliency and flexibility to absorb the difference in height between the cover glasses. Therefore, the cover glass is protected from direct pressing impact of the mold die. The protection sheet is larger than a light receiving surface of the image sensor but smaller than the upper face of the cover. The protection sheet is adhered to the cover such that an edge of the protection sheet stays at between the edges of the image sensor and the upper face of said cover. If the edge of the protection sheet juts outside the cover glass, it may possibly bend and get into the sealing resin. Such protection sheet will leave a dent in the sealing resin when detached from the cover glass, and the sealing performance as well as appearance of the product is degraded. Since the protection sheet is arranged to stay within the upper face of the cover glass in the present invention, the foregoing problem will never occurs. In addition, the protection sheet does not impair the performance of image sensor because it is larger than the light receiving surface of the image sensor. Alternatively, at least one protection sheet larger than the cover glass may be put over the covers of plural sensor packages. In this case, the number of protection sheets and the amount of work are reduced, and so does the cost. Instead, a large protection sheet as large as the circuit assembly board may be put over all the sensor packages on the circuit assembly board. Since the protection sheet is adhered by a single work in this case, the amount of work is further reduced, and so does the cost. Such protection sheet is held inside the upper mold die, which is used in the sealing step. Therefore, the protection sheet will cover the upper face of the cover when the upper and lower mold dies move to hold the upper face of the cover glass and the under surface of the circuit assembly board. This can eliminate the sheet adhesion operation. The circuit assembly board may be a substrate base-board, and the external electrode may be either a solder ball or solder paste. The substrate base-board and the solder ball or paste are both reliable and cheap, and will serve for high yield and cost reduction. Rather, the circuit assembly board may be a lead frame. In this case, outer leads of the lead frame are plated in the external electrode formation step. The lead frame is also reliable and cheap, and able to serve for high yield and cost reduction. It should be noted that the plating operation can be omitted if the lead frame is a PPF (Pre-plated Frame). Furthermore, the circuit assembly board may be a tape substrate. In this case, if the tape substrate is made of a super heat resistant polyimide film, which drains moisture from the sealing resin, prevention of the steam explosion can be expected. Between the die bonding step and the wire bonding step, a cleaning step may be provided for the sensor package, the cooperating chips, and the circuit assembly board. This cleaning step improves the adhesion of the sealing resin to the sensor package, and will improve reliability of the solid state imaging device. The method of cleaning may preferably be an UV cleaning or a plasma cleaning. It is preferable that the die attach material has glass transition temperature lower than the heat curing temperature in the mold curing step. Such die attach material reaches the glass transition temperature with a low heat temperature at the beginning of the mold curing step, and serves to absorb the difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the imaging chip and the circuit assembly board. The sealing resin is therefore kept from the cracks and resultant peeling off. Preferably, the die attach material has a glass transition temperature of 50° C. to 80° C., and a thermal expansion coefficient of 80 to 100 ppm/° C. An adhesive agent, for attachment of the imaging chip and the cover glass, may have the glass transition temperature higher than the heat curing temperature in the mold curing step, so that it does not reach the glass transition temperature to lose the adhesion force during the mold curing step. Nonetheless, the adhesive agent may have a relatively low glass transition temperature if the sealing resin has low thermal expansion coefficient and therefore gives less thermal stress on the adhesive agent at high temperature. In order to prevent the cracks or the peeling off of the sealing resin from the sensor package and the circuit board, the sealing resin may preferably be high adhesion resin, which has excellent adhesion to the sensor package, the cooperating chips, and the circuit assembly board. The high adhesion resin will be, for example, biphenyl type epoxy resin. Additionally, to ensure a steady flow of the sealing resin around the sensor packages, the sealing step is preferably carried out with the temperature of 165° C. to 180° C. and an injection pressure of 50 to 100 kg/cm2. From the same reason, a spiral flow of the sealing resin may preferably be 110 cm and above. The thermal expansion coefficient of the sealing resin is 20 ppm/° C. and preferably 8 ppm/° C., so that thermal stress can be reduced between the sensor package and the circuit board. From the same reason, the sealing resin preferably has a flexural modulus of 28 Gpa and below, and a mold shrinkage factor of 0.12% and below. Since the cracks and the peeling off are more likely to occur as the trapped moisture increases in the sealing resin, a water absorption coefficient of the sealing resin is preferably 0.3% by weight and below, more preferably 0.15% by weight and below. In addition, for more reduction of the water absorption coefficient, the sealing resin may have a ratio of the filler material of no less than 80%. Preferably, the glass transition temperature of the sealing resin is 130° C. and above to create a proper temperature cycle. Furthermore, in view of this glass transition temperature, the heat curing temperature is preferably around 150° C. in the mold curing step. Furthermore, to ensure a proper level of strength in the solid state imaging device and prevent deformation thereof, the sealing resin should have a hardness of 90 shore D and above. In order to prevent the corrosion of the input/output pads caused by the melting impurities out of the sealing resin, the sealing resin may preferably have a halogen and alkali contents of no more than 10 ppm respectively. The solid state imaging device of the present invention may be composed of the sensor package, cooperating chips, the circuit board, bonding wires, the external electrodes, and the sealing resin for sealing the solid state imaging device except the cover of the sensor package. This enables low cost manufacture of a reliable, SIP type solid state imaging device that carries the sensor package and the cooperating chips necessary for the control of the sensor package. Since the above system-in-package has to expose the upper face of the sensor package, the sensor package and the cooperating chips are adhered next to each other on the circuit board. It is also possible to stack the sensor package and cooperating chips to have a stacked system-in-package and, in this case, the sensor package is placed atop. Also, in the solid state imaging device of the present invention, the cover may be provided with a chamfered edge or step edge so that the sealing resin can be kept from the cracks and peeling off. In this case, the sealing resin has an increased contact area with the sensor package, and the adhesion force is improved. Since the sealing efficiency is also improved for the cavity between the imaging chip, the spacer, and the cover, sufficient adhesion force is maintained between them even in either occasions where the pressure inside the cavity is increased at high temperature, a difference in thermal expansion occurs between them, and the moisture absorption of the sealing resin sets off the steam explosion. Instead of the chamfered or the bumped edges, it is possible to roughen the side faces of both or one of the imaging chip and the cover to create rough surfaces. Furthermore, a high adhesion resin layer may be provided over the side faces of both or one of the imaging chip and the cover for tight contact to the sealing resin. The high adhesion resin layer allows tight contact of between the sealing resin and the sensor package, enhancing adhesion force of the sealing resin. Since the imaging chip and the spacer also become to make tight contact, the adhesion force is enhanced between them. As a result, the sealing efficiency is improved for the cavity between the imaging chip, the spacer, and the cover, and therefore sufficient adhesion force is maintained between them even in either occasions where the pressure inside the cavity is increased at high temperature, a difference in thermal expansion occurs between them, and the moisture absorption of the sealing resin sets off the steam explosion. The high adhesion resin layer will be, for example, a polyimide film. For more improvement of the sealing efficiency on the cavity to block the moisture penetrating from the boundary of the sealing resin, it is possible to provide a moisture penetration preventive film over the outer side faces of the imaging chip, the spacer, and the cover. The moisture penetration preventive film will be, for example, a nitride thin film. The cavity between the imaging chip and the cover may forms a vacuum or be filled with an inactive gas. Since there is little thermal expansion of air inside the cavity to produce a tension in this case, the spacer and the cover glass are kept from peeling off. According to the present invention, it is possible to take the advantage of the CSP type solid state imaging device that it is small and to overcome the drawbacks of the through wirings and the side wirings, such as a high cost of manufacture, low reliability, and growth in chip size. Since the upper face of the cover for the sensor package will never be stained or damaged, the decrease of the yield is prevented and so does the rise in the price of the solid state imaging device. Additionally, it is possible to manufacture reliable system in packages at low cost. The various modifications made in the present invention can be used separately or in combination to become an effective countermeasure to the problems caused by the moisture absorption of the sealing resin, such as the cracks, peeling off of the elements, and in operation of the device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a solid state imaging device made according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 3 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device; FIG. 4 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for a sensor package; FIG. 5 is an explanatory view illustrating formation of a spacer of the sensor package; FIG. 6 is an explanatory view illustrating attachment operation of substrates and dicing operation of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a glass substrate and a silicon wafer; FIG. 8 is an explanatory view illustrating the manufacturing process of the solid state imaging device; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a circuit assembly board; FIG. 10 is a cross sectional view illustrating operation of a transfer molding machine; FIG. 11 is a plane view of a lower mold die; FIG. 12 is a cross sectional view of a cover glass with an individual protection sheet attached thereon; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a FBGA package; FIG. 14 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in the FBGA package; FIG. 15 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device in the FBGA package; FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a QFN package; FIG. 17 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in the QFN package; FIG. 18 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device in the QFN package; FIG. 19 is a perspective view of the solid state imaging device in a system-in-package; FIG. 20 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device in a stacked system-in-package; FIG. 21 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device provided with a chamfered section on the outer edge of the cover glass; FIG. 22 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device provided with a step section on the outer edge of the cover glass; FIG. 23 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with rough surfaces shaped on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 24 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with polyimide films formed on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 25 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with nitride films formed on the side faces of the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 26 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device with an inactive gas filled in a cavity enclosed by the cover glass, spacer, and the imaging chip; FIG. 27 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process including an UV cleaning or plasma cleaning step; and FIG. 28 is a cross sectional view of the solid state imaging device, in which the circuit board is a tape substrate made of a super heat resistant polyimide film. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Referring now to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, a solid state imaging device 2 of a first embodiment includes a rectangular circuit board 3, a sensor package 4 fixed onto the circuit board 3, a plurality of bonding wires 5 for connection between the circuit board 3 and the sensor package 4, sealing resin 7 that seals a periphery of a cover glass 6 of the sensor package 4, and external conductive pads 8 formed on the lower surface of the circuit board 3. The solid state imaging device 2 is in a package so called “Fine Pitch Land Grid Array (FLGA)”. The FLGA package is prevalent in the art, and it is possible to manufacture reliable solid state imaging devices 2 at low cost. The circuit board 3 is a substrate board (or printed board) fabricated from a base 11 of glass epoxy or the like. On a top surface of the base 11, a plurality of internal conductive pads 12, i.e. internal electrodes, are formed for connection with the sensor package 4 through the bonding wires 5. Formed on an under surface of the base 11 are the external conductive pads 8, i.e. external electrodes. These internal and external conductive pads 12 and 8 are made of, for example, copper (Cu) and electrically connected to each other by conductive films 14 formed in through holes 13 which run through the base 11. The top and under surfaces of the base 11 are covered with solder resists 15 and 16 except where the internal and the external conductive pads 12 and 8 occupy. The sensor package 4 is composed of an imaging chip 19 of rectangular shape, an image sensor 19a such as CCD or CMOS provided on the upper surface of the imaging chip 19, a microlens array 20 attached on the imaging sensor 19a, a plurality of input/output pads 21 connected to the circuit board 3 through the bonding wires 5, the translucent cover glass 6 for sealing the image sensor 19a from above, and a spacer 22 held between the imaging chip 19 and the cover glass 6. The imaging chip 19 is made by dividing a silicon wafer, on which a plurality of image sensors 19a and input/output pads 21 are arranged in matrix, into rectangular pieces. Each image sensor 19a includes a plurality of matrix arranged light receiving elements (photodiodes), on which a color filter (not shown) of RGB and a microlens 20 are overlaid. The input/output pads 21 are aligned along the two opposite sides across the image sensor 19a. The input/output pads 21 are, for example, gold (Au) or aluminum (Al) print and connected to the image sensor 19a through wirings, which are made of the same material and the same method as the input/output pad 21. The spacer 22 is made of an inorganic material such as silicon, and has a frame shape with an opening 22a in the middle. The spacer 22 is attached to the upper surface of the imaging chip 19 such that it can surround the image sensor 19a to create a gap between the microlens array 20 and the cover glass 6. It is thereby prevented the physical contact of the microlens array 20 and the cover glass 6. The cover glass 6 is low alpha ray emission glass and attached onto the spacer 22 such that it covers the opening 22a. The low alpha ray emission glass, which emits little alpha rays, can prevent the alpha rays to destruct the light receiving elements of the image sensor 19a. Additionally, an infrared cut filter and an optical low pass filter may be attached on the cover glass 6. The sensor package 4 is die bonded onto the circuit board 3. The bonding wires 5 for connection between the input/output pads 21 and the internal conductive pads 12 may be made of Au or Al. The sealing resin 7 for sealing the periphery of the cover glass 6 is, for example, a thermosetting resin of epoxy that is conventionally used for the seal of ICs. The sealing resin 7 keeps the input/output pads 21, the internal conductive pads 12, and bonding wires 5 from the moisture and oxygen that will cause oxidization and corrosion. Also, the sealing resin 7 can improve the mechanical strength of the solid state imaging device 2. Next, the manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device 2 is described with reference to the flow charts of FIG. 3 and FIG. 4. Note that each flow chart has lists, on both sides, of the materials and equipments used in each step of the process. The first step of the manufacturing process for the solid state imaging device 2 is the manufacture of the sensor package 4. The manufacture of the sensor package 4 begins by attaching a glass substrate 28, i.e. a base material of the cover glass 6, to a spacer wafer 30, i.e. a base material of the spacer 22. As shown in FIG. 5A, an adhesive 29 is applied on the under surface of the glass substrate 28 with using a bar coater, blade coater, a spin coater, or such. Then, the spacer wafer 30 is attached underneath the glass substrate 28 with using a joint machine that can hold and move the glass substrate 28 and spacer wafer 30 parallel to each other. Although the adhesive 29 is typically a room temperature curing adhesive, it is possible to use any of UV curable adhesive, visible light curable adhesive, or heat curing adhesive. In addition, the attachment may be done under a vacuum state so that air does not enter in between the glass substrate 28 and the spacer wafer 30 at the time of the attachment. As shown in FIG. 5B, the glass substrate 28 and the spacer wafer 30 are made thinner. To facilitate the handling in attachment operation and to reduce the cost, the glass substrate 28 and the spacer wafer 30 are initially made with a standard, somewhat thick, materials. Therefore, they are made thinner to allow the minimization of the solid state imaging device 2 and time reduction in etching work. Used in this thinning work is, for example, a grinding and polishing machine. Subsequently, the spacer 22 is formed. As shown in FIG. 5C, a resist 33 is applied on the under surface of the spacer wafer 33. Then, as shown in FIG. 5D, the resist 33 is exposed and developed with using a predetermined mask, and thereby a resist mask 34 in the shape of the spacer 22 is formed as shown in FIG. 5E. To form the resist mask 34, a coater developer, an exposure machine, and a developing machine are used. The spacer wafer 30 with the resist mask 34 is etched by a dry etcher and, as shown in FIG. 5F, unmasked areas are removed and a plurality of spacers 22 are created underneath the glass substrate 28. After etching, the resist mask 34 and the adhesive 29 are removed, as shown in FIG. 5G, with using a cleaning machine. The glass substrate 28 with the spacers 22 thus created is attached to a silicon wafer 37, which has a plurality of image sensors 19a and input/output pads 21 formed thereon as shown in FIG. 7. Firstly, as shown in FIG. 6A, adhesives 40 are applied on the spacers 22. The adhesive 40 is typically a room temperature curing adhesive, but it is possible to use any of UV curable adhesive, visible light curable adhesive, or heat curing adhesive. Then, as shown in FIG. 6B, the spacers 22 underneath the glass substrate 28 are attached to the silicon wafer 37. Since this attachment requires an accurate alignment between each image sensor 19a and spacer 22, a joint machine for this operation must have an alignment function to adjust the parallel relationship and horizontal relative positions between the image sensor 19a and the spacers 22. Each image sensor 19a on the silicon wafer 37 is sealed with the spacer 22 and the glass substrate 28, and will be kept free of dusts or shards generated in the subsequent step of the process. The glass substrate 28 is then diced, together with the silicon wafer 37, into individual image sensors 19a. Firstly, as shown in FIG. 6C, the silicon wafer 37 is fixed on an adhesive layer 43a of a dicing tape 43, and a protection tape 44 with an adhesive layer 44a is adhered on the glass substrate 28. Then, as shown in FIG. 6D, the glass substrate 28 is diced along the edges of the spacers 22 with using a slicer. Finally, the silicone wafer 37 is diced into individual image sensors 19a, as shown in FIG. 6E, with using a dicer. In this manner, a plurality of the sensor packages 4 is formed at one time. For the protection of the cover glass 6 during shipment, the protection tape 44 may be left adhered. Alternatively, the protection tape 44 should be adhered on each cover glass 6 after dicing if not needed in the dicing operation. The sensor packages 4 are separately inspected for performance by, for example, a probe inspection machine and only those passed this performance inspection will be detached from the dicing tape 43 and placed individually on trays or attached to a carrier tape for shipment. Alternatively, a plurality of the sensor packages 4 can be left attached to the dicing tape 43 and shipped. As shown in FIG. 3, the manufactured sensor packages 4 are die bonded onto a circuit assembly board 47, a large board with several circuit patterns of same kind. As shown in FIG. 8A and FIG. 9, the circuit assembly board 47 may be made from, for example, a glass epoxy substrate into a rectangular shape and is provided thereon with twenty, matrix arranged die bonding areas 48, on which the sensor packages 4 are die bonded individually. Each die bonding area 48 previously includes the internal conductive pads 12, the external conductive pads 8, and some others. Note that the number of the die bonding areas 48 is not limited to twenty and may be more or less. A die bonder for this die bonding operation firstly applies die attach films 51 on the die bonding areas 48 of the circuit assembly board 47. Then, as shown in FIG. 8B, the die bonder places the sensor packages 4 on each of the die attach films 51. The circuit assembly board 47 with the sensor packages 4 attached thereon is heated in a heating machine such as an oven, and the die attach films 51 become hardened. Thereby, the sensor packages 4 are fixed to the circuit assembly board 47. If a paste or liquid of die attach material is to be used, the thickness of coating must be accurately controlled, or otherwise the upper faces of the cover glasses 6 are not level with each other on the circuit assembly board 47. If not level, some of the cover glasses 6 are not protected appropriately in the sealing process and may be stained with the sealing resin 7. In contrast, when the die attach film 51 is used as the die attach material, the upper faces of the cover glasses 6 are almost level with each other because the die attach film 51 has a uniform thickness. Since the upper face of the cover glass 6 is surely protected, it is possible to prevent the sealing resin 7 to stain the cover glass, which leads to decrease the yield. The die attach films 51 may be previously adhered to the sensor packages 4. Additionally, a paste of die attach material can be used if the cover glasses 6 can be level with each other. In the next cleaning step, the sensor packages 4 and the circuit assembly board 47 are cleaned with using, for example, an O2 asher. This cleaning step is performed to improve the adhesion of both the bonding wires and the sealing resin in the subsequent wire bonding step and sealing step. In the next wire bonding step, shown in FIG. 8C, the bonding wires 5 are attached by a wire bonder to connect the input/output pads 21 of each sensor package 4 and the internal conductive pads 12 of the die bonding areas 48. It is preferable in this wire bonding step to form a low loop of the bonding wire 5 so that it will stay below the cover glass 6. Afterward, as shown in FIG. 8D, the upper surface of the circuit assembly board 47 and the peripheries of the sensor packages 4 are sealed with the sealing resin 7. This sealing step includes an actual sealing operation and a protection operation to protect the upper face of each cover glass 6. The sealing operation is performed with a transfer molding apparatus 54 as shown in FIG. 10A. The transfer molding apparatus 54 has a lower mold die 56 and an upper mold die 58 that mesh with each other. The lower mold die 56 is constituted of a cavity 56a on which the circuit assembly board 47 is placed, a gate 56b for supplying the sealing resin 7 to the cavity 56a, a cull 60 connected to the gate 56b, and a plunger 62 that moves up and down in the cull 60 to fill the cavity 56a with the sealing resin 7 through the gate 56b. The upper mold die 58 includes a cavity 58a that makes contact with the cover glass 6 of each sensor package 4 and a projection 58b configured to reduce the cross sectional area of the gate 56b to raise inflow pressure of the sealing resin 7. As shown in FIG. 11, the upper and lower mold dies 56 and 58 may accept, for example, three circuit assembly boards 47 at one time, and be able to seal as many as 60 sensor packages 4 all together. To avoid errors of filling the sealing resin 7, the gate 56b, cull 60, and plunger 62 should be provided for each circuit assembly board 47. It is appreciated that the number of the circuit assembly boards 47 is not limited to three and may be more or less. In the protection operation, a protection sheet 65 that is large enough to cover all the circuit assembly boards 47 is adhered in the cavity 58a of the upper mold die 58. The protection sheet 65 may be, for example, a flexible and resilient plastic film of polyimide with 80 to 100 μm thickness, and is attached tightly inside the cavity 58a by a vacuum suction technique. The above sealing operation will be carried out in the following manner. Firstly, the upper and lower mold dies 56 and 58 are pre-heated by a heater, and three circuit assembly boards 47 are placed in the cavity 56a of the lower mold die 56. Then, a thermosetting resin such as a tablet of epoxy sealing resin 7 is set in the cull 60, and the upper mold die 58 is descended, as shown in FIG. 10B, to mesh with the lower mold die 56. The upper face of each cover glass 6 is thereby tightly covered with the protection sheet 65. The sealing resin 7 is softened by heat of the lower mold die 56. As the plunger 62 moves upwards, the sealing resin 7 flows through the gate 56b into the cavities 56a and 58a to fill the periphery of the sensor packages 4. At this point, the cover glasses 6 are level with each other owing to the uniform thickness of the die attach films 51. Additionally, the flexible and resilient protection sheet 65 absorbs difference in height, if any, between the cover glasses 6 as it tightly contact with them. Therefore, the sealing resin 7 never sticks to the upper faces of the cover glasses 6. Note that the protection sheet 65 is not limited to the polyimide film and any material may be used, as long as it combines all the characteristics of adhesion for tight contact with the cover glass 6, flexibility and resiliency to absorb the difference in height between the cover glasses 6, and tolerance to heat of the sealing resin 7 when filled. After the filling, the sealing resin 7 is left stable for minutes with more clamping pressure put onto the mold dies, so that sealing resin 7 polymerizes and hardens. The upper mold die 58 is lifted to take out the sealed circuit assembly boards 47 from the lower mold die 56. The lamps of remaining resin in both the cull 60 and the gate 56b are removed, and the protection sheet 65 is detached from the cover glasses 6. The epoxy resin for such transfer molding should preferably have a spiral flow of 100 cm, a flexural modulus of 28 GPa, and a coefficient of thermal expansion of 8 ppm. It is preferable that the lower and upper mold dies 56 and 58 are pre-heated for three minutes at the temperature of 180° C. before the filling of the epoxy resin. Immediately after the molding operation, the sealing resin 7 is still under polymerization and unstable in character. Therefore, a subsequent is a post mold curing (PMC) step, in which the circuit assembly boards 47 out of the transfer molding apparatus 54 are placed in an oven or the like and heated for curing of the sealing resin 7. Performed after the sealing is a marking step, in which information such as a manufacturer name, product name, product number, and lot number is printed on the sealing resin 7 with a laser marker. Following is a singulation step, where the circuit assembly board 47 is separated together with sealing resin 7 into individual sensor packages 4. As shown in FIG. 8E, the circuit assembly board 47 is placed on a dicing tape 71 such that the cover glass 6 faces the dicing tape 71. Then, as shown in FIG. 8F, the sealing resin 7 and the circuit assembly board 47 are diced, from the back side, by a dicer into individual sensor packages 4. Thereby, a plurality of the solid state imaging devices 2 can be produced at one time. In the next packing step, the solid state imaging devices 2 are detached from the dicing tape 71 and put individually on a tray by a packing machine or attached to the carrier tape for shipment. Also, it is possible to ship several solid state imaging devices 2 remained on the dicing tape 71. Although the above embodiment uses the protection sheet 65 that is larger than three circuit assembly boards 47, it is possible to use three protection sheets each of which is approximately the same size as a single circuit assembly board 47, or to use several protection sheets each of which is able to protect several cover glasses 6. Alternatively, no protection sheet will be used and the upper surface of the cover glass 6 is kept from the resin if the cover glasses 6 and the upper mold die 58 are all fairly flat. Furthermore, each cover glass 6 may be protected by a separate protection sheet. For example, as shown in FIG. 12, the upper face of the cover glass 6 is attached to a protection sheet 75, which has a similar shape to the light receiving surface of the image sensor 19a and is larger than the light receiving surface but smaller than the upper face of the cover glass 6. It is better, in this case, to arrange the protection sheet 75 such that the edge of the protection sheet 75 stays at between the edges of the light receiving surface of the image sensor 19a and the upper face of the cover glass 6. The protection sheets 75 may be attached individually to the cover glasses 6, or attached all together with using the upper mold die 58. Of importance, if the edge of the protection sheet 75 juts outside the cover glass 6, it will bend and get into the sealing resin 7 in the filling operation. Such protection sheet 75 will leave a print, e.g. a dent, in the sealing resin 7 when detached from the cover glass 6, and the sealing performance as well as appearance of the sealing resin is degraded. In the present embodiment, however, the edge of the protection sheet 75 stays within the upper face of the cover glass 6, and the foregoing problem will never occurs. In addition, the protection sheet 75 does not impair the performance of image sensor 19a because it is larger than the light receiving surface of the image sensor 19a. Although the above embodiment is directed to the manufacturing method for the solid state imaging device in an FLGA package, the present invention is applicable to the solid state imaging device in a Fine Pitch Ball Grid Array (FBGA) package which uses solder balls as the external electrodes. As shown in FIG. 13 and FIG. 14, the solid state imaging device 78 of a second embodiment is provided with a solder ball 82 on each external conductive pads 81 of a circuit board 80, which is attached to a sensor package 79. The FBGA package is also prevalent in the art, and it is possible to manufacture reliable solid state imaging devices 78 at low cost. To manufacture the solid state devices 78 in the FBGA packages, solder ball formation process are provided between the marking step and the singulation step, as shown by the flow chart of FIG. 15. The solder ball 82 is formed by, for example, a ball mounting method which includes a ball mounting step, a reflow step, and a cleaning step. Initially, in the ball mounting step, flux and solder are applied on the external conductive pads 81. Then the solder balls 82 are disposed by a solder ball mounter on the external conductive pads 81. In the reflow step, the solder is heated and melted by a solder reflow machine to fix the solder balls 82 onto the external conductive pads 81. Finally, the flux is removed using a flux cleaner in the cleaning step. The aforementioned embodiments are described with the printed circuit board for the circuit assembly board. However, the circuit assembly board may be either a tape substrate or a lead frame. As is well known, the lead frame is a metal frame provided with die pads for attachment of chips, inner leads to be wire bonded to input/output pads of the chips, and outer leads as the external electrodes. The lead frame goes through the wire bonding step, sealing step, and singulation step after the sensor packages are die bonded to each of the die pads, and consequently the solid state imaging devices are produced. FIG. 16 and FIG. 17 show a solid state imaging device 85 of a third embodiment. Made from the lead frame, the solid state imaging device 85 is in a package called “Quad Flat Non-leaded (QFN)”. The solid state imaging device 85 is constituted of a die pad 87 to which a sensor package 86 is fixed, inner leads 90 as internal electrodes connected through bonding wires 88 to input/output pads 89 of the sensor package 86, and outer leads 92 as external electrodes exposed at lower side faces of sealing resin 91. The QFN package is prevalent in the art, and it is possible to manufacture reliable solid state imaging devices 85 at low cost. Although the under surface of the die pad 87 is covered with the sealing resin 91, it may be exposed for better heat radiation of the sensor package 86. To manufacture the solid state imaging devices 85 in the QFN packages, a deburring step and a plating step are provided between the sealing step and the marking step, as shown by a flow chart of FIG. 18. In the deburring step, a deflasher is used to spray abrasives onto the sealing resin 91 so that the outer leads 92 are exposed. The exposed outer leads 92 are then plated in the plating step. The reason to perform the deburring before the marking step is to avoid the possibility for abrasives to damage the marks. It should be noted that the plating step can be omitted if the lead frame is a PD-PPF (Palladium Pre-plated frame). Although the above embodiments are all described with a single package of solid state imaging device that only contains the sensor package, the present invention is applicable to a system-in-package (SIP) of solid state imaging device 98 (fourth embodiment) shown in FIG. 19. The solid state imaging device 98 is constituted of a sensor package 95 and several cooperating chips, which are all fixed on a circuit board 96 then sealed with sealing resin 97. With using the SIP solid state imaging device 98, a camera unit can be formed only by attaching an imaging optical system onto a cover glass 99. Therefore, the camera unit can be easily incorporated in various electrical equipments. The cooperating chips may be, for example, an analog front end (AFE) chip 102 for digitization of the analog image signals from the sensor package 95, a digital signal processor (DSP) chip 103 for image processing of digitized image data, and a power supply chip 104. In addition, it is possible to stack a power supply chip 112, a spacer 113, a DSP chip 114, an AFE chip 115, and sensor package 116 on a circuit board 111 in this order to have a stacked system-in-package, such as a solid state imaging device 110 (fifth embodiment) in FIG. 20. In this case, the stack should be sealed with sealing resin 118 such that the upper face of the cover glass 117 of the sensor package 116 is exposed from the resin. To manufacture the solid state imaging device 98 or 110 in SIP, the cooperating chips are treated together with the sensor package 95 or 116 in both the die bonding step and wire bonding step. In the sealing step, all the elements are sealed with the sealing resin 97 or 118 except the upper face of the cover glass 99 or 117. Further, in the singulation step, individual circuit boards 96 or 111 are cut out such that each of them has a group of chips for a single system. The semiconductor devices, such as the solid state imaging device, should have high reliability enough to ensure a certain level of function and performance of the apparatuses that they belong to, over a predetermined period at the end users. Therefore, the semiconductor devices are generally checked in a standardized reliability test. There are some standards of measure for the semiconductor devices, and a notable one is the JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) standard. The JEDEC semiconductor standard specifies a reliable test for the semiconductor devices. The reliable test of the JEDEC standard consists of two parts, a pre-condition test where the semiconductor device is put under stress that it would get before or at the time of installation in the various apparatuses and main test where the semiconductor device is put under a high stress that the device will get over a long duration in practical use. Of the two, the pre-condition test divides into 3 levels according to the amount of stress. The following are the conditions for the pre-condition test and the main test. Reliability Test Conditions on the JEDEC Standard 1. Pre-Condition Test (1) high temperature high humidity storage condition level 1: 85° C., 85% humidity, 168 hours level 2: 85° C., 60% humidity, 168 hours level 3: 30° C., 60% humidity, 192 hours (2) reflow condition pre-heat: 160° C., 60 seconds main heat: 260° C., 20 seconds 2. Main Test (1) high temperature high humidity storage test: 85° C., 85% humidity, 1000 hours (2) temperature cycle test: 85° C.−40° C., 1000 cycles The solid state imaging device 2, made according to the first embodiment of the present invention, did not pass the above JEDEC reliability test because of a series of problems, which are the steam explosion of the moisture trapped in the sealing resin 7, the resulting cracks on the sealing resin 7 or the boundary of the sealing resin 7 and the sensor package 4 to peel off the sealing resin 7 from the sensor package 4 and the circuit board 3, and sequent separation of the bonding wires 5 from the internal conductive pads 12 or the input/output pads 21 to make the device inoperative. Also, there is a problem that the trapped moisture dissolves ionic impurities out from the sealing resin, and an electrochemical decomposition reaction is thereby stimulated to possibly corrode the aluminum-made input/output pads. Furthermore, when the sealing resin 7 peels off, the spacer 22 and the cover glass 6 also come off from the imaging chip 19, along with the sealing resin 7. Consequently, the cavity surrounded by the imaging chip 19, the spacer 22, and the cover glass 6 fails to be sealed properly, and moisture enters inside the cavity to cause fog on the cover glass 6 and electrical malfunctions of the image sensor 19a. In the present invention, the undermentioned various modifications are made to the structure, the several conditions, and the sealing resin in order to obtain the solid state imaging device able to pass the reliability test. Note that detailed explanation is omitted for the structures already mentioned in the above embodiments. Based on a presumption that one of the reasons for peeling off of the sealing resin from the sensor package would be weakness in adhesion force between the two, a new structure is designed to improve the adhesion force. A solid state imaging device 130, shown in FIG. 21, is provided with a chamfered section 133 running along the peripheral edge of a cover glass 132 of a sensor package 131. Since the chamfered section 133 operates to broaden the contact area of sealing resin 134 and the sensor package 131, the adhesion force increases on the sealing resin 134 to produce an anchor effect that prevents the peeling off of the sealing resin 134 from the sensor package 131. In addition, even when the cavity between the imaging chip 135, the spacer 136, and the cover glass 132 gets high temperature to increase the pressure therein, the reaction force that acts on cover glass 132 serves to enhance the sealing function inside the cavity. For the same purpose, a solid state imaging device 140, in FIG. 22, is provided with a step section 143 running along the peripheral edge of a cover glass 142 of a sensor package 141, so that the contact area to sealing resin 144 is broadened. The chamfered section 133 and the step section 143 have no negative effect on the image sensor 19a as long as they stay within the width of the spacer 22. The chamfered section 133 and the step section 143 can be formed by using a slicer or a dicer, in the dicing operation to the glass substrate 28 and the silicon wafer 37, as shown in FIGS. 6D and 6E. They do not require a significant increase in the operation step, but are employed at low cost. Although the above embodiments are both to obtain the anchor effect at the edge of the cover glass, a solid state imaging device 150, as shown in FIG. 23, obtains the anchor effect through rough surfaces 155 and 156, formed over all the side faces of a cover glass 152 of a sensor package 151, a spacer 153, and an imaging chip 154. The rough surfaces 155 and 156 are easily shaped in an etching process or the like, which may be introduced after the dicing operation, as shown in FIG. 6E, to the glass substrate 28 and the silicon wafer 37. As another method for preventing the peeling off of the sealing resin, a high adhesion film may be provided over the outer side faces of the sensor package to ensure tight contact with the sealing resin. For example, as a solid state imaging device 170 in FIG. 24, an imaging chip 172 of the sensor package 171 may be provided on the upper surface with a polyimide film 173, low defect density material. This film allows tight contact of the sealing resin 174 to the imaging chip 172, and the adhesion force increases on the sealing resin 174 to prevent the peeling off. The imaging chip 172 and a spacer 175 also make tight contact to each other, the two will hardly separate. The polyimide film 173 can be formed in the process of, for example, forming the image sensor 177 and the input/output pads 178 in the silicone wafer 37. Conveniently, the polyimide film 173 can be used as a passivation film in the plasma etching process. Employed with the aforesaid rough surface 155, the polyimide film 173 serves to protect the upper surface of the imaging chip 172 when the rough surface is shaped by the plasma etching on the side faces of the cover glass 176, the spacer 175, and the imaging chip 172. As means to enhance the sealing function for the cavity containing the image sensor, a moisture penetration preventive film can be used. As a solid state imaging device 160 in FIG. 25, a nitride film 165 is prepared by vapor deposition on the outer side faces of all a cover glass 162 for a sensor package 161, a spacer 163, and an imaging chip 164. Since the thin films operate to increase the adhesion to the sealing resin 167 and, then, the adhesion force of the sealing resin 167. Preferably, the vapor deposition of the nitride film 165 is conducted after the sensor package 4 is die-bonded onto the circuit assembly board 47 and the input/output pads 21 are wire-bonded to the inner conductive pads 12 of the circuit assembly board 47, shown in FIG. 6E. In reality, the imaging chip 164 has already had a nitride film formed in the coating process of the silicone wafer 37, and an additional nitride film will be deposited on top of that film. The nitride thin film and the polyimide film are also effective protection against the steam explosion and the resulting cracks or the peeling off because they encourage the moisture prevention and the tight contact of the elements, blocking the moisture penetrating through the gaps between the sensor package and the circuit board. One of the reasons that cause the spacer to peel off from the imaging chip seems the stress on the adhesion areas caused by the thermal expansion of the air in the cavity surrounded by the imaging chip, the spacer, and the cover glass. To avoid this situation, the cavity that encloses the image sensor may form a vacuum. Alternatively, as a solid state imaging device 180 in FIG. 26, the cavity between a cover glass 182 of a sensor package 181, a spacer 183, and an imaging chip 184 may be filled with an inactive gas 185 such as N2 gas. To form a vacuum inside the cavity or fill the cavity with the inactive gas 185, the silicon wafer 37 and the glass substrate 28 are placed in a vacuum or gas-filled chamber and attached together as shown in FIG. 6B. Although the peeling off of the sealing resin is prevented by the additional structures in the above embodiments, the same effect may be obtained by improving the adhesion of the nitride film previously provided on the upper surface of the imaging chip. The adhesion can be improved through a UV cleaning machine or a plasma cleaning machine. The UV cleaning machine removes organic impurities from the nitride film and improves wettability thereof, and the adhesion of the sealing resin is therefore improved. The plasma cleaning machine acts to improve wire bonding property to the input/output pads, and the increased bonding force is produced between the input/output pads and the bonding wires. As shown in FIG. 27, the UV cleaning machine or the plasma cleaning machine may replace the O2 asher in the cleaning step of the first embodiment. The moisture directly penetrates the surface of the sealing resin, and at the same time, it penetrates through the circuit board into the sealing resin. Since the circuit board has a relatively large dimension, it can serve a lot to keep off the moisture from the sealing resin. According to this embodiment shown in FIG. 28, therefore, a solid state imaging device 190 incorporates a tape substrate 191, as the circuit board to which a sensor package 194 is attached. The tape substrate 191 includes a base 192 made of a super heat resistant polyimide film. Since the super heat resistant polyimide film drains moisture from the sealing resin 193, the possibility of the steam explosion in the sealing resin 193 is reduced. Being thinner than the glass epoxy substrates, the tape substrate 191 is also able to reduce the thickness of the solid state imaging device 190. The super heat resistant polyimide films can be easily obtained, and one known is Kapton (registered trademark) film (product name: E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company). Although the sealing resin is an epoxy resin in the above embodiment, another resin with higher adhesion may be used so that the sealing resin 7 does not peel off from the sensor package 4 and the circuit board 3 in the first embodiment. The resin with high adhesion will be, for example, biphenyl type epoxy resin. Additionally, for better molding, the sealing resin 7 may have a spiral flow of no less than 110 cm. The sealing operation for this sealing resin 7 should be performed with a sealing temperature of 165° C. to 180° C., and an injection pressure of 50 to 100 kg/cm2. It is also preferable to use the sealing resin 7 with a glass transition temperature (Tg) of no less than 130° C. to create an improved temperature cycle. In this case, a heat curing temperature (PMC temperature) is preferably higher than Tg, and is set at, for example, around 150° C. Still another cause of the cracks and the peeling off of the sealing resin 7 is thermal stress produced between the sealing resin 7, the sensor package 4, and the circuit board 3. In the first embodiment, the sealing resin (epoxy resin) 7 has a thermal expansion coefficient (α) of approximately 50 ppm/° C. The imaging chip 19 and the spacer 22 both made from silicon have the thermal expansion coefficient of 3 ppm/° C., and the cover glass 6 has the thermal expansion coefficient of 6 ppm/° C., then the circuit board 3 made from glass epoxy has the thermal expansion coefficient of 13 to 17 ppm/° C. Such difference in thermal expansion coefficient leads to produce the thermal stress during the molding operation, the ref lowing operation, the PMC operation, and the temperature cycle in actual use, and the sealing resin 7 sometimes gets bent or twisted or cracked. To avoid this problem, it is preferable that the sealing resin has the thermal expansion coefficient of no more than 20 ppm/° C., more desirably no more than 8 ppm/° C. Also, to reduce the thermal stress, it is preferable that the sealing resin 7 has a flexural modulus of no more than 28 GPa, and a mold shrinkage factor of no more than 0.12%. In addition, the sealing resin should have a hardness of 90 shore D and above in order to ensure a proper level of strength in the solid state imaging device to prevent the deformation thereof. The spacer 22 and the cover glass 6 can possibly peel off from the imaging chip 19 if the adhesives 29 and 40 that bond the spacer 22 reach Tg (the glass transition temperature) in the PMC operation. It is therefore preferable to adjust Tg of the adhesives 29 and 40 to no less than 150° C., in accordance with the PMC temperature which is set at 150° C. as mentioned above. Nonetheless, the adhesive agent may have the transition temperature lower than 150° C. if the sealing resin has low thermal expansion coefficient and therefore gives less thermal stress on the adhesive agent at high temperature. The thermal stress, due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficient, is also produced between the sensor package 4 and the circuit board 3, causing the cracks and the peeling off of the sealing resin 7. Here, the circuit board 3 made from the glass epoxy has the thermal expansion coefficient of 13 to 17 ppm/° C., while the circuit board 191 made of the super heat resistant polyimide film has the thermal expansion coefficient of 16 to 60 ppm/° C. Compared to the imaging chip 19 with the thermal expansion coefficient of 3 ppm/° C., there is a considerable difference. To avoid the above problem, it is preferable to use a die attach film 51, which has the glass transition temperature lower than the PMC temperature. The die attach film 51 absorbs bend or twist of the imaging chip 19 and the circuit board 3 in the PMC operation, and prevents the cracks and the peeling off of the sealing resin 7. Additionally, it is preferable that the die attach film 51 has, for example, Tg of 50° C. to 80° C. and α of 80 to 100 ppm/° C., so that it can reach the glass transition temperature in the beginning of the PMC operation. It is also preferable to use the sealing resin with a water absorption coefficient of no more than 0.3% by weight (saturated vapor pressure test: 20 hours), in order to prevent the moisture absorption of the sealing resin 7 that may cause the steam explosion. Furthermore, when the input/output pads 21 of the sensor package 4 need to be protected from corrosion, the sealing resin 7 should have the water absorption coefficient of no more than 0.15% by weight. The water absorption coefficient of the sealing resin 7 can be reduced by increasing a ratio of the filler material, other than using the resin with low water absorption coefficient. For example, the sealing resin 7 in the first embodiment contains a filler material, such as silica, which occupies 73% of the whole, but there shows no improvement in the water absorption coefficient of the sealing resin. Then, a solid state imaging device is made using sealing resin with the increased ratio of the filler material to 80% and above. This solid state imaging device had less cracks and peeling under the JEDEC reliability test. It is therefore preferable to use sealing resin with the ratio of the filler material of no less than 80%. Also, it is preferable to use low-halogen and low-alkali metal sealing resin (e.g. 10 ppm and below). Such sealing resin releases less ionic impurities, and serves to prevent the corrosion of the input/output pads. The aforesaid various modifications prevent the cracks and the peeling off of the sealing resin, and improve the sealing efficiency for the cavity containing the image sensor as well. In addition, they can prevent the removal of the bonding wires from the pads, and contribute to prevent malfunctions of the solid state imaging device. For example, controlling the sealing resin to have the ratio of filler material of no less than 80% and the thermal expansion coefficient of no more than 20 ppm/° C. leads the solid state imaging device to survive 500 hours per 1000 cycles in the high temperature high humidity storage test and the temperature cycle test. Also, using the circuit board of the super heat resistant polyimide film enables to meet level 1 precondition of the JEDEC reliability test. It is possible to use the aforesaid various modifications separately or in combination as appropriate. Although these modifications are explained with the solid state imaging device made according to the first embodiment, it is sure that these modifications are applied to any of the solid state imaging devices made according to the second to fifth embodiments. Although the above embodiments are described with the solid state imaging devices of CCD type, the present invention is applicable to the manufacture of solid state imaging devices of CMOS type or the like. Also, the present invention is applicable to the manufacture of solid state imaging devices in various packages other than the FLGA, FBGA, QFN, and SIP. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The solid state imaging device made according to the present invention can be applied to digital cameras, mobile phones, electronic endoscopes, and some such.
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53
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35
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11966474
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US20080159404A1-20080703
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SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR IN-LOOP DEBLOCKING IN SCALABLE VIDEO CODING
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ACCEPTED
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20080619
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20080703
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[]
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H04N732
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["H04N732"]
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8577168
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20071228
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20131105
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375
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240230
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93963.0
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ANDREWS
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LEON
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Hong", "inventor_name_first": "Danny", "inventor_city": "New York", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Eleftheriadis", "inventor_name_first": "Alexandros", "inventor_city": "Tenafly", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Shapiro", "inventor_name_first": "Ofer", "inventor_city": "Fair Lawn", "inventor_state": "NJ", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A system and a method for deblocking a reconstructed/decoded picture in a scalable video encoding/decoding system is provided. Deblocking is accomplished by applying a filter to smooth pixel values adjacent to a boundary shared by two blocks. The type of the filter applied depends on quantization parameter (QP) values assigned to the two blocks. An enhancement layer (EL) block is assigned a QP value based on its coded information and the QP value of its corresponding base layer (BL) block(s).
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1. A method for deblocking a reconstructed/decoded picture in a scalable video encoding/decoding system in which deblocking is accomplished by applying a filter to smooth pixel values adjacent to a boundary of a block BlockC shared with another block BlockX, wherein the number of pixels that are filtered and the type of filtering depend at least on quantization parameter (QP) values QPX and QPC assigned to blocks BlockC and BlockX, respectively, the method comprising: (1a) if neither BlockX nor BlockC has any non-zero coefficient, and if BlockX and BlockC do not have motion vectors that are different by more than a half pixel, then (2) if the residue of BlockX is predicted only from one or more corresponding base layer (BL) blocks then setting QPX equal to a weighted average of a QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks and the QP of BlockX, otherwise setting QPX equal to the QP of BlockX, and (3) if the residue of BlockC is predicted only from one or more corresponding BL blocks then setting QPC equal to a weighted average of a QP derived from the said one or more corresponding BL blocks and the QP of BlockC, otherwise setting QPC equal to the QP of BlockC, (1b) otherwise, setting QPX equal to the QP of BlockX and setting QPC equal to the QP of BlockC. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is a weighted average of the QPs of the BL blocks. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is the minimum of the QPs of the BL blocks. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is the QP of the BL block that has the largest overlap with BlockX or BlockC, respectively. 5. The method of claim 2 wherein the BL blocks themselves are predicted from another lower base layer (BL′), and wherein their QP is derived as in claim 1 with the current layer replaced by BL and the base layer replaced by BL′. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the weighting function is signaled in the bitstream using appropriate flags or parameters. 7. The method of claim 2 wherein the weighting function is signaled in the bitstream using appropriate flags or parameters. 8. Computer readable media comprising a set of instructions to perform the steps recited in at least one of the method claims 1-7. 9. A device for deblocking a reconstructed/decoded picture in a scalable video encoding/decoding system, the device comprising: a filter which smoothes pixel values adjacent to a boundary of a block BlockC shared with another block BlockX, wherein the number of pixels that are filtered and the type of filtering depend at least on quantization parameter (QP) values QPX and QPC assigned to blocks BlockC and BlockX, respectively, and wherein (1a) if neither BlockX nor BlockC has any non-zero coefficient, and if BlockX and BlockC do not have motion vectors that are different by more than a half pixel, then (2) if the residue of BlockX is predicted only from one or more corresponding base layer (BL) blocks then QPX is set equal to a weighted average of a QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks and the QP of BlockX, otherwise QPX is set equal to the QP of BlockX, and (3) if the residue of BlockC is predicted only from one or more corresponding BL blocks then QPC is set equal to a weighted average of a QP derived from the said one or more corresponding BL blocks and the QP of BlockC, otherwise QPC is set equal to the QP of BlockC, (1b) otherwise, QPX is set equal to the QP of BlockX and QPC is set equal to the QP of BlockC. 10. The device of claim 9 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is a weighted average of the QPs of the BL blocks. 11. The device of claim 9 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is the minimum of the QPs of the BL blocks. 12. The device of claim 9 wherein the QP derived from the one or more corresponding BL blocks for BlockX or BlockC is the QP of the BL block that has the largest overlap with BlockX or BlockC, respectively. 13. The device of claim 9 wherein the BL blocks themselves are predicted from another lower base layer (BL′), and wherein their QP is derived as in claim 1 with the current layer replaced by BL and the base layer replaced by BL′. 14. The device of claim 9 wherein the weighting function is signaled in the bitstream using appropriate flags or parameters. 15. The device of claim 10 wherein the weighting function is signaled in the bitstream using appropriate flags or parameters.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the H.264 video coding standard, it is possible to deblock a reconstructed/decoded picture (simply referred to as a decoded picture) for better display and also for better inter-picture prediction. In order to remove blocking artifacts in low bit-rate block-based video coding, a method (commonly called “in-loop deblocking filter”) is applied to smooth pixels, which are adjoining a block boundary. (See ITU-T and ISO/IEC JTC 1, “Advanced video coding for generic audiovisual services,” ITU-T Recommendation H.264 and ISO/IEC 14496-10 (MPEG4-AVC); ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 1 refers to the first approved version (2003) of this Recommendation|International Standard; ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 2 refers to the integrated text containing the corrections specified in the first technical corrigendum; ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 3 refers to the integrated text containing both the first technical corrigendum (2004) and the first amendment, which is referred to as the “Fidelity range extensions”; and ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 4 (the current specification) refers to the integrated text containing the first technical corrigendum (2004), the first amendment (the “Fidelity range extensions”), and an additional technical corrigendum (2005). In the ITU-T, the next published version after version 2 was version 4 (due to the completion of the drafting work for version 4 prior to the formal approval opportunity for a final of the version 3 text)). The current draft of the new Annex G of the H.264 standard (referred to as the SVC standard) specifies a scalable coding extension, where additional layers are described for enhancing (spatially, temporally, and quality-wise) a basic H.264 coded bitstream. The decoded pictures of spatial and quality enhancement layers (hereinafter called enhancement layers) can also be deblocked using an in-loop process that is a simple modification of the basic H.264 deblocking process; this process is described in the SVC standard. (See T. Wiegand, G. Sullivan, J. Reichel, H. Schwarz, M. Wien, eds., “Joint Draft ITU-T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10/Amd.3 Scalable video coding,” Joint Video Team, Doc. JVT-X201, which is publicly available at the website ftp3.itu.int/av-arch/jvt-site/2007 — 06_Geneva/JVT-X201.zip, July 2007, and which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). In the SVC standard deblocking process, each individual block (e.g., 4×4 or 8×8) of a picture is deblocked differently depending on how the individual block is coded. One of the coding parameters that affects deblocking is the quantization parameter (QP) used for the block. A lower QP indicates finer quantization of the coefficients representing the block pixels, and thus yields a better decoded representation of the original block. In the deblocking process, the QP of each block is used to derive the threshold values for deciding whether to deblock or not, and for determining how many boundary pixels to smooth out and by how much. In the case where an enhancement layer block has no encoded information of its own and all information needed to decode the enhancement layer block is derived from its base layer block, which often happens when the enhancement layer block is encoded in higher QP than the base layer block, using the enhancement layer block's QP tends to smooth out more pixels than needed to address the boundary artifacts. Consideration is now being given to improving processes for deblocking scalable-encoded video picture blocks, and in particular, enhancement layer blocks.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>System and method for improving or enhancing deblocking processes in scalable video coding is provided. The system and method are based on a new derivation of a QP value for each block, which is used for selecting threshold values for initiating deblocking. In instances where an enhancement layer block is encoded in a higher QP than the base layer block, standard deblocking processes using the enhancement layer block's QP often over-compensate and tend to smooth out more pixels than is needed to address boundary artifacts. In such instances, it may be preferable both subjectively and quantitatively, to use a QP value that is an average of the QP of the base and the enhancement layer blocks. The mechanism of the present invention uses each enhancement layer (EL) block's coded information and the corresponding base layer (BL) block's QP value in deriving the EL block's QP for effective deblocking. This simple modification to the QP derivation algorithm can yield more than 0.3 dB gain in the cases where the EL QP is much larger than the BL QP. Any application in which BL is encoded at a fixed quality or rate, but EL is strictly rate controlled, can often experience instances or conditions when the EL QP is much larger than the base layer QP. In other cases (e.g., when the EL QP is not much larger than or the same as the BL QP), the mechanism appears to have no deleterious effect. Almost no subjective and quantitative differences are seen between standard deblocking methods and test applications of the mechanism.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/882,281, filed Dec. 28, 2006, and Ser. No. 60/911,767, filed Apr. 13, 2007. Further, this application is related to International patent application No. PCT/US06/028365, filed Jul. 20, 2006, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/701,108 filed Jul. 20, 2005. All of the aforementioned applications, which are commonly assigned, are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the in-loop deblocking processes specified in scalable video coding standards. In particular, the invention relates to mechanisms for selecting deblocking related threshold values for each block of a reconstructed/decoded picture. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In the H.264 video coding standard, it is possible to deblock a reconstructed/decoded picture (simply referred to as a decoded picture) for better display and also for better inter-picture prediction. In order to remove blocking artifacts in low bit-rate block-based video coding, a method (commonly called “in-loop deblocking filter”) is applied to smooth pixels, which are adjoining a block boundary. (See ITU-T and ISO/IEC JTC 1, “Advanced video coding for generic audiovisual services,” ITU-T Recommendation H.264 and ISO/IEC 14496-10 (MPEG4-AVC); ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 1 refers to the first approved version (2003) of this Recommendation|International Standard; ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 2 refers to the integrated text containing the corrections specified in the first technical corrigendum; ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 3 refers to the integrated text containing both the first technical corrigendum (2004) and the first amendment, which is referred to as the “Fidelity range extensions”; and ITU T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10 version 4 (the current specification) refers to the integrated text containing the first technical corrigendum (2004), the first amendment (the “Fidelity range extensions”), and an additional technical corrigendum (2005). In the ITU-T, the next published version after version 2 was version 4 (due to the completion of the drafting work for version 4 prior to the formal approval opportunity for a final of the version 3 text)). The current draft of the new Annex G of the H.264 standard (referred to as the SVC standard) specifies a scalable coding extension, where additional layers are described for enhancing (spatially, temporally, and quality-wise) a basic H.264 coded bitstream. The decoded pictures of spatial and quality enhancement layers (hereinafter called enhancement layers) can also be deblocked using an in-loop process that is a simple modification of the basic H.264 deblocking process; this process is described in the SVC standard. (See T. Wiegand, G. Sullivan, J. Reichel, H. Schwarz, M. Wien, eds., “Joint Draft ITU-T Rec. H.264|ISO/IEC 14496-10/Amd.3 Scalable video coding,” Joint Video Team, Doc. JVT-X201, which is publicly available at the website ftp3.itu.int/av-arch/jvt-site/2007—06_Geneva/JVT-X201.zip, July 2007, and which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). In the SVC standard deblocking process, each individual block (e.g., 4×4 or 8×8) of a picture is deblocked differently depending on how the individual block is coded. One of the coding parameters that affects deblocking is the quantization parameter (QP) used for the block. A lower QP indicates finer quantization of the coefficients representing the block pixels, and thus yields a better decoded representation of the original block. In the deblocking process, the QP of each block is used to derive the threshold values for deciding whether to deblock or not, and for determining how many boundary pixels to smooth out and by how much. In the case where an enhancement layer block has no encoded information of its own and all information needed to decode the enhancement layer block is derived from its base layer block, which often happens when the enhancement layer block is encoded in higher QP than the base layer block, using the enhancement layer block's QP tends to smooth out more pixels than needed to address the boundary artifacts. Consideration is now being given to improving processes for deblocking scalable-encoded video picture blocks, and in particular, enhancement layer blocks. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION System and method for improving or enhancing deblocking processes in scalable video coding is provided. The system and method are based on a new derivation of a QP value for each block, which is used for selecting threshold values for initiating deblocking. In instances where an enhancement layer block is encoded in a higher QP than the base layer block, standard deblocking processes using the enhancement layer block's QP often over-compensate and tend to smooth out more pixels than is needed to address boundary artifacts. In such instances, it may be preferable both subjectively and quantitatively, to use a QP value that is an average of the QP of the base and the enhancement layer blocks. The mechanism of the present invention uses each enhancement layer (EL) block's coded information and the corresponding base layer (BL) block's QP value in deriving the EL block's QP for effective deblocking. This simple modification to the QP derivation algorithm can yield more than 0.3 dB gain in the cases where the EL QP is much larger than the BL QP. Any application in which BL is encoded at a fixed quality or rate, but EL is strictly rate controlled, can often experience instances or conditions when the EL QP is much larger than the base layer QP. In other cases (e.g., when the EL QP is not much larger than or the same as the BL QP), the mechanism appears to have no deleterious effect. Almost no subjective and quantitative differences are seen between standard deblocking methods and test applications of the mechanism. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary prior art SVC enhancement layer encoder; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary prior art SVC enhancement layer decoder; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating the boundaries of a picture block that is being deblocked; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating pixels adjacent to a block boundary that is being deblocked; FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of an exemplary deblocking process, in accordance with the principles of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary SVC enhancement layer encoder, in accordance with the principles of the present invention; and FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary SVC enhancement layer decoder, in accordance with the principles of the present invention. Throughout the figures the same reference numerals and characters, unless otherwise stated, are used to denote like features, elements, components or portions of the illustrated embodiments. Moreover, while the present invention will now be described in detail with reference to the figures, it is being done so in connection with the illustrative embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Recent video coding standards make use of advanced video coding techniques to provide better compression performance than previous video coding standards such as MPEG-2, MPEG-4, and H.263. Yet all of these standards involve the hybrid video coding technique of block motion compensation plus transform coding. Block motion compensation is used to remove temporal redundancy between successive images (frames), whereas transform coding is used to remove spatial redundancy within each frame. FIGS. 1 and 2 show the exemplary architectures of a video encoder 100 and a decoder 200, respectively, both of which comply with the recent SVC draft standard and include H.264/AVC functions such as a deblocking filter within a motion compensation loop to limit visual artifacts created by block edges. Video encoder 100 and decoder 200 have common deblocking filter elements (e.g., deblocking filter 110 and 220). The deblocking filter is applied after the inverse transform in the encoder (before reconstructing and storing the macroblock for future predictions) and in the decoder (before reconstructing and displaying the macroblock). The filter smoothes block edges, improving the appearance of decoded frames. The filtered image is used for motion-compensated prediction of future frames and this can improve compression performance because the filtered image is often a more faithful reproduction of the original frame than a blocky unfiltered image. The deblocking filter can optionally be applied to a decoded picture before storing the picture into a frame buffer for future reference in the encoding and decoding process. The filtering decision should be able to distinguish between true edges in the image and those created by the block quantization of the transform-coefficients. True edges should be left unfiltered as much as possible. In order to separate the two cases, the sample pixel values across the boundary are analyzed. The H.264 standard defines thresholds alpha (α) and beta (β), which increase with the averaged QP values of two blocks, as the basis for deciding whether to apply or not apply the deblocking filter to their common boundary. The effect of the filter decision is to ‘switch off’ the filter when there is a significant gradient across the boundary in the original image. When the averaged QP is small, anything other than a very small gradient across the boundary is likely to be due to actual image features (rather than blocking effects), which should be preserved, and so the thresholds α and β are low. When the averaged QP is larger, blocking distortion is likely to be more significant and α, β are higher so that more boundary samples are filtered. In the deblocking process, a picture is divided into blocks, and by standard convention each block's left and top edges are deblocked. FIG. 3 shows, for example, a current block (BlockC) with its left and top edges forming boundaries (e.g., boundaries 1 and 2) with BlockA and BlockB, respectively. For a given block boundary, the deblocking process for removing boundary artifacts involves modifying boundary pixel values (e.g., P2, P1, P0, Q0, Q1, Q2 in FIG. 4) as a function of the deblocking filter strength, BS, selected for the subject boundary, the QP values of the blocks forming the boundary, and the actual boundary pixel values. The boundary filtering strength, BS, has values in the range 0, 1, . . . , 4. Under the H.264 standard, the BS value selected for an edge depends on the block modes and conditions (e.g., BS=4, if one of the blocks is intra-coded and the edge is a macroblock edge, and BS=2, if one of the blocks has coded residuals, etc.). BS=4 indicates the strongest filtering process where all 3 pixels (e.g., P2, P1, P0, Q0, Q1, and Q2) at each side of the boundary are modified based on the actual pixel values surrounding the boundary and the QP of the corresponding blocks, and BS=0 indicates the weakest filtering (i.e., no filtering). For BS=1, 2, 3, at most 2 pixels at each side of the boundary are modified. Thus the deblocking filtering requires access to (and may modify) the pixels of 4×4 or 8×8 blocks along the boundary of the block to the left and of the block above the block being filtered. As noted above, the filter is a function of the deblocking filter strength, BS, selected for the subject boundary, the QP values of the blocks forming the boundary, and the actual boundary pixel values. The average of the QP values of the blocks forming the boundary is used to define thresholds α and β for application of filtering. A group of samples from the set (P2, P1, P0, Q0, Q1, Q2) is filtered only if in addition BS>0, |P0−Q0|<α and |P1−P0|<β, |Q1−Q0|≦β. With bigger average QP, more pixels will be chosen to get filtered and the pixels will be modified with stronger smoothing function. For example, with BS=4 and for some low average QP, P0 can be modified using the equation P0=(2P1+P0+P1+2)/4, whereas for the same pixel with a larger average QP, P0=(P2+2P1+2P0+2Q0+Q1+4)/8. FIG. 5 shows a flow diagram as an exemplary deblocking process 500 for a current block (e.g., BlockC). At step 510, a determination is made whether a neighboring block (e.g., BlockA or BlockB) is present. At step 520, a filter strength BS is selected (e.g., according to H.264 rules). At step 530, process 500 terminates without filter application for BS=0. For positive BS>0, QPavg values are computed at step 540. At step 550, the computed QPavg values are used to obtain filter related parameters (e.g., standard thresholds α(QPavg) and β(QPavg)) and to define the deblocking filter, which is applied at step 560. Steps 510-560 of process 500 are the same or similar to those of standard deblocking processes, except in that the present invention provides an improved calculation of QPavg (step 540). The SVC standard specifies that QPavg should be set equal to the average of the QPs of the blocks forming the boundary B: QPavg=QPX+QPC (1), where QPX is the QP of the neighboring block across the boundary (e.g., BlockA or BlockB) and QPC is the QP of the subject block (e.g., BlockC in FIG. 3). A major disadvantage of this standard QPavg calculation is that instances where only BL block information is used in the coding process of the EL block (which, for example, often is case when the QP of the EL block is much higher than that of the BL block), using the EL block's QP can over-smooth the boundary pixels and thereby degrade video quality. An algorithm for deriving QP of each block used in calculating QPavg (e.g., at step 540) in a preferred embodiment of the present invention is as follows: 1. If BlockX has any non-zero coefficient or if BlockC has any non-zero coefficient, then QPX is set equal to the QP of BlockX and QPC is set equal to the QP of BlockC. 2. Otherwise, if BlockX and BlockC have motion vectors that are different by more than a half pixel, then QPX is set equal to the QP of BlockX and QPC is set equal to the QP of BlockC. 3. Otherwise, the following applies If the residue of BlockX is predicted from the corresponding BL block only, and no difference in motion vectors to neighboring blocks is detected as explained above, then QPX is set equal to the average of the QP of the BL block and the QP of BlockX. Otherwise, QPX is set equal to the QP of BlockX If the residue of BlockC is predicted from the corresponding BL block only, and no difference in motion vectors to neighboring blocks is detected as explained above, then QPC is set equal to the average of the QP of the BL block and the QP of BlockC. Otherwise, QPC is set equal to the QP of BlockC. The computed QPavg value is then used to calculate filter application thresholds α(QPavg) and β(QPavg) at step 550 of process 500. FIGS. 6 and 7 show exemplary SVC enhancement layer encoder 600 and decoder 700, respectively, which are configured to implement process 500 with the inventive mechanism for deriving QP of each block used in computing QPavg. Other mathematical relationships for setting QPX and QPC can be used instead of the averaging operation, in accordance with the principles of the present invention. For example, QPX and QPC can be set equal to the QP values of the BL block corresponding to Blockx and BlockC, respectively, or, when multiple enhancement layers are present, QPX and QPC can be set to the minimum QP value among all lower layer blocks with respect to the layer of Blockx and BlockC, respectively. For example, when the enhancement layer QP is significantly higher than that of the base layer, it may be advantageous to strictly use the base layer QP. The EL block is comprised of one or more BL blocks. In the case there are more than one BL blocks, an average of the BL blocks' QPs can be used as the QP of the BL or the QP of the most dominant BL block (the mostly coved BL block by the EL block) can be chosen. It will be understood that in accordance with the present invention, the deblocking techniques described herein may be implemented using any suitable combination of hardware and software. The software (i.e., instructions) for implementing and operating the aforementioned deblocking techniques can be provided on computer-readable media, which can include, without limitation, firmware, memory, storage devices, microcontrollers, microprocessors, integrated circuits, ASICs, on-line downloadable media, and other available media. While there have been described what are believed to be the preferred embodiments of the present invention, those skilled in the art will recognize that other and further changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit of the invention, and it is intended to claim all such changes and modifications as fall within the true scope of the invention. For example, a specific deblocking process may be implemented as a use- or user-configurable process. Its configuration may be signaled by data components placed in appropriate higher-level syntax structures (e.g., an indicator parameter in the slice header, picture parameter set, or sequence parameter set). Further, although the invention is described herein in terms of the H.264 SVC draft specification, it will be understood that the inventive technique is applicable to any scalable coding system in which deblocking is used regardless of whether the deblocking is in-loop (i.e., the deblocked picture is used as a reference picture) or performed as a post-processing operation after decoding has taken place.
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H
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7
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32
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11762135
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US20080071289A1-20080320
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SIDE LOOKING MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY INSTRUMENT ASSEMBLY
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ACCEPTED
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20080305
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20080320
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[]
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A61B1900
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["A61B1900"]
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8057385
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20070613
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20111115
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600
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104000
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62934.0
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HENDERSON
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RYAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Cooper", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas", "inventor_city": "Menlo Park", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rosa", "inventor_name_first": "David", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Larkin", "inventor_name_first": "David", "inventor_city": "Menlo Park", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Williams", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew", "inventor_city": "Walnut Creek", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Duval", "inventor_name_first": "Eugene", "inventor_city": "Menlo Park", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Two surgical instruments are inserted through a guide tube. The surgical instruments exit at an intermediate position of the guide tube and are oriented to be substantially parallel to the guide tube's longitudinal axis as they exit. A stereoscopic image capture component is on the guide tube between the intermediate position and the guide tube's distal end. The image capture component's field of view is generally perpendicular to the guide tube's longitudinal axis. The surgical instruments and the guide tube are telemanipulatively controlled.
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1. A surgical instrument assembly comprising: a guide tube comprising a proximal end, a distal end, and an intermediate position between the proximal and distal ends, wherein a longitudinal axis extends between the proximal and distal ends; a first surgical instrument, wherein at least a part of the first surgical instrument extends from the distal end of the guide tube; a second surgical instrument, wherein at least a part of the second surgical instrument extends from the guide tube at the intermediate position generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube; and a stereoscopic image capture component positioned on the guide tube between the intermediate position and the distal end, wherein a field of view of the capture component is generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 2. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the part of the first surgical instrument that extends from the distal end of the guide tube comprises a flexible segment. 3. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the part of the first surgical instrument that extends from the distal end of the guide tube comprises a rigid segment. 4. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the first surgical instrument is fixed to the guide tube. 5. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the first surgical instrument is fixed to the guide tube at a U-turn mechanism; and wherein the U-turn mechanism transmits forces that actuate a component at a distal end of the first surgical instrument. 6. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the first surgical instrument passes through the guide tube and exits from the distal end of the guide tube generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 7. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the part of the second surgical instrument that extends from the guide tube comprises a parallel motion mechanism. 8. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the part of the second surgical instrument that extends from the guide tube comprises a rigid segment. 9. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the part of the second surgical instrument that extends from the guide tube comprises a flexible segment. 10. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the second surgical instrument passes through the guide tube and exits from the intermediate position generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 11. The assembly of claim 1, further comprising: a second image capture component positioned on the guide tube; wherein a field of view of the second image capture component is generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 12. A method comprising: extending a first surgical instrument from a distal end of a guide tube; extending a second surgical instrument from an intermediate position of the guide tube, wherein the second surgical instrument extends from the guide tube generally parallel to a longitudinal axis of the guide tube; and orienting a field of view of an image capture component positioned on the guide tube to be generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising: moving a flexible segment of the first surgical instrument. 14. The method of claim 12, further comprising: moving a rigid segment of the first surgical instrument. 15. The method of claim 12, further comprising: transmitting forces through a U-turn mechanism coupled to the guide tube; wherein the forces actuate a component at a distal end of the first surgical instrument. 16. The method of claim 12, further comprising: moving a flexible segment of the second surgical instrument. 17. The method of claim 12, further comprising: moving a rigid segment of the second surgical instrument. 18. The method of claim 12, further comprising: moving a parallel motion mechanism of the second surgical instrument. 19. The method of claim 12, further comprising: orienting a field of view of a second image capture component positioned on the guide tube to be generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. 20. The assembly of claim 1: wherein the first surgical instrument comprises a U-turn mechanism; and wherein the U-turn mechanism transmits forces that actuate a component at a distal end of the first surgical instrument. 21. The assembly of claim 1: wherein distal ends of the first and second surgical instruments are positioned within the field of view of the image capture component in an area to the side of the guide tube.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of Invention Aspects of the invention are associated with systems and procedures used for minimally invasive surgery, and more particularly to telemanipulative systems used for such surgery. 2. Background Art Minimally invasive surgery is known under various names (e.g., endoscopy, laparoscopy, arthroscopy, endovascular, keyhole, etc.), often specific to the anatomical area in which work is done. Such surgery includes the use of both hand-held and teleoperated/telemanipulated/telepresence (robot assisted/telerobotics) equipment, such as the da Vinci® Surgical System made by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. Both diagnostic (e.g., biopsy) and therapeutic procedures are done. Instruments may be inserted into a patient percutaneously via surgical incision or via natural orifice. A new, experimental minimally invasive surgery variation is Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES), in which instruments enter via a natural orifice (e.g., mouth, nostril, ear canal, anus, vagina, urethra) and continue to a surgical site via a transluminal incision (e.g., in a gastric or colonic wall) within the body. Although teleoperative surgery using the da Vinci® Surgical System provides great benefits over, for instance, many hand-held procedures, for some patients and for some anatomical areas the da Vinci® Surgical System is unable to effectively access a surgical site. In addition, further reducing the size and number of incisions aids patient recovery and helps reduce patient trauma and discomfort. The number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) is the number of independent variables that uniquely identify the pose/configuration of a system. Since robotic manipulators are kinematic chains that map the (input) joint space into the (output) Cartesian space, the notion of DOF can be expressed in any of these two spaces. In particular, the set of joint DOFs is the set of joint variables for all the independently controlled joints. Without loss of generality, joints are mechanisms that provide a single translational (prismatic joints) or rotational (revolute joints) DOF. Any mechanism that provides more than one DOF motion is considered, from a kinematic modeling perspective, as two or more separate joints. The set of Cartesian DOFs is usually represented by the three translational (position) variables (e.g., surge, heave, sway) and by the three rotational (orientation) variables (e.g. Euler angles or roll/pitch/yaw angles) that describe the position and orientation of an end effector (or tip) frame with respect to a given reference Cartesian frame. For example, a planar mechanism with an end effector mounted on two independent and perpendicular rails has the capability of controlling the x/y position within the area spanned by the two rails (prismatic DOFs). If the end effector can be rotated around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the rails, then there are then three input DOFs (the two rail positions and the yaw angle) that correspond to three output DOFs (the x/y position and the orientation angle of the end effector). Although the number of Cartesian DOFs is at most six, a condition in which all the translational and orientational variables are independently controlled, the number of joint DOFs is generally the result of design choices that involve considerations of the complexity of the mechanism and the task specifications. Accordingly, the number of joint DOFs can be more than, equal to, or less than six. For non-redundant kinematic chains, the number of independently controlled joints is equal to the degree of mobility for the end effector frame. For a certain number of prismatic and revolute joint DOFs, the end effector frame will have an equal number of DOFs (except when in singular configurations) in Cartesian space that will correspond to a combination of translational (x/y/z position) and rotational (roll/pitch/yaw orientation angle) motions. The distinction between the input and the output DOFs is extremely important in situations with redundant or “defective” kinematic chains (e.g., mechanical manipulators). In particular, “defective” manipulators have fewer than six independently controlled joints and therefore do not have the capability of fully controlling end effector position and orientation. Instead, defective manipulators are limited to controlling only a subset of the position and orientation variables. On the other hand, redundant manipulators have more than six joint DOFs. Thus, a redundant manipulator can use more than one joint configuration to establish a desired 6-DOF end effector pose. In other words, additional degrees of freedom can be used to control not just the end effector position and orientation but also the “shape” of the manipulator itself. In addition to the kinematic degrees of freedom, mechanisms may have other DOFs, such as the pivoting lever movement of gripping jaws or scissors blades. It is also important to consider reference frames for the space in which DOFs are specified. For example, a single DOF change in joint space (e.g., the joint between two links rotates) may result in a motion that combines changes in the Cartesian translational and orientational variables of the frame attached to the distal tip of one of the links (the frame at the distal tip both rotates and translates through space). Kinematics describes the process of converting from one measurement space to another. For example, using joint space measurements to determine the Cartesian space position and orientation of a reference frame at the tip of a kinematic chain is “forward” kinematics. Using Cartesian space position and orientation for the reference frame at the tip of a kinematic chain to determine the required joint positions is “inverse” kinematics. If there are any revolute joints, kinematics involves non-linear (trigonometric) functions.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with aspects of the invention, two surgical instruments are inserted through a guide tube. The surgical instruments exit at an intermediate position of the guide tube and are oriented to be substantially parallel to the guide tube's longitudinal axis as they exit. A stereoscopic image capture component is on the guide tube between the intermediate position and the guide tube's distal end. The image capture component's field of view is generally perpendicular to the guide tube's longitudinal axis. The surgical instruments and the guide tube are telemanipulatively controlled.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority benefit of the following United States Provisional Patent Applications, all of which are incorporated by reference: U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,028 entitled “Single port system 2” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Cooper et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,029 entitled “Single port surgical system 1” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Cooper; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,030 entitled “Independently actuated optical train” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Larkin et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,075 entitled “Modular cannula architecture” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Larkin et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,125 entitled “Methods for delivering instruments to a surgical site with minimal disturbance to intermediate structures” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Larkin et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,126 entitled “Rigid single port surgical system” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Cooper; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,129 entitled “Minimum net force actuation” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Cooper et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,131 entitled “Side working tools and camera” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Duval et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,172 entitled “Passing cables through joints” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Cooper; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,173 entitled “Hollow smoothly bending instrument joints” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Larkin et al., U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,198 entitled “Retraction devices and methods” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Mohr et al.; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,207 entitled “Sensory architecture for endoluminal robots” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Diolaiti et al.; and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/813,328 entitled “Concept for single port laparoscopic surgery” filed 13 Jun. 2006 by Mohr et al. In addition, this application is related to the following concurrently filed United States patent applications, all of which are incorporated by reference: U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00500] entitled “Retraction of tissue for single port entry, robotically assisted medical procedures” by Mohr; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00501] entitled “Bracing of bundled medical devices for single port entry, robotically assisted medical procedures” by Mohr et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00502] entitled “Extendable suction surface for bracing medical devices during robotically assisted medical procedures” by Schena; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00560] entitled “Control system configured to compensate for non-ideal actuator-to-joint linkage characteristics in a medical robotic system” by Diolaiti et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00580] entitled “Surgical instrument actuation system” by Cooper et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00581] entitled “Surgical instrument actuator” by Cooper et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 00990] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical system” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01000] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical instrument advancement” by Larkin; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01010] entitled “Surgical instrument control and actuation” by Cooper et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01020] entitled “Surgical instrument with parallel motion mechanism” by Cooper; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01030] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical apparatus with side exit instruments” by Larkin; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01031] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical apparatus with side exit instruments” by Larkin; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01040] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical instrument system” by Larkin; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01051] entitled “Side looking minimally invasive surgery instrument assembly” by Cooper et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01060] entitled “Guide tube control of minimally invasive surgical instruments” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01070] entitled “Minimally invasive surgery guide tube” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01071] entitled “Minimally invasive surgery guide tube” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01080] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical apparatus with independent imaging system” by Diolaiti et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01090] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical illumination” by Schena et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01100] entitled “Retrograde instrument” by Duval et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01101] entitled “Retrograde instrument” by Duval et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01110] entitled “Preventing instrument/tissue collisions” by Larkin, U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01120] entitled “Minimally invasive surgery instrument assembly with reduced cross section” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01130] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical system” by Larkin et al.; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01140] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical system” by Larkin et al.; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. 01150] entitled “Minimally invasive surgical system” by Diolaiti et al. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT None. BACKGROUND 1. Field of Invention Aspects of the invention are associated with systems and procedures used for minimally invasive surgery, and more particularly to telemanipulative systems used for such surgery. 2. Background Art Minimally invasive surgery is known under various names (e.g., endoscopy, laparoscopy, arthroscopy, endovascular, keyhole, etc.), often specific to the anatomical area in which work is done. Such surgery includes the use of both hand-held and teleoperated/telemanipulated/telepresence (robot assisted/telerobotics) equipment, such as the da Vinci® Surgical System made by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. Both diagnostic (e.g., biopsy) and therapeutic procedures are done. Instruments may be inserted into a patient percutaneously via surgical incision or via natural orifice. A new, experimental minimally invasive surgery variation is Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES), in which instruments enter via a natural orifice (e.g., mouth, nostril, ear canal, anus, vagina, urethra) and continue to a surgical site via a transluminal incision (e.g., in a gastric or colonic wall) within the body. Although teleoperative surgery using the da Vinci® Surgical System provides great benefits over, for instance, many hand-held procedures, for some patients and for some anatomical areas the da Vinci® Surgical System is unable to effectively access a surgical site. In addition, further reducing the size and number of incisions aids patient recovery and helps reduce patient trauma and discomfort. The number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) is the number of independent variables that uniquely identify the pose/configuration of a system. Since robotic manipulators are kinematic chains that map the (input) joint space into the (output) Cartesian space, the notion of DOF can be expressed in any of these two spaces. In particular, the set of joint DOFs is the set of joint variables for all the independently controlled joints. Without loss of generality, joints are mechanisms that provide a single translational (prismatic joints) or rotational (revolute joints) DOF. Any mechanism that provides more than one DOF motion is considered, from a kinematic modeling perspective, as two or more separate joints. The set of Cartesian DOFs is usually represented by the three translational (position) variables (e.g., surge, heave, sway) and by the three rotational (orientation) variables (e.g. Euler angles or roll/pitch/yaw angles) that describe the position and orientation of an end effector (or tip) frame with respect to a given reference Cartesian frame. For example, a planar mechanism with an end effector mounted on two independent and perpendicular rails has the capability of controlling the x/y position within the area spanned by the two rails (prismatic DOFs). If the end effector can be rotated around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the rails, then there are then three input DOFs (the two rail positions and the yaw angle) that correspond to three output DOFs (the x/y position and the orientation angle of the end effector). Although the number of Cartesian DOFs is at most six, a condition in which all the translational and orientational variables are independently controlled, the number of joint DOFs is generally the result of design choices that involve considerations of the complexity of the mechanism and the task specifications. Accordingly, the number of joint DOFs can be more than, equal to, or less than six. For non-redundant kinematic chains, the number of independently controlled joints is equal to the degree of mobility for the end effector frame. For a certain number of prismatic and revolute joint DOFs, the end effector frame will have an equal number of DOFs (except when in singular configurations) in Cartesian space that will correspond to a combination of translational (x/y/z position) and rotational (roll/pitch/yaw orientation angle) motions. The distinction between the input and the output DOFs is extremely important in situations with redundant or “defective” kinematic chains (e.g., mechanical manipulators). In particular, “defective” manipulators have fewer than six independently controlled joints and therefore do not have the capability of fully controlling end effector position and orientation. Instead, defective manipulators are limited to controlling only a subset of the position and orientation variables. On the other hand, redundant manipulators have more than six joint DOFs. Thus, a redundant manipulator can use more than one joint configuration to establish a desired 6-DOF end effector pose. In other words, additional degrees of freedom can be used to control not just the end effector position and orientation but also the “shape” of the manipulator itself. In addition to the kinematic degrees of freedom, mechanisms may have other DOFs, such as the pivoting lever movement of gripping jaws or scissors blades. It is also important to consider reference frames for the space in which DOFs are specified. For example, a single DOF change in joint space (e.g., the joint between two links rotates) may result in a motion that combines changes in the Cartesian translational and orientational variables of the frame attached to the distal tip of one of the links (the frame at the distal tip both rotates and translates through space). Kinematics describes the process of converting from one measurement space to another. For example, using joint space measurements to determine the Cartesian space position and orientation of a reference frame at the tip of a kinematic chain is “forward” kinematics. Using Cartesian space position and orientation for the reference frame at the tip of a kinematic chain to determine the required joint positions is “inverse” kinematics. If there are any revolute joints, kinematics involves non-linear (trigonometric) functions. SUMMARY In accordance with aspects of the invention, two surgical instruments are inserted through a guide tube. The surgical instruments exit at an intermediate position of the guide tube and are oriented to be substantially parallel to the guide tube's longitudinal axis as they exit. A stereoscopic image capture component is on the guide tube between the intermediate position and the guide tube's distal end. The image capture component's field of view is generally perpendicular to the guide tube's longitudinal axis. The surgical instruments and the guide tube are telemanipulatively controlled. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument and its motion about a pivot point represented by an incision or natural orifice. FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic view of another minimally invasive surgical instrument and its motion. FIG. 2B is a diagrammatic view of yet another minimally invasive surgical instrument and its motion. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument. FIG. 4 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIGS. 4A and 4B are diagrammatic perspective views that illustrate aspects of a removable instrument that is held in place within guide tube. FIG. 5 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a second minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 6 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a third minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 7 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fourth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 8 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fifth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 9 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a sixth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 9A is a schematic view that illustrates a detail of an alternate aspect of FIG. 9. FIG. 10 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a seventh minimally invasive surgical assembly. FIG. 11 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of an eighth minimally invasive surgical assembly. FIGS. 11A and 11B are diagrammatic end views of surgical instrument assemblies. FIG. 12 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a ninth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIGS. 12A and 12B are diagrammatic views of retroflexive positions. FIG. 13 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a tenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 14 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of an eleventh minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIGS. 15A-15D are schematic views that illustrate aspects of inserting a flexible, steerable surgical instrument and surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 16 is a schematic view that illustrates a twelfth aspect of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 16A is a side elevation view of an embodiment of the distal portion of a minimally invasive surgical instrument that includes a parallel motion mechanism. FIG. 16B is a perspective view, and FIG. 16C is a cross-sectional view, of an embodiment of joints in a parallel motion mechanism. FIGS. 16D and 16E are schematic views that illustrate design and operation aspects of a parallel motion mechanism. FIGS. 16F and 16G are diagrammatic end views of link disks in a parallel motion mechanism. FIGS. 16H and 16I are diagrammatic perspective views of stiffening brackets in a parallel motion mechanism. FIG. 16J is a diagrammatic end view of a stiffening bracket. FIG. 17 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a thirteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 17A is a schematic side view of a detail of FIG. 17. FIG. 17B is a diagrammatic perspective view of a surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 18 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fourteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 18A is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of an imaging system at the distal end of an instrument assembly. FIG. 18B is a schematic view that shows that illustrates aspects of imaging system movement. FIG. 18C is a diagrammatic perspective view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 18D is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates how a distal end of a surgical instrument assembly pitches up and down. FIG. 18E is another diagrammatic perspective view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 18F is a diagrammatic plan view of a surgical instrument assembly with a movable imaging system at the distal tip of a guide tube, and FIG. 18G is a diagrammatic detail that shows an alternate aspect of the surgical instrument assembly shown in FIG. 18F. FIG. 19 is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates aspects of a fifteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 19A is another diagrammatic perspective view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 19. FIG. 19B is a plan view of a surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 19C is another plan view of the surgical instrument assembly shown in FIG. 19B. FIG. 19D is an exploded perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument mechanism. FIG. 19E is a perspective view of cable guide tubes. FIG. 19F is an end elevation view of cable guide tubes. FIG. 19G is a perspective view of a cable guide piece. FIG. 19H is a perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument passing through and exiting from a guide tube. FIG. 19I is a perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument's motion after exiting from a guide tube. FIG. 19J is a perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument assembly with two retrograde surgical instruments. FIG. 19K is a plan view of a surgical instrument assembly. FIG. 20A is an end elevation view of the distal end face of a guide tube. FIG. 20B is an end elevation view of the distal end face of guide tube shown in FIG. 20A, with an imaging system and two surgical instruments. FIG. 20C is an end elevation view that illustrates a guide tube with an instrument channel that includes grooves arranged in a “V” shape. FIGS. 20D, 20E, and 20F are each end elevation views that illustrate other guide tube channel configurations. FIG. 21A is a schematic view of a robot-assisted minimally invasive telesurgical system. FIGS. 21B and 21C are schematic views of a patient side support system in a telesurgical system. FIG. 22A is a diagrammatic view of a centralized motion control system for a minimally invasive telesurgical system. FIG. 22B is a diagrammatic view of a distributed motion control system for a minimally invasive telesurgical system. FIG. 23 is a schematic view of an interface between a surgical instrument assembly and an actuator assembly. FIG. 24A is a perspective view of the proximal segment of a minimally invasive surgical instrument. FIG. 24B is a perspective view of a segment of an actuator assembly 2420 that mates with and actuates the instrument shown in FIG. 24A. FIG. 25A is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates mounting minimally invasive surgical instruments and actuator assemblies at the end of a setup arm. FIG. 25B is another diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates mounting minimally invasive surgical instruments and actuator assemblies at the end of a setup arm. FIG. 26A is a diagrammatic end view of instrument transmission mechanisms and a guide tube. FIGS. 26B, 26C, and 26D are diagrammatic end views of transmission mechanisms spaced around a guide tube. FIG. 26E is a diagrammatic exploded perspective view of an actuator housing and an instrument. FIG. 27 is a diagrammatic view of transmission mechanisms associated with flexible coaxial guide tubes and instruments. FIG. 28A is a diagrammatic view of multi-port surgery. FIG. 28B is another diagrammatic view of multi-port surgery. FIGS. 29A and 29B are diagrammatic views of minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly position sensing. FIGS. 29C-29E are diagrammatic plan views that illustrate further aspects of preventing undesired instrument collision with tissue. FIG. 29F is a diagrammatic view of an image mosaiced output display for a surgeon. FIG. 30 is a schematic view of a mechanism for automatically exchanging minimally invasive surgical instruments. FIG. 30A is a schematic view of storing an instrument or other component on a drum. FIG. 30B is a schematic view of storing automatically replaceable instruments on spools. FIG. 31 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an illustrative minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly that includes a multi-jointed instrument dedicated to retraction. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This description and the accompanying drawings that illustrate aspects and embodiments of the present invention should not be taken as limiting—the claims define the protected invention. Various mechanical, compositional, structural, electrical, and operational changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of this description and the claims. In some instances, well-known circuits, structures, and techniques have not been shown in detail in order not to obscure the invention. Like numbers in two or more figures represent the same or similar elements. Further, this description's terminology is not intended to limit the invention. For example, spatially relative terms—such as “beneath”, “below”, “lower”, “above”, “upper”, “proximal”, “distal”, and the like—may be used to describe one element's or feature's relationship to another element or feature as illustrated in the figures. These spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different positions and orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the position and orientation shown in the figures. For example, if the device in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be “above” or “over” the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term “below” can encompass both positions and orientations of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations), and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. Likewise, descriptions of movement along and around various axes includes various special device positions and orientations. In addition, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context indicates otherwise. And, the terms “comprises”, “comprising”, “includes”, and the like specify the presence of stated features, steps, operations, elements, and/or components but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups. Components described as coupled may be electrically or mechanically directly coupled, or they may be indirectly coupled via one or more intermediate components. Telemanipulation and like terms generally refer to an operator manipulating a master device (e.g., an input kinematic chain) in a relatively natural way (e.g., a natural hand or finger movement), whereupon the master device movements are made into commands that are processed and transmitted in real time to a slave device (e.g., an output kinematic chain) that reacts nearly instantaneously to the commands and to environmental forces. Telemanipulation is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,355 (Green), which is incorporated by reference. To avoid repetition in the figures and the descriptions below of the various aspects and illustrative embodiments, it should be understood that many features are common to many aspects and embodiments. Omission of an aspect from a description or figure does not imply that the aspect is missing from embodiments that incorporate that aspect. Instead, the aspect may have been omitted for clarity and to avoid prolix description. Accordingly, several general aspects apply to various descriptions below. For example, at least one surgical end effector is shown or described in various figures. An end effector is the part of the minimally invasive surgical instrument or assembly that performs a specific surgical function (e.g., forceps/graspers, needle drivers, scissors, electrocautery hooks, staplers, clip appliers/removers, etc.). Many end effectors have a single DOF (e.g., graspers that open and close). The end effector may be coupled to the surgical instrument body with a mechanism the provides one or more additional DOFs, such as “wrist” type mechanisms. Examples of such mechanisms are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,371,952 (Madhani et al.) and in U.S. Pat. No. 6,817,974 (Cooper et al.), both of which are incorporated by reference, and may be known as various Intuitive Surgical, Inc. Endowrist® mechanisms as used on both 8 mm and 5 mm instruments for the da Vinci® Surgical System. Although the surgical instruments described herein generally include end effectors, it should be understood that in some aspects an end effector may be omitted. For example, the distal tip of an instrument body shaft may be used to retract tissue. As another example, suction or irrigation openings may exist at the distal tip of a body shaft or the wrist mechanism. In these aspects, it should be understood that descriptions of positioning and orienting an end effector include positioning and orienting the tip of a surgical instrument that does not have an end effector. For example, a description that addresses the reference frame for a tip of an end effector should also be read to include the reference frame of the a tip of a surgical instrument that does not have an end effector. Throughout this description, it should be understood that a mono- or stereoscopic imaging system/image capture component/camera device may be placed at the distal end of an instrument wherever an end effector is shown or described (the device may be considered a “camera instrument”), or it may be placed near or at the distal end of any guide tube or other instrument assembly element. Accordingly, the terms “imaging system” and the like as used herein should be broadly construed to include both image capture components and combinations of image capture components with associated circuitry and hardware, within the context of the aspects and embodiments being described. Such endoscopic imaging systems (e.g., optical, infrared, ultrasound, etc.) include systems with distally positioned image sensing chips and associated circuits that relay captured image data via a wired or wireless connection to outside the body. Such endoscopic imaging systems also include systems that relay images for capture outside the body (e.g., by using rod lenses or fiber optics). In some instruments or instrument assemblies a direct view optical system (the endoscopic image is viewed directly at an eyepiece) may be used. An example of a distally positioned semiconductor stereoscopic imaging system is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/614,661 “Stereoscopic Endoscope” (Shafer et al.), which is incorporated by reference. Well-known endoscopic imaging system components, such as electrical and fiber optic illumination connections, are omitted or symbolically represented for clarity. Illumination for endoscopic imaging is typically represented in the drawings by a single illumination port. It should be understood that these depictions are exemplary. The sizes, positions, and numbers of illumination ports may vary. Illumination ports are typically arranged on multiple sides of the imaging apertures, or completely surrounding the imaging apertures, to minimize deep shadows. In this description, cannulas are typically used to prevent a surgical instrument or guide tube from rubbing on patient tissue. Cannulas may be used for both incisions and natural orifices. For situations in which an instrument or guide tube does not frequently translate or rotate relative to its insertion (longitudinal) axis, a cannula may not be used. For situations that require insufflation, the cannula may include a seal to prevent excess insufflation gas leakage past the instrument or guide tube. For example, for thoracic surgery that does not require insufflation, the cannula seal may be omitted, and if instruments or guide tube insertion axis movement is minimal then the cannula itself may be omitted. A rigid guide tube may function as a cannula in some configurations for instruments that are inserted relative to the guide tube. Cannulas and guide tubes may be, e.g., steel or extruded plastic. Plastic, which is less expensive than steel, may be suitable for one-time use. Various instances and assemblies of flexible surgical instruments and guide tubes are shown and described. Such flexibility, in this description, is achieved in various ways. For example, a segment or an instrument or guide tube may be a continuously curving flexible structure, such as one based on a helical wound coil or on tubes with various segments removed (e.g., kerf-type cuts). Or, the flexible part may be made of a series of short, pivotally connected segments (“vertebrae”) that provide a snake-like approximation of a continuously curving structure. Instrument and guide tube structures may include those in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. US 2004/0138700 (Cooper et al.), which is incorporated by reference. For clarity, the figures and associated descriptions generally show only two segments of instruments and guide tubes, termed proximal (closer to the transmission mechanism; farther from the surgical site) and distal (farther from the transmission mechanism; closer to the surgical site). It should be understood that the instruments and guide tubes may be divided into three or more segments, each segment being rigid, passively flexible, or actively flexible. Flexing and bending as described for a distal segment, a proximal segment, or an entire mechanism also apply to intermediate segments that have been omitted for clarity. For instance, an intermediate segment between proximal and distal segments may bend in a simple or compound curve. Flexible segments may be various lengths. Segments with a smaller outside diameter may have a smaller minimum radius of curvature while bending than segments with a larger outside diameter. For cable-controlled systems, unacceptably high cable friction or binding limits minimum radius of curvature and the total bend angle while bending. The guide tube's (or any joint's) minimum bend radius is such that it does not kink or otherwise inhibit the smooth motion of the inner surgical instrument's mechanism. Flexible components may be, for example, up to approximately four feet in length and approximately 0.6 inches in diameter. Other lengths and diameters (e.g., shorter, smaller) and the degree of flexibility for a specific mechanism may be determined by the target anatomy for which the mechanism has been designed. In some instances only a distal segment of an instrument or guide tube is flexible, and the proximal segment is rigid. In other instances, the entire segment of the instrument or guide tube that is inside the patient is flexible. In still other instances, an extreme distal segment may be rigid, and one or more other proximal segments are flexible. The flexible segments may be passive or they may be actively controllable (“steerable”). Such active control may be done using, for example, sets of opposing cables (e.g., one set controlling “pitch” and an orthogonal set controlling “yaw”; three cables can be used to perform similar action). Other control elements such as small electric or magnetic actuators, shape memory alloys, electroactive polymers (“artificial muscle”), pneumatic or hydraulic bellows or pistons, and the like may be used. In instances in which a segment of an instrument or guide tube is fully or partially inside another guide tube, various combinations of passive and active flexibility may exist. For instance, an actively flexible instrument inside a passively flexible guide tube may exert sufficient lateral force to flex the surrounding guide tube. Similarly, an actively flexible guide tube may flex a passively flexible instrument inside it. Actively flexible segments of guide tubes and instruments may work in concert. For both flexible and rigid instruments and guide tubes, control cables placed farther from the center longitudinal axis may provide a mechanical advantage over cables placed nearer to the center longitudinal axis, depending on compliance considerations in the various designs. The flexible segment's compliance (stiffness) may vary from being almost completely flaccid (small internal frictions exist) to being substantially rigid. In some aspects, the compliance is controllable. For example, a segment or all of a flexible segment of an instrument or guide tube can be made substantially (i.e., effectively but not infinitely) rigid (the segment is “rigidizable” or “lockable”). The lockable segment may be locked in a straight, simple curve or in a compound curve shape. Locking may be accomplished by applying tension to one or more cables that run longitudinally along the instrument or guide tube that is sufficient to cause friction to prevent adjacent vertebrae from moving. The cable or cables may run through a large, central hole in each vertebra or may run through smaller holes near the vertebra's outer circumference. Alternatively, the drive element of one or more motors that move one or more control cables may be soft-locked in position (e.g., by servocontrol) to hold the cables in position and thereby prevent instrument or guide tube movement, thus locking the vertebrae in place. Keeping a motor drive element in place may be done to effectively keep other movable instrument and guide tube components in place as well. It should be understood that the stiffness under servocontrol, although effective, is generally less than the stiffness that may be obtained with braking placed directly on joints, such as the braking used to keep passive setup joints in place. Cable stiffness generally dominates because it is generally less than servosystem or braked joint stiffness. In some situations, the compliance of the flexible segment may be continuously varied between flaccid and rigid states. For example, locking cable tension can be increased to increase stiffness but without locking the flexible segment in a rigid state. Such intermediate compliance may allow for telesurgical operation while reducing tissue trauma that may occur due to movements caused by reactive forces from the surgical site. Suitable bend sensors incorporated into the flexible segment allow the telesurgical system to determine instrument and/or guide tube position as it bends. U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. US 2006/0013523 (Childers et al.), which is incorporated by reference, discloses a fiber optic position shape sensing device and method. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/491,384 (Larkin et al.), which is incorporated by reference, discloses fiber optic bend sensors (e.g., fiber Bragg gratings) used in the control of such segments and flexible devices. A surgeon's inputs to control aspects of the minimally invasive surgical instrument assemblies, instruments, and end effectors as described herein are generally done using an intuitive, camera referenced control interface. For example, the da Vinci® Surgical System includes a Surgeon's console with such a control interface, which may be modified to control aspects described herein. The surgeon manipulates one or more master manual input mechanisms having, e.g., 6 DOFs to control the slave instrument assembly and instrument. The input mechanisms include a finger-operated grasper to control one or more end effector DOFs (e.g., closing grasping jaws). Intuitive control is provided by orienting the relative positions of the end effectors and the endoscopic imaging system with the positions of the surgeon's input mechanisms and image output display. This orientation allows the surgeon to manipulate the input mechanisms and end effector controls as if viewing the surgical work site in substantially true presence. This teleoperation true presence means that the surgeon views an image from a perspective that appears to be that of an operator directly viewing and working at the surgical site. U.S. Pat. No. 6,671,581 (Niemeyer et al.), which is incorporated by reference, contains further information on camera referenced control in a minimally invasive surgical apparatus. FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument 1 and its motion. As shown in FIG. 1, surgical instrument 1 is a straight, rigid instrument that is inserted via a small incision 2 into a body cavity (e.g., the abdominal cavity) or lumen 3. Incision 2 is made in a relatively thin body wall tissue structure 4, such as the abdominal wall. A surgeon moves instrument 1 either by hand (e.g., by operating a conventional laparoscopic instrument) or by robotic teleoperation (e.g., using Intuitive Surgical, Inc.'s da Vinci® Surgical System). Since instrument 1 is straight, its movement is partially constrained by incision 2. Instrument 1 may be translated in the direction of its longitudinal axis (inserted or withdrawn) and may be rotated around its longitudinal axis. Instrument 1 also pivots at a center point 5, which is approximately at incision 2, to sweep an end effector 7 through a volume 6. An optional wrist mechanism (not shown) at the distal end of instrument 1 may be used to control end effector 7's orientation. In some situations, however, an intermediate tissue structure (e.g., an organ or vessel, a thick tissue wall 4, a curving body lumen wall, etc.) prevents instrument 1 from pivoting around its center point 5 at incision 2 in some or all directions, which prevents a surgeon from reaching a desired surgical site. If a minimally invasive surgical instrument is designed to bend between the position at which it enters the patient and the surgical site, then the intermediate tissue structure does not constrain positioning of the instrument's end effector. Such bending may be done in two ways. First, two or more long, rigid body segments are each coupled together by a joint. Second, a flexible mechanism as described above is used. The position of the rigid body segment(s) and the flexible mechanism are actively controlled to position and orient the end effector at the instrument's distal end. FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic view of another minimally invasive surgical instrument 10 and its motion in accordance with aspects of the invention. As shown in FIG. 2A, instrument 10 includes an illustrative proximal instrument body segment 10a and an illustrative distal instrument body segment 10b. In some aspects, more than two body segments may be used. As depicted, both proximal and distal body segments 10a,10b are straight and rigid. Alternatively, one or both body segments 10a,10b could be curved for a particular path or task. The two body segments 10a,10b are coupled at a joint 11 that allows distal body segment 13b to move. In some aspects joint 11 allows segment 10b to move with a single DOF with reference to segment 10a, and in other aspects joint 11 allows segment 10b to move with two DOFs with reference to segment 10a segment. Instrument 10 can be translated along its longitudinal (insertion) axis. In some aspects, proximal segment 10 can be rolled around its longitudinal axis. Accordingly, end effector 7 positioned at the distal end of distal body segment 10b can be positioned within a volume 12. In some aspects joint 11 provides a single DOF, and so end effector 7 sweeps along a planar curve that rotates as proximal segment 10a rotates around its longitudinal axis. In some aspects joint 11 provides two DOFs, and so end effector 7 sweeps along a curved surface. The height of volume 12 depends on the amount of instrument 10's insertion. Volume 12 is shown as an illustrative cylinder with concave/convex ends. Other volume shapes are possible, depending on the segments and joint motions at instrument 10's distal end. For example, in some aspects distal segment 10b may be displaced by an angle θ from segment 10a's longitudinal axis that is larger than 90 degrees (this bending back on itself is termed “retroflexive”). An optional wrist mechanism (not shown) may be used to change end effector 7's orientation. Unlike instrument 1 shown in FIG. 1, instrument 10 is not constrained by a pivot point at a body wall because joint 11 is located deep within the patient. Therefore, instrument 10 can be inserted into a patient past intermediate tissue structures 13 that would otherwise constrain instrument 1's motion (e.g., the esophagus, if gastric surgery is to be performed) or that cannot be disturbed (e.g., brain tissues if neurosurgery is to be performed). Accordingly, aspects of surgical instrument 10 allow a surgeon to reach tissue that cannot be reached or operated upon by using instrument 1. Removing the constraint that the surgical instrument segments be straight and rigid allows even more surgical access to tissue structures. Instead of using only rigid instrument body segments, one or more flexible segments may be used. FIG. 2B is a diagrammatic view of another minimally invasive surgical instrument 15 and its motion in accordance with aspects of the invention. As shown in FIG. 2B, surgical instrument 15 has a proximal instrument body segment 15a and a distal instrument body segment 15b. Instead of being straight and rigid, distal body segment 15b is flexible as described above. In some aspects flexible distal segment 15b is coupled to straight (or, alternatively, curved), rigid proximal segment 15a at an intermediate position 15c. In other aspects, both proximal instrument body segment 15a and distal instrument body segment 15b are flexible, and intermediate instrument body position 15c is illustrative of the position at which the two segments are jointed. Instrument body segment 15b is shown with an illustrative simple curve. In other aspects as discussed below body segment 15b may be a compound curve in either two or three dimensions. During surgery, instrument 15 positions end effector 7 at various positions in illustrative volume 16. Instrument body segment 15a remains constrained by intermediate tissue structures 13 and instrument body segment 15b flexes. Distal segment 15b's length and bend radius determines if instrument 15 can operate retroflexively. It can be seen that compound bending of instrument body segment 15b will allow a surgeon to maneuver around another intermediate tissue structure 13a within volume 16. (A similar action may be performed if instrument 10 (FIG. 2A) has two or more distal segments.) An optional wrist mechanism (not shown) is used to control end effector 7's orientation. In addition, in some aspects if flexible segment 15b is designed to transmit roll, then end effector 7 can be rolled by rolling instrument 15 (either with or without a wrist mechanism). The surgical instruments 10 and 15 illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B are not limited to single instruments. The architectures illustrated by instruments 10 and 15 may be applied to assemblies that combine one or more of various guide tubes, surgical instruments, and guide probes such as those described below. And, one or more imaging systems (endoscopes) may be added to such instruments and instrument assemblies. The aspects described below in association with the figures are illustrative of aspects generally described in FIGS. 2A and 2B. Therefore, aspects of the invention provide multiple telemanipulated surgical instruments, each surgical instrument working independently of the other and each having an end effector with at least six actively controlled DOFs in Cartesian space (i.e., surge, heave, sway, roll, pitch, yaw), via a single entry port in a patient. Further, aspects of the invention provide multiple telemanipulated surgical instruments, each surgical instrument working independently of the other and each having an end effector with at least six actively controlled DOFs in Cartesian space (i.e., surge, heave, sway, roll, pitch, yaw), via a single entry port in a patient and past intermediate tissue that restricts lateral movement of a rigid instrument body. The end effectors' six DOFs in Cartesian space are in addition to DOFs provided by, e.g., moving a guide tube through which the instruments extend to reach a surgical site. Surgical Instrument Assemblies FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a minimally invasive surgical instrument 300. Surgical instrument 300 is typically inserted into a patient's body via a cannula 302 or via a natural orifice or incision. An end effector 304 is mounted at the end of instrument 300. In some instances instrument 300's body is passively flexible along its entire length in a manner similar to existing flexible minimally invasive surgical instruments. For example, a cable axially runs through a helical wound wire coil and outer sheath that protects the cable, and the cable translates within the coil to operate the end effector (e.g., a “Bowden” cable). As another example, a series of small, annular vertebra segments may be used to make instrument 300 flexible. In other instances, instrument 300's body may be separated into a proximal segment 306 and a distal segment 308. Each instrument body segment 306,308 may be rigid, passively flexible, or actively flexible. Flexible segments may be made rigid (“rigidizable” or “lockable”) in various straight or curved positions. As shown in FIG. 3, for example, proximal segment 306 may be inherently or lockably rigid, and distal segment 308 may be passively or actively flexible. In other instances, both proximal and distal segments 306,308 (essentially the entire segment of instrument 302 that is inside the patient's body) may be passively or actively flexible and rigidizable in various combinations. The surgical instrument 300 shown in FIG. 3 provides various degrees of freedom for end effector 304. To control end effector 304's position, for example, a combination of instrument 300 insertion and distal segment 308 bending is specified. To control end effector 304's orientation, a combination of instrument 300 roll and distal segment 308 bending is specified. Accordingly, if distal segment 308 can only be placed in a simple curve (as illustrated by alternate position 310), then 4 DOFs are available. If end effector 304 position is specified, then end effector 304 pitch and yaw is a function of the position. If end effector 304 orientation is specified, then the heave and sway position is a function of the orientation. Therefore, a distal wrist mechanism is added to control end effector 304's orientation so that both position and orientation may be specified. If distal segment 308 can be placed in a compound curve (as illustrated by alternate position 312), then 6 DOFs are available, and end effector 304's position and orientation may be specified. Even though end effector 304's position and orientation may be independently specified in such a 6 DOF instrument, a distal wrist mechanism may be added to provide enhanced control over end effector 304's orientation. This enhanced control allows, e.g., a pitch and yaw displacement that is larger than provided by the various poses that distal segment 308 can assume, pitch and yaw displacement while distal segment 308 remains in a particular pose, and pitch and yaw displacement in surgical situations where tissue constrains the shape of distal segment 308's pose. FIG. 4 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 400. Instrument assembly 400 includes a surgical instrument 402, which may be similar to surgical instrument 300 as described with reference to FIG. 3, and a guide tube 404. Guide tube 404 has at least one longitudinal channel 406, which may be fully or partially enclosed, that runs from proximal end 408 to distal end 410. Surgical instrument 402 runs through channel 406 and may be, for example, snap-fitted into a non-rotating socket to maintain position within guide tube 404. Guide tube 404 may have other channels (not shown) through which, e.g., irrigation or suction may be provided to a surgical site, in addition to channels associated with active control mechanisms (e.g., cables for steering or locking). End effector 412 is coupled to the distal end of surgical instrument 402. Instrument assembly 400 is inserted into a patient via cannula 414 or via natural orifice or incision. In some instances, a cannula-type guide may be used to assist insertion via natural orifice. Cannula 414 and such cannula-type guides may be straight or curved to facilitate insertion (e.g., for laryngeal surgery). Surgical instrument assembly 400's cross section may be circular or other shape (e.g., elliptical, rounded polygon). Various combinations of surgical instrument 402 and guide tube 404 may be rigid, passively flexible, and actively flexible, as well as variably compliant and/or lockable, as described above. In some instances, an optional endoscopic imaging system (not shown) may be at the distal end of guide tube 404. Just as some or all of surgical instrument 300 (FIG. 3) may be flexed to move its end effector to various positions and orientations, surgical instrument assembly 400 may be similarly flexed to move end effector 412 to various positions and orientations. Distal end segment 416, or the entire length of instrument assembly 400, may be actively flexed to heave and/or sway end effector 412. Combinations of bending and rolling may also be used to displace end effector 412. Compound bends may prevent end effector 412 from pitching and/or yawing during lateral translations as described above. Alternate positions 418 and 420 illustrate these active flexings. In accordance with an aspect of the invention, in some instances distal segment 416 of guide tube 404 provides small, wrist-like pitch and yaw orientation for end effector 412. Other segments of instrument assembly 400 provide end effector roll and position. Surgical instrument assembly 400 potentially provides more DOFs, some redundant, for end effector 412 than surgical instrument 300 provides for end effector 304, as described with reference to FIG. 3. As shown in FIG. 4, in some aspects surgical instrument 402 may rotate within guide tube 404, and/or guide tube 404 may rotate within cannula 414 (or the natural orifice), to cause end effector 412 to be displaced in roll around instrument assembly 400's longitudinal axis. Instrument 402 may translate within guide tube 404, and/or guide tube 404 may translate within cannula 414, to cause end effector 412 to be displaced (surged) along instrument assembly 400's longitudinal axis. Alternatively, instrument 402 is held in position within guide tube 404 as described below. The lateral bending force that the guide tube's distal segment 416 exerts on the surgical instrument's distal end 402 is sufficiently strong to allow end effector 412 to perform its surgical task. In some instances, end effector 412 may be coupled to the distal end of surgical instrument 402 via a wrist mechanism that provides one or more additional DOFs (e.g., roll, pitch, yaw). FIG. 4 also illustrates that when a guide tube bends, the bend must not bind operation of an instrument or another guide tube that runs inside it. For instance, guide tube 404 must not bend in such a way that a cable operating end effector 412 is frictionally bound or permanently kinked. In some aspects the radius of curvature is mechanically limited by, e.g., the structure of the individual vertebrae that make up the flexible guide tube. In other aspects the radius of curvature is limited by a control system, described below, to provide, e.g., a smoother behavior during actuation. Further, in some aspects cables for inner instruments or guide tubes must not shift to a shorter path between their proximal and distal ends so that the components they control are not affected as the guide tube bends (such shifting may be compensated for by using distal bend/shape sensors and a control system that maintains proper cable length). Cable path lengths may be stabilized by using sheathes (e.g. Bowden cables) for cables running through the center of the flexible joints or by routing cables through the joint peripheries as described below for virtual pivot point joints. In some instances surgical instrument 402 is removable and may be replaced with a different surgical instrument that has a structure similar to instrument 402 but a different end effector so as to perform a different surgical task. Accordingly, a single guide tube 404 may be used to provide wrist-like DOFs for one or more interchangeable surgical instruments 402. In some instances the surgical instruments may be interchanged while guide tube 404 remains in the patient. Such interchangability is described in more detail below. The guide tube allows the newly inserted instrument to be positioned directly at the surgical site, regardless of the trajectory. And, one guide tube 404 may be withdrawn and replaced with another during surgery, either with or without an instrument 402 fully or partially inserted. Since some or all of the controllable DOFs are in the guide tube, in some aspects the instrument can be inexpensively made and therefore disposable, and the guide tube can be made sterilizable and reusable. FIGS. 4A and 4B are diagrammatic perspective views that illustrate aspects of a removable instrument that is held in place within guide tube 440. The distal end 442 of guide tube 440 has an opening 444 though which the distal end of the instrument passes. Opening 444 is optionally made non-round to prevent the instrument from rolling within guide tube 440. An optional fitting 446 (e.g., a spring that snaps into a detent, etc.) holds the instrument's end effector 448 in position to keep the instrument from translating through the guide tube. A round opening 444 allows the instrument to roll while fitting 446 keeps the instrument from translating. When the fitting 446 releases the instrument (e.g., when sufficient pulling force is applied), the instrument may be withdrawn from the guide tube. Distal end 442 may be a wrist mechanism for the instrument's end effector in some aspects. The roll prevention configuration and the fitting are illustratively shown at the distal end of the guide tube but may be placed at various positions (e.g., at the insertion end of the guide tube). The roll prevention configuration and the fitting can be used in the various aspects described below for other instrument and guide tube combinations, with the understanding that the roll preventing configuration and the fitting will remove a redundant insertion DOF and/or a redundant roll DOF. Instrument assembly 400 may be inserted in a rigidized or locked state, or it may be actively steered during insertion in order to reach a target surgical site. In some aspects instrument 402 and guide tube 404 are alternatively coaxially advanced. For example, instrument 402 is actively steered part way along the trajectory to the surgical site and then locked (only the distal section of the instrument (or guide tube) need be actively steerable; the more proximal sections may be passive or may use curve propagation as the instrument (or guide tube) advances). Curve propagation is disclosed in, e.g., Ikuta, K. et al., “Shape memory alloy servo actuator system with electric resistance feedback and application for active endoscope,” 1988 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Apr. 2429, 1988, Vol. 1, pages 427-430, which is incorporated by reference. Guide tube 404 is then passively advanced to the distal end of instrument 402 and locked to support further advancement of instrument 402. The coaxial alternating advancing and locking continues until the surgical site is reached along the desired trajectory. Alternatively, guide tube 404 is actively steerable and lockable, and instrument 402 is passively advanced and locked within guide tube until the surgical site is reached. If both surgical instrument 402 and guide tube 404 are actively steerable, then they may “leapfrog” each other as they coaxially advance and lock along the trajectory to the surgical site. Such coaxial insertion may also be used with any combination of two or more instruments and guide tubes described herein. FIG. 5 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a second minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 500. Surgical instrument assembly 500 illustrates that two or more surgical instruments 502a,502b may be surrounded by a single guide tube 504. Surgical instruments 502a,502b may run longitudinally through guide tube 504 in a single channel 506. Or, surgical instruments 502a,502b may each run through guide tube 504 in unique, individual channels 506a,506b. End effectors 508a,508b are each coupled to the distal ends of instruments 502a,502b. Instrument assembly 500 is inserted via cannula 510 and as described above. Instrument assembly 500's cross section may be circular, elliptical, or other shape (e.g., rounded rectangle or other polygon). Various combinations of surgical instruments 502a,502b and guide tube 504 may be rigid, passively flexible, and actively flexible, as well as lockable, as described above. An illustrative optional imaging system 511 (e.g., one or more image capture chips with associated optics and electronics) is positioned at the distal end of guide tube 504. The imaging system 511 has a field of view that may be used to assist advancing guide tube 504 and that allows a surgeon to view end effectors 508a,508b working at a surgical site. Surgical instrument assembly 500 operates in a manner similar to that of surgical instrument assembly 400 (FIG. 4), except that it is illustrative of aspects in which two or more surgical instruments extend through a single guide tube from a proximal to a distal end. Accordingly, the descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFs, the optional use of wrist mechanisms, instrument interchangeability, alternating coaxial advancing, and cannulas apply to instrument assembly 500. Distal end segment and entire assembly flexibility are illustrated by alternate position lines 512 and 514, similar to those shown in the preceding figures as described above. Compound bending of guide tube 504 provides at least 6 DOFs for end effectors 508a,508b as described above. Alternating coaxial advancement may done as described above. Various ways of such advancing are possible. For example, in some aspects both instruments may be used and the guide tube slides over both instruments; in other aspects first one instrument is advanced and locked, then the guide tube is advanced and locked, then the other instrument is advanced and locked, etc. FIG. 6 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a third minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 600. Surgical instrument assembly 600 operates in a manner similar to that of surgical instrument assembly 400 (FIG. 4), except that it is illustrative of aspects in which a surgical instrument 602's actively flexible distal segment 604 extends beyond the distal end of guide tube 606. Active flexibility of guide tube 606's distal end segment 608 and/or of the entire guide tube 606 are illustrated by alternate position lines 610 and 612. Active flexibility of instrument 602's distal segment 604 moves end effector 614 to illustrative alternate position 616. Accordingly, end effector 614 experiences wrist-like DOFs (e.g., roll, pitch, yaw) from the movement of instrument 602's distal segment 604, from the movement of guide tube 606's distal segment 608, and/or from a combination of movements by distal segments 604,608. Thus, instrument assembly 600 illustrates aspects in which combinations of instruments and guide tubes provide redundant position and orientation DOFs for end effector 614. The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various degrees of freedom, increased lateral force application and stiffness, the optional use of wrist mechanisms and imaging systems, instrument interchangeability, alternating coaxial advancing and cannulas apply to instrument assembly 600. FIG. 7 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fourth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 700. As shown in FIG. 7, surgical instrument 702 extends through primary guide tube 704 along instrument assembly 700's longitudinal axis. In addition, primary guide tube 704 extends through secondary guide tube 706 along the longitudinal axis. In some instances surgical instrument assembly 700 is inserted via a cannula 708. End effector 710 is coupled to the distal end of surgical instrument 702 so that it extends just beyond primary guide tube 704's distal end. End effector 710's redundant DOFs, other than the inherent one or more DOFs associated with its specific task (e.g., gripping), are provided in various ways. Surgical instrument 702 may rotate within primary guide tube 704, and/or primary guide tube 704 may rotate within secondary guide tube 706, and/or secondary guide tube 706 may rotate within cannula 708 (or a natural orifice or incision), which causes end effector 710 to be displaced in roll around instrument assembly 700's longitudinal axis. Surgical instrument 702 may translate within primary guide tube 704, and/or primary guide tube 704 may translate within secondary guide tube 706, and/or secondary guide tube 706 may translate within cannula 708, to displace (surge) end effector 710 along instrument assembly 700's longitudinal axis. As shown in FIG. 7, an actively flexible distal segment 712 of primary guide tube 704 extends beyond secondary guide tube 706's distal end. Distal segment 712 may cause end effector 710 to be heaved and/or swayed (with incidental pitch and yaw as discussed above), adding one or two additional degrees of freedom as illustrated by alternate position 714. Similarly, an actively flexible distal segment 716 of secondary guide tube 706, or the entire secondary guide tube 706, may cause end effector 710 to be heaved and/or swayed, adding one or two more degrees of freedom as illustrated by alternate positions 718 and 720. Since instrument assembly 700 provides various combinations of roll, heave, and sway displacements for end effector 710, a wrist-type mechanism may not be required to couple end effector 710 to surgical instrument 702, although such a mechanism may be used to provide an additional one or more degrees of freedom (e.g., roll, pitch, yaw). As indicated by the alternate position lines in FIG. 7, the primary and secondary guide tubes can maneuver end effector 710 with various combinations of simple and compound bends. In one illustrative embodiment, secondary guide tube 702's active flexibility is used for relatively large movements of end effector 710, and primary guide tube distal segment 712's active flexibility is used for relatively small, wrist-type movements of end effector 710. The amount of such motion depends on the distance that distal segment 712 extends beyond secondary guide tube 706, and so may provide motion similar to that described in FIG. 2B. In some instances surgical instrument 702 may extend beyond primary guide tube 704 as described in FIG. 6. The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFs, increased lateral force application and stiffness, instrument interchangeability, alternating coaxial advancing, and cannulas apply to instrument assembly 700. In addition, since secondary guide tube 706 has an even greater outer diameter than primary guide tube 704, actuation and locking mechanisms for secondary guide tube 706 may provide an increased lateral force and stiffness against reaction forces than either instrument 702 or primary guide tube 704 may provide alone or together. FIG. 8 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fifth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 800. Surgical instrument assembly 800 illustrates that two or more primary guide tubes 802a,802b may be surrounded by a single secondary guide tube 804. An illustrative surgical instrument 806a,806b runs though each of primary guide tubes 802a,802b. The primary guide tubes 802a,802b have an architecture generally similar to surgical instrument assembly 400 (FIG. 4). In some instances, however, one or more primary guide tubes 802 may have an architecture similar to surgical instrument assembly 500 (FIG. 5) or surgical instrument assembly 600 (FIG. 6). Active flexibility of the distal segments of primary guide tubes 802a,802b that extend beyond the distal end of secondary guide tube 804 are illustrated by alternate position lines 808a,808b. The distal segments of primary guide tubes 802a,802b can move end effectors 809a,809b adjacent one another at various positions at a surgical site within a patient so as to perform various surgical tasks. Various active flexibilities of secondary guide tube 804 are illustrated by alternate position lines 810a,810b. The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFs, increased lateral force application and stiffness, the optional use of wrist mechanisms, instrument interchangeability, alternating coaxial advancing, and cannulas apply to instrument assembly 800. In some instances an endoscopic imaging system 812, represented schematically by a dashed box, is positioned at secondary guide tube 804's distal end. Imaging system 812 may be mono- or stereoscopic as described above and may have a viewing angle aligned with or angled (e.g., 30 degrees) from instrument assembly 800's longitudinal axis. In some instances imaging system 812 is positioned between primary guide tubes 802a,802b. In other instances imaging system 812 is positioned above, below, or to the side of primary guide tubes 802a,802b to make secondary guide tube 804's cross section more compact (e.g., one stereoscopic lens window above and one below the primary guide tubes 802a,802b; camera referenced control for this configuration is made possible if the primary guide tubes bend out and then inwards towards the surgical site roughly coplanar with the interpupillary axis). FIG. 9 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a sixth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 900. Instrument assembly 900 is similar to instrument assembly 800 (FIG. 8), except that an illustrative additional surgical instrument 902 extends through secondary guide tube 904, but surgical instrument 902 is not surrounded by a primary guide tube. Accordingly, the relationship between surgical instrument 902 and secondary guide tube 904 is similar to that described between the surgical instruments and guide tubes as shown in FIGS. 4 and 6. The relationship between the primary guide tube 906a,906b and instrument 908a,908b assemblies is similar to that described for aspects illustrated by FIGS. 7 and 8. Instrument assembly 900 is illustrative of a secondary guide tube through which extend various combinations of one or more primary guide tube and instrument assemblies as well as one or more instruments without guide tubes. In some instances surgical instrument 902 is rigid or passively flexible and its end effector 910 is used to grasp and pull tissue to assist the surgical tasks that end effectors 912a,912b at the ends of instruments 908a,908b perform. Although rigid or passively flexible, instrument 902 is capable of pulling with considerable force. In other instances surgical instrument may perform other functions, such as retraction, irrigation, suction, etc. Further, if an endoscopic imaging system is placed at the distal end of secondary guide tube 904, as illustrated by instrument assembly 800 (FIG. 8), then instrument 902 may be used to service (e.g., clean with a jet of fluid) the imaging system's window(s). In still other instances, as mentioned above, surgical instrument 902's distal end is actively flexible, and end effector 910 is replaced by an endoscopic imaging system 914 as shown in FIG. 9A. In these instances a distal imaging device may be coupled to the actively flexible end of surgical instrument 902 with a wrist-type mechanism 916 that provides at least a DOF in pitch. Such an architecture allows the image sensing device to be moved out from between the distal ends of primary guide tubes 906a,906b and then the viewing angle is pitched (and/or yawed) to align the center of the visual field with the area at which the end effectors 912a,912b are working. This architecture enables a surgeon to work, at a surgical site via a single entry port into the body, with two independently actuated surgical end effectors and an endoscopic imaging system that is independent of the surgical instruments. Another benefit of the independently controlled imaging system illustrated in FIG. 9A is tissue retraction, as shown and described more fully with reference to FIG. 17A below. In accordance with aspects described above, one or more surgical instruments exit at the distal end of an guide tube, which may be a flat face or other shape, square or inclined to the assembly's longitudinal axis. In accordance with other aspects, one or more surgical instruments exit from the side of a guide tube. FIG. 10 is a schematic view that illustrates such aspects in a seventh minimally invasive surgical assembly 1000. As shown in FIG. 10, two surgical instruments 1002a,1002b (illustrative of two or more instruments) extend longitudinally through guide tube 1004. Instruments 1002a,1002b exit guide tube 1004's distal segment 1006 via side exit ports 1008a,1008b instead of at guide tube 1004's extreme distal end. The side exit ports 1008a,1008b may be oriented to be generally opposite each other (i.e., displaced approximately 180 degrees from each other) or they may be separated by a lesser angle (e.g., 120 degrees). And, the side exit ports may have various angular orientations around distal segment 1006 in aspects in which more than two exit ports are used for one, two, or more than two instruments 1002. In one aspect, one side exit port is farther from guide tube 104's distal tip than another side exit port. Instrument 1002a's distal segment 1010a and instrument 1002b's distal segment 1010b are each independently actively flexible so as to move end effectors 1012a,1012b for work at a surgical site. Various combinations of simple or compound bending with instrument roll and insertion, along with optional wrist mechanisms, provide the required end effector DOFs. An endoscopic imaging system 1014 is positioned at the distal end of guide tube 1004. Imaging system 1014's viewing angle may be aligned with instrument assembly 1000's longitudinal axis, or the viewing angle may be angled (e.g., 30 degrees) from the longitudinal axis. In some aspects the viewing angle may be actively changed during a surgical procedure using, e.g., one or move movable reflecting surfaces (mirrors, prisms). The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFS, increased lateral force and stiffness, the optional use of wrist mechanisms, instrument interchangeability, and cannulas apply to instrument assembly 1000. Surgical assembly 1000 is inserted into a patient via incision or natural orifice, in some instances through cannula 1016 or a similar guiding structure as described above. As guide tube 1004 is inserted, in some instances surgical instruments 1002a,1002b are either fully or partly retracted so that they do not extend beyond openings 1008a,1008b as guide tube 1004 advances towards a surgical site. Images from imaging system 1014 may assist advancement. Once guide tube 1004 is in position at the surgical site, instruments 1002a,1002b may then be inserted and/or advanced within guide tube 1004 to reach the surgical site. Guide tube 1004 may be actively flexed during a surgical procedure to provide gross movements at the surgical site while instrument distal segments 1010a,1010b perform fine movements to complete the surgical task, as illustrated by alternate position lines 1018a,1018b. The surgeon views images from imaging system 1014 while performing surgical tasks with end effectors 1012a,1012b. Since the surgeon cannot see images from imaging system 1014 of distal segments 1010a,1010b as they exit side ports 1008a,1008b, in some aspects a control system, described below, controls distal segments 1010a,1010b as they exit from guide tube 1004 so that they curve to meet in front of imaging system 1014. In other aspects, a luminal space is mapped as described below, and the control system uses the mapping data to guide the end effectors into imaging system 1014's field of view. In still other aspects the distal end of the guide tube may be moved, e.g., to the left from a known space, thereby allowing the right instrument to be inserted into the “safe” space to the right of the guide tube. Then, likewise, the distal end of guide tube is moved to the right and the left instrument is moved into the “safe” space to the left of the guide tube. For aspects in which the distal end of the guide tube moves upward independently of the part of the guide tube at which the instruments exit the instruments may be similarly inserted into the “safe” space underneath the upwardly displaced distal end of the guide tube. For withdrawal, or subsequent large repositioning, instruments 1002a,1002b may be withdrawn through side exit ports 1008a,1008b, either partially into or entirely from guide tube 1004. FIG. 11 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of an eighth minimally invasive surgical assembly 1100. As shown in FIG. 11, surgical instrument 1102a extends through primary guide tube 1104a along its longitudinal axis. Likewise, surgical instrument 1102b extends through primary guide tube 1104b along its longitudinal axis. End effectors 1106a,1106b are coupled to the distal ends of instruments 1102a,1102b. Primary guide tubes 1104a,1104b extend longitudinally through secondary guide tube 1108. In a manner similar to the way surgical instruments 1002a,1002b exit side ports 1008a,1008b of guide tube 1004's distal segment 1106, primary guide tubes 1104a,1104b exit side ports 1110a,111b of secondary guide tube 1108. The distal segments 1112a,1112b of primary guide tubes 1104a,1104b actively flex to move end effectors 1106a,1106b, as illustrated by alternate position lines 1114a,1114b. An endoscopic imaging system 1116 is positioned at secondary guide tube 1108's distal end. The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFs, increased lateral force application and stiffness, the optional use of wrist mechanisms, instrument interchangeability, cannulas, and endoscopic imaging systems apply to instrument assembly 1100. Instrument assembly 1100 operates in a manner similar to instrument assembly 1000 (FIG. 10). The principal difference between the two aspects is the use of both secondary and primary guide tubes in assembly 1100. The relationship between instrument assemblies 1100 and 1000 is therefore akin to the relationship between instrument assemblies 800 (FIG. 8) and 500 (FIG. 5). The descriptions above of insertion, full or partial instrument retraction during insertion and repositioning, use of the imaging system, use of primary and secondary guide tubes, and controlled extension of instruments apply to aspects of instrument assembly 1100. FIGS. 11A and 11B are diagrammatic end views of surgical instrument assemblies, and they illustrate that a side-exit assembly such as assemblies 1000 (FIG. 10) and 1100 (FIG. 11) may be used to reduce the overall cross-sectional area of a guide tube or secondary guide tube. FIG. 11A is an illustrative view of an assembly, such as assembly 800 (the circular cross-sectional shape is merely illustrative), in which instrument/guide tube combinations 802a,806a and 802b,806b exit from the distal end of a guide tube or secondary guide tube. In this illustrative example, imaging system 812 is a stereoscopic imaging system with an interpupillary distance 1120 between imaging ports and an illustrative illumination port 1122. As shown in FIG. 11B's illustrative example, the side-exit assembly's instrument/distal guide tube segment combinations 1102a,1112a and 1102b,1112b have the same cross-sectional dimensions as combinations 802a,806a and 802b,806b shown in FIG. 11A. And, illustrative stereoscopic imaging system 1116 has the same interpupillary distance 1120 as imaging system 812 as shown in FIG. 11A. If the endoscopic image is captured and digitized at the distal end of the guide tube, then the guide tube area proximal of the image capture and digitizing components can be used for instruments and actuation instead of for optics (e.g., fiber bundles, rod lenses, etc.). Consequently, the oblong-shaped cross-sectional area of FIG. 11B's side-exit guide tube is smaller than the cross-sectional area of FIG. 11A's end-exit guide tube, and the imaging system's interpupillary distance is the same. This reduced cross-sectional area may be an advantage for, e.g., the size and location of an incision to be used, for the size of a particular natural orifice, or for the position of intermediate tissue between the entry port and the surgical site. Such an oblong cross-sectional shape can be used in other instrument assembly guide tubes described herein. FIG. 12 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a ninth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 1200. Instrument assembly 1200 is similar to instrument assembly 1100, with an additional surgical instrument 1202 that extends from the distal end of secondary guide tube 1204. Surgical instrument 1202 operates in a manner similar to surgical instrument 902 (FIG. 9), being in some aspects rigid and in others passively or actively flexible as described above. And, end effector 1206 may be replaced with an endoscopic imaging system as described with reference to FIGS. 9 and 9A or FIGS. 17 and 17A so that in some aspects instrument assembly 1200 has an independently operated, optionally wrist-mounted, endoscopic imaging system 1208 as illustrated in FIG. 12. FIGS. 12A and 12B are diagrammatic views of embodiments that illustrate retroflexive positions in examples of side-exit guide tubes, similar to retroflexive movement for end-exit guide tubes discussed above. FIG. 12A illustrates that in one aspect the side-exit instrument assembly 1220 actively bends in a plane that is approximately coplanar with the side exit ports 1222a and 1222b (yaw with reference to the visual field reference). FIG. 12B illustrates that in another aspect the side exit instrument assembly 1230 actively bends in a plane that is approximately perpendicular to the side exit ports 1232a and 1232b (hidden) (pitch with reference to the visual field reference). Assembly 1230's bend radius may be smaller than assembly 1220's bend radius, other dimensions being substantially the same, due to the mechanical structure. In some aspects the side-exit instrument assembly may simultaneously yaw and pitch, and the assembly may yaw/pitch distally of the side exit ports. FIGS. 13 and 14 are schematic views that illustrate tenth and eleventh aspects of minimally invasive surgical instrument assemblies 1300 (FIG. 13) and 1400 (FIG. 1400). Surgical instrument assemblies 1300 and 1400 combine aspects of surgical instrument assemblies illustrated in FIGS. 3-12B and the associated descriptions. Specifically, instrument assembly 1300 illustrates aspects in which one or more surgical instruments 1302 exit the end of a distal segment 1304 of a guide tube 1306, and one or more other surgical instruments 1308 exit from a side exit port 1310 at guide tube 1306's distal segment 1304. Likewise, instrument assembly 1400 illustrates aspects in which one or more surgical instruments 1402 run coaxially within one or more primary guide tubes 1404 that exit the end of a distal segment 1406 of a secondary guide tube 1408, and one or more other surgical instruments 1410 run coaxially through one or more other primary guide tubes 1412 that run coaxially within secondary guide tube 1408 and exit from one or more side exit ports 1414 at secondary guide tube 1408's distal segment 1406. The descriptions above of additional channels, active and passive flexibility, locking/rigidizing, various DOFs, increased lateral force application and stiffness, the optional use of wrist mechanisms, instrument interchangeability, cannulas, and endoscopic imaging systems apply to instrument assemblies 1300 and 1400. In many instances an instrument or instrument assembly as described herein can be actively or passively positioned at a surgical site. A sufficiently flexible and maneuverable surgical instrument or surgical instrument assembly, such as those described herein, may be inserted with one or more segments of the instrument or assembly functioning in accordance with the insertion description below. In some instances, however, a guide probe can be used to initially define some or all of the trajectory between the entry port and the surgical site. The guide probe may be maneuvered using, e.g., image data from an imaging system at the guide probe's distal tip, real time image data from an external imaging system (e.g., ultrasound, fluoroscopy, MRI), preoperative image data and computer analysis of likely trajectory, and various combinations of these data. FIGS. 15A-15D are schematic views that illustrate aspects of inserting a flexible, steerable surgical instrument and surgical instrument assembly, such as those described herein, by using a guide probe to maneuver past intermediate tissue structures so as to reach a surgical site within a patient. Insertion may be via natural orifice or incision, either with or without using a cannula (not shown) as described above. As shown in FIG. 15A, a first intermediate tissue structure 1502 prevents a surgical instrument or surgical instrument assembly from operating with a pivoting center point generally where it enters the body, as shown in FIG. 1. In addition, a second intermediate tissue structure 1504 exists between the position where the instrument or instrument assembly passes the first intermediate tissue structure 1502 and the target surgical site 1506, as shown in FIG. 21B. An instrument or instrument assembly must be guided between and around the intermediate tissue structures to reach the surgical site. As shown in FIG. 15A, in one aspect a guide probe 1508 is inserted past first intermediate structure 1502 and is then actively maneuvered around second intermediate tissue structure 1504 to reach surgical site 1506 or another desired position. The guide probe's primary function is to establish a trajectory to the surgical site. An optional endoscopic imaging system 1509 may be mounted at guide probe 1508's distal tip. In some aspects curve propagation as described above is used during insertion-curves initially formed by steering the distal end are automatically propagated in a proximal direction on the guide probe as it is advanced towards the surgical site. Such curve propagation is done using, e.g., control systems as described below. Once at its desired position, guide probe 1508 is then rigidized so as to maintain its two- or three-dimensional curved shape. Next, a guide tube 1510 is inserted coaxially over guide probe 1508, as shown in FIG. 15B. The guide tube 1510 may be inserted to an intermediate position as shown, or it may be inserted and maneuvered to a position at surgical site 1506 as shown by the alternate position lines. In some aspects, the guide probe and guide tube may be coaxially inserted, first one, then the other in a repeated, alternating way. Guide tube 1510 is illustrative of various primary and secondary guide tubes, such as those shown in FIGS. 4-14. Once in a desired position, guide tube 1510 is then rigidized to maintain the shape defined by guide probe 1508, which is then withdrawn as shown in FIG. 15C. After the guide probe is withdrawn, a surgical instrument or surgical instrument assembly 1512 may then be inserted through guide tube 1510 to reach surgical site 1506, as shown in FIG. 15D. To facilitate guide tube insertion, in one aspect the guide probe extends beyond the coaxial guide tube by a distance sufficient to allow the guide probe to enter a patient and reach the surgical site. Then, the guide probe is coaxially inserted. In an alternate aspect, a proximal portion (e.g., the transmission mechanism; see FIG. 27 for an illustrative view) of the guide probe is removable to allow the guide tube to be coaxially inserted over the guide probe. As an illustrative example in accordance with surgical instrument assembly 400 (FIG. 4), a guide probe is inserted, guide tube 404 is inserted over the guide probe, the guide probe is withdrawn, and then surgical instrument 402 is inserted through guide tube 404. A similar procedure can be used for guide tubes with multiple instrument channels, such as surgical instrument assembly 500 (FIG. 5). As another illustrative example in accordance with surgical instrument assembly 700 (FIG. 7), a guide probe is inserted, primary guide tube 704 is inserted over the guide probe, secondary guide tube 706 is inserted over primary guide tube 704, the guide probe is withdrawn, and instrument 702 is inserted through primary guide tube 704. Alternately, a guide probe having a relatively larger outer diameter is inserted, secondary guide tube 706 is inserted over the guide probe, the guide probe is withdrawn, and primary guide tube 704 and instrument 706 are then inserted through secondary guide tube 706. A similar procedure can be used for secondary guide tubes that have two or more primary guide tube and/or instrument channels. As yet another illustrative example, guide tube 1510 is analogous to cannula 708, and instrument assembly 700 is inserted through guide tube 1510. Many variations in insertion order are possible and are within the scope of the invention. Referring again to FIG. 2A, it can be seen that a rigid distal segment of a minimally invasive surgical instrument can also provide access to a large volume deep within the body that is accessed through an intermediate tissue structure. Such mechanisms may be mechanically simpler to build and operate, and therefore may be less expensive and easier to control than systems that use flexible technology. And, in some aspects such mechanisms may work back on themselves to provide a capability similar to the retroflexive bending described above. FIG. 16 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a twelfth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 1600. As shown in FIG. 16, two surgical instruments 1602a,1602b extend through channels 1604a,1604b that extend longitudinally through rigid guide tube 1606. In some aspects guide tube 1606 is straight and in others it is curved to accommodate a particular insertion port (the instruments are similarly curved to facilitate insertion). Guide tube 1606 may have various cross-sectional shapes (e.g., circular, oval, rounded polygon), and various numbers of surgical instruments and channels may be used. Some optional working channels may be used to provide supporting surgical functions such as irrigation and suction. In some aspects an endoscopic imaging system (e.g., mono- or stereoscopic image capture or direct view) is at guide tube 1606's distal end 1610. In one aspect guide tube 1606 is inserted into a patient via an incision (e.g., approximately 2.0 cm at the umbilicus) or natural orifice, either with or without the use of a cannula 1612 or similar guiding structure. In some aspects guide tube 1606 may rotate within cannula 1612. As shown in FIG. 16, surgical instruments 1602a and 1602b function in a like manner, and many instrument functions (body roll, wrist operation, end effector operation, etc.) are similar to the surgical instruments used in the da Vinci® Surgical System (both 8 mm and 5 mm instrument body diameters). In other aspects the instruments may function differently and/or have capabilities not embodied in da Vinci® Surgical System instruments (e.g., one instrument may be straight, one instrument may be jointed, one instrument may be flexible, etc.). In the illustrative aspect shown in FIG. 16, instrument 1602a includes a transmission portion (not shown) at its proximal end, an elongated instrument body 1614, one of various surgical end effectors 1616, and a snakelike, two degree of freedom wrist mechanism 1618 that couples end effector 1616 to instrument body 1614. As in the da Vinci® Surgical Systems, in some aspects the transmission portion includes disks that interface with electrical actuators (e.g., servomotors) permanently mounted on a support arm so that instruments may easily be changed. Other linkages such as matching gimbal plates and levers may be used to transfer actuating forces at the mechanical interface. Mechanical mechanisms (e.g., gears, levers, gimbals) in the transmission portion transfer the actuating forces from the disks to cables, wires, and/or cable, wire, and hypotube combinations that run through one or more channels in instrument body 1614 (which may include one or more articulated segments) to control wrist 1618 and end effector 1616 movement. In some aspects, one or more disks and associated mechanisms transfer actuating forces that roll instrument body 1614 around its longitudinal axis 1619 as shown. In some aspects the actuators for a particular instrument are themselves mounted on a single linear actuator that moves instrument body 1614 longitudinally as shown within channel 1604a. The main segment of instrument body 1614 is a substantially rigid single tube, although in some aspects it may be slightly resiliently flexible. This small flexibility allows a proximal body segment 1620 proximal of guide tube 1606 (i.e., outside the patient) be slightly flexed so that several instrument bodies can be spaced more closely within guide tube 1606 than their individual transmission segment housings would otherwise allow, like several cut flowers of equal length being placed in a small-necked vase. This flexing is minimal (e.g., less than or equal to about a 5-degree bend angle in one embodiment) and does not induce significant friction because the bend angle for the control cables and hypotubes inside the instrument body is small. As shown in FIG. 16, instruments 1602a and 1602b each include a proximal body segment that extends through the guide tube and at least one distal body segment that is positioned beyond the guide tube's distal end. For example, instrument 1602a includes proximal body segment 1620 that extends through guide tube 1606, a distal body segment 1622 that is coupled to proximal body segment 1620 at a joint 1624, a wrist mechanism 1626 that is coupled to distal body segment 1622 at another joint 1628 (the coupling may include another, short distal body segment), and an end effector 1630. In some aspects the distal body segment 1622 and joints 1624 and 1628 function as a parallel motion mechanism 1632 in which the position of a reference frame at the distal end of the mechanism may be changed with respect to a reference frame at the proximal end of the mechanism without changing the orientation of the distal reference frame. FIG. 16A is a side elevation view of an embodiment of the distal end of instrument 1602a, which includes parallel motion mechanism 1632, wrist mechanism 1626, and end effector 1630. In this illustrative embodiment, parallel motion mechanism 1632's diameter is approximately 7 mm, and wrist 1626's diameter is approximately 5 mm. FIG. 16A shows that joints 1624 and 1628 each have two hinges that pivot around orthogonal axes. As one hinge pivots in joint 1624, the corresponding hinge pivots an equal amount in the opposite direction in joint 1628. Accordingly, as distal body segment 1622 moves, the orientation of wrist 1626 and end effector 1630 remain essentially unaffected. The hinges are constructed with rolling contact so that cable lengths on each side of the pivot remain balanced (“virtual pivot points”); details are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,817,974 (Cooper et al.), which is incorporated by reference. U.S. Pat. No. 6,817,974 further discloses details about the Yaw-Pitch-Pitch-Yaw (YPPY; alternately PYYP) arrangement of the hinges in parallel motion mechanism 1632 (wrist 1626 is similarly configured), which provides a constant velocity roll configuration. Consequently, roll of proximal body segment 1620 is smoothly transferred to end effector 1630. Cables, wires, or bendable hypotubes are routed through a center channel in body segments 1620,1622, in joints 1624,1628, and in wrist 1626 to operate end effector 1630 (e.g., opening and closing jaws in a gripper as shown). Cables that operate parallel motion mechanism 1632 and wrist 1626 are routed through openings near the periphery of the joints. FIG. 16B is a perspective view, and FIG. 16C is a cross-sectional view, of an illustrative embodiment of joints 1624,1628. As described herein, parallel motion mechanism 1632 includes two joints 1624 and 1628. Since the joints 1624,1628 are coupled together, however, they do not operate independently of one another. Therefore, in joint space the entire parallel motion mechanism 1632 may be considered a single joint with two degrees of freedom (i.e., pitch and yaw) if “joints” 1624 and 1628 each have two orthogonal hinges (the position of the distal end of the mechanism may change in 3D Cartesian space), or as a single joint with one degree of freedom (i.e., pitch or yaw) if “joints” 1624 and 1628 each have a single hinge (the position of the distal end of the mechanism may change only in 2D Cartesian space). If parallel motion mechanism 1632 has two DOFs in joint space, then it functions as a constant velocity joint and transmits roll. Mechanism 1632's motion is “parallel” because the relative orientations of the proximal and distal ends (frames) of the mechanism remain constant as the mechanism changes the distal end's (frame's) position. FIGS. 16D and 16E are schematic views that illustrate aspects of parallel motion mechanism 1632's design and operation principles. For clarity, only one set (i.e., PP or YY) of corresponding pivoting hinges is shown. The other set of hinges works the same way. Each hinge has a proximal link disk and a distal link disk. As shown in FIG. 16D, a first set of cables 1640a,1640b are positioned on opposite sides of parallel motion mechanism 1632 and couple the proximal link disk in hinge 1624a to the distal link disk in hinge 1628b. The two cables 1640a,1640b are illustrative of various combinations of cables that may be used (e.g., two cables on each side for increased strength; three cables spaced approximately 120 degrees apart will maintain parallelism in both planes; etc.). A second set of cables 1642a,1642b are coupled to the distal link disk of hinge 1624a and run back through proximal body segment 1620 to the transmission mechanism (not shown). Other cables that control wrist mechanism 1626 and end effector 1630 are illustrated by a third set of cables 1644a,1644b. As shown in FIG. 16E, when the transmission mechanism applies a tensile force on cable 1642a (cable 1642b is allowed to pay out), hinge 1624a pivots. The cable 1640a,1640b coupling between the proximal link disk of hinge 1624a and the distal link disk of hinge 1628a causes hinge 1628a to pivot an equal amount in the opposite direction. Consequently, wrist 1626 and end effector 1630 are laterally displaced away from longitudinal axis 1619 of proximal body segment 1620. The lengths of cables 1644a,1644b are unaffected by the movement because of the hinge design, and so wrist 1626 and end effector 1630 orientation are also unaffected by the movement. If proximal instrument body segment 1620 were to remain stationary, then end effector 1630 translates slightly in a direction aligned with longitudinal axis 1619 (surged) in the patient's reference frame. Therefore, the control system, described below, compensates for this small movement by moving proximate body segment 1620 by an amount necessary to keep end effector 1630 at a constant insertion depth in the patient's reference frame. In some instances when transmitting roll to the end effector is not required (e.g., for suction or irrigation tools, for an imaging system), each joint in the parallel movement mechanism may have only a single pivoting hinge. Further, skilled artisans will understand that if keeping end effector orientation is not required, then the parallel motion mechanism may be omitted. For instance, a proximal instrument body segment may be coupled to a distal instrument body segment at a joint with a single pivoting axis so that the proximal body segment must be rolled to move an end effector at the distal end of the distal body segment from side to side. Or, two or more elongated distal body segments may be used. If roll is not required, then the cross section of the body segments does not have to be round. In some aspects, the wrist mechanism may be eliminated. FIG. 16F is a diagrammatic end view of a link disk, and it illustrates aspects of cable routing in a parallel motion mechanism. As shown in FIG. 16F, twelve cable routing holes are placed near the outside perimeter of link disk 1650. The cable routing holes are spaced 22.5 degrees apart from one another between the 3, 6, 9, and 12 O'clock positions on link disk 1650. Holes are not placed at the 3, 6, 9, and 12 O'clock positions because of the hinge components (not shown) on the obverse and reverse sides of link disk 1650. Starting at the 12 O'clock position, the holes are labeled 1652a-1652l. Four sets of three cables each are dedicated to four functions. A first set of cables maintains the parallel function in the parallel motion mechanism and are routed through holes 1652a, 1652e, and 1652i. A second set of cables are used to move a distal part of a wrist mechanism (e.g., wrist mechanism 1626) and are routed through holes 1652b, 1652f, and 1652j. A third set of cables are used to move the parallel motion mechanism and are routed through holes 1652c, 1652g, and 1652k. A fourth set of cables are used to move a proximal part of the wrist mechanism and are routed through holes 1652d, 1652h, and 1652l. Cables and other components associated with an end effector are routed through central hole 1654 in link disk 1650. FIG. 16G is another diagrammatic end view of a link disk, and it illustrates further aspects of cable routing in a parallel motion mechanism. As shown in FIG. 16G, a first set of 12 cable routing holes are placed around the outside perimeter of link disk 1660 in a manner similar to those shown in FIG. 16F. In addition, a second set of 12 cable routing holes are placed around a concentric circle inside the first set of holes. Starting at the 12 O'clock position, the outer ring of cable routing holes are labeled 1662a-1662l, and the inner ring of holes are labeled 1664a-1664l. Cables associated with the parallel motion mechanism are routed through the outer ring of holes 1662, and cables associated with the wrist mechanism are routed through the inner ring of holes 1664. A first set of three cable pairs maintains the parallel function in the parallel motion mechanism and are routed through adjacent holes 1662a and 1662l, 1662d and 1662e, and 1662h and 1662i. A second set of three cable pairs are used to move the parallel motion mechanism and are routed through adjacent holes 1662b and 1662c, 1662f and 1662g, and 1662j and 1662k. A third set of three cable pairs is used to move a proximal part of the wrist mechanism and are routed through adjacent holes 1664a and 16641, 1664d and 1664e, and 1664h and 1664i. A fourth set of three cable pairs are used to move a distal part of the wrist mechanism and are routed through adjacent holes 1664b and 1664c, 1664f and 1664g, and 1664j and 1664k. Cables and other components associated with an end effector are routed through central hole 1666 in link disk 1660. The use of cable pairs as illustrated in FIG. 16G increases actuation stiffness above the stiffness of using a single cable. The increased stiffness allows the instrument components to be more accurately positioned during movement (e.g., the increased stiffness helps to reduce motion hysteresis). In one example, such cable pairs are used for an instrument with a parallel motion mechanism that is approximately 7 mm in diameter. Instruments with smaller diameters (e.g., approximately 5 mm in diameter), however, may not have sufficient internal space to accommodate cable pairs. In these situations, single cables routed in accordance with FIG. 16F may be coupled to a cable on the opposite side of the parallel motion mechanism. Aspects of such coupling are illustrated in FIGS. 16H-16J. FIG. 16H is a diagrammatic perspective view of a stiffening bracket 1670 that couples cables routed on opposite sides of a parallel motion mechanism's body segment. Bracket 1670 has a cross piece 1672 and two parallel support members 1674 attached (e.g., welded) on opposite sides of cross piece 1672. A hypotube 1676 is attached (e.g., welded) to each support member so that the hypotubes are parallel to each other. The hypotubes 1676 are spaced apart a distance slightly less than the free space distance between the two cables to be coupled. The cable 1678 that maintains the parallel motion mechanism's parallel function is threaded through its associated hypotube 1676 as the cable extends between its two anchor points in the parallel motion mechanism. The hypotube 1676 is crimped to keep cable 1678 in place. The end of cable 1680 that is used to move the parallel motion mechanism is threaded into its associated hypotube 1676, which is crimped to keep cable 1680 in place. Consequently, the distal end of cable 1680 is anchored to a middle position (not necessarily halfway) of cable 1678. Referring to FIG. 16F, cables running through holes 1652a and 1652g are coupled together, cables running through holes 1652c and 1652i are coupled together and cables running through holes 1652e and 1652k are coupled together. FIG. 16I illustrates an aspect of how multiple brackets 1670 may be positioned within the body of a parallel motion mechanism. That is, each cable that is associated with moving the parallel motion mechanism is coupled to an opposite side cable associated with maintaining the parallel function of the parallel motion mechanism. Due to the way the hinges are constructed, described above, the cables that maintain the parallel function move within the body of the parallel motion mechanism, even though they are anchored at either end of the parallel motion mechanism. Therefore, for a given motion of the parallel motion mechanism, the cable coupling requires that the cables 1680, which move the parallel motion mechanism, move twice as far as they would if they were anchored to the parallel motion mechanism's body segment as illustrated in, e.g., FIGS. 16D-16E. The effect of this coupling increases joint stiffness approximately four times more than non-coupled cables because the cable moves twice as far, and because the load on the cable is half as great for a given joint torque. FIG. 16J is a diagrammatic end view of a stiffening bracket 1670. As shown in FIG. 16J, cross piece 1672 is hollow so that cables and other components associated with an end effector may be routed through the cross piece. In one aspect, cross piece 1672 is made using electrical discharge machining. Referring again to FIG. 16, the proximal body portion, parallel motion mechanism, wrist, and end effector are aligned along longitudinal axis 1619 to allow the instrument to be inserted and withdrawn through guide tube 1606. Accordingly, two or more independently operating, exchangeable instruments, each with parallel motion mechanisms, can be simultaneously inserted via guide tube 1606 to allow a surgeon to enter a patient via a single entry port and work within a large volume deep within a patient. Each independent instrument's end effector has a full 6 DOF in Cartesian space (instrument insertion and the parallel motion mechanism provide the translation DOFs, and instrument body roll and the wrist mechanism provide the orientation DOFs). Further, the instruments 1602a,1602b may be partially withdrawn so that, e.g., only the wrist and end effectors extend from the guide tube 1606's distal end 1610. In this configuration, the one or more wrists and end effectors can perform limited surgical work. FIG. 17 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a thirteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 1700. Surgical instrument assembly 1700 is similar to instrument assembly 1600 (FIGS. 16-16J) in that surgical instruments 1702a,1702b function similarly to instruments 1602a,1602b as described above, but instead of a fixed endoscopic imaging system at the end of the guide tube, assembly 1700 has an independently operating endoscopic imaging system 1704. In one aspect, imaging system 1704 is mechanically similar to surgical instruments 1602 as described above. Summarizing these aspects as shown in FIG. 17, optical system 1704 includes a substantially rigid elongate tubular proximal body segment 1706 that extends through guide tube 1708, and at proximal body segment 1706's distal end there is coupled a 1 or 2 DOF parallel motion mechanism 1712 that is similar to parallel motion mechanism 1622 (FIGS. 16-16J). Parallel motion mechanism 1712 includes a first joint 1714, an intermediate distal body segment 1716, and a second joint 1718. As shown in FIG. 17, in some aspects a wrist mechanism or other active joint (e.g., one DOF to allow changing pitch angle; two DOFs to allow changing pitch and yaw angles) 1720 couples an image capture component 1722 to second joint 1718. Alternatively, in another aspect joint 1714 is an independently controllable one or two DOF joint (pitch/yaw), joint 1718 is another independently controllable one or two DOF joint (e.g., pitch/yaw), and image capture component 1722 is coupled directly at the distal end of the joint 1718 mechanism. An example of a suitable stereoscopic image capture component is shown in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/614,661, incorporated by reference above. In some aspects imaging system 1704 moves longitudinally (surges) inside guide tube 1708. Control of imaging system 1704 is further described in concurrently filed U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ [Atty Docket No. ISRG 00560] (Diolaiti et al.) entitled “Control System Configured to Compensate for Non-Ideal Actuator-to-Joint Linkage Characteristics in a Medical Robotic System”, which is incorporated by reference. In some aspects, roll may be undesirable because of a need to preserve a particular field of view orientation. Having heave, sway, surge, yaw, and pitch DOFs allows the image capture component to be moved to various positions while preserving a particular camera reference for assembly 1700 and viewing alignment for the surgeon. FIG. 17A is, for illustrative purposes only, a side view schematic to FIG. 17's plan view schematic. FIG. 17A shows that parallel motion mechanism 1712 moves image capture component 1722 away from surgical instrument assembly 1700's longitudinal centerline. This displacement provides an improved view of surgical site 1724 because some or all of the instrument body distal segment ends are not present in the image output to the surgeon as would occur in, e.g., instrument assembly 1600 (FIG. 16). The pitch of parallel motion mechanism 1712 and of image capture component 1722 is controllable, as illustrated by the arrows. FIG. 17B is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates an embodiment of surgical instrument assembly 1700. As shown, two independently teleoperated surgical instruments 1740a,1740b (each instrument is associated with a separate master—e.g. one left hand master for the left instrument and one right hand master for the right instrument) run through and emerge at the distal end of a rigid guide tube 1742. Each instrument 1740a,1740b is a 6 DOF instrument, as described above, and includes a parallel motion mechanism 1744a,1744b, as described above, with wrists 1746a,1746b and end effectors 1748a,1748b attached. In addition, an independently teleoperated endoscopic imaging system 1750 runs through and emerges at the distal end of guide tube 1742. In some aspects imaging system 1750 also includes a parallel motion mechanism 1752, a pitch-only wrist mechanism 1754 at the distal end of the parallel motion mechanism 1752 (the mechanism may have either one or two DOFs in joint space), and a stereoscopic endoscopic image capture component 1756 coupled to wrist mechanism 1754. In other aspects, wrist mechanism 1754 may include a yaw DOF. In yet another aspect, the proximal and distal joints in imaging system 1750 are independently controlled. In an illustrative use, parallel motion mechanism 1752 heaves and sways image capture component 1756 up and to the side, and wrist mechanism 1754 orients image capture component 1756 to place the center of the field of view between the instrument tips if the instruments are working to the side of the guide tube's extended centerline. In another illustrative use, the distal body segment of imaging system is independently pitched up (in some aspects also independently yawed), and image capture component 1756 is independently pitched down (in some aspects also independently yawed). As discussed above and below, imaging system 1750 may be moved to various places to retract tissue. Also shown is an auxiliary channel 1760, through which, e.g., irrigation, suction, or other surgical items may be introduced or withdrawn. In some aspects, one or more small, steerable devices (e.g., illustrated by instrument 902 in FIG. 9) may be inserted via auxiliary channel 1760 to spray a cleaning fluid (e.g., pressurized water, gas) and/or a drying agent (e.g., pressurized air or insufflation gas) on the imaging system's windows to clean them. In another aspect, such a cleaning wand may be a passive device that attaches to the camera before insertion. In yet another aspect the end of the wand is automatically hooked to the image capture component as the image capture component emerges from the guide tube's distal end. A spring gently pulls on the cleaning wand so that it tends to retract into the guide tube as the imaging system is withdrawn from the guide tube. FIG. 17A further illustrates that as image capture component 1722 is moved away from assembly 1700's centerline it may press against and move an overlying tissue structure surface 1726, thereby retracting the tissue structure from the surgical site as shown. The use of imaging system 1704 to retract tissue is illustrative of using other surgical instruments, or a device specifically designed for the task, to retract tissue. Such “tent-pole” type retraction may be performed by any of the various movable components described herein, such as the distal end exit or side exit flexible devices and the parallel motion mechanisms on the rigid body component devices, as well as other devices discussed below (e.g., with reference to FIG. 31). In some aspects, one or more surgical instruments may exit from a guide tube generally aligned with the guide tube's longitudinal axis but not at the guide tube's distal end. FIG. 18 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a fourteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly 1800. As shown in FIG. 18, a first surgical instrument 1802 runs coaxially through primary guide tube 1804, and a second surgical instrument 1806 runs coaxially through primary guide tube 1808. Instrument and primary guide tube combinations 1802,1804 and 1806,1808 are illustrative of the various flexible and rigid instruments and instrument/guide tube combinations described above. Instrument/guide tube combination 1802,1804 extends through and exits at secondary guide tube 1810's extreme distal end 1812. Instrument/guide tube combination 1806,1808 extends through secondary guide tube 1810 and exits at an intermediate position 1814 that is proximally spaced from extreme distal end 1812. In contrast to the side exits that direct instruments away from the guide tube's longitudinal axis as shown in, e.g., assemblies 1300 (FIG. 13) and 1400 (FIG. 14), instrument/guide tube combination 1806,1808 exits generally aligned with secondary guide tube 1810's longitudinal axis 1816. The distal and intermediate position guide tube face angles may be other than perpendicular to axis 1816. FIG. 18 also shows that endoscopic imaging system 1818 is positioned on secondary guide tube 1810 between extreme distal end 1812 and intermediate position 1814. Imaging system 1818's field of view is directed generally perpendicular to longitudinal axis 1816. During surgery (e.g., within a long, narrow space), the surgical site is located within imaging system 1818's field of view and instrument/guide tube combinations 1802,1804 and 1806,1808 (working somewhat retrograde from its distal end 1812 exit) are moved to work at the surgical site. Imaging system 1818 is, in some aspects, an electronic stereoscopic image capture system. In some aspects, a second imaging system 1820 (e.g., a monoscopic system with lower resolution than imaging system 1818) is located to have a field of view generally aligned with axis 1816 to assist instrument assembly 1800 insertion. It can be seen that the architecture illustrated in FIG. 18 allows the guide tube's cross section to be relatively small—enough to accommodate the instruments and/or guide tubes that run through it (see e.g., FIG. 11B and associated description)—but the imaging system dimensions (e.g., the interpupillary distance in a stereoscopic system) can be larger than if positioned at the guide tube's distal end face. FIG. 18A is a schematic view that illustrates further aspects of an imaging system at the distal end of an illustrative instrument assembly 1801. As shown in FIG. 18A, one or more instruments and/or instrument/guide tube combinations exit from guide tube 1811's intermediate position 1814 as described above. Guide tube 1811's distal end segment 1822 is pivotally mounted so that it can be pitched in relation to guide tube 1811's main segment as shown by alternate position lines 1823, although not necessarily pivoting near the intermediate position as depicted. Alternate position 1823 is illustrative of various movements and mechanisms. For example, in one aspect a parallel motion mechanism as described above is used to displace imaging system 1818. In another example, alternate position 1823 represents positioning and orienting imaging system 1818 with two independently controllable 1 or 2 DOF joints. Other combinations of joints and links may be used. Accordingly, imaging system 1818's field of view direction can be altered, space permitting in the surgical site's vicinity. Distal end 1822 may be positioned above the exit ports as shown in FIG. 18A, or it may be positioned between the exit ports to provide a smaller instrument assembly cross section as illustrated by FIG. 18F. FIG. 18B is another schematic view which shows that an imaging system 1824 may pivot in distal end segment 1822, as shown by the alternate position lines and arrow. Pivoting imaging system 1824 may be at the extreme distal end of the guide tube, or it may be positioned somewhat proximally from the extreme distal end (in which case in some aspects the second imaging system 1820 can be positioned at the distal end to provide viewing along the instrument assembly's longitudinal axis while imaging system 1824 is viewing to the side). FIG. 18C is a diagrammatic perspective view of an embodiment of a minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly that incorporates aspects of instrument assemblies 1800 and 1801. As shown in FIG. 18C, two surgical instruments 1830a,1830b, each with rigid, movable distal links, extend from intermediate position 1832 on guide tube 1834. Each instrument 1830a,1830b includes an upper arm link 1836, a lower arm link 1838, and an end effector 1840 (illustrative grippers are shown). A shoulder joint 1842 couples upper arm link 1836 to the instrument body (not shown) that extends back through guide tube 1834. An elbow joint 1844 couples upper arm link 1836 to lower arm link 1838, and a wrist joint 1846 couples lower arm link 1838 to the end effector 1840. In some aspects, parallel motion mechanisms as described above with reference to FIGS. 16A-16J may be used, and in other aspects the shoulder and elbow joints may be independently controlled, as are the wrist joints 1846. In some aspects only a single arm link is used; in others more than two arm links are used. In some aspects, one or both shoulder joints 1842 are fixed to guide tube 1834 so that there is no associated instrument body. FIG. 18C further shows that a stereoscopic imaging system 1850 is mounted near the extreme distal end 1852 of guide tube 1834. As shown, imaging system 1850 includes right and left image capture elements 1854a,1854b, which may be positioned behind protective imaging ports, and illumination output ports (LEDs, optical fiber ends, and/or associated prisms that direct illumination light as desired) 1856. As described above, imaging system 1850's field of view is generally perpendicular to guide tube 1834's longitudinal axis so that a surgeon clearly sees end effectors 1840 working at a surgical site to the side of guide tube 1834's distal end. And, the axis between the imaging apertures is preferably generally parallel to a line between the surgical instrument tips, an alignment that presents to the surgeon an orientation in which the instrument tips map into natural and comfortable hand positions at the master console. In some aspects, as illustrated in FIG. 18A, guide tube 1834's distal end pivots at a joint 1858 so that imaging system 1850's field of view direction can be changed, as described above. Joint 1858 may be positioned at various locations on guide tube 1834. In one aspect, guide tube 1834 is approximately 12 mm outer diameter, the instruments are approximately 5 mm outer diameter, and imaging system 1850's lenses are about 3 mm across with an interpupillary distance of about 5 mm. FIG. 18D is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates how the distal end pitches up and down so that imaging system 1850 can look forwards (toward the distal direction; anterograde viewing) or backwards (toward the proximal direction; retrograde viewing). As mentioned elsewhere in this description, although many aspects and embodiments are shown and described as having instruments and/or guide tubes that extend through other guide tubes, in other aspects instruments and/or guide tubes may be fixed at the end of, or at intermediate positions on, an instrument assembly structure so as to be integral with that structure. In some aspects, the fixed instruments and/or guide tubes may, however, be replaceable in vitro if the structure is removed from a patient. For example, a surgeon may remove the instrument assembly from the patient, replace one or more instruments that are attached (e.g., using known mechanisms) at the end or at an intermediate position with one or more other instruments, and then reinsert the instrument assembly. FIG. 18E is a diagrammatic perspective view of an embodiment of a minimally invasive surgical instrument in which a movable surgical instrument 1860 (e.g., a U-Turn instrument as described below, a flexible arm, a multilink arm, and the like) is fixed at the extreme distal end 1861 of a guide tube 1862. Thus, the combination of guide tube 1862 and instrument 1862 functions in a manner similar to segments 15a and 15b of instrument 15 as shown and described in FIG. 2B. In addition, a second surgical instrument 1864 is either fixed at an intermediate position 1866 on guide tube 1862 or is removable as described above. And, as described above, an imaging system 1868 with a field of view direction generally perpendicular to guide tube 1862's longitudinal axis is positioned near guide tube 1862's distal end. During insertion, in one aspect instrument 1860 is straightened to be generally aligned with the longitudinal axis, and instrument 1864 is either similarly aligned with the longitudinal axis (if fixed; if removably attached) or is at least partially withdrawn into the guide tube. Alternatively, in another aspect instrument 1860 may be retroflexively folded back against guide tube 1862. An optional second imaging system 1870 positioned at distal end 1861 may be used to assist insertion as described above. FIG. 18F is an illustrative diagrammatic plan view of another aspect of a surgical instrument assembly with a movable imaging system at the distal tip of a guide tube. As depicted in FIG. 18F, an endoscopic image capture component 1880 is at the distal end of parallel motion mechanism 1884, which is coupled at the distal end of guide tube 1882. As shown, parallel motion mechanism 1884 has a single DOF in joint space so that it moves image capture component 1880 out of the page, towards the person looking at the figure. In some aspects, parallel motion mechanism may be thinner (between the two instruments) than shown in the figure since it has only one DOF as shown. In other aspects, parallel motion mechanism 1884 may have two DOFs as described above. Alternatively, two independently controllable joints may be used, with each joint generally placed where the hinges are shown in parallel motion mechanism 1884. In one aspect guide tube 1882 has an oblong cross section, as illustrated by FIG. 11B. Additional DOFs may be used to orient image capture component 1880. For example, FIG. 18G illustrates that an independent yaw joint 1886 may be placed between parallel motion mechanism 1884 and image capture component 1880. Joint 1886 is illustrative of various single and multiple DOF joints that may be used (e.g., pitch or pitch/yaw). As illustrated below in FIG. 19J, in one aspect a flexible arm may be used instead of parallel motion mechanism 1884. Optics in image capture component 1880 may provide a down looking angle (e.g., 30 degrees). FIG. 18F further shows that in one aspect parallel motion mechanism 1884 is long enough to allow the parallel motion mechanisms, wrist mechanisms, and end effectors of independently controllable instruments 1888a and 1888b to extend though intermediate position exit ports 1890a and 1890b in guide tube 1882 and move while image capture component 1880 is still aligned with the center of guide tube 1882. When parallel motion mechanism 1884 moves image capture component 1880 away from being aligned with guide tube 1882, instruments 1888a and 1888b can extend underneath image capture component 1880 to reach a surgical site. FIG. 19 is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates aspects of a fifteenth minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly, showing an illustrative distal segment 1900 of the assembly. This assembly 1900, like some of the variations of assembly 1800 (FIGS. 18-18G), is primarily intended for surgical work to be performed generally to the side of the assembly rather than in front of its distal end. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 19, a first surgical instrument 1902, a second surgical instrument 1904, and an imaging system 1906 extend through a guide tube 1908. Various combinations of instruments and imaging systems may be used, either removable or fixed as described above. Surgical instrument 1902 generally works like the various instruments described above, its distal segment 1902a being rigid or flexible as described. And, instrument 1902 is illustrative of aspects in which is used a primary guide tube and instrument combination as described above. Guide tube 1908 may be rigid or flexible as described above. The surgical instrument bodies are, e.g., about 7 mm in diameter. The image capture system in imaging system 1906 has a field of view that is generally perpendicular to instrument assembly 1900's longitudinal axis so that the surgeon can work at a site located to the side of the assembly. Imaging system 1906 may translate longitudinally (surge) within a channel defined in guide tube 1908, may be fixed to the distal end of guide tube 1908, or may be an integral part of guide tube 1908 as illustrated by aspects of assembly 1800 (FIGS. 18-18G). In some aspects with a round instrument body, imaging system 1906 may roll within the channel. The round instrument body must be large enough to accommodate, e.g., sensor data wiring (unless a wireless link is used) and an optical fiber illumination bundle. In other aspects the distal end 1912 alone may roll about imaging system 1906's longitudinal axis, as shown by the arrows, so as to place the surgical site within the field of view. If the distal end 1912 alone rolls, then an interface allows the sensor data wiring (unless a wireless link is used) and, e.g., power wires or optical fibers for illumination to bend to accommodate the roll. Surgical instrument 1904 is designed to work primarily in retrograde. As shown in FIG. 19, the distal segment 1904a of instrument 1904 is joined to a body segment 1904b by a U-Turn mechanism 1904c. Components (such as, e.g., levers, pulleys, gears, gimbals, cables, cable guide tubes, and the like) inside U-turn assembly 1904c transmit mechanical forces (e.g., from cable or cable/hypotube combinations) around the U-turn (not necessarily 180 degrees as shown; other turn angles may be used) to move distal segment 1904a and an optional wrist mechanism, and to operate an end effector (not shown). U-Turn mechanism 1904c is distinguished from flexible mechanical structures because, e.g., it transmits mechanical forces through a radius of curvature that is significantly less than the minimum radius of curvature of equivalently sized flexible mechanical structures. Further, since the U-Turn mechanism does not itself move, the distance between a point where an actuating force enters the U-Turn mechanism and the point where the actuating force exits the U-Turn mechanism is unchangeable. For aspects in which a joint is placed in body segment 1904b so that it is divided into proximal and distal segments, and if instrument body roll is not transmitted through the joint, then the distal tip 1904d may be configured to rotate around the distal segment's longitudinal axis. FIG. 19A is another diagrammatic perspective view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 19, and it illustrates that during surgical work the distal ends of instruments 1902 and 1904 are generally within imaging system 1906's field of view to the side of assembly 1900. FIGS. 19 and 19A further show that in some aspects the surgical instrument distal ends are coupled to the main bodies at a single pivot point 1914. Movement in more than one plane is facilitated by, e.g., a ball and socket type joint as illustrated above in FIG. 18C (1842) and below in FIGS. 19B and 19C. In other aspects, joints such as those shown in FIGS. 16A-C are used. End effectors (not shown) may be coupled directly or via wrist mechanisms at the extreme distal ends 1916. FIG. 19B is a plan view of a surgical instrument assembly embodiment that incorporates a U-turn surgical instrument 1920. Distal instrument forearm segment 1922 is coupled to instrument main body segment 1924 via U-Turn mechanism 1926 and an illustrative controllable ball joint 1928. Wrist 1930 (ball and annular segment flexible mechanism is shown for illustration; other wrist mechanisms may be used as described above) couples end effector 1932 to the distal end of forearm segment 1922. Cables (not shown) that move forearm 1922, wrist 1930, and end effector 1932 are routed through individual cable guides in U-Turn mechanism 1926, as described in more detail below. The alternate position lines 1934 illustrate that in some instances wrist 1930 can bend at least 135 degrees in three dimensions to enable end effector 1932 to be oriented in various useful ways. An embodiment of such a wrist may incorporate, e.g., three 2-DOF joints of two hinges each, as described above with reference to FIGS. 16A-C. Each 2-DOF joint allows about 45 degrees of pitch and yaw from being aligned with forearm link 1922's longitudinal axis. In some aspects, rather than using the indexed joints as shown, a parallel motion mechanism and wrist combination as described above may be used. The surgical instrument assembly shown in FIG. 19C also incorporates a second surgical instrument 1936 that operates similarly to instrument 1920, except that it does not incorporate the U-Turn mechanism. FIG. 19C is another plan view of the surgical instrument assembly embodiment shown in FIG. 19B, with surgical instrument 1920 extended farther out of guide tube 1938. In FIG. 19B, the end effectors are working close to and pointing generally at imaging system 1940. In FIG. 19C, the end effectors are still working close to imaging system 1940, but they are now pointing generally perpendicular to imaging system 1940's viewing angle. Thus FIG. 19C illustrates that instrument 1920's extension distance from guide tube 1938 may depend on the end effector angle commanded by a master input control. It can also be seen that in some aspects if a command is given to change the end effector's orientation while maintaining its position, then the instrument body and forearm link must be moved to a new pose. FIG. 19D is an exploded perspective view that illustrates aspects of routing cables (the term “cable” is illustrative of various filars (herein, the term “filars” should be broadly construed and includes, e.g., single- and multi-strand threads or even very fine hypotubes) that may be used) that control distal instrument components through a U-Turn mechanism. As shown in FIG. 19D, actuator cables 1950 for, e.g., forearm link 1922, wrist 1930, and end effector 1932 run through instrument main body segment 1924 and are routed through individual cable guide tubes 1952, which route cables 1950 around the U-Turn. The cable guide tubes are, e.g., stainless steel hypotubes. Brace 1954 clamps and therefore stabilizes both ends of the cable guide tubes 1952. Alternatively, or in addition, the cable guide tubes may be soldered or brazed. An outer cover may cover and protect the cable guide tubes and also any tissue against which the U-Turn instrument may press as it extends from its guide tube. In the embodiment shown, each individual cable guide tube is approximately the same length and has approximately the same bend radius (there are some small differences, as shown in the Figures). The approximately equal length and bend radius tubes make each cable's compliance, a function of diameter and length, approximately the same. Friction depends on the load and total bend angle of each cable. In this illustrative embodiment, 18 cable guide tubes are shown. To control distal DOFs, the theoretical minimum number of tension cables is DOFs+1. More cables can be used for simplicity, to increase strength or stiffness, or to constrain joint behavior. In an illustrative 5 mm wrist mechanism as shown above, for example, two of the hinges are slaved through cables to two other hinges. In this example, 18 cables would be used to control 4 distal DOFs plus end effector grip. In some embodiments there is no roll control for the wrist mechanism. End effector roll is provided by rolling the instrument body shaft inside the guide tube. With coordinated movement of the other joints, rolling the instrument body shaft will roll the end effector around its end point. FIG. 19E is a perspective view of an illustrative embodiment of the cable guide tubes 1952. A total of 18 cable guide tubes are shown. The cable guide tubes are arranged so as to form a central channel 1955, through which may be routed control cables for an end effector, surgical implements for suction, irrigation, or electrocautery, and the like. An optional sleeve (not shown) may be inserted within channel 1955 to reduce friction. Other numbers of guide tubes (e.g., 9) may be used. FIG. 19F is an end elevation view that shows the arrangement of guide tubes 1952 around the central channel 1955. FIG. 19G is a perspective view of an illustrative embodiment of an alternate way of routing cables around the U-Turn. Instead of using the multiple cable guide tubes 1952 and brace 1954, they are constructed as a single part 1956. Metal casting or rapid metal prototyping is used to make the part, which includes individual channels 1957 through which the cables are routed, and a central channel 1958 through which other components may be routed as discussed above. FIG. 19H is a perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument with a U-Turn mechanism passing through and exiting from a guide tube. A single channel 1960 in guide tube 1962 is shaped to accommodate both the instrument's main body segment 1924 and the retrograde segment 1964 (only the control cables for the retrograde segment are shown; see e.g., FIG. 19B), which is folded back towards the main body segment as the instrument moves within the channel. The channel is pinched in the middle, so that when the U-Turn mechanism and retrograde segment exit the guide tube, the portion of the channel through which the main body segment passes still securely holds the main body segment. The single piece U-Turn part 1956 is also pinched as shown so that they slide within channel 1960. Once retrograde segment 1964 has exited guide tube 1962, a second instrument may be inserted through the portion of channel 1960 through which retrograde segment 1964 passed. Various other channel shapes that allow multiple instruments to be inserted through the guide tube are described in more detail below. FIG. 19I is a perspective view that illustrates that once the U-Turn instrument exits the guide tube it may be rolled within the channel, and then the forearm link can be moved so that the end effector is positioned within the imaging system's field of view. In one aspect, keeping the end effector in position and rolling the instrument body within the guide tube rolls the end effector, as shown by the rotational arrows, because of the nature of the joints. FIG. 19J is a perspective view that illustrates aspects of a surgical instrument assembly embodiment that uses more than one U-Turn retrograde surgical instrument. Using two U-Turn instruments allows the end effectors to work back closely to the guide tube. In order to provide image capture for the surgeon, an illustrative independent imaging system 1970 is shown with an image capture component 1972 mounted at the end of an illustrative flexible mechanism 1974. A U-Turn mechanism or a series of rigid links may be used instead of a flexible mechanism. Retroflexing the imaging system allows image capture component 1972's field of view to encompass the two U-Turn instrument end effectors. Alternatively, an imaging system 1976 may be positioned at the side of the guide tube if the end effectors are to work generally to the side of the instrument assembly. FIG. 19K is a plan view that illustrates another aspect of the U-turn mechanism 1990, which uses small levers, for example, to transmit forces from the main instrument body to the distal forearm link, wrist mechanism, and end effector. Various cables, wires, rods, hypotubes, and the like, and combinations of these components, may be used in the main body and forearm and are coupled to the force transmission components. Depending on the location of the surgical work site in relation to the instrument assembly and instruments to be used, illumination for the imaging system may be positioned at various places in side- and retroflexive-working systems. In addition to, or instead of, having one or more illumination output ports near the image capture component as described above, one or more illumination LEDs may be placed on the body of the retroflexive tool. Referring to FIG. 19C, for example, one or more LEDs may be placed at an illustrative position 1942, along instrument main body segment 1920. Or, LEDs may be placed along the forearm segment at, e.g., 1938 as shown in FIG. 19B. Likewise, LEDs may be placed at the inner curve of a retroflexing flexible mechanism, such as at positions 1978 shown in FIG. 19J. An advantage of placing additional illumination some distance away from the imaging apertures is that the additional illumination may provide shadows, which provides better depth cues. Illumination near or surrounding the imaging apertures, however, prevents the shadows from becoming so deep that details are not visible in the shadowed areas. Accordingly, in some aspects illumination both near to and far from the imaging apertures is used. One or more channels, illustrated by dashed lines 1944 (FIG. 19C) or 1980 (FIG. 19J), in the structure on which the LEDs are mounted may carry cooling fluid (e.g., water) past the LEDs. The LED die (or multiple LED die) can be mounted on the obverse side of a thermally conductive substrate (e.g., an aluminum plate, a plated ceramic), which is bonded to the cooling channel so that the reverse side of the substrate is exposed to the cooling flow. Techniques for bonding LEDs to substrates are well known and can be adapted for use with liquid cooling. The cooling fluid may circulate in a closed system, or it may empty either inside or outside the patient. For an open cooling system that empties into the patient a sterile, biocompatible fluid (e.g., sterile isotonic saline) is used. Suction may be used to remove the cooling fluid from the patient. In addition, the cooling fluid discharged into the patient may be used to perform other functions. For example, the discharged cooling fluid may be directed across the imaging lenses. The fluid may clean the lenses or prevent body fluids, smoke, or surgical debris from sticking to the lenses. The amount of cooling fluid to keep an LED within an acceptable temperature range is fairly small. For example, an LED that dissipates about 4 Watts of electrical power as heat can be cooled with a flow of about 0.1 cc/sec of water through 0.020-inch OD plastic tubing (e.g., 12 feet total length; 6 feet supply and 6 feet return), and the water will experience only about a 10-degree Celsius temperature rise. The use of LEDs as described above is an example of alternative illumination placement on the instruments. In some aspects, fiber light guides may be used, in which case cooling considerations do not apply. As discussed above, in some aspects the cross-sectional area of a guide tube must accommodate instruments which themselves have distal portions with a relatively large cross-sectional area. In order to minimize the guide tube's cross-sectional area, in one aspect more than one instrument is inserted through a single specially shaped channel. FIG. 20A is an end elevation view of the distal end face of illustrative guide tube 2002. Guide tube 2002's lateral cross section is similarly configured (i.e., the channels depicted extend through the entire guide tube). As shown in FIG. 20A, guide tube 2002 has three channels (more or fewer channels may be used). Channel 2004 accommodates an endoluminal imaging system and may have various cross-sectional shapes (e.g., round, oval rounded polygon, etc.). The shape illustrated in FIG. 20A is a circle overlaid and centered on a rounded rectangle. The circular bore 2004a of channel 2004 accommodates the imaging system's body (illustrated by dashed lines), and the slots 2004b (the ends of the rounded rectangle) on either side of the circular bore 2004a allow the image capture element, which is wider than the cylindrical body segment, to pass through channel 2004. Since the circular bore 2004a has a slightly larger diameter than slots 2004b (the channel 2004 cross section is an oblong, biconvex shape), the imaging system's body segment is held in place within channel 2004 after the image capture element exits guide tube 2002's distal end. Channel 2006, depicted as a single, circular bore, is an optional auxiliary channel and may be used for irrigation, suction, small (e.g., 3 mm diameter) instruments, etc. Channel 2008 is uniquely shaped to simultaneously accommodate two surgical instruments in which one has a distal end segment larger than its body segment, such as instruments 1902 and 1904 (FIG. 19). As shown in FIG. 20A, channel 2008's cross-sectional shape is generally oblong with a pinched center across the major axis (the cross section is an oblong, biconcave shape). Channel 2008 includes two cylindrical bores 2008a,2008b through which cylindrical instrument bodies are inserted. The bores 2008a,2008b are interconnected by a slot 2008c. As an instrument body (illustrated by the circular dashed line 2009a) is inserted through bore 2008a, for example, the instrument's distal portion, which is larger than its proximal body segment, passes through at least part of slot 2008c and possibly some or all of bore 2008b. FIG. 19H illustrates this aspect. Once the instrument's distal portion has been inserted beyond the guide tube's distal end, the instrument's proximal body segment is rotated within bore 2008a, which holds the proximal body segment in place. Consequently, another instrument (illustrated by the circular dashed line 2009b), either cylindrical or with an enlarged distal portion that fits through slot 2008c, can be inserted through bore 2008b. This channel configuration and insertion process can be used for various instruments with odd-shaped distal portions, such as staplers, clip appliers, and other special task instruments, as well as for the retrograde working instruments described herein. In addition, an imaging device having a distal image capture component cross section larger than its body cross section and shaped to pass through the channel's oblong cross section may be similarly inserted, followed by one or more other instruments. The lip 2011 of channel 2008, or any channel, is in some instances rounded or beveled as shown to facilitate instrument withdrawal into the guide tube. FIG. 20B is an end elevation view of the distal end face of guide tube 2002 with an illustrative imaging system 2010 and two surgical instruments 2012,2014, all extending from their insertion channels 2004,2008. Instrument 2012 is a U-Turn mechanism type retrograde working instrument, similar to the illustrative embodiment shown in FIGS. 19 and 19A. Instrument 2014 is generally circular in cross section during insertion, although during insertion a portion of instrument 2014 may extend into any portion of slot 2008c that instrument 2012 does not occupy. As another example, an instrument with the multiple cable guide tube U-Turn mechanism, similar to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 19B-19I, may be inserted through channel 2008, with the body and distal portions of the instrument passing through the bores and the pinched portion of the U-Turn mechanism passing through the slot between the bores. The channel topography illustrated in FIG. 20A can be adapted to allow, e.g., two instruments with large distal ends to be inserted through a guide tube, possibly adding a third instrument as well. FIG. 20C is an end elevation view that illustrates aspects in which an instrument channel includes bores arranged in a “V” shape, although the “V” may be flattened so that three or more channel bores are side-by-side in a line. As shown, channel 2020 includes three cylindrical bores 2020a,2020b,2020c, with slot 2020d joining bores 2020a and 2020b, and slot 2020e joining bores 2020b and 2020c. Bores 2020a and 2020c are shown at the ends of the “V” shape, and bore 2020b is shown at the vertex of the “V” shape. Illustratively, a first retrograde working instrument with a U-Turn mechanism is inserted via bores 2020a and 2020b, and then a second retrograde working instrument with a U-Turn mechanism is inserted via bores 2020c and 2020b. Once inserted, the three bores allow either of the instruments to be independently removed-one instrument does not have to be removed to allow the other instrument to be removed. An optional third instrument may be inserted via bore 2020b once two other instruments are inserted with their proximal body segments held in place within bores 2020a and 2020c. It can be seen that two large-ended instruments and an optional third instrument may be inserted via channel 2020 in various combinations. An imaging system may be inserted via channel 2022, which may be a rounded rectangle as shown, circular, or various other shapes as illustrated herein (e.g., 2004 in FIG. 20A). Alternatively, if an imaging system has a suitably shaped distal end, it may be inserted via channel 2020. An assembly with two retrograde working instruments and an imaging system is illustrated in FIG. 19J. FIGS. 20D, 20E, and 20F are each end elevation views that illustrate aspects of other channel configurations that may be used to accommodate one or more instruments with large distal ends. FIG. 20D shows channel 2030 with three bores 2030a,2030b,2030c in a triangular arrangement. The slots that interconnect adjacent bores merge into a single opening that connects each bore with the other two (i.e., the top of the “V” shape illustrated in FIG. 20C is joined by a third slot. The channel has a generally triangular cross section, and the bores are at the triangle's vertices). Also shown is an illustrative spacer 2032, shown centered in channel 2030, which helps keep the instrument bodies in their bores or positioned at their vertexes if the channel sides between the bores are not sufficiently pinched to hold the instrument bodies in place within the bores. FIG. 20E illustrates that the channel can have any number of bores to accept surgical instruments (four are shown with the bores arranged at the corners of a square). FIG. 20F illustrates a channel with a “T” shape, the bores for the instruments being the three ends of the “T”. A spacer such as shown in FIG. 20D may be used to keep instruments properly positioned within the “T”, or the connecting openings between the bores may be slightly pinched to keep the instruments in their bores. Other cross-sectional channel shapes (e.g., a cross or “X” shape; it can be seen that a “T” shape is part of such a cross or “X” shape) may be used with a cross-sectional configuration or a separate component that keeps a surgical instrument's body or shaft in place within the channel. In FIGS. 20A-20F, the bores that hold the proximal segments of the instrument and imaging system bodies are shown as circular, which allows the bodies to roll within the bores. In some aspects, however, some or all the bores may have non-circular cross sections to prevent the body segments from rolling within the bores. For example, one non-circular bore may be dedicated to holding the proximal body segment of an imaging system, which is kept from rolling. Or, specifically shaped bores may be used to ensure that only a particular device may be inserted into a particular bore. In some aspects, however, any surgical instrument or imaging system may be inserted via any bore. Support and Control Aspects FIG. 21A is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of a robot-assisted (telemanipulative) minimally invasive surgical system that uses aspects of the minimally invasive surgical instruments, instrument assemblies, and manipulation and control systems described herein. This system's general architecture is similar to the architecture of other such systems such as Intuitive Surgical, Inc.'s da Vinci®D Surgical System and the Zeus® Surgical System. The three main components are a surgeon's console 2102, a patient side support system 2104, and a video system 2106, all interconnected 2108 by wired or wireless connections as shown. One or more electronic data processors may be variously located in these main components to provide system functionality. The surgeon's console 2102 includes, e.g., multiple DOF mechanical input (‘master’) devices that allow the surgeon to manipulate the surgical instruments, guide tubes, and imaging system (“slave”) devices as described herein. These input devices may in some aspects provide haptic feedback from the instruments and instrument assembly components to the surgeon. Console 2102 also includes a stereoscopic video output display positioned such that images on the display are generally focused at a distance that corresponds to the surgeon's hands working behind/below the display screen. These aspects are discussed more fully in U.S. Pat. No. 6,671,581, which is incorporated by reference above. Control during insertion may be accomplished, for example, in a manner similar to telemanipulated endoscope control in the da Vinci® Surgical System—in one aspect the surgeon virtually moves the image with one or both of the masters; she uses the masters to move the image side to side and to pull it towards herself, consequently commanding the imaging system and its associated instrument assembly (e.g., a flexible guide tube) to steer towards a fixed center point on the output display and to advance inside the patient. In one aspect the camera control is designed to give the impression that the masters are fixed to the image so that the image moves in the same direction that the master handles are moved, as in the da Vinci® surgical system. This design causes the masters to be in the correct location to control the instruments when the surgeon exits from camera control, and consequently it avoids the need to clutch (disengage), move, and declutch (engage) the masters back into position prior to beginning or resuming instrument control. In some aspects the master position may be made proportional to the insertion velocity to avoid using a large master workspace. Alternatively, the surgeon may clutch and declutch the masters to use a ratcheting action for insertion. In some aspects, insertion (e.g., past the glottis when entering via the esophagus) may be controlled manually (e.g., by hand operated wheels), and automated insertion (e.g., servomotor driven rollers) is then done when the distal end of the surgical instrument assembly is near the surgical site. Preoperative or real time image data (e.g., MRI, X-ray) of the patient's anatomical structures and spaces available for insertion trajectories may be used to assist insertion. The patient side support system 2104 includes a floor-mounted base 2110, or alternately a ceiling mounted base 2112 as shown by the alternate lines. The base may be movable or fixed (e.g., to the floor, ceiling, or other equipment such as an operating table). In one embodiment the manipulator arm assembly is a modified da Vinci® Surgical System arm assembly. The arm assembly includes two illustrative passive rotational setup joints 2114a,2114b, which allow manual positioning of the coupled links when their brakes are released. A passive prismatic setup joint (not shown) between the arm assembly and the base may be used to allow for large vertical adjustments. In addition, the arm assembly includes illustrative active roll joint 2116a and active yaw joint 2116b. Joints 2116c and 2116d act as a parallel mechanism so that a guide tube (of a surgical instrument assembly) held by guide manipulator 2118 moves around remote center 2120 at an entry port, such as patient 1222's umbilicus. An active prismatic joint 2124 is used to insert and withdraw the guide tube. One or more surgical instruments and an endoscopic imaging system are independently mounted to guide manipulator 2118. The various setup and active joints allow the manipulators to move the guide tube, instruments, and imaging system when patient 2122 is placed in various positions on movable table 2126. FIGS. 21B and 21C are schematic side and front elevation views of another illustrative embodiment of a patient side support system. Base 2150 is fixed (e.g., floor or ceiling mounted). Link 2152 is coupled to base 2150 at passive rotational setup joint 2154. As shown, joint 2154's rotational axis is aligned with remote center point 2156, which is generally the position at which a guide tube (of a surgical instrument assembly; not shown) enters the patient (e.g., at the umbilicus for abdominal surgery). Link 2158 is coupled to link 2152 at rotational joint 2160. Link 2162 is coupled to link 2158 at rotational joint 2164. Link 2166 is coupled to link 2162 at rotational joint 2168. The guide tube is mounted to slide through the end 2166a of link 2166. Manipulator platform 2170 is supported and coupled to link 2166 by a prismatic joint 2172 and a rotational joint 2174. Prismatic joint 2172 inserts and withdraws the guide tube as it slides along link 2166. Joint 2174 includes a bearing assembly that holds a “C” shaped ring cantilever. As the “C” ring slides through the bearing it rotates around a center point inside the “C”, thereby rolling the guide tube. The opening in the “C” allows guide tubes to be mounted or exchanged without moving overlying manipulators. Manipulator platform 2170 supports multiple manipulators 2176 for surgical instruments and an imaging system, described below. These illustrative manipulator arm assemblies are used, for example, for instrument assemblies that include a rigid guide tube and are operated to move with reference to a remote center. Certain setup and active joints in the manipulator arm may be omitted if motion around a remote center is not required. It should be understood that manipulator arms may include various combinations of links, passive, and active joints (redundant DOFs may be provided) to achieve a necessary range of poses for surgery. Referring again to FIG. 21A, video system 2106 performs image processing functions for, e.g., captured endoscopic imaging data of the surgical site and/or preoperative or real time image data from other imaging systems external to the patient. Imaging system 2106 outputs processed image data (e.g., images of the surgical site, as well as relevant control and patient information) to the surgeon at the surgeon's console 2102. In some aspects the processed image data is output to an optional external monitor visible to other operating room personnel or to one or more locations remote from the operating room (e.g., a surgeon at another location may monitor the video; live feed video may be used for training; etc.). FIG. 22A is a diagrammatic view that illustrates aspects of a centralized motion control and coordination system architecture for minimally invasive telesurgical systems that incorporate surgical instrument assemblies and components described herein. A motion coordinator system 2202 receives master inputs 2204, sensor inputs 2206, and optimization inputs 2208. Master inputs 2204 may include the surgeon's arm, wrist, hand, and finger movements on the master control mechanisms. Inputs may also be from other movements (e.g., finger, foot, knee, etc. pressing or moving buttons, levers, switches, etc.) and commands (e.g., voice) that control the position and orientation of a particular component or that control a task-specific operation (e.g., energizing an electrocautery end effector or laser, imaging system operation, and the like). Sensor inputs 2206 may include position information from, e.g., measured servomotor position or sensed bend information. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/491,384 (Larkin, et al.) entitled “Robotic surgery system including position sensors using fiber Bragg gratings”, incorporated by reference, describes the use of fiber Bragg gratings for position sensing. Such bend sensors may be incorporated into the various instruments and imaging systems described herein to be used when determining position and orientation information for a component (e.g., an end effector tip). Position and orientation information may also be generated by one or more sensors (e.g., fluoroscopy, MRI, ultrasound, and the like) positioned outside of the patient, and which in real time sense changes in position and orientation of components inside the patient. As described below, the user interface has three coupled control modes: a mode for the instrument (s), a mode for the imaging system, and a mode for the guide tube. These coupled modes enable the user to address the system as a whole rather than directly controlling a single portion. Therefore, the motion coordinator must determine how to take advantage of the overall system kinematics (i.e., the total DOFs of the system) in order to achieve certain goals. For example, one goal may be to optimize instrument workspace for a particular configuration. Another goal may be to keep the imaging system's field of view centered between two instruments. Therefore, optimization inputs 2208 may be high-level commands, or the inputs may include more detailed commands or sensory information. An example of a high level command would be a command to an intelligent controller to optimize a workspace. An example of a more detailed command would be for an imaging system to start or stop optimizing its camera. An example of a sensor input would be a signal that a workspace limit had been reached. Motion coordinator 2202 outputs command signals to various actuator controllers and actuators (e.g., servomotors) associated with manipulators for the various telesurgical system arms. FIG. 22A depicts an example of output signals being sent to two instrument controllers 2210, to an imaging system controller 2212, and to a guide tube controller 2214. Other numbers and combinations of controllers may be used. As an example, such a motion coordination system may be used to control surgical instrument assembly 1700 (FIG. 17). Instrument controllers 2210 are associated with instruments 1702a,1702b, imaging system controller 2212 is associated with imaging system 1704, and guide tube controller 2214 is associated with guide tube 1708. Accordingly, in some aspects the surgeon who operates the telesurgical system will simultaneously and automatically access at least the three control modes identified above: an instrument control mode for moving the instruments, an imaging system control mode for moving the imaging system, and a guide tube control mode for moving the guide tube. A similar centralized architecture may be adapted to work with the various other mechanism aspects described herein. FIG. 22B is a diagrammatic view that illustrates aspects of a distributed motion control and coordination system architecture for minimally invasive telesurgical systems that incorporate surgical instrument assemblies and components described herein. In the illustrative aspects shown in FIG. 22B, control and transform processor 2220 exchanges information with two master arm optimizer/controllers 2222a,2222b, with three surgical instrument optimizer/controllers 2224a,2224b,2224c, with an imaging system optimizer/controller 2226, and with a guide tube optimizer/controller 2228. Each optimizer/controller is associated with a master or slave arm (which includes, e.g., the camera (imaging system) arm, the guide tube arm, and the instrument arms) in the telesurgical system. Each of the optimizer/controllers receives arm-specific optimization goals 2230a-2230g. The double-headed arrows between control and transform processor 2220 and the various optimizer/controllers represents the exchange of Following Data associated with the optimizer/controller's arm. Following Data includes the full Cartesian configuration of the entire arm, including base frame and distal tip frame. Control and transform processor 2220 routes the Following Data received from each optimizer/controller to all the optimizer/controllers so that each optimizer/controller has data about the current Cartesian configuration of all arms in the system. In addition, the optimizer/controller for each arm receives optimization goals that are unique for the arm. Each arm's optimizer/controller then uses the other arm positions as inputs and constraints as it pursues its optimization goals. In one aspect, each optimization controller uses an embedded local optimizer to pursue its optimization goals. The optimization module for each arm's optimizer/controller can be independently turned on or off. For example, the optimization module for only the imaging system and the guide tube may be turned on. The distributed control architecture provides more flexibility than the centralized architecture, although with the potential for decreased performance. It easier to add in a new arm and to change the overall system configuration if such a distributed control architecture is used rather than if a centralized architecture is used. In this distributed architecture, however, the optimization is local versus the global optimization that can be performed with the centralized architecture, in which a single module is aware of the full system's state. FIG. 23 is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of an interface between surgical instrument assembly 2302, which represents flexible and rigid mechanisms as variously described herein, and an illustrative actuator assembly 2304. For the purposes of this example, instrument assembly 2302 includes surgical instrument 2306, primary guide tube 2308 that surrounds instrument 2306, and secondary guide tube 2310 that surrounds primary guide tube 2308. As shown in FIG. 23, a transmission mechanism is positioned at the proximal ends of each instrument or guide tube: transmission mechanism 2306a for instrument 2306, transmission mechanism 2308a for primary guide tube 2308, and transmission mechanism 2310a for secondary guide tube 2310. Each transmission mechanism is mechanically and removably coupled to an associated actuator mechanism: transmission mechanism 2306a to actuator mechanism 2312, transmission mechanism 2308a to actuator mechanism 2314, transmission mechanism 2310a to actuator mechanism 2316. In one aspect, mating disks are used as in the da Vinci® Surgical System instrument interface, as shown in more detail below. In another aspect mating gimbal plates and levers are used. Various mechanical components (e.g., gears, levers, cables, pulleys, cable guides, gimbals, etc.) in the transmission mechanisms are used to transfer the mechanical force from the interface to the controlled element. Each actuator mechanism includes at least one actuator (e.g., servomotor (brushed or brushless)) that controls movement at the distal end of the associated instrument or guide tube. For example, actuator 2312a is an electric servomotor that controls surgical instrument 2306's end effector 2306b grip DOF. An instrument (including a guide probe as described herein) or guide tube (or, collectively, the instrument assembly) may be decoupled from the associated actuator mechanism(s) and slid out as shown. It may then be replaced by another instrument or guide tube. In addition to the mechanical interface there is an electronic interface between each transmission mechanism and actuator mechanism. This electronic interface allows data (e.g., instrument/guide tube type) to be transferred. In some instances one or more DOFs may be manually actuated. For instance, surgical instrument 2306 may be a passively flexible laparoscopic instrument with a hand-actuated end effector grip DOF, and guide tube 2308 may be actively steerable to provide wrist motion as described above. In this example, the surgeon servocontrols the guide tube DOFs and an assistant hand controls the instrument grip DOF. In addition to the actuators that control the instrument and/or guide tube elements, each actuator assembly may also include an actuator component (e.g., motor-driven cable, lead screw, pinion gear, etc.; linear motor; and the like) that provides motion along instrument assembly 2302's longitudinal axis (surge). As shown in the FIG. 23 example, actuator mechanism 2312 includes linear actuator 2312b, actuator mechanism 2314 includes linear actuator 2314b, and actuator mechanism 2316 includes linear actuator 2316b, so that instrument 2306, primary guide tube 2308, and secondary guide tube 2310 can each be independently coaxially moved. As further shown in FIG. 23, actuator assembly 2316 is mounted to setup arm 2318, either passively or actively as described above. In active mounting architectures, the active mounting may be used to control one or more component DOFs (e.g., insertion of a rigid guide tube). Control signals from control system 2320 control the various servomotor actuators in actuator assembly 2304. The control signals are, e.g., associated with the surgeon's master inputs at input/output system 2322 to move instrument assembly 2302's mechanical slave components. In turn, various feedback signals from sensors in actuator assembly 2304, and/or instrument assembly 2302, and/or other components are passed to control system 2320. Such feedback signals may be pose information, as indicated by servomotor position or other position, orientation, and force information, such as may be obtained with the use of fiber Bragg grating-based sensors. Feedback signals may also include force sensing information, such as tissue reactive forces, to be, e.g., visually or haptically output to the surgeon at input/output system 2322. Image data from an endoscopic imaging system associated with instrument assembly 2302 are passed to image processing system 2324. Such image data may include, e.g., stereoscopic image data to be processed and output to the surgeon via input/output system 2322 as shown. Image processing may also be used to determine instrument position, which is input to the control system as a form of distal position feedback sensor. In addition, an optional sensing system 2326 positioned outside and near the patient may sense position or other data associated with instrument assembly 2302. Sensing system 2326 may be static or may be controlled by control system 2320 (the actuators are not shown, and may be similar to those depicted or to known mechanical servo components), and it may include one or more actual sensors positioned near the patient. Position information (e.g., from one or more wireless transmitters, RFID chips, etc.) and other data from sensing system 2326 may be routed to control system 2320. If such position information or other data is to be visually output to the surgeon, control system 2320 passes it in either raw or processed form to image processing system 2324 for integration with the surgeon's output display at input/output system 2322. Further, any image data, such as fluoroscopic or other realtime imaging (ultrasound, X-ray, MRI, and the like), from sensing system 2326 are sent to image processing system 2324 for integration with the surgeon's display. And, real-time images from sensing system 2326 may be integrated with preoperative images accessed by image processing system 2324 for integration with the surgeon's display. In this way, for instance, preoperative images of certain tissue (e.g., brain tissue structures) are received from a data storage location 2328, may be enhanced for better visibility, the preoperative images are registered with other tissue landmarks in real time images, and the combined preoperative and real time images are used along with position information from instrument and actuator assemblies 2302,2304 and/or sensing system 2326 to present an output display that assists the surgeon to maneuver instrument assembly 2302 towards a surgical site without damaging intermediate tissue structures. FIG. 24A is a perspective view of the proximal portion of a minimally invasive surgical instrument 2402. As shown in FIG. 24A, instrument 2402 includes a transmission mechanism 2404 coupled to the proximal end of an instrument body tube 2406. Components at body tube 2406's distal end 2408 are omitted for clarity and may include, e.g., the 2 DOF parallel motion mechanism, wrist, and end effector combination as described above; joints and an endoscopic imaging system as described above; etc. In the illustrative embodiment shown, transmission mechanism 2404 includes six interface disks 2410. One or more disks 2410 are associated with a DOF for instrument 240. For instance, one disk may be associated with instrument body roll DOF, and a second disk may be associated with end effector grip DOF. As shown, in one instance the disks are arranged in a hexagonal lattice for compactness—in this case six disks in a triangular shape. Other lattice patterns or more arbitrary arrangements may be used. Mechanical components (e.g., gears, levers, gimbals, cables, etc.) inside transmission mechanism 2404 transmit roll torques on disks 2410 to e.g., body tube 2406 (for roll) and to components coupled to distal end mechanisms. Cables and/or cable and hypotube combinations that control distal end DOFs run through body tube 2406. In one instance the body tube is approximately 7 mm in diameter, and in another instance it is approximately 5 mm in diameter. Raised pins 2412, spaced eccentrically, provide proper disk 2410 orientation when mated with an associated actuator disk. One or more electronic interface connectors 2414 provide an electronic interface between instrument 2402 and its associated actuator mechanism. In some instances instrument 2402 may pass information stored in a semiconductor memory integrated circuit to the control system via its associated actuator mechanism. Such passed information may include instrument type identification, number of instrument uses, and the like. In some instances the control system may update the stored information (e.g., to record number of uses to determine routine maintenance scheduling or to prevent using an instrument after a prescribed number of times). U.S. Pat. No. 6,866,671 (Tierney et al.), which discusses storing information on instruments, is incorporated by reference. The electronic interface may also include power for, e.g., an electrocautery end effector. Alternately, such a power connection may be positioned elsewhere on instrument 2402 (e.g., on transmission mechanism 2404's housing). Other connectors for, e.g., optical fiber lasers, optical fiber distal bend or force sensors, irrigation, suction, etc. may be included. As shown, transmission mechanism 2404's housing is roughly wedge- or pie-shaped to allow it to be closely positioned to similar housings, as illustrated below. FIG. 24B is a perspective view of a portion of an actuator assembly 2420 that mates with and actuates components in surgical instrument 2402. Actuator disks 2422 are arranged to mate with interface disks 2410. Holes 2424 in disks 2422 are aligned to receive pins 2412 in only a single 360-degree orientation. Each disk 2422 is turned by an associated rotating servomotor actuator 2426, which receives servocontrol inputs as described above. A roughly wedge-shaped mounting bracket 2428, shaped to correspond to instrument 2402's transmission mechanism housing, supports the disks 2422, servomotor actuators 2426, and an electronic interface 2430 that mates with instrument 2402's interface connectors 2414. In one instance instrument 2402 is held against actuator assembly 2420 by spring clips (not shown) to allow easy removal. As shown in FIG. 24B, a portion 2432 of actuator assembly housing 2428 is truncated to allow instrument body tube 2406 to pass by. Alternatively, a hole may be placed in the actuator assembly to allow the body tube to pass through. Sterilized spacers (reusable or disposable; usually plastic) may be used to separate the actuator assembly and the instrument's transmission mechanism to maintain a sterile surgical field. A sterile thin plastic sheet or “drape” (e.g., 0.002-inch thick polyethylene) is used to cover portions of the actuator assembly not covered by the spacer, as well as to cover portions of the manipulator arm. U.S. Pat. No. 6,866,671, incorporated by reference above, discusses such spacers and drapes. FIG. 25A is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates aspects of mounting minimally invasive surgical instruments and their associated actuator assemblies at the end of a setup/manipulator arm. As shown in FIG. 25A, surgical instrument 2502a is mounted on actuator assembly 2504, so that the transmission mechanism mates with the actuator assembly (optional spacer/drape is not shown) as described above. Instrument 2502a's body tube 2506 extends past actuator assembly 2504 and enters a port in rigid guide tube 2508. As depicted, body tube 2506, although substantially rigid, is bent slightly between the transmission mechanism housing and the guide tube as discussed above with reference to FIG. 16. This bending allows the instrument body tube bores in the entry guide to be spaced closer than the size of their transmission mechanisms would otherwise allow. Since the bend angle in the rigid instrument body tube is less than the bend angle for a flexible (e.g., flaccid) instrument body, cables can be stiffer than in a flexible body. High cable stiffness is important because of the number of distal DOFs being controlled in the instrument. Also, the rigid instrument body is easier to insert into a guide tube than a flexible body. In one embodiment the bending is resilient so that the body tube assumes its straight shape when the instrument is withdrawn from the guide tube (the body tube may be formed with a permanent bend, which would prevent instrument body roll). Actuator assembly 2504 is mounted to a linear actuator 2510 (e.g. a servocontrolled lead screw and nut or a ball screw and nut assembly) that controls body tube 2506's insertion within guide tube 2508. The second instrument 2502b is mounted with similar mechanisms as shown. In addition, an imaging system (not shown) may be similarly mounted. FIG. 25A further shows that guide tube 2508 is removably mounted to support platform 2512. This mounting may be, for example, similar to the mounting used to hold a cannula on a da Vinci® Surgical System manipulator arm. Removable and replaceable guide tubes allow different guide tubes that are designed for use with different procedures to be used with the same telemanipulative system (e.g., guide tubes with different cross-sectional shapes or various numbers and shapes of working and auxiliary channels). In turn, actuator platform 2512 is mounted to robot manipulator arm 2514 (e.g., 4 DOF) using one or more additional actuator mechanisms (e.g., for pitch, yaw, roll, insertion). In turn, manipulator arm 2514 may be mounted to a passive setup arm, as described above with reference to FIG. 21A. FIG. 25B is a diagrammatic perspective view that illustrates aspects shown in FIG. 25A from a different angle and with reference to a patient. In FIG. 25B, arm 2514 and platform 2512 are positioned so that guide tube 2508 enters the patient's abdomen at the umbilicus. This entry is illustrative of various natural orifice and incision entries, including percutaneous and transluminal (e.g., transgastric, transcolonic, transrectat transvaginal, transrectouterine (Douglas pouch), etc.) incisions. FIG. 25B also illustrates how the linear actuators for each instrument/imaging system operate independently by showing imaging system 2518 inserted and instruments 2502a,2502b withdrawn. These aspects may apply to other surgical instrument assemblies described herein (e.g., flexible guide tubes with end- or side-exit ports, side working tools, etc.). It can be seen that in some instances the manipulator arm moves to rotate guide tube 2508 around a remote center 2520 at the entry port into a patient. If intermediate tissue restricts movement around a remote center, however, the arm can maintain guide tube 2508 in position. As discussed above, in one aspect the instruments and their transmission mechanisms are arranged around a guide tube in a generally pie-wedge layout as shown in FIG. 26A, which is a diagrammatic end view of instrument transmission mechanisms and a guide tube (the vertices of the wedge shapes are oriented towards an extended centerline of the guide tube). The vertices of the wedge shapes are shown slightly truncated; the wedge shape should be understood to be broadly construed and to include both acute and obtuse vertex angles. Instrument transmission mechanisms 2602a,2602b transfer control forces from servomotors to instruments inserted via guide tube 2604's working channels 2606a,2606b. Imaging system transmission mechanism 2608 transfers control forces from servomotors to the multi-DOF imaging system instrument inserted via guide tube 2604's imaging system channel 2606c. One or more optional guide tube channels 2604d allow for manually inserting an instrument, irrigation, suction, etc. FIGS. 26B and 26C are similar diagrammatic end views and illustrate that transmission mechanisms may be spaced around the guide tube in other configurations, such as four wedges 2608 spaced 360-degrees around the guide tube (FIG. 26B), or two half-circle shaped housings 2610 (FIG. 26C). It can also be seen from the aspects illustrated in FIGS. 25A, 25B, 26A, 26B, and 26C that transmission assemblies can not only be spaced around the guide tube but can be stacked one above or behind the other as FIG. 23 schematically illustrates. FIG. 26D is another diagrammatic end view that illustrates that actuator mechanisms 2620 may be placed farther from guide tube 2622's extended centerline than the instrument/guide tube and imaging system transmission mechanisms 2624. FIG. 26E is a diagrammatic exploded perspective view that illustrates that actuator mechanisms for more than one component may be placed in a single housing. As shown in FIG. 26E, actuator mechanism housing 2630 includes servomotors and associated components (not shown) used to move guide tube 2632. Housing 2630 also includes servomotors and associated components used to operate instrument 2634. Instrument 2634's body and distal segments are inserted through housing 2630 as shown, and interface components 2636 on housing 2630 connect with corresponding components (e.g., disks 2410 (FIG. 24)) on instrument 2634. Such an arrangement may be used for, e.g., the side exit surgical instrument assemblies described herein, in which there are two housings 2634, each associated with one of the side exiting instruments or guide tubes. Details about the mechanical and electrical interfaces for the various instruments, guide tubes, and imaging systems, and also about sterile draping to preserve the sterile field, are discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,866,671 (Tierney et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 6,132,368 (Cooper), both of which are incorporated by reference. Mechanical interface mechanisms are not limited to the disks shown and described. Other mechanisms such as rocking plates, gimbals, moving pins, levers, cable latches, and other removable couplings may be used. FIG. 27 is a diagrammatic view that illustrates aspects of transmission mechanisms associated with flexible coaxial guide tubes and instruments. FIG. 27 shows primary guide tube 2702 running coaxially through and exiting the distal end of secondary guide tube 2704. Likewise, secondary guide tube 2704 runs coaxially through and exits the distal end of tertiary guide tube 2706. Transmission and actuator mechanism 2708 is associated with tertiary guide tube 2706. Transmission and actuator mechanism 2710 is associated with secondary guide tube 2704, and a proximal segment of guide tube 2704 extends through (alternatively, adjacent to) transmission and actuator mechanism 2710 before entering tertiary guide tube 2706. Likewise, transmission and actuator mechanism 2712 is associated with primary guide tube 2702, and a proximal segment of guide tube 2702 extends through (alternatively, adjacent to) transmission and actuator mechanisms 2708,2710 before entering secondary and tertiary guide tubes 2704,2706. Transmission mechanisms for instruments and an imaging system (not shown) running through and exiting the distal ends of channels 2714 in primary guide tube 2702 may be similarly stacked generally along the instrument assembly's longitudinal axis, or they may be arranged around guide tube 2702's extended longitudinal axis at its proximal end as described above. Or, the controller positions may be combined side-by-side and stacked, such as for a side-exit assembly in which transmission mechanisms for the side-exiting components are positioned side-by-side, and both are stacked behind the guide tube transmission mechanism. Intermediate exit assemblies may be similarly configured. Instrument and/or imaging system actuators and controls may also be combined within the same housing as an actuator and transmission mechanism for a guide tube. In many aspects the devices described herein are used as single-port devices-all components necessary to complete a surgical procedure enter the body via a single entry port. In some aspects, however, multiple devices and ports may be used. FIG. 28A is a diagrammatic view that illustrates multi-port aspects as three surgical instrument assemblies enter the body at three different ports. Instrument assembly 2802 includes a primary guide tube, a secondary guide tube, and two instruments, along with associated transmission and actuator mechanisms, as described above. In this illustrative example, instrument assembly 2804 includes a primary guide tube, a secondary guide tube, and a single instrument, along with associated transmission and actuator mechanisms, as described above. Imaging system assembly 2806 includes a guide tube and an imaging system, along with associated transmission and actuator mechanisms, as described above. Each of these mechanisms 2802,2804,2806 enters the body 2808 via a separate, unique port as shown. The devices shown are illustrative of the various rigid and flexible aspects described herein. FIG. 28B is another diagrammatic view that illustrates multi-port aspects. FIG. 28B shows three illustrative instruments or assemblies 2810 entering different natural orifices (nostrils, mouth) and then continuing via a single body lumen (throat) to reach a surgical site. FIGS. 29A and 29B are diagrammatic views that illustrate further aspects of minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly position sensing and motion control. As shown in FIG. 29A, the distal end 2902 of a surgical instrument device or assembly is advanced within the walls 2904 of a body lumen or other cavity towards surgical site 2906. Distal end 2902 is illustrative of various components, such as a guide probe or guide tube as described above. As distal end 2902 advances it is moved (flexed as shown, or pivoted at a joint) up and down and side to side, as depicted by the alternate position lines. As the tip of distal end 2902 touches, or comes close to touching, a position on walls 2904, actuator control system 2908 records the tip's position and stores the position data in memory 2910. Tip position information may come directly from the surgical instrument assembly or from an external sensor 2912, as described above. The tip may be bent in various 3-dimensional directions so that it touches or nearly touches walls 2904 in various patterns (e.g., a series of rings, a helix, a series of various crosses or stars, etc.), either under a surgeon's direct control or under automatic control by control system 2908. Once the lumen's or cavity's interior space is mapped, the space information is used to assist advancing subsequent surgical instrument assembly components, as illustrated in FIG. 29B. As an example, a secondary guide tube 2912 with side exit ports is shown, and control system 2908 uses the map information to prevent primary guide tubes 2914a,2914b and their associated end effectors from interfering with walls 2904 as they are advanced towards surgical site 2906. FIGS. 29C-29E are diagrammatic plan views that illustrate further aspects of preventing undesired instrument collision with tissue. Instruments may collide with patient tissue outside of an imaging system's field of view in spaces confined by patient anatomy (e.g., laryngeal surgery). Such collisions may damage tissue. For multi-DOF surgical instruments, some DOFs may be inside the field of view while other, more proximal DOFs may be outside the field of view. Consequently, a surgeon may be unaware that tissue damage is occurring as these proximal DOFs move. As shown in FIG. 29C, for example, an endoscopic imaging system 2920 extends from the end of guide tube 2922. The left side working instrument 2924a is placed so that all DOFs are within imaging system 2920's field of view 2926 (bounded by the dashed lines). The right side working instrument 2924b, however, has proximal DOFs (an illustrative parallel motion mechanism as described above and wrist are shown) that are outside field of view 2926, even though instrument 2924b's end effector is within field of view 2926. This instrument position is illustrative of tasks such as tying sutures. In one aspect, field of view boundaries can be determined when the camera is manufactured so that the boundaries are known in relation to the camera head (image capture component). The boundary information is then stored in a nonvolatile memory associated with the imaging system that incorporates the camera head. Consequently, the control system can use the imaging system instrument's kinematic and joint position information to locate the camera head relative to the working instruments, and therefore the control system can determine the field of view boundaries relative to the working instruments. Instruments are then controlled to work within the boundaries. In another aspect for stereoscopic imaging systems, field of view boundaries can be determined relative to the instruments by using machine vision algorithms to identify the instruments and their positions in the field of view. This “tool tracking” subject is disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2006/0258938 A1 (Hoffman et al.), which is incorporated by reference. As shown in FIG. 29D, imaging system 2920 is placed so that the camera head is just at the distal end of guide tube 2922. Instruments 2924a and 2924b are extended from the distal end of the guide tube and within imaging system 2920's field of view. An “Allowable Volume” is defined to be coincident with the field of view boundaries. The control system prevents any part of instruments 2924a and 2924b from moving outside the Allowable Volume. Since the surgeon can see all distal moving parts of instruments 2924a and 2924b, the surgeon then moves the instruments without colliding with surrounding tissue. The instrument movements are recorded, and an “Instrument Volume” 2928 (bounded by the dotted lines), which is bounded by the farthest movements of the instruments, is determined. The Instrument Volume is a convex volume within which instruments may be moved without colliding with tissue. Next, imaging system 2920 is inserted as shown in FIG. 29E. As a result, field of view 2926 is also inserted, and parts of instruments 2924a,2924b are outside of the inserted field of view 2926. A new Allowable Volume is determined to be the newly inserted field of view plus the previously determined Instrument Volume that is outside of the field of view. Therefore, the control system will allow the surgeon to move an instrument anywhere within the new Allowable Volume. The process may be repeated for further field of view insertions or for guide tube 2922 movements. This scheme allows a surgeon to define the allowable instrument range of motion in real time without requiring a tissue model. The surgeon is only required to trace the boundaries of the instrument range of motion inside the field of view, and the control system will record this information as the field of view is changed. Another way to prevent unwanted instrument/tissue collision is by using image mosaicing. FIG. 29F is a diagrammatic view of a display (e.g., stereoscopic) that a surgeon sees during a surgical procedure. As shown in FIG. 29F, the image from the new, more inserted field of view 2940 (bounded by the dashed lines) is registered and mosaiced with the image from the old, more withdrawn field of view 2942. Image mosaicing is known (see e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,673,988 (Jansson et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,999,662 (Burt et al.), which are incorporated by reference) and has been applied to medical equipment (see e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,194,118 (Harris et al.), which is incorporated by reference). As a result the surgeon sees an area larger than the current, more inserted field of view. A kinematically accurate graphical simulation of the instruments is shown in the old field of view 2942 so that the surgeon can see possible collisions in this region as the instruments move. In some aspects, minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly components may be replaced by hand during surgery. In other aspects, components may be automatically replaced. FIG. 30 is a schematic view that illustrates a mechanism for automatically exchanging minimally invasive surgical instruments (e.g., those of approximately 3 mm diameter, such as flexible laparoscopic instruments with a single grip DOF) during surgery. As shown in FIG. 30, an instrument magazine 3002 has several instruments 3004a,3004b,3004c stored (e.g., three, as depicted). The instruments may be stored on a drum, linearly extended, or otherwise. In some aspects, the instruments in magazine 3002 are selected for each surgical procedure—that is, the surgeon determines the instruments to be used for a specific procedure, and magazine 3002 is configured accordingly. As FIG. 30 illustrates, magazine 3002 is positioned to allow actuator control system 3006 to advance instrument 3004a into guide tube 3008. To exchange an instrument control system 3006 withdraws instrument 3004a from guide tube 3008 and repositions magazine 3002 to advance either instrument 3004b or 3004c into guide tube 3008. The magazine, instruments, and guide tube shown in FIG. 30 are illustrative of various components described herein (e.g., instruments, primary and secondary guide tubes, guide probes, imaging systems (optical, infrared, ultrasound), and the like). FIG. 30A is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of storing an instrument or other component on a drum Instrument 3004 is extended as drum 3020 rotates inside magazine housing 3022. Actuator 3006 for instrument 3004's end effector 3008 is positioned on drum 3020. Actuator 3006 is illustrative of other actuator assemblies that may be used if, for example, a steerable guide tube is to be advanced instead. Instrument 3004 is coiled loosely enough so that the cable actuator for end effector 3008 does not bind within its flexible cover. FIG. 30B is a schematic view that illustrates aspects of storing automatically replaceable instruments on spools 3030 mounted on individual capstans 3032. FIG. 31 is a diagrammatic perspective view that shows aspects of an illustrative minimally invasive surgical instrument assembly that includes a multi-jointed instrument dedicated to retraction. As shown in FIG. 31, guide tube 3102 includes a channel 3104, through which an imaging system is inserted, and three channels 3106a,3106b,3106c, through which surgical instruments may be inserted. Retraction instrument 3108 is shown extending through channel 3106c. As depicted, retraction instrument 3108 includes a proximal instrument body 3110 and four serial links 3112a-d. Four joints 3114a-d couple proximal instrument body 3110 and links 3112a-d together. In one aspect, each joint 3114a-d is an independently controllable single DOF pitch joint. In other aspects the joints may have additional DOFs. An actively controlled (either hand or telemanipulated) gripper 3116 is mounted at the distal end of the most distal link 3112d via a passive roll joint 3118. In some aspects other end effectors, or none, may be substituted for the gripper. In one aspect the combined length of links 3112a-d and gripper 3116 is sufficient to retract tissue beyond the working envelope of instruments that extend through channels 3106a and 3106b. For example, the combined lengths of the links and the gripper may be approximately equal to the full insertion range (e.g., approximately 5 inches) of the instruments. Four links and joints are shown, and other numbers of links and joints may be used. Retraction is done using various combinations of pitching joints 3114a-d and rolling instrument 3108 within channel 3106c. For retraction, instrument 3108 is inserted so that each joint 3114a-d is exposed one after the other. Insertion depth may be varied so that retraction can begin at various distances from the distal end of the guide tube with various numbers of joints as the joints exit from the guide tube's distal end. That is, for example, retraction may begin as soon as joint 3114d is inserted past the distal end of the guide tube. For retraction, gripper 3116 may grip tissue. Passive roll joint 3118 prevents the gripped tissue from being torqued as instrument 3108 is rolled within channel 3106c. In one aspect, the control system couples the motions of instrument 3108 and guide tube 3102. This coupled control of motion allows tissue to be held in place by gripper 3116 as the guide tube is moved to the left or right “underneath” the retracted tissue. For example, as the distal end of guide tube 3102 is moved to the left, instrument 3108 is rolled (and joint 3114a-d pitch may be changed) to move gripper 3116 to the right. FIG. 31 further illustrates an aspect of instrument position and control within guide tubes. The working surgical instruments need not be inserted though guide tube channels that correspond to or are aligned with their working position. For example, as shown in FIG. 31 the left side working instrument does not have to be inserted through the left-most channel 3106c. Instead, the left side working instrument may be inserted via the “bottom” channel 3106b. The right side working instrument may then be inserted via the right-most channel 3106a. Then, the left and right side working instruments may be controlled to work at a surgical site in alignment with the field of view of an imaging system inserted via channel 3104 that has not been rolled or yawed. Stated another way, the left-right axis between the working instruments' insertion channels does not have to be aligned with the left-right axis between the working instruments' end effectors at the surgical site or with the left-right axis interpupillary axis of the stereoscopic imaging system. Further, by the control system recognizing which instrument is coupled to each particular actuator, left-right instrument position may be varied. For example, retraction instrument 3108 may be inserted via channel 3106a, the right side working instrument may be inserted via channel 3106b, and the left side working instrument may be inserted via channel 3106c. In some aspects, with appropriately shaped channels and/or imaging systems, the imaging system may be inserted via one of several channels. For example, “top” channel 3104 and “bottom” channel 3106b may be oblong shaped with a center bore that holds a cylindrical instrument body, as shown in FIG. 20A. Consequently, an imaging system may be inserted via the “top” or “bottom” channel, and a working instrument may be inserted via the other “top” or “bottom” channel. These descriptions of examples of various minimally invasive surgical systems, assemblies, and instruments, and of the associated components, are not to be taken as limiting. It should be understood that many variations that incorporate the aspects described herein are possible. For example, various combinations of rigid and flexible instruments and instrument components, and of guide tubes and guide tube components, fall within the scope of this description. The claims define the invention.
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A
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19
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00
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11899298
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US20080039835A1-20080214
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Vessel sealing instrument with electrical cutting mechanism
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ACCEPTED
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20080130
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20080214
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[]
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A61B1814
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["A61B1814"]
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8162940
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20070905
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20120424
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606
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051000
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89144.0
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PEFFLEY
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MICHAEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Johnson", "inventor_name_first": "Kristin", "inventor_city": "Louisville", "inventor_state": "CO", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Couture", "inventor_name_first": "Gary", "inventor_city": "Longmont", "inventor_state": "CO", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Unger", "inventor_name_first": "Jeff", "inventor_city": "Superior", "inventor_state": "CO", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Sharp", "inventor_name_first": "Robert", "inventor_city": "Boulder", "inventor_state": "CO", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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An end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing vessels and cutting vessels includes a pair of opposing first and second jaw members which are movable relative to one another from a first spaced apart position to a second position for grasping tissue therebetween. Each jaw member includes a pair of spaced apart electrically conductive tissue contacting surfaces which each have an insulator disposed therebetween, the conductive surfaces are connected to an electrosurgical energy source. The first jaw member includes an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the insulator which extends towards the second tissue contacting surface to create a gap therebetween. The cutting element is inactive during the sealing process while the two pairs of electrically conductive surfaces are activated to seal tissue. During the cutting process, the cutting element is energized to a first potential and at least one electrically conductive tissue contacting surface is energized to a different potential to effect a tissue cut through the tissue held between the jaw members along the already formed tissue seal.
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1-13. (canceled) 14. An end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing and cutting tissue, the end effector assembly comprising: a pair of opposing first and second jaw members at least one of which being movable relative to the other from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp tissue therebetween; each jaw member including a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces extending along a length thereof, each tissue sealing surface being adapted to connect to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the tissue sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through tissue held therebetween to effect a seal; a partially conductive material disposed within each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces; the first jaw member including an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the partially conductive material of the first jaw member, the electrically conductive cutting element disposed in general vertical registration to the partially conductive material on the second jaw member; wherein the cutting element extends from the first electrically conductive tissue sealing surface towards the second electrically conductive tissue sealing surface to create a gap between the electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces when the jaw members close for sealing tissue; the cutting element being inactive during the sealing process and the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member being energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a tissue seal; and the cutting element being energized to a first potential during the cutting process and at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface on the second jaw member being energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a tissue cut. 15. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 wherein the potential of the at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface of the first jaw member and the potential of the cutting element are independently activatable by the surgeon. 16. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 wherein the electrical potential of the cutting element and the electrical potential of the at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface are automatically configured for cutting when the surgeon selectively activates a trigger. 17. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 wherein the cutting element is substantially dull and capable of cutting tissue only through electrosurgical activation. 18. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 further comprising a smart sensor for determining seal quality prior to cutting. 19. An end effector assembly according to claim 18 wherein the smart sensor includes one of an audible or visual indicator for indicating seal quality. 20. An end effector assembly according to claim 18 wherein the smart sensor is operable to automatically switch electrosurgical energy to the cutting element once the tissue is sealed. 21. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 further comprising a first switch for energizing the electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces to effect tissue sealing and a trigger for energizing the cutting element and at least one of the electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces to effect tissue cutting. 22. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 wherein at least one of the partially conductive material is configured to at least partially extend to a position that is at least substantially flush with the cutting element. 23. An end effector assembly according to claim 14 further comprising a second electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the partially conductive material of the second jaw member, the second electrically conductive cutting element opposing the first electrically conductive cutting element. 24. An end effector assembly according to claim 23 wherein the first and second electrically conductive cutting elements, when disposed on opposite sides of tissue, form the gap distance between electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members are disposed in the second position. 25. An end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing and cutting vessels and/or tissue, the end effector assembly comprising: a pair of opposing first and second jaw members at least one of which being movable relative to the other from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp tissue therebetween; each jaw member including a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces extending along a length thereof, each tissue sealing surface being adapted to connect to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the tissue sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through tissue held therebetween to effect a seal; a partially conductive material disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces; the first jaw member including an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the partially conductive material of the first jaw member, the electrically conductive cutting element disposed in general vertical registration to the insulator on the second jaw member; at least one stop member operatively associated with one of the first and second jaw members being dimensioned to create a gap between the electrically conductive tissue sealing surfaces when the jaw members close for sealing tissue; the cutting element being inactive during the sealing process and the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member being energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a tissue seal; and the cutting element being energized to a first potential during the cutting process and at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive tissue sealing surface on the second jaw member being energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a tissue cut.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present disclosure relates to a forceps used for both endoscopic and open surgical procedures which includes an electrode assembly which allows a user to selectively seal and/or cut tissue. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to a forceps which includes a first set of electrically conductive surfaces which applies a unique combination of mechanical clamping pressure and electrosurgical energy to effectively seal tissue and a second set of electrically conductive surfaces which is selectively energizable to sever tissue between sealed tissue areas.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present disclosure relates to an end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing vessel and cutting vessels and/or tissue and includes a pair of opposing first and second jaw members which are movable relative to one another from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp vessels/tissue therebetween. Preferably, each jaw member includes a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive vessel/tissue sealing surfaces extending along a length thereof. Each pair of vessel/tissue sealing surfaces is connected to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the vessel/tissue sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through vessels/tissue held therebetween to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly also includes an insulator disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces. In one embodiment according to the present disclosure, at least one of the insulators is configured to at least partially extend to a position which is at least substantially flush with the cutting element. In yet another embodiment, a second electrically conductive cutting element is disposed within the insulator of the second jaw member which opposes the first electrically conductive cutting element. In this instance, the first and second electrically conductive cutting elements when disposed on opposite sides of tissue form the gap distance between electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members are disposed in the second position The first jaw member includes an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the insulator of the first jaw member which is disposed in general vertical registration with the insulator on the second jaw member. The cutting element extends from the first electrically conductive sealing surface towards the second electrically conductive sealing surface and is configured to create a gap between the electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members are disposed in the second position for sealing vessel/tissue. The cutting element is inactive during the sealing process while the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member are energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly is designed such that the cutting element is energized to a first potential during the cutting process and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the second jaw member are energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessels/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue cut. Preferably, the cutting element and sealing processes are automatically controlled by an electrosurgical energy source. In one embodiment according to the present disclosure, it is envisioned that the potential of the electrically conductive sealing surface of the first jaw member and the potential of the cutting element are independently activatable by the surgeon. In another embodiment, the electrical potential of the cutting element and the electrical potential of at least one electrically conductive sealing surface are automatically configured for cutting when the surgeon selectively activates a trigger. Preferably, the cutting element is substantially dull and only capable of cutting vessels/tissue through electrosurgical activation. In yet another embodiment according to the present disclosure a smart sensor is included for determining seal quality prior to cutting. The smart sensor may include either an audible or visual indicator for indicating seal quality. Preferably, the smart sensor automatically switches electrosurgical energy to the cutting element once the vessel/tissue is sealed. In still yet another embodiment of the end effector assembly according to the present disclosure a first switch is included for energizing the electrically conductive sealing surfaces to effect vessel/tissue sealing and a trigger is included for energizing the cutting element and at least one of the electrically conductive sealing surfaces to effect vessel/tissue cutting. Another embodiment according to the present disclosure includes an end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing and/or cutting vessels or tissue which includes a pair of opposing first and second jaw members which movable relative to one another from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp vessel/tissue therebetween. Each jaw member of the end effector assembly includes a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive sealing surfaces which extend along a length thereof. Each sealing surface is connected to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through vessel/tissue held therebetween to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly further includes an insulator disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces. Preferably, the first jaw member includes an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within or disposed on the insulator of the first jaw member, the electrically conductive cutting element is disposed in general vertical registration to the insulator on the second jaw member. At least one stop member is included which is operatively associated with one of the first and second jaw members and is dimensioned to create a gap between the electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members close for sealing vessel/tissue. Preferably, the cutting element is inactive during the sealing process and the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member are energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessel/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue seal. During the cutting process, the cutting element is energized to a first potential and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the second jaw member are energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessel/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue cut.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefits of and is a continuation-in-part of PCT Application Serial No. PCT/US03/28539 filed on Sep. 11, 2003 entitled “ELECTRODE ASSEMBLY FOR SEALING AND CUTTING TISSUE AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING SAME” which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/416,064 filed on Oct. 4, 2002 entitled “ELECTRODE ASSEMBLY FOR SEALING AND CUTTING TISSUE AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING SAME” the entire contents of both which being incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND The present disclosure relates to a forceps used for both endoscopic and open surgical procedures which includes an electrode assembly which allows a user to selectively seal and/or cut tissue. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to a forceps which includes a first set of electrically conductive surfaces which applies a unique combination of mechanical clamping pressure and electrosurgical energy to effectively seal tissue and a second set of electrically conductive surfaces which is selectively energizable to sever tissue between sealed tissue areas. TECHNICAL FIELD Open or endoscopic electrosurgical forceps utilize both mechanical clamping action and electrical energy to effect hemostasis. The electrode of each opposing jaw member is charged to a different electric potential such that when the jaw members grasp tissue, electrical energy can be selectively transferred through the tissue. A surgeon can either cauterize, coagulate/desiccate and/or simply reduce or slow bleeding, by controlling the intensity, frequency and duration of the electrosurgical energy applied between the electrodes and through the tissue. Certain surgical procedures require more than simply cauterizing tissue and rely on the combination of clamping pressure, electrosurgical energy and gap distance to “seal” tissue, vessels and certain vascular bundles. More particularly, vessel sealing or tissue sealing is a recently-developed technology which utilizes a unique combination of radiofrequency energy, clamping pressure and precise control of gap distance (i.e., distance between opposing jaw members when closed about tissue) to effectively seal or fuse tissue between two opposing jaw members or sealing plates. Vessel or tissue sealing is more than “cauterization” which involves the use of heat to destroy tissue (also called “diathermy” or “electrodiathermy”). Vessel sealing is also more than “coagulation” which is the process of desiccating tissue wherein the tissue cells are ruptured and dried. “Vessel sealing” is defined as the process of liquefying the collagen, elastin and ground substances in the tissue so that the tissue reforms into a fused mass with significantly-reduced demarcation between the opposing tissue structures. To effectively seal tissue or vessels, especially thick tissue and large vessels, two predominant mechanical parameters must be accurately controlled: 1) the pressure applied to the vessel; and 2) the gap distance between the conductive tissue contacting surfaces (electrodes). As can be appreciated, both of these parameters are affected by the thickness of the vessel or tissue being sealed. Accurate application of pressure is important for several reasons: to oppose the walls of the vessel; to reduce the tissue impedance to a low enough value that allows enough electrosurgical energy through the tissue; to overcome the forces of expansion during tissue heating; and to contribute to the end tissue thickness which is an indication of a good seal. It has been determined that a typical fused vessel wall is optimum between about 0.001 and about 0.006 inches. Below this range, the seal may shred or tear and above this range the tissue may not be properly or effectively sealed. With respect to smaller vessels, the pressure applied becomes less relevant and the gap distance between the electrically conductive surfaces becomes more significant for effective sealing. In other words, the chances of the two electrically conductive surfaces touching during activation increases as the tissue thickness and the vessels become smaller. Typically and particularly with respect to endoscopic electrosurgical procedures, once a vessel is sealed, the surgeon has to remove the sealing instrument from the operative site, substitute a new instrument through the cannula and accurately sever the vessel along the newly formed tissue seal. As can be appreciated, this additional step may be both time consuming (particularly when sealing a significant number of vessels) and may contribute to imprecise separation of the tissue along the sealing line due to the misalignment or misplacement of the severing instrument along the center of the tissue seal. Several attempts have been made to design an instrument which incorporates a knife or blade member which effectively severs the tissue after forming a tissue seal. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,674,220 to Fox et al. discloses a transparent instrument which includes a longitudinally reciprocating knife which severs the tissue once sealed. The instrument includes a plurality of openings which enable direct visualization of the tissue during the treatment and severing processes. This direct visualization allows a user to visually and manually regulate the closure force and gap distance between jaw members to reduce and/or limit certain undesirable visual effects known to occur when treating vessels, thermal spread, charring, etc. As can be appreciated, the overall success of creating an effective tissue seal with this instrument is greatly reliant upon the user's expertise, vision, dexterity, and experience in judging the appropriate closure force, gap distance and length of reciprocation of the knife to uniformly, consistently and effectively seal the vessel and separate the tissue at the seal along an ideal cutting plane. U.S. Pat. No. 5,702,390 to Austin. et al. discloses an instrument which includes a triangularly-shaped electrode which is rotatable from a first position to treat tissue to a second position to cut tissue. Again, the user must rely on direct visualization and expertise to control the various effects of treating and cutting tissue. Thus, a need exists to develop an electrosurgical instrument which includes an electrode assembly which enables the surgeon to both seal the tissue in an effective and consistent manner and subsequently separate the tissue along the tissue seal without re-grasping the tissue or removing the instrument from the operating cavity. SUMMARY The present disclosure relates to an end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing vessel and cutting vessels and/or tissue and includes a pair of opposing first and second jaw members which are movable relative to one another from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp vessels/tissue therebetween. Preferably, each jaw member includes a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive vessel/tissue sealing surfaces extending along a length thereof. Each pair of vessel/tissue sealing surfaces is connected to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the vessel/tissue sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through vessels/tissue held therebetween to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly also includes an insulator disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces. In one embodiment according to the present disclosure, at least one of the insulators is configured to at least partially extend to a position which is at least substantially flush with the cutting element. In yet another embodiment, a second electrically conductive cutting element is disposed within the insulator of the second jaw member which opposes the first electrically conductive cutting element. In this instance, the first and second electrically conductive cutting elements when disposed on opposite sides of tissue form the gap distance between electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members are disposed in the second position The first jaw member includes an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within the insulator of the first jaw member which is disposed in general vertical registration with the insulator on the second jaw member. The cutting element extends from the first electrically conductive sealing surface towards the second electrically conductive sealing surface and is configured to create a gap between the electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members are disposed in the second position for sealing vessel/tissue. The cutting element is inactive during the sealing process while the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member are energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the tissue to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly is designed such that the cutting element is energized to a first potential during the cutting process and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the second jaw member are energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessels/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue cut. Preferably, the cutting element and sealing processes are automatically controlled by an electrosurgical energy source. In one embodiment according to the present disclosure, it is envisioned that the potential of the electrically conductive sealing surface of the first jaw member and the potential of the cutting element are independently activatable by the surgeon. In another embodiment, the electrical potential of the cutting element and the electrical potential of at least one electrically conductive sealing surface are automatically configured for cutting when the surgeon selectively activates a trigger. Preferably, the cutting element is substantially dull and only capable of cutting vessels/tissue through electrosurgical activation. In yet another embodiment according to the present disclosure a smart sensor is included for determining seal quality prior to cutting. The smart sensor may include either an audible or visual indicator for indicating seal quality. Preferably, the smart sensor automatically switches electrosurgical energy to the cutting element once the vessel/tissue is sealed. In still yet another embodiment of the end effector assembly according to the present disclosure a first switch is included for energizing the electrically conductive sealing surfaces to effect vessel/tissue sealing and a trigger is included for energizing the cutting element and at least one of the electrically conductive sealing surfaces to effect vessel/tissue cutting. Another embodiment according to the present disclosure includes an end effector assembly for use with an instrument for sealing and/or cutting vessels or tissue which includes a pair of opposing first and second jaw members which movable relative to one another from a first position wherein the jaw members are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to a second position wherein the jaw members cooperate to grasp vessel/tissue therebetween. Each jaw member of the end effector assembly includes a pair of spaced apart, electrically conductive sealing surfaces which extend along a length thereof. Each sealing surface is connected to a source of electrosurgical energy such that the sealing surfaces are capable of conducting electrosurgical energy through vessel/tissue held therebetween to effect a vessel/tissue seal. The end effector assembly further includes an insulator disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces. Preferably, the first jaw member includes an electrically conductive cutting element disposed within or disposed on the insulator of the first jaw member, the electrically conductive cutting element is disposed in general vertical registration to the insulator on the second jaw member. At least one stop member is included which is operatively associated with one of the first and second jaw members and is dimensioned to create a gap between the electrically conductive sealing surfaces when the jaw members close for sealing vessel/tissue. Preferably, the cutting element is inactive during the sealing process and the pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the first jaw member are energized to a different potential from the corresponding pair of spaced apart electrically conductive sealing surfaces on the second jaw member such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessel/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue seal. During the cutting process, the cutting element is energized to a first potential and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the first jaw member and at least one electrically conductive sealing surface on the second jaw member are energized to a different potential such that electrosurgical energy can be transferred through the vessel/tissue to effect a vessel/tissue cut. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Various embodiments of the subject instrument are described herein with reference to the drawings wherein: FIG. 1A is a right, perspective view of an endoscopic bipolar forceps having a housing, a shaft and a pair of jaw members affixed to a distal end thereof, the jaw members including an electrode assembly disposed therebetween; FIG. 1B is a left, perspective view of an open bipolar forceps showing a pair of first and second shafts each having a jaw member affixed to a distal end thereof with an electrode assembly disposed therebetween; FIG. 2 is an enlarged view of the area of detail of FIG. 1B FIGS. 3A-3F are enlarged, schematic end views showing a variety of different electrode assemblies according to the present disclosure with electrical potentials identified for electrical cutting; FIG. 4A is an enlarged, schematic end view showing one electrode assembly configuration with tissue disposed between the jaw members; FIG. 4B is a schematic end view showing the area of detail of FIG. 4A; FIGS. 4C-4J are enlarged, schematic end views showing various configurations for an upper jaw member to promote electrical cutting; FIG. 5 is a schematic end view showing an alternate configuration of an electrode assembly according to the present invention with the electrical potentials for both the sealing phase and the cutting phase identified; FIGS. 6A-6D are enlarged, schematic end views showing alternate configurations of the electrode assembly according to the present invention with the electrical potentials for both the sealing mode and the cutting mode identified; and FIGS. 7A-7E are enlarged, schematic end views showing various configurations for the lower jaw member to promote electrical cutting. DETAILED DESCRIPTION For the purposes herein, vessel/tissue cutting or vessel/tissue division is believed to occur when heating of the vessel/tissue leads to expansion of intracellular and/or extra-cellular fluid, which may be accompanied by cellular vaporization, desiccation, fragmentation, collapse and/or shrinkage along a so-called “cut zone” in the vessel/tissue. By focusing the electrosurgical energy and heating in the cut zone, the cellular reactions are localized creating a fissure. Localization is achieved by regulating the vessel/tissue condition and energy delivery which may be controlled by utilizing one or more of the various geometrical electrode and insulator configurations described herein. The cut process may also be controlled by utilizing a generator and feedback algorithm (and one or more of the hereindescribed geometrical configurations of the electrode and insulator assemblies) which increases the localization and maximizes the so-called “cutting effect”. For example, it is envisioned that the below described factors contribute and/or enhance vessel/tissue division using electrosurgical energy. Each of the factors described below may be employed individually or in any combination to achieve a desired cutting effect. For the purposes herein the term “cut effect” or “cutting effect” refers to the actual division of tissue by one or more of the electrical or electromechanical methods or mechanisms described below. The term “cutting zone” or “cut zone” refers to the region of vessel/tissue where cutting will take place. The term “cutting process” refers to steps that are implemented before, during and/or after vessel/tissue division that tend to influence the vessel/tissue as part of achieving the cut effect. For the purposes herein the terms “tissue” and “vessel” may be used interchangeably since it is believed that the present disclosure may be employed to seal and cut tissue or seal and cut vessels utilizing the same inventive principles described herein. It is believed that the following factors either alone or in combination, play an important role in dividing tissue: Localizing or focusing electrosurgical energy in the cut zone during the cutting process while minimizing energy effects to surrounding tissues; Focusing the power density in the cut zone during the cutting process; Creating an area of increased temperature in the cut zone during the cutting process (e.g., heating that occurs within the tissue or heating the tissue directly with a heat source); Pulsing the energy delivery to influence the tissue in or around the cut zone. “Pulsing” involves as a combination of an “on” time and “off” time during which the energy is applied and then removed repeatedly at any number of intervals for any amount of time. The pulse “on” and “off” time may vary between pulses. The pulse “on” typically refers to a state of higher power delivery and pulse “off” typically refers to a state of lower power delivery; Spiking the energy delivery creates a momentary condition of high energy application with an intent to influence the tissue in or around the cut zone during the cut process. The momentary condition may be varied to create periods of high energy application; Conditioning the tissue before or during the cutting process to create more favorable tissue conditions for cutting. This includes tissue pre-heating before the cutting processes and tissue rehydration during the cutting process; Controlling the tissue volume in or around the cut zone to create more favorable conditions for tissue cutting; Controlling energy and power delivery to allow vaporization to enhance and or contribute to the cutting process. For example, controlling the energy delivery to vaporize both intracellular and/or extracellular fluids and/or other cellular materials and foreign fluids within the cut zone; Fragmenting the tissue or cellular material during the cutting process to enhance tissue division in the cut zone; Melting or collapsing the tissue or cellular material during the cutting process to enhance tissue division in the cut zone. For example, melting the tissue to create internal stress within the tissue to induce tissue tearing; Controlling tissue temperature, arcing, power density and/or current density during the cutting process to enhance tissue division in the cut zone; Applying various mechanical elements to the tissue such as pressure, tension and/or stress (either internally or externally) to enhance the cutting process; and Utilizing various other tissue treatments before or during the cutting process to enhance tissue cutting, e.g., tissue sealing, cauterization and/or coagulation. Many of the electrode assemblies described herein employ one or more of the above-identified factors for enhancing tissue division. For example, many of the electrode assemblies described herein utilize various geometrical configurations of electrodes, cutting elements, insulators, partially conductive materials and semiconductors to produce or enhance the cutting effect. In addition, by controlling or regulating the electrosurgical energy from the generator in any of the ways described above, tissue cutting may be initiated, enhanced or facilitated within the tissue cutting zone. For example, it is believed that the geometrical configuration of the electrodes and insulators may be configured to produce a so-called “cut effect” which may be directly related to the amount of vaporization or fragmentation at a point in the tissue or the power density, temperature density and/or mechanical stress applied to a point in the tissue. The geometry of the electrodes may be configured such that the surface area ratios between the electrical poles focus electrical energy at the tissue. Moreover, it is envisioned that the geometrical configurations of the electrodes and insulators may be designed such that they act like electrical sinks or insulators to influence the heat effect within and around the tissue during the sealing or cutting processes. Referring now to FIGS. 1A and 1B, FIG. 1A depicts a bipolar forceps 10 for use in connection with endoscopic surgical procedures and FIG. 1B depicts an open forceps 100 contemplated for use in connection with traditional open surgical procedures. For the purposes herein, either an endoscopic instrument or an open instrument may be utilized with the electrode assembly described herein. Obviously, different electrical and mechanical connections and considerations apply to each particular type of instrument, however, the novel aspects with respect to the electrode assembly and its operating characteristics remain generally consistent with respect to both the open or endoscopic designs. FIG. 1A shows a bipolar forceps 10 for use with various endoscopic surgical procedures and generally includes a housing 20, a handle assembly 30, a rotating assembly 80, a switch assembly 70 and an electrode assembly 105 having opposing jaw members 110 and 120 which mutually cooperate to grasp, seal and divide tubular vessels and vascular tissue. More particularly, forceps 10 includes a shaft 12 which has a distal end 16 dimensioned to mechanically engage the electrode assembly 105 and a proximal end 14 which mechanically engages the housing 20. The shaft 12 may include one or more known mechanically engaging components which are designed to securely receive and engage the electrode assembly 105 such that the jaw members 110 and 120 are pivotable relative to one another to engage and grasp tissue therebetween. The proximal end 14 of shaft 12 mechanically engages the rotating assembly 80 (not shown) to facilitate rotation of the electrode assembly 105. In the drawings and in the descriptions which follow, the term “proximal”, as is traditional, will refer to the end of the forceps 10 which is closer to the user, while the term “distal” will refer to the end which is further from the user. Details relating to the mechanically cooperating components of the shaft 12 and the rotating assembly 80 are described in commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/460,926 entitled “VESSEL SEALER AND DIVIDER FOR USE WITH SMALL TROCARS AND CANNULAS” filed on Jun. 13, 2003 the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference herein. Handle assembly 30 includes a fixed handle 50 and a movable handle 40. Fixed handle 50 is integrally associated with housing 20 and handle 40 is movable relative to fixed handle 50 to actuate the opposing jaw members 110 and 120 of the electrode assembly 105 as explained in more detail below. Movable handle 40 and switch assembly 70 are preferably of unitary construction and are operatively connected to the housing 20 and the fixed handle 50 during the assembly process. Housing 20 is preferably constructed from two components halves 20a and 20b which are assembled about the proximal end of shaft 12 during assembly. Switch assembly is configured to selectively provide electrical energy to the electrode assembly 105. As mentioned above, electrode assembly 105 is attached to the distal end 16 of shaft 12 and includes the opposing jaw members 110 and 120. Movable handle 40 of handle assembly 30 imparts movement of the jaw members 110 and 120 from an open position wherein the jaw members 110 and 120 are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another, to a clamping or closed position wherein the jaw members 110 and 120 cooperate to grasp tissue therebetween. Referring now to FIG. 1B, an open forceps 100 includes a pair of elongated shaft portions 112a and 112b each having a proximal end 114a and 114b, respectively, and a distal end 116a and 116b, respectively. The forceps 100 includes jaw members 120 and 110 which attach to distal ends 116a and 116b of shafts 112a and 112b, respectively. The jaw members 110 and 120 are connected about pivot pin 119 which allows the jaw members 110 and 120 to pivot relative to one another from the first to second positions for treating tissue. The electrode assembly 105 is connected to opposing jaw members 110 and 120 and may include electrical connections through or around the pivot pin 119. Examples of various electrical connections to the jaw members are shown in commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/474,170, 10/116,824, 10/284,562 10/472,295, 10/116,944, 10/179,863 and 10/369,894, the contents of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. Preferably, each shaft 112a and 112b includes a handle 117a and 117b disposed at the proximal end 114a and 114b thereof which each define a finger hole 118a and 118b, respectively, therethrough for receiving a finger of the user. As can be appreciated, finger holes 118a and 118b facilitate movement of the shafts 112a and 112b relative to one another which, in turn, pivot the jaw members 110 and 120 from the open position wherein the jaw members 110 and 120 are disposed in spaced relation relative to one another to the clamping or closed position wherein the jaw members 110 and 120 cooperate to grasp tissue therebetween. A ratchet 130 is preferably included for selectively locking the jaw members 110 and 120 relative to one another at various positions during pivoting. More particularly, the ratchet 130 includes a first mechanical interface 130a associated with shaft 112a and a second mating mechanical interface associated with shaft 112b. Preferably, each position associated with the cooperating ratchet interfaces 130a and 130b holds a specific, i.e., constant, strain energy in the shaft members 112a and 112b which, in turn, transmits a specific closing force to the jaw members 110 and 120. It is envisioned that the ratchet 130 may include graduations or other visual markings which enable the user to easily and quickly ascertain and control the amount of closure force desired between the jaw members 110 and 120. As best seen in FIG. 1B, forceps 100 also includes an electrical interface or plug 200 which connects the forceps 100 to a source of electrosurgical energy, e.g., an electrosurgical generator (not shown). Plug 200 includes at least two prong members 202a and 202b which are dimensioned to mechanically and electrically connect the forceps 100 to the electrosurgical generator 500 (See FIG. 1A). An electrical cable 210 extends from the plug 200 and securely connects the cable 210 to the forceps 100. Cable 210 is internally divided within the shaft 112b to transmit electrosurgical energy through various electrical feed paths to the electrode assembly 105. One of the shafts, e.g., 112b, includes a proximal shaft connector/flange 119 which is designed to connect the forceps 100 to a source of electrosurgical energy such as an electrosurgical generator 500. More particularly, flange 119 mechanically secures electrosurgical cable 210 to the forceps 100 such that the user may selectively apply electrosurgical energy as needed. As best shown in the schematic illustration of FIG. 2, the jaw members 110 and 120 of both the endoscopic version of FIG. 1A and the open version of FIG. 1B are generally symmetrical and include similar component features which cooperate to permit facile rotation about pivot 19, 119 to effect the grasping and sealing of tissue. Each jaw member 110 and 120 includes an electrically conductive tissue contacting surface 112 and 122, respectively, which cooperate to engage the tissue during sealing and cutting. At least one of the jaw members, e.g., jaw member 120, includes a electrically energizable cutting element 127 disposed therein which is explained in detail below. Together and as shown in the various figure drawings described hereafter, the electrode assembly 105 includes the combination of the sealing electrodes 112 and 122 and the cutting element(s) 127. The various electrical connections of the electrode assembly 105 are preferably configured to provide electrical continuity to the tissue contacting surfaces 110 and 120 and the cutting element(s) 127 through the electrode assembly 105. For example, cable lead 210 may be configured to include three different leads, namely, leads 207, 208 and 209 which carry different electrical potentials. The cable leads 207, 208 and 209 are fed through shaft 112b and connect to various electrical connectors (not shown) disposed within the proximal end of the jaw member 110 which ultimately connect to the electrically conductive sealing surfaces 112 and 122 and cutting element(s) 127. As can be appreciated, the electrical connections may be permanently soldered to the shaft 112b during the assembly process of a disposable instrument or, alternatively, selectively removable for use with a reposable instrument. Commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/474,170, 10/116,824 and 10/284,562 all disclose various types of electrical connections which may be made to the jaw members 110 and 120 through the shaft 112b the contents of all of which being hereby incorporated by reference wherein. In addition and with respect to the types of electrical connections which may be made to the jaw members 110 and 120 for endoscopic purposes, commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/472,295, 10/116,944, 10/179,863 and 10/369,894 all disclose other types of electrical connections which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. The various electrical connections from lead 210 are preferably dielectrically insulated from one another to allow selective and independent activation of either the tissue contacting surfaces 112 and 122 or the cutting element 127 as explained in more detail below. Alternatively, the electrode assembly 105 may include a single connector which includes an internal switch (not shown) to allow selective and independent activation of the tissue contacting surfaces 112, 122 and the cutting element 127. Preferably, the leads 207, 208 and 209 (and/or conductive pathways) do not encumber the movement of the jaw members 110 and 120 relative to one another during the manipulation and grasping of tissue. Likewise, the movement of the jaw members 110 and 120 do not unnecessarily strain the lead connections. As best seen in FIGS. 2-3F, various electrical configurations of the electrode assembly 105 are shown which are designed to effectively seal and cut tissue disposed between the sealing surfaces 112 and 122 and the cutting elements 127 of the opposing jaw members 110 and 120, respectively. More particularly and with respect to FIGS. 2 and 3A, jaw members 110 and 120 include conductive tissue contacting surfaces 112 and 122, respectively, disposed along substantially the entire longitudinal length thereof (i.e., extending substantially from the proximal to distal end of the respective jaw member 110 and 120). It is envisioned that tissue contacting surfaces 112 and 122 may be attached to the jaw member 110, 120 by stamping, by overmolding, by casting, by overmolding a casting, by coating a casting, by overmolding a stamped electrically conductive sealing plate and/or by overmolding a metal injection molded seal plate or in other ways customary in the art. All of these manufacturing techniques may be employed to produce jaw member 110 and 120 having an electrically conductive tissue contacting surface 112 and 122 disposed thereon for contacting and treating tissue. With respect to FIG. 3A, the jaw members 110 and 120 both include an insulator or insulative material 113 and 123, respectively, disposed between each pair of electrically conductive sealing surfaces on each jaw member 110 and 120, i.e., between pairs 112a and 112b and between pairs 122a and 122b. Each insulator 113 and 123 is generally centered between its respective tissue contacting surface 112a, 112b and 122a, 122b along substantially the entire length of the respective jaw member 110 and 120 such that the two insulators 113 and 123 generally oppose one another. One or both of the insulators 113, 123 may be made from a ceramic material due to its hardness and inherent ability to withstand high temperature fluctuations. Alternatively, one or both of the insulators 113, 123 may be made from a material having a high Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) having a value in the range of about 300 to about 600 volts. Examples of high CTI materials include nylons and syndiotactic polystryrenes such as QUESTRA® manufactured by DOW Chemical. Other materials may also be utilized either alone or in combination, e.g., Nylons, Syndiotactic-polystryrene (SPS), Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT), Polycarbonate (PC), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polyphthalamide (PPA), Polymide, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyamide-imide (PAI), Acrylic (PMMA), Polystyrene (PS and HIPS), Polyether Sulfone (PES), Aliphatic Polyketone, Acetal (POM) Copolymer, Polyurethane (PU and TPU), Nylon with Polyphenylene-oxide dispersion and Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate. At least one jaw member 110 and/or 120 includes an electrically conductive cutting element 127 disposed substantially within or disposed on the insulator 113, 123. As described in detail below, the cutting element 127 (in many of the embodiments described hereinafter) plays a dual role during the sealing and cutting processes, namely: 1) to provide the necessary gap distance between conductive surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a, 122b during the sealing process; and 2) to electrically energize the tissue along the previously formed tissue seal to cut the tissue along the seal. With respect to FIG. 3A, the cutting elements 127a, 127b are electrically conductive, however, it is envisioned that one or both of the cutting elements 127a, 127b may be made from an insulative material with a conductive coating disposed thereon or one (or both) of the cutting elements may be non-conductive (See, e.g., FIG. 4A). Preferably, the distance between the cutting element(s) 127a and the opposing cutting element 127b (or the opposing return electrode in some cases) is within the range of about 0.008 inches to about 0.015 inches to optimize the cutting effect. The general characteristics of the jaw members 110 and 120 and the electrode assembly 105 will initially be described with respect to FIG. 3A while the changes to the other envisioned embodiments disclosed herein will become apparent during the description of each individual embodiment. Moreover, all of the following figures show the various electrical configurations and polarities during the cutting phase only. During the so called “sealing phase”, the jaw members 110 and 120 are closed about tissue and the cuffing elements 127 and 127b forms the requisite gap between the opposing sealing surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b, 122b. During activation of the sealing phase, the cutting elements 127a and 127b are not necessarily energized such that the majority of the current is concentrated between opposing sealing surfaces, 112a and 122a and 112b and 122b to effectively seal the tissue. It is also envisioned that stop members 1160a and 1160b may be employed to regulate the gap distance between the sealing surfaces in lieu of the cutting elements 127a and 127b. The stop members 1160a and 1160b may be disposed on the sealing surfaces 1112a, 1122a and 1112b, 1122b (See FIG. 4E), adjacent the sealing surfaces 1112a, 1122a and 1112b, 1122b or on the insulator(s) 1113, 1123. The cuffing elements 127a and 127b are preferably configured to extend from their respective insulators 113 and 123, respectively and extend beyond the tissue contacting surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a and 122b such that the cutting elements 127a and 127b act as stop members (i.e., creates a gap distance “G” (See FIG. 3A) between opposing conductive sealing surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b, 122b) which as mentioned above promotes accurate, consistent and effective tissue sealing. As can be appreciated, the cutting elements 127a and 127b also prevent the opposing tissue contacting surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b, 122b from touching which eliminates the chances of the forceps 10, 100 shorting during the sealing process. As mentioned above, two mechanical factors play an important role in determining the resulting thickness of the sealed tissue and effectiveness of a tissue seal, i.e., the pressure applied between opposing jaw members 110 and 120 and the gap distance “G” between, the opposing tissue contacting surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b, 122b during the sealing process. Preferably and with particular respect to vessels, the cutting element 127 (or cutting elements 127a and 127b) extends beyond the tissue contacting surfaces 112a, 112b and/or 122a, 122b to yield a consistent and accurate gap distance “G” during sealing within the range of about 0.001 inches to about 0.006 inches and, more preferably, within the range of about 0.002 inches and about 0.003 inches. Other gap ranges may be preferable with other tissue types such as bowel or large vascular structures. As can be appreciated, when utilizing one cutting element (as with some of the disclosed embodiments herein), e.g., 127, the cutting element 127 would be configured to extend beyond the sealing surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a, 122b to yield a gap distance within the above working range. When two opposing cutting elements are utilized, e.g., 127a and 127b, the combination of these cutting elements 127a and 127b yield a gap distance within the above working range during the sealing process. With respect to FIG. 3A, the conductive cutting elements 127a and 127b are oriented in opposing, vertical registration within respective insulators 113 and 123 of jaw members 110 and 120. It is envisioned that the cutting elements 127a and 127b are substantially dull which, as can be appreciated, does not inhibit the sealing process (i.e., premature cutting) during the sealing phase of the electrosurgical activation. In other words, the surgeon is free to manipulate, grasp and clamp the tissue for sealing purposes without the cuffing elements 127a and 127b mechanically cutting into the tissue. Moreover in this instance, tissue cutting can only be achieved through either: 1) a combination of mechanically clamping the tissue between the cutting elements 127a and 127b and applying electrosurgical energy from the cutting elements 127a and 127b, through the tissue and to the return electrodes, i.e., the electrically conductive tissue contacting surfaces 112b and 122b as shown in FIG. 3A; or 2) applying electrosurgical energy from the cutting elements 127a and 127b through the tissue and to the return tissue contacting surfaces 112b and 122b. It is envisioned that the geometrical configuration of the cutting elements 127a and 127b play an important role in determining the overall effectiveness of the tissue cut. For example, the power density and/or current concentration around the cutting elements 127a and 127b is based upon the particular geometrical configuration of the cutting elements 127a and 127b and the cutting elements' 127a and 127b proximity to the return electrodes, i.e., tissue contacting surfaces 112b and 122b. Certain geometries of the cutting elements 127a and 127b may create higher areas of power density than other geometries. Moreover, the spacing of the return electrodes 112b and 122b to these current concentrations effects the electrical fields through the tissue. Therefore, by configuring the cutting elements 127a and 127b and the respective insulators 113 and 123 within close proximity to one another, the electrical power density remains high which is ideal for cutting and the instrument will not short due to accidental contact between conductive surfaces. As can be appreciated, the relative size of the cutting elements 127a and 127b and/or the size of the insulator 113 and 123 may be selectively altered depending upon a particular or desired purpose to produce a particular surgical effect. In addition, the cutting element 127a (and/or 127b) may be independently activated by the surgeon or automatically activated by the Generator once sealing is complete. A safety algorithm may be employed to assure that an accurate and complete tissue seal is formed before cutting. An audible or visual indicator (not shown) may be employed to assure the surgeon that an accurate seal has been formed and the surgeon may be required to activate a trigger (or deactivate a safety) before cutting. For example, a smart sensor or feedback algorithm 1999 (See FIG. 5) may be employed to determine seal quality prior to cutting. The smart sensor or feedback loop 1999 may also be configured to automatically switch electrosurgical energy to the cutting element 127a (and/or 127b) once the smart sensor 1999 determines that the tissue is properly sealed. It is also envisioned that the electrical configuration of the electrically conductive sealing surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a, 122b may be automatically or manually altered during the sealing and cutting processes to effect accurate and consistent tissue sealing and cutting. Turning now to the embodiments of the electrode assembly 105 as disclosed herein which show the various polarities during the tissue cutting phase, FIG. 3A as mentioned above includes first and second jaw members 110 and 120 having an electrode assembly 105 disposed thereon. More particularly, the electrode assembly 105 includes first electrically conductive sealing surfaces 112a and 112b each disposed in opposing registration with second electrically conductive sealing surfaces 122a and 122b on jaw members 110 and 120, respectively. Insulator 113 electrically isolates sealing surfaces 112a and 112b from one another allowing selective independent activation of the sealing surfaces 112a and 112b. Insulator 123 separates sealing surfaces 122a and 122b from one another in a similar manner thereby allowing selective activation of sealing surfaces 122a and 122b. Preferably each insulator 113 and 123 is set back a predetermined distance between the sealing surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a, 122b to define a recess 149a, 149b and 159a, 159b, respectively, which, as mentioned above, effects the overall power densities between the electrically activated surfaces during both the sealing and cutting phases. Cutting element 127a is disposed within and/or deposited on insulator 113 and extends inwardly therefrom to extend beyond the sealing surfaces 112a, 112b by a predetermined distance. In the embodiments wherein only one cutting element, e.g., 127a is shown, the cutting element 127a extends beyond the sealing surfaces 112a, 112b and 122a and 122b to define the aforementioned gap range between the opposing sealing surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b and 122b. When two (or more) cutting elements 127a and 127b are employed (i.e., at least one disposed within each insulator 113 and 123) the combination of the cutting elements 127a and 127b yield the desired gap distance within the working gap range. During sealing, the opposing sealing surfaces 112a, 122a and 112b, 122b are activated to seal the tissue disposed therebetween to create two tissue seals on either side of the insulators 113 and 123. During the cutting phase, the cutting elements 127a and 127b are energized with a first electrical potential “+” and the right opposing sealing surfaces 112b and 122b are energized with a second electrical potential “−”. This creates a concentrated electrical path between the potentials “+” and “−” through the tissue to cut the tissue between the previously formed tissue seals. Once the tissue is cut, the jaw members 110 and 120 are opened to release the two tissue halves. FIG. 3B discloses another embodiment according to the present disclosure which includes similar elements as described above with respect to FIG. 3A, namely, sealing surfaces 312a, 312b and 322a, 322b, insulators 313 and 323 and cutting elements 327a and 327b with the exception that the left side of each insulator 313 and 323 is extended beyond sealing surfaces 312a and 322a to a position which is flush with the cutting elements 327a and 327b. The right side of each insulator 313 and 323 is set back from sealing surfaces 312a and 312b, respectively. It is envisioned that configuring the electrode assembly 305 in this fashion will reduce stray current concentrations between electrically conductive surfaces 312a, 312b and 322a, 322b and cutting elements 327a and 327b especially during the cutting phase. FIG. 3C discloses yet another embodiment according to the present disclosure and includes similar elements as above, namely, sealing surfaces 412a, 412b and 422a, 422b, insulators 413 and 423 and cutting elements 327a and 327b. With this particular embodiment, during the cutting phase, both sets of opposing sealing surfaces 412a, 422a and 412b, 422b are energized with the second electrical potential “−” and the cutting elements 427a and 427b are energized to the first electrical potential “+”. It is believed that this electrode assembly 405 will create concentrated electrical paths between the potentials “+” and “−” through the tissue to cut the tissue between the previously formed tissue seals. FIG. 3D shows an electrode assembly 505 configuration similar to FIG. 3B with a similar electrical configuration to the embodiment of FIG. 3C. The electrode assembly 505 includes and includes similar components as described above, namely, sealing surfaces 512a, 512b and 522a, 522b, insulators 513 and 523 and cutting elements 527a and 527b. The opposing sealing electrodes 512a, 522b and 512a, 522b are energized to the second electrical potential “−” during the cutting phase, which as described above is believed to enhance tissue cutting. It is envisioned that with particular embodiments like FIGS. 3C and 3D, it may be easier to manufacture the electrode assembly 505 such that all of the sealing surfaces 512a, 512b and 522a, 522b are energized to the same electrical potential rather than employ complicated switching algorithms and/or circuitry to energize only select sealing surfaces like FIGS. 3A and 3B. FIG. 3E shows yet another embodiment of the electrode assembly 605 which includes opposing sealing surfaces 612a, 622a and 612b, 622b, cutting element 627 and insulators 613 and 623. As can be appreciated by this particular embodiment, the electrode assembly 605 only includes one cutting element 627 disposed within insulator 613 for cutting tissue. The cutting element 627 is disposed opposite insulator 623 which provides a dual function during activation of the electrode assembly 605: 1) provides a uniform gap between sealing surfaces 612a, 622a and 612b, 622b during the sealing phase; and 2) prevents the electrode assembly 605 from shorting during the sealing and cutting phases. During activation, the cutting element 627 is energized to a first potential “+” and the opposing sealing surfaces 612a, 622a and 612b, 622b are energized to a second electrical potential “−” which creates an area of high power density between the two previously formed tissue seals and cuts the tissue. FIG. 3F shows yet another alternate embodiment of the electrode assembly 705 which includes similar elements as described above, namely, sealing surfaces 712a, 712b and 722a, 722b, cutting elements 727a and 727b and insulators 713 and 723. During activation, only three of the four sealing surfaces are energized to the second potential “−”, e.g., sealing surfaces 712a, 712b and 722b while the cutting elements 727a and 727b are energized to the first potential “+”. It is envisioned that during the cutting phase, this particular electrode assembly 705 arrangement will produce a diagonally-oriented, left-to-right cut line between the previously formed tissue seals which may be suited for a particular surgical purpose. FIGS. 4A and 4B shows yet another embodiment of the electrode assembly 805 according to the present disclosure showing tissue disposed between the two jaw members 810 and 820 prior to activation of the sealing surfaces 812a, 812b and 822a, 822b. With this particular embodiment, the insulators 813 and 823 are configured to have opposing triangular like cross sections which essentially “pinch” the tissue between the insulators 813 and 823 when tissue is grasped between jaw members 810 and 820. During sealing, energy is applied to the tissue through the opposing sealing plates 812a, 822a and 812b, 822b to effect two tissue seals on either side of the insulators 813 and 823. During the cutting phase, sealing electrodes 812a and 822a are energized to a first potential “+” and sealing plates 812b and 822b are energized to the second electrical potential “−” such that energy flows in the direction of the indicated arrow “A”. In other words, it is believed that the pinching of the tissue tends to control or direct the energy concentration to specific tissue areas to effect tissue cutting. Turning now to FIGS. 4C-4J which show various geometrical configurations for the upper jaw member 910 for the electrode assembly 905 which may be utilized with a symmetrical or asymmetrical lower jaw member (not shown) to effectively seal and subsequently cut tissue. Using the various geometries of the jaw members tends to “pinch” the tissue during sealing prior to separation which is envisioned will enhance the tissue cutting process especially when the pinched tissue areas are subject to high power densities. For the purposes herein, the pinch may be described as the area of smallest tissue volume anywhere between the active tissue poles. Typically, the pinched tissue area is associated with high pressure. Many of the below described jaw configurations illustrate the pinch concept and are envisioned to utilize a variety of polarity configurations to enhance or facilitate cutting. For the purposes of clarification, only the polarity associated with the cutting phase is depicted on each figure. Moreover, it is envisioned that any combination of electrical potential as hereinbefore described may be utilized with the various jaw members (and each jaw members opposing jaw member) to effectively seal tissue during a first electrical phase and cut tissue during a subsequent electrical phase. As such, the illustrated jaw members are labeled with a first electrical potential “+”, however, it is envisioned that the lower jaw member inclusive of the sealing surfaces and cutting elements (which may or may not be a mirror image of the upper jaw member) may be energized with any combination of first and second electrical potential(s) (or other electrical potentials) to effectively seal and subsequently cut tissue disposed between the jaw members. FIG. 4C shows one particular upper jaw member 910 which includes a sealing surface 912 having a U-shaped recess 921 defined therein for housing insulator 913. A cutting element 927 is disposed within insulator 913 and is dimensioned to extend beyond the sealing surface 912. The cutting element 927 may be an electrode or may be made from a partially conductive material. FIG. 4D shows a jaw member 1010 which forms part of an electrode assembly 1005 which includes two sealing surfaces 1012a and 1012b with an insulator 1013 disposed therebetween. The insulator 1013 includes a cutting element 1027 disposed therein which extends beyond the sealing surfaces 1012a and 1012b much like the embodiments described above with respect to FIGS. 3A-3F. Again the cutting element 1027 may be an electrode or made from a semi-conductor material. However and as mentioned above, a different geometrically-shaped jaw member may be disposed opposite jaw member 1010 with different electrical potentials to produce a particular sealing and cutting effect. FIGS. 4E-4J show various geometrical configurations of at least one jaw member which is configured to both seal tissue during a first sealing phase and cut tissue during a subsequent cutting phase. In each instance, the particular geometrical configuration of the insulator is designed to focus current into high areas of power density to produce a cutting effect and/or reduce the likelihood of current straying to adjacent tissue which may ultimately damage the adjacent tissue structures. For example, FIG. 4E shows a jaw member 1110 which may be utilized with the electrode assembly 1105 which includes sealing surfaces 1112a and 1112b which are separated by a partially conductive material 1113. A mirror-like jaw member 1120 is shown in opposition to jaw member 1110 and includes similar elements, namely, sealing surfaces 1122a and 1122b and partially conductive material 1123. In this particular embodiment, the partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 are generally rounded to include and apexes 1151a and 1151b, respectively, which extend beyond the sealing surfaces 1112a, 1112b and 1122a, 1122b. The partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 are preferably made from a material which have conductive properties which over time generate areas of high power density at the apexes 1151a and 1151b to cut tissue disposed thereunder. A series of stop members 1160a and 1160 and preferably disposed on surfaces 1112a and 1122b and prevent the apexes 1151a and 1151b from touching and shorting. It is envisioned that during the sealing phase (not shown) the partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 are not energized and will generally act more as insulating materials since by its nature it is only semi-conductive and are not as conductive as sealing surfaces 1112a, 1112b and 1122a, 1122b. In other words, the current will be supplied to the sealing plates 1112a, 1112b and 1122a, 1122b and not directly to the partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 thereby producing the majority of the electrical effect between the opposing sealing plates 1112a, 1122a and 1112b, 1122b of the jaw members 1110 and 1120. During the cutting phase (as shown), an electrical potential is supplied directly to the partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 which is believed will make them more conductive and which produce areas of high power density in the vicinity of the apexes 1151a and 1151b to cut the tissue. For example, partially conductive material 1113 is supplied with a first potential and partially conductive material 1123 is supplied with a second potential to facilitate cutting. Jaw member 1120 may also be configured to include a different geometrical configuration from jaw member 1110 to produce a particular cutting effect. Moreover, an insulator (not shown) may be disposed between one or both of the partially conductive materials 1113 and 1123 and its respective sealing surface to reduce electrical conduction or heat transfer between or across these elements. FIG. 4F shows a similar electrode assembly 1205 having sealing surfaces 1212a and 1212b which are separated by a partially conductive material 1213 and wherein the partially conductive material 1213 is generally rounded but does not extend beyond the sealing surfaces 1212a and 1212b. The partially conductive material 1213 is preferably made from a material such as those identified above which produces an area of high power density at the apex 1251 to cut tissue disposed thereunder during the cutting phase. Again, the opposite jaw member (not shown) may be configured as a mirror image of the jaw member 1210 or may include a different geometrical configuration. FIG. 4G shows another geometric configuration of a jaw member 1310 which includes sealing surfaces 1312a and 1312b separated by a partially conductive material 1313 wherein the partially conductive material is set back between the sealing surface 1312a and 1312b to define a recess 1349 therein. FIG. 4H shows yet another geometric configuration of a jaw member 1410 which forms part of an electrode assembly 1405 and which includes sealing surface 1412 and a partially conductive material 1413. As can be appreciated this particular arrangement does not include a second sealing surface on the upper jaw member 1410 but instead the partially conductive material 1413 includes a notch-like recess 1449 defined therein which has a cutting tip 1451 which extends beyond sealing surface 1412. It is envisioned that the cutting tip 1451 extends beyond the sealing surface 1412 enough to both maintain the necessary gap distance during the sealing phase and to eventually facilitate tissue cutting during the cutting phase by producing an area of high power density at the tip 1451. Again, the opposite jaw member (not shown) may be configured as a mirror image of the jaw member 1410 or may include a different geometrical configuration. FIG. 4I includes yet another geometric configuration of the upper jaw member 1510 which forms part of an electrode assembly 1505 and which includes sealing surfaces 1512a and 1512b which are separated by an insulator 1513. The insulator 1513 includes a generally rectilinear-shaped semi-conductive cutting element 1527 disposed therein which extends beyond the sealing surfaces 1512a and 1512b. As can be appreciated, during the cutting phase, the semi-conductive cutting element 1527 is energized by a first potential “+” and the sealing plates 1512a, 1512b is energized to a second potential “−”. The insulator 1513 isolates the potentials between the partially conductive material 1527 and the sealing surfaces 1512a and 1512b during activation. FIG. 4J shows still yet another geometric configuration showing a jaw member 1610 for an electrode assembly 1605 which is similar to FIG. 4C above which includes a C-shaped sealing plate 1612 having a recess 1621 defined therein for housing an insulator 1613. The insulator 1613 includes a semi-conductive cutting element 1627 housed therein for cutting tissue. During the cutting phase, the semi-conductive cutting element 1627 is energized to a first potential “+” and the sealing plate 1612 is energized to a second potential “−” to effect tissue cutting. Again, the lower or second jaw member (not shown) may include the same geometric configuration to enhance the cutting process. FIG. 5 shows a schematically-illustrated example of electrical circuitry for an electrode assembly 1905 which may be utilized to initially seal tissue between the sealing plates and subsequently cut tissue once the tissue seal(s) are formed. More particularly, jaw member 1910 includes insulative housing 1916 which is dimensioned to house conductive sealing plates 1912a and 1912b with an insulator or partially conductive material 1913 disposed therebetween. Insulator/partially conductive material 1913 includes a recess 1921 defined therein which is dimensioned to retain a generally triangularly-shaped cutting element 1927 which extends beyond sealing surfaces 1912a and 1912b. Jaw member 1920 includes an outer insulative housing 1926 which is dimensioned to house electrically conductive sealing surface 1922. Sealing surface 1922 includes a recess 1933 defined therein which generally compliments the cross sectional profile of cutting element 1927. Preferably, the cutting element 1927 is dimensioned slightly larger than the recess 1933 such that a gap is formed when the jaw members are closed about tissue, the gap being within the above-identified working range. During sealing (Vseal), the sealing plates 1912a and 1912b are energized to a first potential “+1” and sealing plate 1922 is energized to a second potential “−”. The cutting element is not energized. Since the insulator or semi-conductor does not conduct energy as well as the conductive sealing plates 1912a and 1912b, the first potential is not effectively or efficiently transferred to the cutting element 1927 and the tissue is not necessarily heated or damaged during the sealing phase. During the sealing phase energy is transferred from the sealing plates 1912a and 1912b through the tissue and to the return electrode 1922 (Vreturn). It is believed that even if some energy is effectively transferred to the cutting element 1927 during the sealing phase, it will simply preheat or pre-treat the tissue prior to separation and should not effect the cutting phase. During the sealing phase, the cutting element 1927 mainly acts as a stop member for creating and maintaining a gap between the opposing sealing surfaces 1912a, 1912b and 1922. During the cutting phase (Vcut), a first potential “+2” is supplied to the cutting element 1927 and a second potential “−” is supplied to the sealing surface 1922. The electrical parameters (power, current, waveform, etc.) associated with this phase may be the same or different than the potentials used for the sealing phase. It is believed that similar first and second potentials may be utilized since different components with varying geometries are being energized which by themselves are envisioned to create different electrical effects. As can be appreciated, during the cutting phase energy is transferred from the cutting element 1927 through the tissue and to the return electrode 1922 (Vreturn). It is believed that even if some energy is transferred to the sealing plates 1912a and 1912b during the cutting phase through the insulator/semi-conductor 1913, it will not detrimentally effect the already formed tissue seals. Moreover, it is believed that one or more sensors (not shown), computer algorithms and/or feedback controls associated with the generator or internally disposed within the forceps may be employed to prevent overheating of the tissue during the sealing and cutting phases. FIGS. 6A-6D show additional embodiments of jaw members having various electrode assemblies which may be utilized for sealing and cutting tissue disposed between the jaw members. For example, FIG. 6A shows a first or upper jaw member 2010 for use with an electrode assembly 2005 which includes an electrically conductive sealing surface 2012 having a recess 2021 defined therein dimensioned to house an insulator 2013. The insulator also includes a notch 2049 disposed therein which partially houses a generally rectilinearly-shaped cutting electrode 2027. Electrode 2027 is preferably recessed or set back within notch 2049. Jaw member 2020 includes an electrically conductive sealing surface 2022 which is disposed in substantial vertical registration with opposing sealing surface 2012. Sealing surface 2022 includes a generally rectilinearly-shaped insulator 2023 which extends towards jaw member 2010 and is configured to abut electrode 2027 when the jaw members 2010 and 2020 are moved into the closed position about tissue. As can be appreciated, the insulator 2023 acts as a stop member and creates a gap distance within the above working range during the sealing process. In addition, the two insulators 2013 and 2023 insulate the upper jaw member 2010 during the cutting phase and generally direct the cutting current from the cutting element 2027 in an intense fashion towards the return electrode 2022 (Vreturn) to effectively cut tissue. FIG. 6B shows yet another embodiment of an electrode assembly 2105 disposed on jaw members 2110 and 2120. More particularly, jaw members 2110 and 2120 include electrically conductive sealing surfaces 2112 and 2122, respectively, disposed in general vertical registration relative to one another and which are configured to seal tissue during the sealing phase. Much like the embodiment described above with respect to FIG. 6A, jaw member 2110 includes a recess 2121 defined therein dimensioned to house an insulator 2113. Jaw member 2120 includes an electrically conductive sealing surface 2122 which is disposed in substantial vertical registration with opposing sealing surface 2112. Jaw member 2120 includes an insulator 2123 disposed therein which is disposed opposite recess 2121. The insulator 2113 also includes a T-shaped cutting element 2127 housed therein which defines two notches 2149a and 2149b on either side of a leg or extension 2127a which extends towards jaw member 2120. The cutting element 2127 is preferably made from a relatively low conductive material and includes an area of highly conductive material 2139 disposed at the distal end of the leg 2127a. The highly conductive material 2139 is disposed in vertical registration with the insulator 2123 disposed in jaw member 2120. During activation of the cutting phase, it is believed that the highly conductive material 2139 will focus the cutting current in an intense fashion towards the return electrode 2122 (Vreturn) to cut the tissue disposed between jaw members 2110 and 2120. FIG. 6C shows yet another set of jaw members 2210 and 2220 with an electrode assembly 2205 disposed thereon for sealing and cutting tissue. More particularly, jaw member 2210 includes an electrically conductive sealing surface 2212 having a recessed portion 2221 disposed therein for housing an insulator 2213 which, in turn, houses a generally V-shaped cutting element 2227 therein. Jaw member 2220 includes an electrically conductive sealing surface 2222 which opposes sealing surface 2212 on jaw member 2210. During the sealing phase, sealing surfaces 2212 and 2222 conduct electrosurgical energy through tissue held therebetween to effect a tissue seal. V-shaped cutting element 2227 acts as a stop member during the sealing phase. During the cutting phase, V-shaped cutting element 2227 pinches the tissue held between the jaw members 2210 and 2220 and when activated directs electrosurgical energy through the tissue in an intense fashion around insulator 2213 and towards sealing surface 2212. Jaw member 2220 remains neutral during the cutting phase and is not believed to significantly alter the direction of the electrical path to adversely effect the cutting process. FIG. 6D shows yet another embodiment of jaw members 2310 and 2320 having an alternative electrode assembly 2305 for sealing and cutting tissue. More particularly, the electrode assembly 2305 is similar to the electrode configuration of the embodiment described with respect to FIG. 6C with the exception that the lower jaw member 2320 includes an insulator 2323 disposed in vertical registration with the cutting element 2327 disposed within the recess 2321 of the upper jaw member 2310. In this instance, the cutting element 2327 is dimensioned to be wider than the insulator 2323 such that the rear portions of the V-shaped cutting element extend laterally beyond the insulator 2323 when the jaw members 2310 and 2320 are disposed in the closed position. In other words the, cutting element 2327 includes an overhang portion which is disposed in opposing vertical registration with the return electrode 2322. The insulator 2313 disposed within the recess 2321 of the upper jaw member 2310 helps to direct the electrosurgical energy towards the return electrode 2322 during cutting and reduces stray currents to adjacent tissue structures. During the sealing phase, sealing surfaces 2312 and 2322 conduct electrosurgical energy through tissue held therebetween to effect two tissues seals on opposite sides of insulator 2313. V-shaped cutting element 2327 acts as a stop member during the sealing phase. During the cutting phase, jaw member 2310 is neutralized and cutting element 2327 is energized such that electrosurgical energy is directed from the cutting element 2327 through tissue held between the jaw members 2310 and 2320 and to the return electrode 2322 (Vreturn). It is believed that the V-shaped cutting element 2327 will direct energy to the return electrode 2322 in an intense fashion around insulator 2323 and towards sealing surface 2212 to effectively cut the tissue between the already formed tissue seals. FIGS. 7A-7D show various geometric configurations of cutting elements and insulators for use with the electrode assemblies of forceps 10, 100 according to the present disclosure. For example, FIG. 7A shows one embodiment wherein one of the electrode assemblies 2405 includes jaw members 2420 having first and second electrically conductive sealing surfaces 2422a and 2422b which are of opposite electrical potentials and which are separated by a trapeziodally-shaped insulator 2423 which extends beyond each respective sealing surface 2422a and 2422b. As can be appreciated the particular shape of the frustoconically-shaped insulator 2423 forms two recessed portions 2459a and 2459b between the sealing surfaces 2422a, 2422b and the insulator 2423 which is envisioned to both pinch the tissue between the insulator 2423 and the opposing surface (e.g., another insulator or conductive surface) and control the electrosurgical energy during activation to facilitate cutting. FIG. 7B shows another similar embodiment which includes a frustoconcically-shaped insulator 2523 which does not extend beyond the sealing surfaces 2522a and 2522b but is actually slightly set back from the sealing surfaces 2522a and 2522b. Again, the particular shape of the trapeziodally-shaped insulator 2523 forms two recessed portions 2559a and 2559b between the sealing surfaces 2522a, 2522b and the insulator 2523 which is envisioned to control the electrosurgical energy during activation to enhance the cutting process. FIG. 7C shows another geometrical configuration of an electrode assembly 2605 which includes one active electrically conductive surface 2622a and one neutral electrically conductive surface 2622b during the cutting phase. A cutting element 2627 is disposed between the two surfaces 2622a and 2622b and is separated from the surfaces by an insulator 2623 which is recessed between the two surfaces 2622a and 2622b to form notches or set back areas 2659a and 2659b. The cutting element 2627 is designed with a smaller radius of curvature than the active electrode 2622a such that during the cutting phase, electrosurgical energy is intensified to create a sufficient power density to effectively cut tissue proximate the cutting element 2627. FIG. 7D shows another geometric configuration of an electrode assembly 2705 similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 7C above wherein the insulator 2723 is configured to be generally flush with the surfaces 2722a and 2722b. The cutting element 2727 is disposed within the insulator 2723 and extends from both the insulator 2723 and the surfaces 2722a and 2722b towards an opposing surface on the other jaw member (not shown). It is believed that the shape of the insulator 2723 will direct intensified electrosurgical current between the cutting element 2727 and the active conductive surface 2722a. FIG. 7E shows yet another electrode assembly 2805 having a jaw member 2820 with a geometric configuration similar FIG. 7C above wherein the insulator 2823 is recessed between the two sealing surfaces 2822a and 2822b. A generally rounded cutting element 2827 is disposed within the insulator 2823. The cutting element 2827 includes a larger radius of curvature than the radius of curvature of the active surface 2822a such that during the cutting phase, electrosurgical energy is intensified to effectively cut tissue proximate the cutting element 2827. As can be appreciated, the various geometrical configurations and electrical arrangements of the aforementioned electrode assemblies allow the surgeon to initially activate the two opposing electrically conductive tissue contacting surfaces and seal the tissue and, subsequently, selectively and independently activate the cutting element and one or more tissue contacting surfaces to cut the tissue utilizing the various above-described and shown electrode assembly configurations. Hence, the tissue is initially sealed and thereafter cut without re-grasping the tissue. However, it is envisioned that the cutting element and one or more tissue contacting surfaces may also be activated to simply cut tissue/vessels without initially sealing. For example, the jaw members may be positioned about tissue and the cutting element may be selectively activated to separate or simply coagulate tissue. This type of alternative embodiment may be particularly useful during certain endoscopic procedures wherein an electrosurgical pencil is typically introduced to coagulate and/or dissect tissue during the operating procedure. A switch 70 may be employed to allow the surgeon to selectively activate one or more tissue contacting surfaces or the cutting element independently of one another. As can be appreciated, this allows the surgeon to initially seal tissue and then activate the cutting element by simply turning the switch. Rocker switches, toggle switches, flip switches, dials, etc. are types of switches which can be commonly employed to accomplish this purpose. It is also envisioned that the switch may cooperate with the smart sensor (or smart circuit, computer, feedback loop, etc.) which automatically triggers the switch to change between the “sealing” mode and the “cutting” mode upon the satisfaction of a particular parameter. For example, the smart sensor may include a feedback loop which indicates when a tissue seal is complete based upon one or more of the following parameters: tissue temperature, tissue impedance at the seal, change in impedance of the tissue over time and/or changes in the power or current applied to the tissue over time. An audible or visual feedback monitor may be employed to convey information to the surgeon regarding the overall seal quality or the completion of an effective tissue seal. A separate lead may be connected between the smart sensor and the generator for visual and/or audible feedback purposes. Preferably, the generator 500 delivers energy to the tissue in a pulse-like waveform. It has been determined that delivering the energy in pulses increases the amount of sealing energy which can be effectively delivered to the tissue and reduces unwanted tissue effects such as charring. Moreover, the feedback loop of the smart sensor can be configured to automatically measure various tissue parameters during sealing (i.e., tissue temperature, tissue impedance, current through the tissue) and automatically adjust the energy intensity and number of pulses as needed to reduce various tissue effects such as charring and thermal spread. It has also been determined that RF pulsing may be used to more effectively cut tissue. For example, an initial pulse from the cutting element through the tissue (or the tissue contacting surfaces through the tissue) may be delivered to provide feedback to the smart sensor for selection of the ideal number of subsequent pulses and subsequent pulse intensity to effectively and consistently cut the amount or type of tissue with minimal effect on the tissue seal. If the energy is not pulsed, the tissue may not initially cut but desiccate since tissue impedance remains high during the initial stages of cutting. By providing the energy in short, high energy pulses, it has been found that the tissue is more likely to cut. Alternatively, a switch may be configured to activate based upon a desired cutting parameter and/or after an effective seal is created or has been verified. For example, after effectively sealing the tissue, the cutting element may be automatically activated based upon a desired end tissue thickness at the seal. As mentioned in many of the above embodiments, upon compression of the tissue, the cutting element acts as a stop member and creates a gap “G” between the opposing conductive tissue contacting surfaces. Preferably and particularly with respect to vessel sealing, the gap distance is in the range of about 0.001 to about 0.006 inches. As mentioned above, controlling both the gap distance “G” and clamping pressure between conductive surfaces are two important mechanical parameters which need to be properly controlled to assure a consistent and effective tissue seal. The surgeon activates the generator to transmit electrosurgical energy to the tissue contacting surfaces and through the tissue to effect a seal. As a result of the unique combination of the clamping pressure, gap distance “G” and electrosurgical energy, the tissue collagen melts into a fused mass with limited demarcation between opposing vessel walls. Once sealed, the surgeon activates the cutting element to cut the tissue. As mentioned above, the surgeon does not necessarily need to re-grasp the tissue to cut, i.e., the cutting element is already positioned proximate the ideal, center cutting line of the seal. During the cutting phase, highly concentrated electrosurgical energy travels from the cutting element through the tissue to cut the tissue into two distinct halves. As mentioned above, the number of pulses required to effectively cut the tissue and the intensity of the cutting energy may be determined by measuring the seal thickness and/or tissue impedance and/or based upon an initial calibrating energy pulse which measures similar parameters. A smart sensor (not shown) or feedback loop may be employed for this purpose. As can be appreciated, the forceps may be configured to automatically cut the tissue once sealed or the instrument may be configured to permit the surgeon to selectively divide the tissue once sealed. Moreover, it is envisioned that an audible or visual indicator (not shown) may be triggered by a sensor (not shown) to alert the surgeon when an effective seal has been created. The sensor may, for example, determine if a seal is complete by measuring one of tissue impedance, tissue opaqueness and/or tissue temperature. Commonly-owned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/427,832 which is hereby incorporated by reference herein describes several electrical systems which may be employed to provide positive feedback to the surgeon to determine tissue parameters during and after sealing and to determine the overall effectiveness of the tissue seal. Preferably, the electrosurgical intensity from each of the electrically conductive surfaces and cutting elements is selectively or automatically controllable to assure consistent and accurate cutting along the centerline of the tissue in view of the inherent variations in tissue type and/or tissue thickness. Moreover, it is contemplated that the entire surgical process may be automatically controlled such that after the tissue is initially grasped the surgeon may simply activate the forceps to seal and subsequently cut tissue. In this instance, the generator may be configured to communicate with one or more sensors (not shown) to provide positive feedback to the generator during both the sealing and cutting processes to insure accurate and consistent sealing and division of tissue. As mentioned above, commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/427,832 discloses a variety of feedback mechanisms which may be employed for this purpose. From the foregoing and with reference to the various figure drawings, those skilled in the art will appreciate that certain modifications can also be made to the present disclosure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. For example, it is contemplated that cutting element may be dimensioned as a cutting wire which is selectively activatable by the surgeon to divide the tissue after sealing. More particularly, a wire is mounted within the insulator between the jaw members and is selectively energizable upon activation of the switch. The forceps may be designed such that it is fully or partially disposable depending upon a particular purpose or to achieve a particular result. For example, the electrode assembly may be selectively and releasably engageable with the distal end of the shaft and/or the proximal end of shaft may be selectively and releasably engageable with the housing and the handle assembly. In either of these two instances, the forceps would be considered “partially disposable” or “reposable”, i.e., a new or different electrode assembly (or electrode assembly and shaft) selectively replaces the old electrode assembly as needed. It is envisioned that the electrode assembly could be selectively detachable (i.e., reposable) from the shaft depending upon a particular purpose, e.g., it is contemplated that specific forceps could be configured for different tissue types or thicknesses. Moreover, it is envisioned that a reusable forceps could be sold as a kit having different electrodes assemblies for different tissue types. The surgeon simply selects the appropriate electrode assembly for a particular tissue type. It is also envisioned that the forceps could include a mechanical or electrical lockout mechanism which prevents the sealing surfaces and/or the cutting element from being unintentionally activated when the jaw members are disposed in the open configuration. Although the subject forceps and electrode assemblies have been described with respect to preferred embodiments, it will be readily apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art to which it appertains that changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject devices. For example, although the specification and drawing disclose that the electrically conductive surfaces may be employed to initially seal tissue prior to electrically cutting tissue in one of the many ways described herein, it is also envisioned that the electrically conductive surfaces may be configured and electrically designed to perform any known bipolar or monopolar function such as electrocautery, hemostasis, and/or desiccation utilizing one or both jaw members to treat the tissue. Moreover, the jaw members in their presently described and illustrated formation may be energized to simply cut tissue without initially sealing tissue which may prove beneficial during particular surgical procedures. Moreover, it is contemplated that the various geometries of the jaw members, cutting elements, insulators and semi-conductive materials and the various electrical configurations associated therewith may be utilized for other surgical instrumentation depending upon a particular purpose, e.g., cutting instruments, coagulation instruments, electrosurgical scissors, etc. While several embodiments of the disclosure have been shown in the drawings, it is not intended that the disclosure be limited thereto, as it is intended that the disclosure be as broad in scope as the art will allow and that the specification be read likewise. Therefore, the above description should not be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplifications of preferred embodiments. Those skilled in the art will envision other modifications within the scope and spirit of the claims appended hereto.
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A
| 7A61
| 17A61B
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18
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14
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11826439
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US20080033289A1-20080207
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Control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus
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ACCEPTED
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20080123
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20080207
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[]
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A61B600
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["A61B600"]
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9078960
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20070716
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20150714
|
600
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431000
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67804.0
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HOFFA
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ANGELA
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Haras", "inventor_name_first": "Gabriel", "inventor_city": "Mucke", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "DE"}]
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A control apparatus is disclosed, for a medical examination apparatus, for controlling a first injection of contrast agent for an examination, a breathing command and a recording of an examination image of an examination area of a patient after a circulation time has elapsed. In at least one embodiment, the control apparatus includes a control unit for controlling the start of the injection after the start of the breathing command. This makes it possible to provide reliable evaluation capability for the examination images that are produced, even for examinations with a circulation time which is short in comparison to the breathing command, for example perfusion examinations.
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1. A control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus for controlling a first injection of contrast agent for an examination, a breathing command and a recording of an examination image of an examination area of a patient after a circulation time has elapsed, the control apparatus comprising: a control unit to control a start of the injection after a start of the breathing command. 2. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to determine a delay time for the injection from a difference between a duration of the breathing command and the circulation time. 3. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to control a start of the breathing command immediately after a start signal has been entered by an operator. 4. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to process an entered circulation time, independently of a length of the breathing command. 5. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to control a start of an injection as a function of a breathing command parameter. 6. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to determine a delay time in addition to the circulation time. 7. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the control unit is provided to process different command lengths of breathing commands. 8. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 7, wherein the control unit is provided to output operator information if the command length is greater than the circulation time. 9. An imaging medical examination apparatus comprising a control apparatus as claimed in claim 1. 10. The imaging medical examination apparatus as claimed in claim 9, further comprising: a contrast agent injector including a control unit for checking and processing a delay time in addition to the circulation time. 11. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the control unit is provided to control the start of the breathing command immediately after a start signal has been entered by an operator. 12. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the control unit is provided to process an entered circulation time, independently of a length of the breathing command. 13. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 11, wherein the control unit is provided to process an entered circulation time, independently of a length of the breathing command. 14. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the control unit is provided to control a start of an injection as a function of a breathing command parameter. 15. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the control unit is provided to determine a delay time in addition to the circulation time. 16. The control apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the control unit is provided to process different command lengths of breathing commands. 17. A control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus for controlling a first injection of contrast agent for an examination and a breathing command, the control apparatus comprising: a control unit to control a start of the injection after a start of the breathing command. 18. An imaging medical examination apparatus comprising a control apparatus as claimed in claim 17.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In the case of imaging medical examination processes, such as computed tomography (CT), magnet resonance processes (MR), X-ray processes or the like, it is frequently necessary for the patient who is to be examined to hold his or her breath while the image is being recorded, in order to avoid image artifacts caused by breathing movements. For this purpose, a breathing command is passed to the patient before the image is recorded, for example “breathe in—breathe out—breathe in—hold breath”. The breathing command can be produced in an automated fashion from a memory via an appropriate voice output, which emits the stored text via a loudspeaker into the patient area and, for example, is fitted in the gantry of a CT system. When the examination process starts, the breathing command is started automatically, and the image recording is delayed until the breathing command has been completed, and the patient is holding his or her breath. During an examination using contrast agent, a contrast agent pump can be activated in addition to the breathing command at the start of the examination process. The contrast agent is typically injected intravenously before or during the image recording, with the image recording being started as soon as the contrast agent is in the examination area. In order to keep the radiation dose low, the irradiation for image recording is delayed for a so-called circulation time, during which the contrast agent is transported to the examination area. By way of example, one such process is disclosed in DE 198 11 349 C1. In the case of perfusion examinations, an automated breathing command is particularly important, since the patient has to hold his or her breath for a relatively long time, for example of more than 40 seconds, and the examination is therefore “corrupting by breathing” without a good initial breathing control, and can therefore no longer be evaluated. Owing to the relatively high radiation load involved with a CT perfusion examination, for example of 1 scan per second over 40 seconds, repetition resulting from problems of time coordination should be avoided in all circumstances. Furthermore, as little contrast agent as possible should be given, in order to minimize adverse health effects of the contrast agent. Since perfusion examinations are typically carried out closely related in time to other CT examinations, in which contrast agent must likewise be used, it is impossible to repeat the examination, since this would result in the maximum permissible daily dose being exceeded.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In at least one embodiment of the invention, a control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus is disclosed, by which comprehensive breathing commands can be automated in order in this way to allow the examination images that are produced to be evaluated reliably. A control apparatus, according to at least one embodiment of the invention, includes a control unit for controlling the start of the injection after the start of the breathing command. The procedure for perfusion processes, for example, can also be automated for breathing commands of different length, and can be made considerably simpler for an operator. Error sources resulting from manual control can be avoided, therefore allowing the examination to be carried out reliably. At least one embodiment of the invention is based on the idea that the circulation time for perfusion examinations is short, lasting for only a few seconds, since the aim is not only to make the examination area visible, but also to make the flow of contrast agent fully visible. In examinations such as these, the circulation time therefore ends before the contrast agent has reached the examination area. It may therefore be the time between the start of injection and the contrast agent reaching the examination area, or some other shorter time, which is used for the contrast agent to be transported in the direction of the examination area, without it reaching the examination area, in order to make it possible to observe the contrast agent entering and flowing through this area. It is also worthwhile starting the image recording even before the contrast agent arrives in the examination area in order to obtain at least one image that is free of contrast agent. This makes it possible to observe the contrast agent entering and subsequently flowing away from this area, thus making it possible to deduce characteristics of the examination area. For examinations such as these, the circulation time is normally set to 4 seconds. However, an expedient breathing command for examinations of this type lasts for eight or more seconds, in order to achieve blood oxygen saturation and therefore to allow the breath to be held reliably for a long time during the examination. It is helpful for the operator of the examination apparatus for him or her to be able to start the examination process and not to have to take any more action, for example to operate the contrast agent injector. Operator errors can be avoided by a single start command, and the process can be carried out reliably. However, if the examination process is started at a single command, then the breathing command starts at the same time as the start command for the contrast agent injector, which waits for the selected circulation time, and then injects the contrast agent. If the breathing command is long, it is not complete until the contrast agent has actually arrived in the examination area. If the image recording does not start until this time, then it is no longer possible to observe the agent entering the examination area. If the image recording starts prior to this, then the start of image recording can be affected by breathing by the end of the breathing command. If the start of the first injection of contrast agent is, according to at least one embodiment of the invention, delayed with respect to the breathing command, that is to say it is started after the start of the breathing command, then the circulation time can be set independently of the duration of the breathing command, for example to a short time period, and the image recording can be delayed until the breathing command has ended. The injection starts only after the delay, so that the circulation time expediently ends only at or after the end of the breathing command. The process can be started simply by a single command, and images which can be evaluated reliably can be achieved. The injection of contrast agent is the first injection for the examination, so that it is not preceded by any test bolus or the like. The first contrast agent is injected after a time which is free of contrast agent and lasts for at least five minutes, in order to ensure that the examination area is at least largely free of contrast agent before the examination, expediently after a time free of contrast agent lasting for at least one hour. At least one embodiment of the invention is suitable for all examinations carried out with contrast agent, in particular as an additional option for short circulation times and/or long breathing commands. The breathing command is advantageously produced automatically, for example from a tape or a data storage medium. Its length is therefore known. However, it is possible for an operator to select different breathing commands, for example in different languages and those in which the breathing is held after inspiration, as well as those in which the breathing is held after expiration. The duration of the breathing command is therefore not always the same, depending on the selected breathing command. In order to determine the time for starting the injection or the duration of the delay as appropriate for each breathing command, the time at which the injection is started is expediently chosen as a function of the length of the breathing command. One particularly simple relationship is provided if the control unit is provided in order to determine a delay time for the injection from the difference between the duration of the breathing command and the circulation time. If the breathing command is long, examination can be carried out quickly, if the control unit is provided in order to control the start of the breathing command immediately after a start signal has been entered by an operator. In a further advantageous refinement of at least one embodiment of the invention, the control unit is provided in order to process an entered circulation time independently of the length of the breathing command. The independence of the two variables allows the examination to be carried out flexibly and reliably. Any time difference between the length of the breathing command and the circulation time can be compensated for by the delay. The control unit is advantageously provided in order to output the circulation time, for example to a contrast agent injector, which autonomously controls the injection. If the output unit is provided in order to control the start of an injection as a function of a breathing command parameter, for example its duration, then the start of injection can be automated, and can be controlled reliably, for example on the basis of the start of the breathing command. The control unit is advantageously provided in order to determine a delay time in addition to the circulation time. This allows the delay according to at least one embodiment of the invention to be achieved easily, and to be controlled by different control units. For example, the delay time can be emitted to a control unit for the contrast agent injection, which autonomously controls the start of injection. A high degree of flexibility for the control apparatus can be achieved if the control unit is provided in order to process different breathing command lengths. Breathing commands in different languages and with different breathing parameters can be stored and processed, in which case the start of an injection can be controlled automatically as a function of the respective breathing command length. If the breathing command length is longer than the circulation time, then the delay is advantageously first of all controlled for the start of a process for a perfusion examination, rather than starting the injection immediately, as was previously normal. In order to inform the operator of this, it is advantageous for the control unit to be provided in order to output operator information if the breathing command length is greater than the circulation time. A further object of at least one embodiment of the invention is an imaging medical examination apparatus having a control apparatus as described above. If the examination apparatus is equipped with a contrast agent injector with a control unit for checking and processing a delay time in addition to the circulation time, the delay time determined by the control apparatus can be processed further by the control unit in order to autonomously control the start of the injection.
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PRIORITY STATEMENT The present application hereby claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 on German patent application number DE 10 2006 032 954.6 filed Jul. 17, 2006, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIELD Embodiments of the invention generally relate to a control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus, such as one, for example, for controlling a first injection of contrast agent for an examination, a breathing command and a recording of an examination image of an examination area of a patient after a circulation time has elapsed. BACKGROUND In the case of imaging medical examination processes, such as computed tomography (CT), magnet resonance processes (MR), X-ray processes or the like, it is frequently necessary for the patient who is to be examined to hold his or her breath while the image is being recorded, in order to avoid image artifacts caused by breathing movements. For this purpose, a breathing command is passed to the patient before the image is recorded, for example “breathe in—breathe out—breathe in—hold breath”. The breathing command can be produced in an automated fashion from a memory via an appropriate voice output, which emits the stored text via a loudspeaker into the patient area and, for example, is fitted in the gantry of a CT system. When the examination process starts, the breathing command is started automatically, and the image recording is delayed until the breathing command has been completed, and the patient is holding his or her breath. During an examination using contrast agent, a contrast agent pump can be activated in addition to the breathing command at the start of the examination process. The contrast agent is typically injected intravenously before or during the image recording, with the image recording being started as soon as the contrast agent is in the examination area. In order to keep the radiation dose low, the irradiation for image recording is delayed for a so-called circulation time, during which the contrast agent is transported to the examination area. By way of example, one such process is disclosed in DE 198 11 349 C1. In the case of perfusion examinations, an automated breathing command is particularly important, since the patient has to hold his or her breath for a relatively long time, for example of more than 40 seconds, and the examination is therefore “corrupting by breathing” without a good initial breathing control, and can therefore no longer be evaluated. Owing to the relatively high radiation load involved with a CT perfusion examination, for example of 1 scan per second over 40 seconds, repetition resulting from problems of time coordination should be avoided in all circumstances. Furthermore, as little contrast agent as possible should be given, in order to minimize adverse health effects of the contrast agent. Since perfusion examinations are typically carried out closely related in time to other CT examinations, in which contrast agent must likewise be used, it is impossible to repeat the examination, since this would result in the maximum permissible daily dose being exceeded. SUMMARY In at least one embodiment of the invention, a control apparatus for a medical examination apparatus is disclosed, by which comprehensive breathing commands can be automated in order in this way to allow the examination images that are produced to be evaluated reliably. A control apparatus, according to at least one embodiment of the invention, includes a control unit for controlling the start of the injection after the start of the breathing command. The procedure for perfusion processes, for example, can also be automated for breathing commands of different length, and can be made considerably simpler for an operator. Error sources resulting from manual control can be avoided, therefore allowing the examination to be carried out reliably. At least one embodiment of the invention is based on the idea that the circulation time for perfusion examinations is short, lasting for only a few seconds, since the aim is not only to make the examination area visible, but also to make the flow of contrast agent fully visible. In examinations such as these, the circulation time therefore ends before the contrast agent has reached the examination area. It may therefore be the time between the start of injection and the contrast agent reaching the examination area, or some other shorter time, which is used for the contrast agent to be transported in the direction of the examination area, without it reaching the examination area, in order to make it possible to observe the contrast agent entering and flowing through this area. It is also worthwhile starting the image recording even before the contrast agent arrives in the examination area in order to obtain at least one image that is free of contrast agent. This makes it possible to observe the contrast agent entering and subsequently flowing away from this area, thus making it possible to deduce characteristics of the examination area. For examinations such as these, the circulation time is normally set to 4 seconds. However, an expedient breathing command for examinations of this type lasts for eight or more seconds, in order to achieve blood oxygen saturation and therefore to allow the breath to be held reliably for a long time during the examination. It is helpful for the operator of the examination apparatus for him or her to be able to start the examination process and not to have to take any more action, for example to operate the contrast agent injector. Operator errors can be avoided by a single start command, and the process can be carried out reliably. However, if the examination process is started at a single command, then the breathing command starts at the same time as the start command for the contrast agent injector, which waits for the selected circulation time, and then injects the contrast agent. If the breathing command is long, it is not complete until the contrast agent has actually arrived in the examination area. If the image recording does not start until this time, then it is no longer possible to observe the agent entering the examination area. If the image recording starts prior to this, then the start of image recording can be affected by breathing by the end of the breathing command. If the start of the first injection of contrast agent is, according to at least one embodiment of the invention, delayed with respect to the breathing command, that is to say it is started after the start of the breathing command, then the circulation time can be set independently of the duration of the breathing command, for example to a short time period, and the image recording can be delayed until the breathing command has ended. The injection starts only after the delay, so that the circulation time expediently ends only at or after the end of the breathing command. The process can be started simply by a single command, and images which can be evaluated reliably can be achieved. The injection of contrast agent is the first injection for the examination, so that it is not preceded by any test bolus or the like. The first contrast agent is injected after a time which is free of contrast agent and lasts for at least five minutes, in order to ensure that the examination area is at least largely free of contrast agent before the examination, expediently after a time free of contrast agent lasting for at least one hour. At least one embodiment of the invention is suitable for all examinations carried out with contrast agent, in particular as an additional option for short circulation times and/or long breathing commands. The breathing command is advantageously produced automatically, for example from a tape or a data storage medium. Its length is therefore known. However, it is possible for an operator to select different breathing commands, for example in different languages and those in which the breathing is held after inspiration, as well as those in which the breathing is held after expiration. The duration of the breathing command is therefore not always the same, depending on the selected breathing command. In order to determine the time for starting the injection or the duration of the delay as appropriate for each breathing command, the time at which the injection is started is expediently chosen as a function of the length of the breathing command. One particularly simple relationship is provided if the control unit is provided in order to determine a delay time for the injection from the difference between the duration of the breathing command and the circulation time. If the breathing command is long, examination can be carried out quickly, if the control unit is provided in order to control the start of the breathing command immediately after a start signal has been entered by an operator. In a further advantageous refinement of at least one embodiment of the invention, the control unit is provided in order to process an entered circulation time independently of the length of the breathing command. The independence of the two variables allows the examination to be carried out flexibly and reliably. Any time difference between the length of the breathing command and the circulation time can be compensated for by the delay. The control unit is advantageously provided in order to output the circulation time, for example to a contrast agent injector, which autonomously controls the injection. If the output unit is provided in order to control the start of an injection as a function of a breathing command parameter, for example its duration, then the start of injection can be automated, and can be controlled reliably, for example on the basis of the start of the breathing command. The control unit is advantageously provided in order to determine a delay time in addition to the circulation time. This allows the delay according to at least one embodiment of the invention to be achieved easily, and to be controlled by different control units. For example, the delay time can be emitted to a control unit for the contrast agent injection, which autonomously controls the start of injection. A high degree of flexibility for the control apparatus can be achieved if the control unit is provided in order to process different breathing command lengths. Breathing commands in different languages and with different breathing parameters can be stored and processed, in which case the start of an injection can be controlled automatically as a function of the respective breathing command length. If the breathing command length is longer than the circulation time, then the delay is advantageously first of all controlled for the start of a process for a perfusion examination, rather than starting the injection immediately, as was previously normal. In order to inform the operator of this, it is advantageous for the control unit to be provided in order to output operator information if the breathing command length is greater than the circulation time. A further object of at least one embodiment of the invention is an imaging medical examination apparatus having a control apparatus as described above. If the examination apparatus is equipped with a contrast agent injector with a control unit for checking and processing a delay time in addition to the circulation time, the delay time determined by the control apparatus can be processed further by the control unit in order to autonomously control the start of the injection. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be explained in more detail with reference to example embodiments, which are illustrated in the drawings, in which FIG. 1 shows a computed-tomography scanner with a contrast agent injector, and FIG. 2 shows a timing procedure for an examination process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the present invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “includes” and/or “including”, when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. Spatially relative terms, such as “beneath”, “below”, “lower”, “above”, “upper”, and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if the device in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elements or features. Thus, term such as “below” can encompass both an orientation of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein are interpreted accordingly. Although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, it should be understood that these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms are used only to distinguish one element, component, region, layer, or section from another region, layer, or section. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer, or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer, or section without departing from the teachings of the present invention. In describing example embodiments illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the disclosure of this patent specification is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents that operate in a similar manner. Referencing the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts throughout the several views, example embodiments of the present patent application are hereafter described. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. As used herein, the terms “and/or” and “at least one of” include any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. FIG. 1 shows, schematically, an examination apparatus 2, which is in the form of a computed-tomography scanner, with a gantry 4 which accommodates an imaging apparatus 6 with a radiation unit 8, a detector unit 10 and a breathing command transmitter 12 with a loudspeaker 14. Together with the radiation unit 8, the detector unit 10 and the loudspeaker 14, a control apparatus 16 is connected to a control unit 18, which is additionally connected to an input device 20 in the form of a keyboard and mouse for example, to an output device 22 in the form of a screen for example, and to a contrast agent injector 24. The contrast agent injector 24 itself has a control unit 26, which is part of the control apparatus 16, a contrast agent pump 28 and an injection device 30 in the form of a cannula connected to the contrast agent pump 28 for example. The cannula is injected into a patient 34, who is lying on a couch 32, in order to transfer the contrast agent through the patient's 34 circulation to an examination area 36 in the patient's 34 brain. FIG. 2 shows a time procedure for an examination process carried out using the examination apparatus 2. In order to examine the patient 34, an operator, for example a medical-technical assistant, uses the keyboard and a menu 38 displayed on the screen to enter a circulation time ΔtKr, which is the minimum time that should be waited for after the start of the injection tI before recording should be started tB, at which time image recording is started. The circulation time ΔtKr is set such that the image recording can observe the contrast agent entering the examination area 36. In addition, the operator selects a breathing command AK with a command length ΔtA, by selecting the nature and language for the breathing command AK, using a menu 38. The control apparatus 16 is provided in order to process the input circulation time ΔtKr independently of the command length ΔtA, and does not lengthen the circulation time ΔtKr despite the long command length ΔtA. If the circulation time ΔtKr is greater than the command length ΔtA then there are no special features for the time coordination of the examination process, and the breathing command AK may be started, for example, at the same time as the injection I. However, in the following example embodiment, the operator has selected a 4-second circulation time ΔtKr and a command length ΔtA of 9 seconds. The control unit 18 uses this data in a process step 42 to calculate a delay time Δtv, using the simple relationship Δtv=ΔtA−ΔtKr, on the basis on which it controls the start of injection tI as a function of the command length ΔtA. Since the breathing command AK is longer than the circulation time ΔtKr, the control unit 18 emits operator information 40 on the output device 22 in a method step 44, informing the operator that the command length ΔtA of the breathing command AK is longer than the circulation time ΔtKr, and thus that the first injection I of contrast agent will be started with a delay time of Δtv with respect to the breathing command AK. The operator information also informs the operator that he should not enter the start command on the contrast agent injector 24, since it does not know the delay time Δtv, and it would then not be possible to carry out the entire length of the breathing command AK. In a somewhat more convenient embodiment of the examination apparatus 2, the operator information 40 informs the operator that a start button on the contrast agent injector 24 is blocked, or has been rendered inoperative, in order to ensure that the long breathing command AK is played back completely. The operator information 40 is configured particularly strikingly as a pop-up window, but may also be configured in a different form. After matching of the control units 18, 26, a starting means associated with the control unit 18, for example a keyboard command, is enabled. The operator now gives a start command at the start time ts. In one simple embodiment of the examination apparatus 2, the timing of the examination is coordinated solely by the control unit 18, which also coordinates the image recording. In response to the start signal, the control unit 18 controls the start tA of the breathing command API, which is then passed to the patient 34 in an audible form via the loudspeaker 14. 5 seconds after the command start tA, that is to say once the delay time Δtv has elapsed, the control unit 18 sends an appropriate signal to the control unit 26, that sends this to the contrast agent pump 28, which now starts to inject I the contrast agent, at the injection start tI. During the circulation time ΔtKr of 4 seconds, the breathing command AK and the contrast agent pump are active at the same time until, after the end of the breathing command AK, image recording is started at the recording start tB. The time in which the contrast agent is injected I is independent of the start tB of image recording. It lasts for a total of eight seconds, with a saline solution being subsequently injected in addition for four seconds after this time, maintaining the flow of contrast agent, by “moving on the contrast agent”. The contrast agent reaches the examination area 36 about 1 second after the start of recording tB, such that the first recorded examination image shows the examination area 36 without contrast agent. Depending on the embodiment of the examination apparatus 2, in particular the contrast agent injector 24 and an interface between the control units 18, 26, minor modifications of the examination process are advantageous. For example, after the start time ts, the control unit 18 can autonomously transmit the delay time Δtv to the control unit 26 for the contrast agent injector 24, which autonomously controls the start of injection tI. If the contrast agent injector 24 is appropriately designed, it is likewise feasible for the operator to enter the start command on the contrast agent injector 24. This possibility is taken into account, of course, in the operator information 40. The contrast agent injector 24 checks during the matching process, which was previously carried out between the control units 18, 26, for the presence of a delay time Δtv, which the control unit 18 transmits to the control unit 26. In response to the start signal from the operator, the control unit 26 controls the delay time Δtv autonomously, and initiates activity of the contrast agent pump 28 only after the delay time Δtv has elapsed, with the contrast agent pump 28 now starting to inject I the contrast agent at the injection start tI. Further, elements and/or features of different example embodiments may be combined with each other and/or substituted for each other within the scope of this disclosure and appended claims. Still further, any one of the above-described and other example features of the present invention may be embodied in the form of an apparatus, method, system, computer program and computer program product. For example, of the aforementioned methods may be embodied in the form of a system or device, including, but not limited to, any of the structure for performing the methodology illustrated in the drawings. Even further, any of the aforementioned methods may be embodied in the form of a program. The program may be stored on a computer readable media and is adapted to perform any one of the aforementioned methods when run on a computer device (a device including a processor). Thus, the storage medium or computer readable medium, is adapted to store information and is adapted to interact with a data processing facility or computer device to perform the method of any of the above mentioned embodiments. The storage medium may be a built-in medium installed inside a computer device main body or a removable medium arranged so that it can be separated from the computer device main body. Examples of the built-in medium include, but are not limited to, rewriteable non-volatile memories, such as ROMs and flash memories, and hard disks. Examples of the removable medium include, but are not limited to, optical storage media such as CD-ROMs and DVDs; magneto-optical storage media, such as MOs; magnetism storage media, including but not limited to floppy disks (trademark), cassette tapes, and removable hard disks; media with a built-in rewriteable non-volatile memory, including but not limited to memory cards; and media with a built-in ROM, including but not limited to ROM cassettes; etc. Furthermore, various information regarding stored images, for example, property information, may be stored in any other form, or it may be provided in other ways. Example embodiments being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the present invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.
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A
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6
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00
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11832562
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US20080306549A1-20081211
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ROD CAPTURE MECHANISM FOR DYNAMIC STABILIZATION AND MOTION PRESERVATION SPINAL IMPLANTATION SYSTEM AND METHOD
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ACCEPTED
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20081122
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20081211
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[]
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A61B1704
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["A61B1704", "A61B1756", "A61B1758", "A61B1770"]
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8182516
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20070801
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20120522
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606
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264000
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70965.0
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COMSTOCK
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DAVID
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Winslow", "inventor_name_first": "Charles J.", "inventor_city": "Walnut Creek", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Flynn", "inventor_name_first": "John J.", "inventor_city": "Walnut Creek", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Markwart", "inventor_name_first": "Jay A.", "inventor_city": "Castro Valley", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Zucherman", "inventor_name_first": "James F.", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hsu", "inventor_name_first": "Ken Y.", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Klyce", "inventor_name_first": "Henry A.", "inventor_city": "Piedmont", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Klyce", "inventor_name_first": "H. Adam", "inventor_city": "Berkeley", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A dynamic stabilization, motion preservation spinal implant system includes an anchor system, a horizontal rod system and a vertical rod system. The systems are modular so that various constructs and configurations can be created and customized to a patient.
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1. A spine implant including: an anchor system adapted to engage the spine; a first rod that can be selectively connected to the anchor system; a second rod that can be selectively connected to the first rod; and said first rod including a rod capture mechanism that can capture the second rod relative to the first rod. 2. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism is formed in the first rod. 3. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism is formed using a wire EDM process. 4. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm formed from the first rod and still attached to the first rod. 5. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a U-shaped capture arm formed from the first rod with a portion of said U-shaped capture arm remaining attached to the first rod. 6. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm that defines a recess that can receive the second rod, which recess is about cylindrical with an axis of rotation about perpendicular to said first rod. 7. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a recess that can receive said second rod, which rod capture mechanism can be urged relative to said second rod. 8. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm and a set screw, which set screw can be used lock said second rod in said capture arm. 9. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm which defines a recess that can receive said second arm, and an eccentric headed set screw that can be turned to urge said capture arm against said second arm in order to lock said second rod relative to said first rod. 10. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm which is machined from said first rod, said capture arm is about U-shaped with a portion of said U-shaped capture arm attached to said first rod, which capture arm defines a recess that can receive said second arm, and an eccentric headed set screw that can be turned to urge said capture arm against said second arm in order to lock said second rod in said recess and relative to said first rod. 11. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a living hinge. 12. The spine implant of claim 1 wherein said rod capture mechanism is shaped with a recess so that the rod capture mechanism can capture the second rod in said recess and a mechanism that can lock said second rod in said recess. 13. A spine implant including: an anchor system adapted to engage the spine; a first horizontal rod that can be selectively connected to the anchor system; a second vertical rod that can be selectively connected to the first rod; said first rod including a rod capture mechanism that can capture the second rod relative to the first rod; and said rod capture mechanism includes a recess that allows said second vertical rod to be received in said recess with said second vertical rod about perpendicular to said first horizontal rod. 14. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism is formed in the first horizontal rod. 15. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism is formed using a wire EDM process. 16. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm formed from the first horizontal rod and still attached to the first horizontal rod. 17. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a U-shaped capture arm formed from the first horizontal rod with a portion of said U-shaped capture arm remaining attached to the first horizontal rod. 18. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm that defines said recess that can receive the second vertical rod, which said recess is about cylindrical with an axis of rotation about perpendicular to said first horizontal rod. 19. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes said recess that can receive said second vertical rod, which rod capture mechanism can be urged relative to said second vertical rod. 20. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm and a set screw, which set screw can be used lock said second vertical rod in said capture arm. 21. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm which defines said recess that can receive said second vertical arm, and an eccentric headed set screw that can be turned to urge said capture arm against said second vertical arm in order to lock said second vertical rod relative to said first horizontal rod. 22. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm which is machined from said first horizontal rod, said capture arm is about U-shaped with a portion of said U-shaped capture arm attached to said first rod, which capture arm defines said recess that can receive said second vertical arm, and an eccentric headed set screw that can be turned to urge said capture arm against said second vertical arm in order to lock said second vertical rod in said recess and relative to said first horizontal rod. 23. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism includes a living hinge. 24. The spine implant of claim 13 wherein said rod capture mechanism is shaped with said recess so that the rod capture mechanism can capture the second vertical rod in said recess and a mechanism that can lock said second vertical rod in said recess. 25. A spine implant including: an anchor system adapted to engage the spine; a first horizontal rod that can be selectively connected to the anchor system; a second vertical rod that can be selectively connected to the first rod; said first rod including a rod capture mechanism that can capture the second rod relative to the first rod; and said rod capture mechanism includes a capture arm formed in said horizontal rod that defines a recess with at least a part of said capture arm that defines said recess separated from said first horizontal rod, said recess allows said second vertical rod to be received in said recess with said second vertical rod about perpendicular to said first horizontal rod, and said rod capture mechanism including a lock mechanism that can urge said capture arm against said vertical rod in order to lock said second vertical rod in said recess relative to said first horizontal rod. 26. A method for positioning a spine implant in a spine comprising the steps of: implanting anchors in the spine; securing at least on horizontal rod to the anchors; positioning at least one vertical rod relative to said horizontal rod by causing the vertical rod to be moved into a recess in said horizontal rod; and locking said vertical rod in said recess of said horizontal rod. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein a movable capture arm is formed in said horizontal rod and said locking step includes urging said movable capture arm against said vertical rod to lock said vertical rod to said horizontal rod. 28. The method of claim 26 wherein said locking step includes turning an eccentric headed set screw to lock said vertical rod relative to said horizontal rod. 29. The method of claim 26 wherein said recess is open to a surface of said horizontal rod and said positioning step includes moving said vertical rod past the surface of said horizontal rod and into said recess and then said locking step includes turning an eccentrically headed set screw to lock said vertical rod in place in said recess. 30. The method of claim 26 wherein said recess is formed in a movable capture arm and said locking step includes moving said movable capture arm to lock said vertical rod in said recess.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>The most dynamic segment of orthopedic and neurosurgical medical practice over the past decade has been spinal devices designed to fuse the spine to treat a broad range of degenerative spinal disorders. Back pain is a significant clinical problem and the annual costs to treat it, both surgical and medical, is estimated to be over $2 billion. Motion preserving devices to treat back and extremity pain has, however, created a treatment alternative to fusion for degenerative disc disease. These devices offer the possibility of eliminating the long term clinical consequences of fusing the spine that is associated with accelerated degenerative changes at adjacent disc levels.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 1A is a posterior view of the embodiment of FIG. 1 implanted in a spine. FIG. 2 is a top view of the embodiment of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a horizontal rod system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1 . FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of a horizontal rod system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1 . FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an anchor system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1 . FIG. 6 is a another perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of an alternative embodiment of the anchor system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1 . FIG. 8 is a sectioned view of a portion of embodiment of the alternative anchor system of FIG. 7 of the invention. FIG. 9 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting a degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7 . FIG. 9A is an end view of the anchor system of FIG. 9 . FIG. 10 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting another degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7 . FIG. 10A is an end view of the anchor system of FIG. 10 . FIG. 11 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting yet another degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7 . FIG. 12 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 12 . FIG. 14 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 15 is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 14 . FIG. 16 is another exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 14 . FIG. 17 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention with another horizontal rod system. FIG. 19A is a perspective view of another horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 19 and partially shown in phantom form. FIG. 19B is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 19 . FIG. 19C is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 19 . FIG. 20 is a top view of the another embodiment of the dynamic spine stabilization of the system of the invention of FIG. 19 . FIG. 20A is a top side of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 19A . FIG. 21 is another perspective view of the embodiment of the dynamic spine stabilization of the invention of FIG. 19 . FIG. 22 is a side view the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 19 configured in a closed position for implantation. FIG. 22A is an end view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 22 . FIG. 23 is a side view partially in phantom form of the horizontal rod system of FIG. 22 . FIG. 24 is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 22 in an open position as used when the embodiment is deployed in a spine. FIG. 25 is an end view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 24 . FIG. 26 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 27 is a side view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention of FIG. 26 . FIG. 28 is a perspective view of still another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 29 is a side view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention of FIG. 28 . FIG. 30 is a top view of another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 1 with the horizontal rod system in an undeployed position ready for implantation. FIG. 31 is a top view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of FIG. 30 in a deployed position after implantation. FIG. 32 is a side view, partially in phantom of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 30 . FIG. 33 is a side view of an alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 33A is a side view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34A is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34B is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 34A . FIG. 34C is a top view of the embodiment of FIG. 34A . FIG. 35 is a side view of still another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 36 is a side view of yet another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 37 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 38 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 39 is a side view of yet another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 39A is still another embodiment of the horizontal rod system and the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 39B is yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system and the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 40 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of still another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 42 is a side view of an embodiment of a two level dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 43 is a side view of yet another embodiment of a two level dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 43A is a side view of an alternative embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 44 is a side view of an embodiment of a fusion system of the invention. FIG. 45 is a side view of an embodiment of a two level fusion system of the invention. FIGS. 45A , 45 B are perspective and side views of still another fusion system of an embodiment of the invention that has a transition level. FIG. 46 is a flow chart of an embodiment of the method of the invention. FIG. 47 is yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application claims benefit to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/942,162, filed Jun. 5, 2007, entitled “Dynamic Stabilization and Motion Preservation Spinal Implantation System and Method”, which is incorporated herein by reference and in its entirety. CROSS-REFERENCES This application relates to, and incorporates herein by reference and in their entireties, U.S. Patent Application No. 60/801,871, filed Jun. 14, 2006, entitled “Implant Positioned Between the Lamina to Treat Degenerative Disorders of the Spine,” (Attorney Docket No. SPART-01018US0); U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/761,006, filed Jun. 11, 2007, entitled “Implant System and Method to Treat Degenerative Disorders of the Spine” (Attorney Docket No. SPART-01018US1); U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/761,100, filed Jun. 11, 2007, entitled “Implant System and Method to Treat Degenerative Disorders of the Spine” (Attorney Docket No. SPART-01018US2); and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/761,116, filed Jun. 11, 2007, entitled “Implant System and Method to Treat Degenerative Disorders of the Spine” (Attorney Docket No. SPART-01018US3). BACKGROUND OF INVENTION The most dynamic segment of orthopedic and neurosurgical medical practice over the past decade has been spinal devices designed to fuse the spine to treat a broad range of degenerative spinal disorders. Back pain is a significant clinical problem and the annual costs to treat it, both surgical and medical, is estimated to be over $2 billion. Motion preserving devices to treat back and extremity pain has, however, created a treatment alternative to fusion for degenerative disc disease. These devices offer the possibility of eliminating the long term clinical consequences of fusing the spine that is associated with accelerated degenerative changes at adjacent disc levels. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 1A is a posterior view of the embodiment of FIG. 1 implanted in a spine. FIG. 2 is a top view of the embodiment of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a horizontal rod system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of a horizontal rod system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an anchor system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1. FIG. 6 is a another perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of an alternative embodiment of the anchor system of the invention for use with a dynamic spine stabilization system such as depicted in FIG. 1. FIG. 8 is a sectioned view of a portion of embodiment of the alternative anchor system of FIG. 7 of the invention. FIG. 9 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting a degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7. FIG. 9A is an end view of the anchor system of FIG. 9. FIG. 10 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting another degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7. FIG. 10A is an end view of the anchor system of FIG. 10. FIG. 11 is a side view of the anchor system of FIG. 7 depicting yet another degree of freedom of movement of the anchor system of FIG. 7. FIG. 12 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 12. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 15 is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 14. FIG. 16 is another exploded perspective view of the embodiment of the anchor system of the invention of FIG. 14. FIG. 17 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention with another horizontal rod system. FIG. 19A is a perspective view of another horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 19 and partially shown in phantom form. FIG. 19B is an exploded perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 19. FIG. 19C is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 19. FIG. 20 is a top view of the another embodiment of the dynamic spine stabilization of the system of the invention of FIG. 19. FIG. 20A is a top side of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 19A. FIG. 21 is another perspective view of the embodiment of the dynamic spine stabilization of the invention of FIG. 19. FIG. 22 is a side view the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 19 configured in a closed position for implantation. FIG. 22A is an end view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 22. FIG. 23 is a side view partially in phantom form of the horizontal rod system of FIG. 22. FIG. 24 is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 22 in an open position as used when the embodiment is deployed in a spine. FIG. 25 is an end view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 24. FIG. 26 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 27 is a side view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention of FIG. 26. FIG. 28 is a perspective view of still another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 29 is a side view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention of FIG. 28. FIG. 30 is a top view of another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted in FIG. 1 with the horizontal rod system in an undeployed position ready for implantation. FIG. 31 is a top view of the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of FIG. 30 in a deployed position after implantation. FIG. 32 is a side view, partially in phantom of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 30. FIG. 33 is a side view of an alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 33A is a side view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34A is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 34B is a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 34A. FIG. 34C is a top view of the embodiment of FIG. 34A. FIG. 35 is a side view of still another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 36 is a side view of yet another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 37 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 38 is a side view of another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 39 is a side view of yet another alternative embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. FIG. 39A is still another embodiment of the horizontal rod system and the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 39B is yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system and the anchor system of the invention. FIG. 40 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of still another embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 42 is a side view of an embodiment of a two level dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 43 is a side view of yet another embodiment of a two level dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 43A is a side view of an alternative embodiment of a dynamic spine stabilization system of the invention. FIG. 44 is a side view of an embodiment of a fusion system of the invention. FIG. 45 is a side view of an embodiment of a two level fusion system of the invention. FIGS. 45A, 45B are perspective and side views of still another fusion system of an embodiment of the invention that has a transition level. FIG. 46 is a flow chart of an embodiment of the method of the invention. FIG. 47 is yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of the present invention include a system or implant and method that can dynamically stabilize the spine while providing for preservation of spinal motion. Alternative embodiments can be used for spine fusion. Embodiments of the invention include a construct with an anchoring system, a horizontal rod system that is associated with the anchoring system and a vertical rod system that is associated with the anchoring system and the horizontal rod system. An advantage and aspect of the system is that the anchoring system includes a head or saddle that allows for appropriate, efficient and convenient placement of the anchoring system relative to the spine in order to reduce the force that is placed on the anchoring system. The anchor system has enhanced degrees of freedom which contribute to the ease of implantation of the anchor system. Accordingly, the anchor system is designed to isolate the head and the screw from the rest of the dynamic stabilization system and the forces that the rest of the dynamic stabilization system can place on the anchor system and the anchor system/bone interface. Thus, the anchor system can provide a secure purchase in the spine. Another advantage and aspect of the system is that the horizontal rod system is in part comprised of a super elastic material that allows for convenient positioning of the horizontal rod system relative to the anchor system and allows for isolation of the horizontal rod system from the anchor system so that less force is placed on the anchor system from the horizontal rod system and on the anchor system/bone interface. Accordingly, unlike prior devices the anchor system stays secure in the bone of the spine. An aspect and advantage of the invention is the ability to maximize the range of motion of the spine after embodiments of the dynamic stabilization, motion preservation implant of the invention are implanted in a patient. While traditional solutions to back pain include fusion, discectomy, and artificial implants that replace spine structure, embodiments of the present invention preserve the bone and ligament structure of the spine and preserve a wide range of motion of the spine, while stabilizing spines that were heretofore unstable due to degenerative and other spinal diseases. Still another aspect of the invention is the preservation of the natural motion of the spine and the maintenance of the quality of motion as well as the wide range of motion so that the spine motion is as close to that of the natural spine as possible. The present embodiments of the invention allow for the selection of a less stiff, yet dynamically stable implant for use in a non-fusion situation. A less stiff, yet dynamically stable implant relates directly to a positive patient outcome, including patient comfort and the quality of motion of the spine. In another aspect of the invention, load sharing is provided by the embodiment, and, in particular, the deflection rod or loading rod of the embodiment. For embodiments of this invention, the terms “deflection rod” and “loading rod” can be used interchangeably. Accordingly this aspect of the invention is directed to restoring the normal motion of the spine. The embodiment provides stiffness and support where needed to support the loads exerted on the spine during normal spine motion, which loads, the soft tissues of the spine are no longer able to accommodate since these spine tissues are either degenerated or damaged. Load sharing is enhanced by the ability to select the appropriate stiffness of the deflection rod or loading rod in order to match the load sharing desired. By selecting the appropriate stiffness of the deflection rod or loading rod to match the physiology of the patient and the loads that the patient places on the spine, a better outcome is realized for the patient. Prior to implantation of the embodiment, the stiffness of the implant of the system can be selected among a number of loading rods. In other words, the stiffness is variable depending on the deflection rod or loading rod selected. In another aspect, the load sharing is between the spine and the embodiment of the invention. In another aspect of the invention, the deflection rod or loading rod is cantilevered. In another aspect the deflection rod or loading rod is cantilevered from a horizontal rod. In yet another aspect the deflection rod or loading rod is cantilevered from a horizontal rod that is connected between two anchors that are affixed to the same vertebra. In yet another aspect the deflection rod or loading rod is about parallel to the horizontal rod in a resting position. In still a further, aspect the deflection rod or loading rod is cantilevered from a mount on the horizontal rod and said deflection rod or loading rod is about parallel to the horizontal rod in a resting position. In another aspect of the invention the horizontal rod attached directly to opposite anchors is stiff and rigid, and the cantilevered deflection rod or cantilevered loading rod shares the load with the spine resulting from the motions of the body of the patient. In another aspect of embodiments of the invention, the load being absorbed or carried by the embodiment is being distributed along at least part of the length of the deflection rod or loading rod. In another aspect of the invention, the load being absorbed or carried by the embodiment is distributed along at least part of the length of the horizontal cantilevered deflection rod or horizontal cantilevered loading rod. As the load is carried horizontally along the deflection rod or loading rod, rather than vertically, the embodiments of the invention can be made smaller in order to fit in more spaces relative to the spine. Advantageously, the embodiments can fit in the L5-S1 space of the spine. An aspect of the invention is to preserve and not restrict motion between the pedicles of the spine through the use of appropriately selected horizontal and vertical rods of embodiments of the invention. An aspect of the invention is to provide for load bearing on horizontal elements such as horizontal rods instead of vertical elements or rods, and, in particular, vertical elements that are connected between bone anchoring systems. An aspect of the invention is the use of horizontal rods in the embodiments of the invention in order to isolate each level of the implantation system from the other so as not to put undue force and/or torque on anchoring systems of embodiment of the invention and associated bone, and so as to allow customization of the implantation system to the need of the patient. Accordingly, an aspect of the invention is to provide for minimized loading on the bone/implantation system interface. Customization, in preferred embodiments, can be achieved by the selection of the horizontal rod with the desired stiffness and stiffness characteristics. Different materials and different implant configurations enable the selection of various stiffness characteristics. Another aspect of the invention is the ability to control stiffness for extension, flexion, lateral bending and axial rotation, and to control stiffness for each of these motions independently of the other motions. An aspect of the invention is to use the stiffness and load bearing characteristics of super elastic materials. Another aspect of the invention is to use super elastic materials to customize the implant to the motion preservation and the dynamic stabilization needs of a patient. An aspect of such embodiments of the invention is to provide for a force plateau where motion of the implantation system continues without placement of additional force of the bone anchor system, or, in other words, the bone/implantation system interface. Thus, an aspect of the invention is to use the horizontal bar to offset loading on the anchor system and on the implantation system in general. Accordingly, an aspect of the invention is to be able to selectively vary the stiffness and selectively vary the orientation and direction that the stiffness is felt by varying the structure of the implantation system of the invention, and, in particular, to vary the stiffness of the horizontal rod system of the invention. Another aspect of embodiments of the invention is to prevent any off-axis implantation by allowing the implantation system to have enhanced degrees of freedom of placement of the implant. Embodiments of the invention provide for off-axis placement of bone anchor or pedicle screw systems. A further aspect of embodiments of the invention is to control stabilized motion from micro-motion to broad extension, flexion, axial rotation, and lateral bending motions of the spine. Yet another aspect of the embodiments of the invention is to be able to revise a dynamic stabilization implant should a fusion implant be indicated. This procedure can be accomplished by, for example, the removal of the horizontal rods of the implantation system and replacement of such rods with stiffer rods. Accordingly, an aspect of the invention is to provide for a convenient path for a revision of the original implantation system, if needed. A further aspect of the invention, due to the ease of implanting the anchoring system and the ease of affixing vertical rods to the horizontal rods of the invention, is the ability to accommodate the bone structure of the spine, even if adjacent vertebra are misaligned with respect to each other. A further aspect of the invention is that the implant is constructed around features of the spine such as the spinous processes and, thus, such features do not need to be removed and the implant does not get in the way of the normal motion of the spine features and the spine features do not get in the way of the operation of the implant. Another aspect of embodiments of the invention is the ability to stabilize two, three and/or more levels of the spine by the selection of appropriate embodiments and components of embodiments of the invention for implantation in a patient. Further embodiments of the invention allow for fused levels (in conjunction with, if desired, bone graphs) to be placed next to dynamically stabilized levels with the same implantation system. Such embodiments of the invention enable vertebral levels adjacent to fusion levels to be shielded by avoiding an abrupt change from a rigid fusion level to a dynamically stable, motion preserved, and more mobile level. Accordingly, another aspect of the embodiments of the invention is to provide a modular system that can be customized to the needs of the patient. Horizontal rods can be selectively chosen for the particular patient as well the particular levels of the vertebrae of the spine that are treated. Further, the positioning of the various selected horizontal rods can be selected to control stiffness and stability. Another aspect of embodiments of the invention is that embodiments can be constructed to provide for higher stiffness and fusion at one level while allowing for lower stiffness and dynamic stabilization at another adjacent level. Yet a further aspect of the invention is to provide for dynamic stabilization and motion preservation while preserving the bone and tissues of the spine in order to lessen trauma to the patient and to use the existing functional bone and tissue of the patient as optimally as possible in cooperation with embodiments of the invention. Another object of the invention is to implant the embodiments of the invention in order to unload force from the spinal facets and other posterior spinal structures and also the intervertebral disk. A further aspect of the invention is to implant the embodiment of the invention with a procedure that does not remove or alter bone or tear or sever tissue. In an aspect of the invention the muscle and other tissue can be urged out of the way during the inventive implantation procedure. Accordingly, an aspect of the invention is to provide for a novel implantation procedure that is minimally invasive. Dynamic Stabilization, Motion Preservation System for the Spine: A dynamic stabilization, motion preservation system 100 embodiment of the invention is depicted in FIG. 1 and includes an anchor system 102, a horizontal rod system 104, and a vertical rod system 106. For these embodiments horizontal refers to a horizontal orientation with respect to a human patient that is standing and vertical refers to a vertical orientation with respect to a patient that is standing (FIG. 1A). As will be more fully disclosed herein below, one embodiment for the anchor system 102 includes a bone screw 108 which is mounted to a head or saddle 110. Alternatively, the bone screw 108 can be replaced by a bone hook as more fully described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/801,871, entitled “An Implant Position Between the Lamina to Treat Degenerative Disorders of the Spine,” which was filed on Jun. 14, 2006, and is incorporated herein by reference and in its entirety. The mounting of the head or saddle 110 to the bone screw 108 allows for multiple degrees of freedom in order that the bone screw 108 may be appropriately, conveniently, and easily placed in the bone of the spine and in order to assist in isolating the bone screw 108 from the remainder of the system 100 so that less force is placed on the anchor system 102 and on the bone screw/bone interface. Some prior art devices, which use such bone screws, have, on occasion, had the bone screws loosen from the spine, and the present embodiment is designed to reduce the force on the bone screw and on the bone screw/bone interface. Preferably, the anchor system 102 is comprised of titanium. However, other biocompatible materials such as stainless steal and/or PEEK can be used. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the horizontal bar system 104 is preferably secured through the head 110 of the anchor system 102 with a locking set screw 112. This embodiment includes a first horizontal rod 114 and a second horizontal rod 116. The first horizontal rod 114 has first and second deflection rods or loading rods 118 and 120 secured thereto. In a preferred embodiment, the first horizontal rod can be comprised of titanium, stainless steel or PEEK or another biocompatible material, and the first and second deflection rods or loading rods can be comprised of a super elastic material. Preferably, the super elastic material is comprised on Nitinol (NiTi). In addition to Nitinol or nickel-titanium (NiTi), other super elastic materials include copper-zinc-aluminum and copper-aluminum-nickel. However, for biocompatibility, the nickel-titanium is the preferred material. Such an arrangement allows for the horizontal rod system 104 to isolate forces placed thereon from the anchor system 102 and, thus, isolate forces that could be placed on the bone screw 108 and the bone screw/bone interface of the spine, and, thus, prevent the loosening of the bone screw 108 in the spine. As shown in FIG. 1 the deflection rods or loading rods 118 and 120, in this preferred embodiment, are mounted in the center of the first horizontal rod 114 to a mount 122. Preferably, the deflection rods or loading rods 118 and 120 are force fit into the mount 122. Alternatively, the deflection rods or loading rods may be screwed, glued, or laser welded to the mount 122 and to bores placed in the mount 122. Other fastening techniques are within the scope and spirit of the invention. As can be seen in FIGS. 1, 3, and 4, the first horizontal rod 114 includes first and second ridges 124, 126 located on either side of the mount 122 and extend at least partially along the length of the first horizontal rod 114 toward the respective ends of the horizontal rod 114. These ridges 124, 126 add rigidity to the mount 122 relative to the rest of the horizontal rod system 104. As seen in FIG. 1, the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 have a constant diameter extending outwardly toward the respective ends 128, 130 of the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120. Alternatively, the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 can have a varying diameter as the rods 118, 120 approach their respective ends 128, 130. Preferably, as depicted and discussed below, the rods 118 and 120 can have a decreasing diameter as the rods approach the respective ends 128, 130. The decreasing diameter allows the super elastic rods 118, 120 to be more flexible and bendable along the length of the rods as the rods approach the ends 128, 130 and to more evenly distribute the load placed on the system 100 by the spine. Preferably, the diameter of the deflection rods or loading rods continuously decreases in diameter. However, it can be understood that the diameter can decrease in discrete steps along the length, with the diameter of one step not being continuous with the diameter of the next adjacent step. Alternatively, for different force and load carrying criteria the diameters of the deflection rods or loading rods can continuously increase in diameter or can have discreet step increases in diameter along the length of the deflection rods or loading rods as the rods extent toward the respective ends 128, 130. Still further, the rods can have at least one step of decreasing diameter and at least one step of increasing diameter in any order along the length of the deflection rods or loading rods as the rods approach the respective ends 128, 130, as desired for the force and load carrying characteristics of the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120. With respect to FIG. 3, for example, the horizontal rod system 104, and, in particular, the deflection rods 118, 120, share the load carried by the spine. This load sharing is directed to restoring the normal motion of the spine. This embodiment, and, in particular, the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120, provide stiffness and support where needed to support the loads exerted on the spine during spine motion, which loads, the soft tissues of the spine are no longer able to accommodate since these spine tissues are either degenerated or damaged. Such load sharing is enhanced by the ability to select the appropriate stiffness of the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 in order to match the load sharing desired. By selecting the appropriate stiffness of the deflection or loading rods, to match the physiology of the patient, and the loads that the patient places on the spine, a better outcome is realized by the patient. Prior to implantation, the stiffness of the deflection or loading rods can be selected from a number of deflection or loading rods. The stiffness is variable depending on the deflection or load rod selected. As indicated herein, the stiffness of the deflection or loading rod can be varied by the shape of the rod and the selection of the material. Shape variations can include diameter, taper, direction of taper, stepped tapering, and material variation can include composition of material, just to name a few variations. It is to be understood that the load carried by the deflection or loading rods is distributed along at least part of the length of the deflection or loading rods. Preferably, the load is distributed along the entire length of the deflection or loading rods. Further, as the load is carried horizontally and the stiffness can be varied along a horizontal member, rather than vertically, the embodiments of the invention can be made smaller in order to fit in more spaces relative to the spine. Advantageously, embodiments can fit, for example, in the L5-S1 space of the spine in addition to generally less constrained spaces such as the L4-L5 space of the spine. With respect to the embodiment of the horizontal rod system of the invention as depicted for example in FIG. 3, the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 are cantilevered from mount 122. Thus, these deflection rods 118, 120 have a free end and an end fixed by the mount 112, which mount is located on the horizontal rod 114. As is evident in FIG. 3, the cantilevered deflection rods 118, 120 are about parallel in a rested position to the horizontal rod 114, and, in this embodiment, the horizontal rod is directly connected to the anchor systems and, in particular, to the heads or saddles of the anchor system. Preferably, the horizontal rod 114 is stiff and rigid and, particularly, in comparison to the deflection rods. In this arrangement, the horizontal rod system and, in particular, the deflection rods 118, 120 share the load resulting from the motions of the body of the patient. As an alternate embodiment, the second horizontal rod 116 could be replaced with a horizontal rod 114 which has deflection rods or loading rods (FIG. 43A). Thus, both horizontal rods would have deflection rods or loading rods. The deflection rods or loading rods mounted on one horizontal rod would be connected to vertical rods and the vertical rods would be connected to deflection rods or loading rods mounted on the other horizontal rod. Such an embodiment provides for more flexibility. Further, the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 can have other configurations and be within the spirit and scope of the invention. Further, as can be seen in FIG. 1, the vertical rod system is comprised of, in this embodiment, first and second vertical rods 132, 134 which are secured to first and second connectors 136, 138 located at the ends 128, 130 of the first and second deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120. As will be described below, the vertical rods 132, 134 are preferably connected in such a way as to be pivotal for purposes of implantation in a patient and for purposes of adding flexibility and dynamic stability to the system as a whole. These vertical rods 132, 134 are preferably made of titanium. However, other bio-compatible materials can be used. The vertical rods 132, 134 are also connected to the second horizontal rod 116 by being received in C-shaped mounts 140, 142 located on the second horizontal rods and in this embodiment, held in place by set screws 144,146. It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that other structures can be used to connect the vertical rods to the horizontal rods. Preferably, the vertical rods are only connected to the horizontal rods and not to the anchoring system 102 in order to isolate the anchor system 102 and, in particular, the heads 110 from stress and forces that could be placed on the heads, and from forces transferred to the heads where the vertical rods connect to the heads. Thus, the system 100 through the vertical and horizontal rods allow for dynamic stability, and a wide range of motion without causing undue force to be placed on the heads of the anchor systems. These embodiments also allow for each level of the spine to move as freely as possible without being unduly restrictively tied to another level. More lateral placement of the vertical rods toward the heads of the anchor system provides for more stiffness in lateral bending and an easier implant approach by, for example, a Wiltse approach as described in “The Paraspinal Sacraspinalis-Splitting Approach to the Lumber Spine,” by Leon L. Wiltse et al., The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, Vol. 50-A, No. 5, July 1968, which is incorporated herein by reference. The stiffness of the system 100 can preferably be adjusted by the selection of the materials and placement and diameters of the horizontal and vertical rods and also the deflection rods or loading rods. Larger diameter rods would increase the resistance of the system 100 to flexion, extension rotation, and bending of the spine, while smaller diameter rods would decrease the resistance of the system 100 to flexion, extension, rotation and bending of the spine. Further, continually or discretely changing the diameter of the rods such as the deflection rods or loading rods along the length of the rods changes the stiffness characteristics. Thus, with the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 tapered from the mount 122 toward the ends 128, 130, the system can have more flexibility in flexion and extension of the spine. Further, using a super elastic material for the horizontal rods and the vertical rods in addition to the horizontal deflection rods or loading rods adds to the flexibility of the system 100. Further, all of the horizontal and vertical rods, in addition to the deflection rods or loading rods, can be made of titanium or stainless steel or PEEK should a stiffer system 100 be required. Thus, it can be appreciated that the system 100 can easily accommodate the desired stiffness for the patient depending on the materials uses, and the diameter of the materials, and the placement of the elements of the system 100. Should an implanted system 100 need to be revised, that can be accomplished by removing and replacing the horizontal and/or vertical rods to obtain the desired stiffness. By way of example only, should a stiffer revised system be desired, more akin to a fusion, or, in fact, a fusion, then the horizontal rods having the deflection rods or loading rods can be removed and replaced by horizontal rods having deflection rods or loading rods made of titanium, or stainless steel, or non-super elastic rods to increase the stiffness of the system. This can be accomplished by leaving the anchor system 102 in place and removing the existing horizontal rods from the heads 110 and replacing the horizontal rods with stiffer horizontal rods and associated vertical rods. FIG. 3 depicts a view of the horizontal rod 104 as previously described. In this embodiment the connectors 136, 138 are shown on the ends of the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120. The connectors can be forced-fitted to the deflection rods or fastened in other methods known in the art for this material and as further disclosed below. The connectors 136, 138 have slits 148, 150 to aid in placing the connectors onto the ends of the deflection rods. As is evident from FIG. 3, the connectors 136, 138 each include upper and lower arms 160, 162 which can capture there between the vertical rods 132, 134. The arms each include an aperture 168, 170 that can accept a pin or screw 176, 178 (FIG. 1) for either fixedly or pivotally securing the vertical rods 132, 134. In this embodiment the vertical rods include a head 162, 164 that can be force fit or screwed onto the rest of the vertical rods. The heads include apertures 172, 174 for accepting the pins or screws 176, 178. In order that the system 100 has as low a profile as possible and extends from the spine as little as possible, it is advantageous to place the deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 as close to the first horizontal rod 114 as possible. In order to accomplish this low profile, preferably notches 152, 154 are placed in horizontal rod 114 to accommodate the connectors 136, 138. Accordingly, the purpose for the notches is to provide for a horizontal rod with a low profile when implanted relative to the bones and tissues of the spine so that there is, for example, clearance for implant and the motion of the implant, and to keep the deflection rods or loading rods as close as possible to the horizontal rods in order to reduce any potential moment arm relative to the mounts on the horizontal rod. FIG. 4 depicts another embodiment of the horizontal rod 114 with deflection rods or loading rods 118, 120 and with difference connectors 156, 158. Connectors 156, 158 each include two pairs of upper and lower arms 160, 162 extending in opposite directions in order for each connector 156, 158 to mount an upper and a lower vertical rod as presented with respect to FIG. 46. This configuration allows for a three level system as will be described below. Embodiments of the Anchor System of the Invention A preferred embodiment of the anchor system 102 invention can be seen in FIG. 5. This is similar to the anchor system 102 depicted in FIG. 1. In particular, this anchor system 102 includes a bone screw 108 with a head 110 in the form of a U-shaped yoke 180 with arms 182, 184. As will be discussed further, a hook, preferably with bone engaging barbs or projections, can be substituted for the bone screw 108. The hook embodiment is further described in the above referenced and incorporated provisional application. The hooks are used to hook to the bone, such as the vertebra instead of having screws anchored into the bone. Each of the arms 182, 814 of yoke 180 includes an aperture 186, 188 through which a pin 190 can be placed. The pin 190 can be laser welded or force fit or glued into the yoke 180, as desired. The pin 190 can be smooth or roughened as discussed below. Further, the pin 190 can be cylindrical or be comprised of a multiple sides as shown in FIG. 7. In FIG. 7, pin 190 has six sides and one or more of the accommodating apertures 186, 188 can also include mating sides in order to fix the position of the pin 190 in the yoke 180. A compression sphere 200 is placed over the pin 190. The compression sphere 200 can have a roughened surface if desired to assist in locking the sphere in place as described below. The compression sphere 200 can include one or more slits 202 to assist in compressing the sphere 200 about the pin 190. The compression sphere 200 can have an inner bore that is cylindrical or with multiple sides in order conform to and be received over the pin 190. As can be seen in FIG. 8, one or more spacer rings 204 can be used to space the compression ring from the yoke 180 in order to assist in providing the range of motion and degrees of freedom that are advantageous to the embodiments of the invention. Mounted about the compression sphere 200 is the head or saddle 110. Head 110 in FIGS. 7, 8 is somewhat different from head 110 in FIG. 1 as will be described below. Head 110 in FIGS. 7, 8 includes a cylindrical body 206 with a lower end having an aperture 208 that can receive the compression sphere 200. The aperture 208 can have a concave surface as depicted in FIGS. 7, 8. Accordingly, the compression sphere 200 fits inside of the concave surface of aperture 208 and is free to move therein until restrained as described below. As is evident from the figures, the lower end of the cylindrical body 206 about the aperture 208 has some of the material that comprised wall 224 removed in order to accommodate the motion of the yoke 180 of the bone screw 108. Essentially, the portion of the wall 224 adjacent to the arms 182, 184 of the yoke 180 has been removed to accommodate the yoke 180 and the range of motion of the yoke. The head 110 of the anchor system 102 includes an internal cylindrical bore 210 which is preferably substantially parallel to a longitudinal axis of the head 110. This bore 210 is open to the aperture 208 and is open and preferably substantially perpendicular to the distal end 212 of the head 110. At the distal end 212 of the head 110, the bore 210 is threaded and can accept the set screw 112. Along the side of the head 110 are defined aligned U-shaped slots that extend through the head 110 from the outer surface to the bore 210. These U-shaped slots are also open to the distal end 212 of the head 110 in order to have the set screw 112 accepted by the threads of the bore 210. Located in the bore 210 between the set screw 112 and the compression sphere 200 is a compressor element or cradle 220. The compressor element or cradle 220 can slide somewhat in the bore 210, but the compressor element or cradle 220 is restrained by a pin 222 (FIG. 7) received through the wall 224 of the head 110 and into the compressor element or cradle 220. Thus, the compressor element or cradle 220, until locked into position, can move somewhat in the bore 210. The compressor element or cradle 220 has a generally cylindrical body so that the compressor element 220 can fit into bore 210. An upper end 226 of the compressor element 220 includes a concave surface 228. This surface 228 is shaped to fit the horizontal rod system 104 and, in particular, a horizontal rod 114, 116. The lower end of the compressor element 220 includes a concave surface 230 which can accommodate the compression sphere 200. The lower end of the compressor element 220 adjacent to the concave surface 230 has an additional concave surface 232 (FIG. 8) which is used to accommodate the motion of the upper end of the yoke 180 as the head 110 is moved relative to the bone screw 108. The concave surfaces 228 and 230 can be roughened, if desired, to assist in locking the head 110 relative to the bone screw 108. In this embodiment (FIGS. 5, 6) there is no top compression element or cradle (see, for example, FIGS. 7, 13) in order to reduce the profile of the head of the anchor system. As is evident from the figures, with the anchor system 102 assembled and with a horizontal rod 114, 116 received in the U-shaped slot 216, the set screw can press against the horizontal rod 114, 116, which horizontal rod 114, 116, can press against the compressor element or cradle 220, which compressor element or cradle 220 can press against the compression sphere 220, which compression sphere can press against the pin 190 in order to lock the horizontal rod 114, 116 relative to the head 110 and to lock the head 110 relative to the bone screw 108. It is to be understood that all of the surfaces that are in contact, can be roughened to enable this locking, if desired. Alternatively, the surfaces may be smooth with the force of the set screw 112 urging of the elements together and the resultant locking. As can be seen in FIGS. 5, 6 an alternative horizontal rod 114, 116 is depicted. This alternative horizontal rod 114, 116 includes first and second concave openings 234, 236 which can receive vertical rods such as vertical rods 132, 134 (FIG. 1). The horizontal rod 114, 116 is substantially cylindrical with the areas around the concave openings 234, 236 bulked up or reinforced as desired to support the forces. Additionally, threaded bores are provided adjacent to the concave openings 234, 236 and these bores can receive screws that have heads that can be used to lock vertical rods in place. Alternatively, the screws can retain short bars that project over the concave openings 234, 236 in order to hold the vertical rods in place (FIG. 34). If desired, the short retaining bars can also have concave openings that conform to the shape of, and receive at least part of, the vertical rods in order to retain the vertical rods in place with the system 100 implanted in a patient. Turning again to FIGS. 1, 2, 5, 6, the head 110 depicted is a preferred embodiment and is somewhat different from the head 110 as seen in FIG. 8. In particular the head body 206, the outer surface 218 of the head and the head wall 224, have been configured in order to prevent splaying of the head 110 when the set screw 112 locks the anchor system 102 as explained above. As seen in FIGS. 1, 2, the head 110 and, in particular, the wall 224 is reinforced about the U-shaped slot 216 that received the horizontal bar system 104. By reinforcing or bulking up the area of the wall about the U-shaped slot 216, splaying of the head 110 when force is applied to the set screw 214, in order to lock the anchor system 102, is avoided. The head 110 can use a number of shapes to be reinforced in order to prevent splaying. The exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 1, 2, includes a pitched roof shape as seen in the top view looking down on distal end 212 of the head 110. In particular, the wall about the U-shaped slot 216 is thickened, while the portion of the head distal from the U-shaped slot can be less thick if desired in order to reduce the bulk and size of the head 110 and, thus, give the head 110 a smaller profile relative to the bone and tissue structures when implanted in a patient. Further, the small profile allows greater freedom of motion of the system 100 as described below. Also, it is to be understood that due to the design of the anchor system 102, as described above, the head 110 can be shorter and, thus, stand less prominently out of the bone when the bone screw 108 in implanted in a spine of a patient for example. Freedom of Motion of the Embodiments of the Anchor System of the Invention In order to accommodate embodiments of the horizontal rod systems 104 of the invention, to allow greater freedom in placing the horizontal rod systems and the anchor systems 102 relative to, for example, the spine of a patient, and to provide for a smaller implanted profile in a patient, the anchor system 102 includes a number of degrees of freedom of motion. These degrees of freedom of motion are depicted in FIGS. 9, 9A, 10, 10A, and 11, 11A. FIG. 9 establishes a frame of reference including a longitudinal axis x which is along the longitudinal length of the bone screw 108, a y axis that extends perpendicular to the x axis, and a lateral axis z which is perpendicular to both the x axis and the y axis and extends outwardly from and parallel to the pin 190 of the yoke 180 of the anchor system 102. As depicted in the figures and, in particular, FIGS. 9, 9A, the system 100 due to the embodiments as disclosed herein is able to have the head 110 rotate about the z axis from about 80 degrees to about zero degrees and, thus, in line with the x axis and from the zero degree position to about 80 degrees on the other side of the x axis. Accordingly, the head is able to rotate about 160 degrees about the z axis relative to the bone screw 108. As seen in FIGS. 10, 10A the head 110 is able to tilt about 0.08 inches (2 mm) relative to and on both sides of the x axis. Accordingly, the head 110 can tilt from about 12 degrees to zero degrees where the head 110 is about parallel to the x axis and from zero degrees to 12 degrees about the y axis and on the other side of the x axis. Thus, the head can tilt through about 24 degrees about the y axis. As can be seen in FIGS. 11, 11A, the head 110 can swivel for a total of about 40 degrees about the x axis. With respect FIG. 11A, the head 110 can swivel about the x axis from about 20 degrees to one side of the z axis to zero degrees and from zero degrees to about 20 degrees on the other side of the z axis. The head is able to substantially exercise all of these degrees of freedom at once and, thus, can have a compound position relative to the bone screw by simultaneously moving the head within the ranges of about 160 degrees about the z axis (FIG. 9), about 24 degrees from the y axis (FIG. 10) and about 40 degrees about the x axis (FIG. 11A). Thus, with respect to FIGS. 9, 9A the range of motion in the axial plane is about 180 degrees or about 90 degrees on each side of the centerline. In FIGS. 10, 10A the range of motion in the Caudal/Cephalad orientation is about 4 mm or about 2 mm on each side of the centerline or about 24 degrees or about 12 degrees on each side of the centerline. In FIGS. 11, 11A the range of motion in the coronal plane is about 40 degrees or about 20 degrees on each side of the centerline. FIGS. 12, 13 depict yet another embodiment of the anchor system 102 of the invention where elements that are similar to elements of other embodiments and have similar reference numbers. As can be seen in FIG. 13, this embodiment includes a lower cradle or compressor element 220 that is similar to the cradle or compressor element 220 of the embodiment of FIG. 7 with the head 110 similar to the head 110 as seen in FIG. 7. The compression sphere 200 is similar to the compression sphere 200 in FIG. 7 with the compression sphere including a plurality of slits provided about the axis of rotation 238 of the sphere 200. In this embodiment, the slits 202 have openings that alternate between facing the north pole of the axis of rotation of the sphere 200 and facing the south pole of the axis of rotation of the sphere 200. Alternatively, the slits can be provided in the sphere and have no opening relative to the north or south pole of the axis of rotation of the sphere 200. Still further, the slits can open relative to only one of the north or south poles. In the embodiment of FIGS. 12, 13, there is also an upper cradle or compressor element 240 which is positioned adjacent to the set screw 214 (see also FIG. 7). The upper cradle or compressor element 240 has a generally cylindrical body which can slide in the cylindrical bore of the head 110 with an upper end having fingers 242 extending therefrom. The fingers 242 can spring over a bore formed in the lower surface of the set screw 214 in order to retain the cradle 240 relative to the set screw 214 and to allow the cradle 240 to rotate relative to the set screw 214. The lower surface of the cradle 240 includes a concave surface 244 which can mate with a horizontal rod 114, 116 in order to lock the rod relative the head 110 and the head 110 relative to the bone screw 108. If desired, the concave surface 244 can be roughened to assist in locking the system 100. Further, in FIGS. 12, 13, a retaining ring 246 is depicted. The retaining ring can be force fit over the outer surface 218 of the head 110, or pop over and snap under a ridge 248 at the distal end 212 of the head 110, or can have internal threads that mate with external threads located on the outer surface of the 218 of the head 110. With the anchor system 102 in place in a patient and with the horizontal rod 114, 116 received in the anchor system, before the set screw 214 is tightened in order to lock the horizontal rod and the anchor system, the retaining ring 246 can be attached to the head 110 in order to prevent splaying of the head 110 as the set screw 214 locks the system 110. Further embodiments of the anchor system 102 which can side load the horizontal rods 114, 116 are seen in FIGS. 14, 15, and 16, where similar elements from other embodiments of the anchor system are given similar numeral references. With respect to the embodiment in FIG. 15, the head side wall 224 includes a lateral or side opening 250 which communicates with the cylindrical bore 210 which is located in head 110. The lateral or side opening preferably extends more than 180 degrees about the outer surface of the head. The side opening 250 includes a lip 252 and the side opening extends down below the lip into communication with the cylindrical bore 210 and follows the outline of the concave surface 228 of the cradle 220. Accordingly, a horizontal rod 114, 116, can be positioned through the side opening 250 and urged downwardly into contact with the concave surface 228 of the cradle 220. In this embodiment the cradle 220 includes a downward projecting post 254. Also, this embodiment does not include a compression sphere, and instead the pin 190, which can have a larger diameter than a pin 190 in other embodiments, comes in direct contact with the post 254 when the set screw 112 locks the anchor system 100. If desired the pin 190 can have a roughened surface 256 to assist in the locking of the anchor system 100. As is evident from FIGS. 14, 15, 16, as this embodiment has a side loading head 110, the distal end of the head is a fully cylindrical without communicating with any lateral U-shaped slots of the other embodiments. Accordingly, this embodiment does not include any retaining ring or reinforced areas that can be used to prevent splaying. FIG. 17 depicts yet another embodiment of the anchor system 102 that has a lateral or side loading head 110. In this embodiment, a compression cylinder 258 is placed over the pin 190. Such a compression cylinder 258 may offer less freedom of motion of the anchor system 100 with added stability. The compression cylinder 258 can slide along the longitudinal axis 260 of the pin 190, if desired. The head 110 can rotate about the pin 190 and the compression cylinder 258. The head 110 can also slide or translate along the longitudinal axis 260 of the pin as well as the longitudinal axis of the compression cylinder 258. Compression cylinder 258 has slits 262 that can be configured similarly as the slits 202 of the other embodiments of the anchor system 100 described and depicted herein. FIG. 18 depicts still another embodiment of the anchor system 100 that has a lateral or side loading head 110. This embodiment includes a compression sphere 200 provided over a pin 190 which is similar to the other compression spheres 200 depicted and described herein. Accordingly, this embodiment has the freedom of motion described with respect to the other embodiments which use a compression sphere. It is to be understood that although each embodiment of the anchor system does not necessarily depict all the elements of another embodiment of the anchor system, that one of ordinary skill in the art would be able to use elements of one embodiment of the anchor system in another embodiment of the anchor system. Embodiments of the Horizontal Rod System of the Invention Embodiments of the horizontal rod system 104 of the invention include the embodiments describes above, in addition to the embodiments that follow. An aspect of the horizontal rod system 104 is to isolate the anchor system 102 and reduce the stress and forces on the anchor system. This aspect is accomplished by not transmitting such stresses and forces placed on the horizontal rod system by, for example, flexion, extension, rotation or bending of the spine to the anchor system. This aspect thus maintains the integrity of the placement of the anchor system in, for example, the spine and prevents loosening of the bone screw or bone hook of the anchor system. In addition, various horizontal rod systems can be used to control the rigidity, stiffness and/or springiness of the dynamic stabilization system 100 by the various elements that comprise the horizontal rod system. Further the horizontal rod system can be used to have one level of rigidity, stiffness and/or springiness in one direction and another level in a different direction. For example, the horizontal rod system can offer one level of stiffness in flexion of the spine and a different level of stiffness in extension of the spine. Additionally, the resistance to lateral bending can be controlled by the horizontal rod system. Select horizontal rod systems allow for more resistance to lateral bending with other select horizontal rod systems allow for less lateral bending. As discussed below, placement of the vertical rods also effects lateral bending. The more laterally the vertical rods are placed, the more stiff the embodiment is to lateral bending. As is evident from the figures, the horizontal rod system connects to the heads of the anchor system without the vertical rod system connecting to the heads. Generally, two anchor systems are secured to each vertebral level with a horizontal rod system connected between the two anchor systems. This further ensures that less stress and force is placed on the anchor systems secured to each level and also enables dynamic stability of the vertebra of the spine. Accordingly, movement of the vertebra relative to each other vertebra, as the spine extends, flexes, rotates and bends, is stabilized by the horizontal rods and the entire system 100 without placing excessive force or stress on the anchor system as there are no vertical rods that connect the anchor systems of one vertebra level with the anchor system of another vertebra. With respect to FIG. 19 through FIG. 25 another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 304 of the dynamic stabilization system 300 is depicted as used with an anchor system 102 of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1. Also shown in FIGS. 19, 19A, is the vertical rod system 306. The horizontal rod system 304 includes first and second horizontal rods 308, 310. It is to be understood that FIG. 19A shows a second image of only the horizontal rod 308 in a first undeployed position and that FIG. 19 shows a deployed position with the horizontal rod 308 connected with vertical rods 306 and, thus, the entire system 300. The horizontal rod 308 includes first and second aligned end rods 312, 314 which are connected together with an offset rod 316 located between the first and second end rods 312, 314. In this embodiment, the horizontal rod 308 looks much like a yoke with the offset rod joining each of the end rods 312, 314 with a curved section 318, 320. At the junction of the first end rod 312 and the offset rod 316 is a first bore 322 which is aligned with the first end rod 312, and at the junction of the second end rod 314 and the offset rod 316 is a second bore 324 which is aligned with the second end rod 314 and, thus, aligned with the first end rod 312. Positioned in and extending from the first bore 322 is a first deflection rod or loading rod 326 and positioned in and extending from the second bore 324 is a second deflection rod or loading rod 328. As with the other deflection rods or loading rods, preferably deflection rods or loading rods 324, 328 are made of a super elastic material such as, for example, Nitinol (NiTi) and the rest of system 300 is comprised of titanium, stainless steel, a biocompatible polymer such as PEEK or other biocompatible material. In addition to Nitinol or nickel-titanium (NiTi), other super elastic materials include copper-zinc-aluminum and copper-aluminum-nickel. However, for biocompatibility the nickel-titanium is the desired material. The super elastic material has been selected for the deflection rods as the stress or force/deflection chart for a super elastic material has a plateau where the force is relatively constant as the deflection increases. Stated differently, a super elastic rod has a load (y) axis/deflection (x) axis curve which has a plateau at a certain level where the load plateaus or flattens out with increased deflection. In other words, the rod continues to deflect with the load staying constant at the plateau. In one embodiment, the load plateau is about 250 Newtons to about 300 Newtons. It is to be understood that the plateau can be customized to the needs of the patient by the selection of the type and composition of the super elastic material. For some patients, the plateau should be lower, and, for others, the plateau should be higher. Accordingly, and, for example, at the plateau, additional force is not put on the anchor system 102 and, thus, additional force is not put on the area of implantation of the bone screw 108 and the surrounding bone of the spine where the bone screw 108 is implanted. The deflection rods or loading rods 326, 328 are force fit, screwed, welded, or glued into the bores 322, 324 as desired. The first and second deflection rods or loading rods 326, 328 extend from the respective bores 322, 324 toward each other and are joined by a Y-shaped connector 330. The Y-shaped connector 330 includes a base 332 which has opposed and aligned bores 334, 336 that can receive the deflection rods or loading rods 326, 328 in a manner that preferably allows the Y-shaped connector to pivot about the longitudinal axis defined by the aligned first and second deflection rods or loading rods 326, 328. The Y-shaped connector 330 includes first and second arms that preferably end in threaded bores 342, 344 that can receive the threaded ends of the vertical bar system 306 as described below. Just behind the threaded bores 342, 344 are recesses 346, 348 (FIG. 24) which are shaped to accept the offset rod 316 with the horizontal rod 308 in the undeployed configuration depicted in FIG. 19A. In the undeployed configuration, the horizontal rod 308 can be more easily implanted between the tissues and bones of the spine and, in particular, guided between the spinous processes. Once the first horizontal rod 308 is implanted, the Y-shaped connector 330 can be deployed by rotating it about 90 degrees or as required by the anatomy of the spine of the patient and connected with the vertical rod system 306. The second horizontal rod 310 is similar to the second horizontal rod 116 of the embodiment of FIG. 1. This second horizontal rod 310 is preferably comprised of titanium or other biocompatible material and includes first and second mounts 350, 352 which can receive the ends of the vertical rod system 306. The mounts 350, 352 include respective recesses 354, 356 which can receive the vertical rods 358, 360 of the vertical rod system 306. The mounts 350, 352 also include tabs 362, 364 which can capture the vertical rods 358, 360 in the respective recesses 354, 356. The tabs 362, 364 can be secured to the mounts 350, 352 with screws or other appropriate fastening devices. The first and second vertical rods 358, 360 are preferably comprised of titanium or other biocompatible material and include a threaded end and a non-threaded end. The threaded end can be formed on the end of the rod or threaded elements can be force fit or glued to the end of the vertical rods 358, 360. Once the first and second horizontal rods are deployed in the patient, the first and second vertical rods can be screwed into or otherwise captured by the Y-shaped connector 330 of the first horizontal bar 308 and the first and second vertical rods can be captured or otherwise secured to the second horizontal bar 310. FIGS. 26, 27, and FIGS. 28, 29 depict yet more alternative embodiments of the horizontal rod systems of the invention. The horizontal rod 370 in FIGS. 26, 27 is similar to the horizontal rod 118 in FIG. 1. Horizontal rod 370 includes a mount 372 which has bores that can receive first and second deflection rods or loading rods 374, 376 which are preferably made of a super elastic material. At the ends of the first and second deflection rods or loading rods 374, 376 are connectors which include a tab having a threaded bore therethrough. The connectors can be used to connect vertical rods to the deflection rods or loading rods. FIGS. 28, 29 depict a horizontal rod 380 with first mount 382 and second mount 384. Each of the mounts 382, 884, includes a bore that is substantially parallel to the horizontal rod 380. First and second deflection rods or loading rods 386, 388 extend respectively from the bores of the first and second mounts 382, 382. In the embodiment depicted the deflection rods or loading rods 386, 388 are parallel to the horizontal rod 380 and are directed toward each other. Alternatively, the deflection rods or loading rods 386, 388 can be directed away from each other. In that configuration, the mounts 382, 384 would be spaced apart and the deflection rods or loading rods would be shorter as the deflection rods or loading rods extended parallel to and toward the ends of the horizontal rod 380. FIGS. 30, 31, 32 depict yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 390 of the invention which is similar to the horizontal bar system 104 as depicted in FIG. 1. Horizontal bar system 390 includes tapered deflection rods or loading rods 392, 394. The deflection rods or loading rods are tapered and reduce in diameter from the mount 396 toward the ends of the horizontal rod 390. As previously discussed the deflection rods or loading rods can taper continuously or in discrete steps and can also have an decreasing diameter from the ends of the deflection rods or loading rods towards the mount 396. In other words, a reverse taper than what is depicted in FIG. 30. Connected to the deflection rod or loading rods 392, 394 are the vertical rods 402, 404. The vertical rods 402, 404 are connected to the deflection rods or loading rods 392, 394 as explained above. The conically shaped or tapered deflection rods or loading rods can be formed by drawing or grinding the material which is preferably a super elastic material. The tapered shape of the deflection rods or loading rods distributes the load or forces placed by the spine on the system evenly over the relatively short length of the deflection rods or loading rods as the rods extend from the central mount outwardly toward the ends of the horizontal rod. In this embodiment, in order to be operatively positioned relative to the spine and between the anchor systems, the deflection rods or loading rods are less than half the length of the horizontal rods. FIG. 30 depicts the vertical rods 402, 404 in undeployed positions that are about parallel to the horizontal rod 390 and with the vertical rods 402, 404 directed away from each other and toward the respective ends of the horizontal rod 390. In this position the horizontal rod 390 can be more conveniently directed through the bone and tissue of the spine and, for example, directed between the spinous processes to the implant position. Once in position, the vertical rods 402, 404 can be deployed so that the vertical rods are parallel to each other and about parallel to the horizontal rod 390 as depicted in FIG. 31. Accordingly, this embodiment can be inserted from the side of the spine in the undeployed configuration depicted in FIG. 30 and then the vertical rods can be rotated or deployed by about 90 degrees (from FIG. 30 to FIG. 31) each into the coronal plane of the patient. The vertical rods are also free to rotate about 180 degrees about the deflection rods and in the sagittal plane of patient. This allows this embodiment to conform to the different sagittal contours that may be encountered relative to the spine of a patient. The deflection rods or loading rods are rigidly connected to the horizontal rod allowing for an easier surgical technique as sections of the spine and, in particular, the spinous processes and associated ligaments and tissues do not have to be removed in order to accommodate the implantation system 100. The moving action of the system, and, in particular, the flexing of the deflection rods and the motion of the vertical rods connected to the deflection rods or loading rods, takes place about the spinous processes and associated tissues and ligaments, and, thus, the spinous processes do not interfere with this motion. Further, having the horizontal rods more lateral than central also allows for a more simple surgical technique through, for example, a Wiltse approach. To assist in implantation, a cone 406 can be slipped over the end of the horizontal rod 390 and the vertical rod 402 to assist in urging the tissues and bone associated with the spine out of the way. Once the horizontal rod is implanted the cone 406 can be removed. The cone 406 includes an end 408 which can be pointed or bulbous and the cone 406 has an increasing diameter in the direction to the sleeve 410 portion of the cone 406. The sleeve can be cylindrical and receive the end of the horizontal rod and the end of the deflection rod or loading rod 402. FIG. 32 depicts how the connectors 412, 414 are secured to the respective deflection rods 392, 394. The deflection rods have flanges, such as spaced apart flange 416, 418 on the deflection rod 392. The connectors 412, 414 can snap over and be retained between respective pairs of flanges. FIG. 33 depicts yet another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 430 of the invention. The horizontal rod system 430 includes horizontal rod 432 which is preferably comprised of a super elastic material such as Nitinol. The horizontal rod 432 includes a generally central platform 434, and on each side of the central platform 434 are first and second upwardly facing scallops or recesses 436, 438. On each side of the upwardly facing scallop or recess 436 are downwardly facing scallops or recesses 440, 442. On each side of the upwardly facing scallop or recess 438 are downwardly facing scallops or recesses 444, 446. The platform 434 accepts a connector for connecting the horizontal rod to vertical rods (FIG. 40) as will be explained below, and the scallops 436, 440, 442 on one side of the platform 434 act as a spring and the scallop 438, 444, 446 on the other side of the platform 434 acts as a spring. These springs assist the platform in carrying the load that the spine can place on the horizontal rod and isolate the anchor systems 102 from that load. That isolation has the advantage of preventing loosening of the anchor system as implanted in the patient. It is to be understood that by varying the pattern of the scallops, that the stiffness or rigidity of the horizontal bar can be varied and customized for each patient. Fewer scallops will generally result in a more stiff horizontal bar and more scallops will generally result in a less rigid horizontal bar. Additionally, the stiffness can be different depending on the direction of the force that is placed on the horizontal bar depending on the orientation and location of the scallops. For the embodiment depicted in FIG. 33, with the scallops 436, 438 pointed upward to the head of a patient and the scallops 440, 442, 444, 446 pointed downward toward the feet of a patient, the horizontal bar is stiffer in extension and less stiff in flexion. It is noted that in this embodiment the rod is of a uniform diameter, although the diameter can be non-uniform as, for example, being larger where the platform 434 is and tapering to the ends of the horizontal rod 432, or having a large diameter at the ends of the horizontal rod 432, tapering to a smaller diameter at the platform 434. In this embodiment with a substantially uniform diameter, the scallops are formed within the uniform diameter. In other forms, the scallops are molded into the horizontal rod or machined out of the preformed horizontal rod. With this configuration, the horizontal rod is more easily inserted into the spine and between bones and tissues of the spine. Further, this horizontal rod can be more easily delivered to the spine through a cannula due to the substantially uniform diameter. For purposes of forming the scallops a machining technique known as wire electric discharge machining or wire EDM can be used. Thus, an approach for shaping the super elastic material is through wire EDM followed by electro-polishing. Additionally, the super elastic material in this and the other embodiments can be cold rolled, drawn or worked in order to increase the super elastic property of the material. In this embodiment, the deflection takes place almost exclusively in the middle portion of the horizontal rod and principally at the platform and spring thus relieving the load or force on the ends of the horizontal rod and on the anchor system/bone interface. Accordingly, in this preferred embodiment, there are two superior scallops pointing upwardly having a relatively gentler radius compared to the tighter radii of the inferior scallops pointing downwardly. It is to be understood that in this preferred embodiment, the inferior scallops are not symmetrical the way the superior scallops are. The lateral most cuts in both of the most lateral inferior scallops are steep and not radiused. These cuts allow the rod to bend at these points enhancing the spring effect. The ratio of the radii of the superior scallop to the inferior scallop in this preferred embodiment is two to one. The result is to create two curved and flat (in cross-section) sections, one on each side of the platform and these two flat sections in this preferred embodiment have about the same uniform thickness. Again, in this embodiment, the scallops and the platform is formed into an otherwise uniformly diametered cylindrical rod. Accordingly, none of these formed elements in this preferred embodiment extend beyond the diameter of the rod. In this preferred embodiment, the diameter of the horizontal rod is about 4 mm. If desired, the rod could be bent in such a way that the platform and/or the scallops extend outside of the diameter of the cylindrical rod. However that configuration would not be as suitable for implantation through a cannula or percutaneously as would the horizontal rod as shown in FIG. 33 and described above. It is to be understood that to have enhanced flexibility, that the torsion rod and connector elements used in the horizontal rod embodiment of FIG. 1 can be used with the horizontal rod of FIG. 33. In this embodiment (FIG. 47), the connector is secured to the platform of the horizontal rod of FIG. 33 with the two deflection rods or loading rods extending toward the ends of the horizontal rod of FIG. 33 and about parallel to that horizontal rod. Another embodiment of the horizontal rod 433 is depicted in FIG. 33A. In this embodiment the horizontal rod 433 is similar to the horizontal rod in FIG. 33 with the exception that the platform and scallops are replaced with a reduced diameter central potion 448. Each end of the central portion 448 gradually increases in diameter until the diameter is the full diameter of the ends of the horizontal rod 433. This embodiment can be formed of a super elastic material and ground to the reduced diameter shape from a rod stock of the super elastic material. The rod stock could also be drawn to this shape. Generally after such operations the horizontal rod would be electro polished. In this embodiment, a connector such as the connector shown in FIG. 40 could be used to connect vertical rods to preferably the middle of the central portion 448. FIGS. 34A, 34B, 34C depict yet an alternative embodiment of a horizontal rod 280 such as horizontal rod 116 as shown in FIG. 1 that is meant to rigidly hold the vertical rods secured thereto. The mounts 282, 284 formed in this horizontal rod 280 include a body that can be formed with the rod 280. The mounts are then provided with a movable capture arm 286, 288 that have recesses, which capture arms are formed out of the mount preferably using a wire EDM process that leaves the capture arm still connected to the horizontal rod with a living hinge. Eccentric headed set screws 290, 292 are mounted on the horizontal bar. With vertical rods captured in the recesses of the capture arms, the eccentric set screws can be turned to urge the capture arms against the living hinge, and thereby capturing the vertical rods in the recesses of the capture arms. FIG. 40 depicts a dynamic stabilization system 450 that uses the horizontal rod system 454 of the invention. The system 450 additionally uses the anchor system 102 as depicted in FIG. 1 and the other horizontal rod 310 as depicted in FIGS. 19, 34. A connector 452 is secured to the platform 434 of the horizontal rod 454 and vertical rods are connected to the connector and to the other horizontal rod 310. In FIG. 40 for the horizontal rod 454, the scallops are formed by bending a bar and not by forming the scallops in a straight horizontal bar as depicted in the horizontal bar 432 of FIG. 33. The horizontal rod 430 of FIG. 33 could also be used in the embodiment of FIG. 40. FIG. 35 depicts an alternative embodiment of a horizontal rod system 460 of the invention. Horizontal rod system 460 includes a horizontal rod 462 with a central platform 464 and first and second spring regions 466, 468 located on either side of the platform 464. Extending outwardly from each spring region are respective ends of the horizontal rod 462. The spring regions include coils that are wound about the longitudinal axis of the horizontal rod 462. If desired, the entire horizontal rod 462 can be comprised of a rod wound around a longitudinal axis with the platform 464 and the ends of the horizontal rod being more tightly wound and/or with a smaller diameter and the spring regions 466, 468 more loosely wound and/or with a larger diameter. Such a horizontal rod 462 can preferably be comprised of super elastic material such as Nitinol or alternatively titanium or other biocompatible material which demonstrates the ability to flex repeatedly. FIG. 36 depicts yet another alternative embodiment of a horizontal rod system 480 which includes first and second horizontal rods 482, 484 which can be flat rods if desired. The horizontal rods 482, 484, include spring region 494, 496. In the spring region the horizontal rod is formed into an arc, much like a leaf spring. Located at the ends and at the central platform 486 and between the horizontal rods 482, 484 are spacers 488, 490, 492. The spacers are glued, bonded, welded or otherwise secured between the first and second horizontal rods 482, 484 in order to form the horizontal rod system 480. This system 480 can be comprised of super elastic materials or other materials that are biocompatible with the patient. FIG. 37 depicts another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 500 including a horizontal rod 502. In this embodiment, recesses 504 are formed in the horizontal rod in order to define the stiffness of the horizontal rod 502. This system can be formed of a super elastic material or other biocompatible material. FIG. 38 depicts still another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 520 of the invention with a horizontal rod 522. The horizontal rod 522 includes dimples 524 distributed around and along the horizontal rod 522. As this other embodiment, depending on the distribution of the dimples, the stiffness of the horizontal rod 522 can be determined. Further is more dimples are placed on the lower surface than on the upper surface, when placed in a patient, the horizontal rod 522 would tend to be stiffer in extension and less stiff in flexion. This horizontal rod 522 can also be made of a super elastic material or other biocompatible material. FIG. 39 depicts another embodiment of the horizontal rod system 530 of the invention which has a horizontal rod 532 which is similar to the horizontal rod 432 of FIG. 33 and, thus, similar elements will number with similar numbers. In addition, the ends 534, 536 of the horizontal rod 532 are curved so as to create hooks that can fit around portions of the vertebra so as to secure the horizontal rod 532 to the vertebra. In this embodiment, preferably the rod is comprised of super elastic material or other biocompatible material. In order to implant the rod, the hooks at ends 534, 536 are sprung open and allowed to spring closed around the vertebra. An anchor system which includes a hook (as discussed above) could be used with this system. FIGS. 39A, 39B are similar to FIG. 39. In FIGS. 39A, 39B, a horizontal rod 532 is held in place relative to the spine by two anchor systems 102. The anchor systems are similar to the anchor systems depicted in FIG. 1. The anchor systems 102 include an anchor or bone screw 108 or bone hook 109 with spikes 111 (FIG. 39B), as well as the head 110 into which the horizontal rod is received. A set screw 112 secures the horizontal rod relative to the anchor systems. FIG. 41 depicts another embodiment of the dynamic stabilization system 540 of the invention. This embodiment includes side loading anchor systems 542 as described above, although top loading anchor systems would also be appropriate for this embodiment. In this embodiment the horizontal rods 544, 546 are preferably comprised of a polymer such as PEEK and mounted on the horizontal rods 544, 546 are first and second connectors 548, 550. Vertical rods 552 and 554 are connected to the first and second connectors 548, 550 at points 556 with screws, rivets or other devices so that the connection is rigid or, alternatively, so that the vertical rods 552, 554 can pivot or rotate about the points. As the horizontal rods are comprised of PEEK, the system tends to be more rigid than if the rods were comprised of a super elastic material. Rigidity also depends on the diameter of the rod. Embodiments of the Vertical Rod System of the Invention Embodiments of vertical rod systems of the invention such as vertical rod system 106 are presented throughout this description of the invention. Generally, the vertical rod systems are comprised of vertical rods that can be pivoted or inserted into position after the horizontal rods are deployed in the patient. The vertical rods are preferably connected to the horizontal rods and not to the anchor systems in order to reduce the forces and stress on the anchor systems. The vertical rods are connected to the horizontal rod systems, which horizontal rod systems include mechanisms as described herein that reduce the forces and stresses on the anchor systems. The vertical rods can generally be comprised of titanium, stainless steel, PEEK or other biocompatible material. Should more flexibility be desired, the vertical rods can be comprised of a super elastic material. Embodiments of Alternative Multi-Level Dynamic Stabilization Systems for the Spine FIGS. 42 and 43 depict multi-level dynamic stabilization systems 560, 580. Each of these systems 560, 580 are two level systems. All of these systems use anchor systems as described herein. In system 560 of FIG. 42 the middle level horizontal rod 562 is secured to a vertebra and includes a horizontal rod system 104 having first and second deflection rods or loading rods such as that depicted in FIG. 4, whereby a first pair of vertical rods 564 can extend upwardly from horizontal rod system and a second pair of vertical rods 566 can extend downwardly from the horizontal rod system. The vertical rods that extend upwardly are connected to an upper horizontal rod 568 such as depicted in FIG. 34 and the vertical rods that extend downward are connected to a lower horizontal rod 568 such as depicted in FIG. 34. The upper horizontal rod 568 is secured with anchor systems to a vertebra located above the vertebra to which the middle level horizontal rod 562 is secured. The lower horizontal rod 570 is secured with anchor systems to a vertebra located below the vertebra to which the middle level horizontal rod 562 is secured. This embodiment offers more stability for the middle level vertebra relative to the upper and lower vertebra while allowing for extension, flexion, rotation and bending relative to the middle level vertebra. FIG. 43 depicts another multi-level dynamic stabilization system 580. All of these systems use anchor systems as described herein. In system 580 of FIG. 43, the middle level horizontal rod 582 is secured to a vertebra and includes a horizontal rod such as that depicted in FIG. 34. The upper and lower horizontal rods 586, 590 can be similar to the horizontal rod 114 including the deflection rods or loading rods and deflection rod or loading rod mount depicted in FIG. 3. Vertical rods are pivotally and rotationally mounted to the upper and lower horizontal rods 586, 590 and, respectively, to the deflection or loading rods thereof and are also rigidly mounted to the middle level horizontal rod 582. The upper horizontal rod 586 is secured with anchor systems to a vertebra located above the vertebra to which the middle level horizontal rod 582 is secured. The lower horizontal rod 590 is secured with anchor systems to a vertebra located below the vertebra to which the middle level horizontal rod 582 is secured. This embodiment offers more dynamic stability for the upper and lower vertebra relative to the middle level vertebra while allowing for extension, flexion, rotation and bending relative to the middle level vertebra. Alternatively, the middle level horizontal rod 582 has four mounts instead of the two mounts depicted in FIG. 34 or FIG. 34A so that a first pair of vertical rods 588 can extend upwardly from a lower horizontal rod 590 and a second pair of vertical rods 566 extending downwardly from the upper horizontal rod 586, can be secured to the middle level horizontal rod 582. Embodiments of Spine Fusion Systems of the Invention FIGS. 44, 45 depict one and two level systems that are more preferably used for fusion. The system 600 depicted in FIG. 44 resembles the system depicted in FIG. 41. When PEEK is used for the horizontal rods 602, 604, the system is substantially rigid and can be used in conjunction with spine fusion. For example, this system can be used with the placement of bone or a fusion cage between vertebra to which this system is attached. In fusion, bone can be placed between the vertebral bodies or, alternatively, fusion can be accomplished by placing bone in the valleys on each side of the spinous processes. The horizontal rods 602, 604 an also be comprised of titanium, or other biocompatible material and be used for spine fusion. For this embodiment, the vertical rods 606 can be rigidly attached to the horizontal rods through the use of a horizontal rod with mounts, as depicted in FIG. 34, so that the vertical rods 606 do not move or pivot with respect to the horizontal rods. FIG. 45 depicts a two level system 620 that is more preferably used for a two level fusion. Each level can use an anchor system for example described with respect to anchor system 102 of FIG. 1. The horizontal rods 622, 624, 626 are can be similar to the horizontal rod in FIG. 34 with either two vertical rod mounts for the upper and lower horizontal rods 622, 626 or four vertical rod mounts for the middle level horizontal rod 624. For this embodiment, the vertical rods 628, 630 can be rigidly attached to the horizontal rods through the use of a horizontal rod with mounts as depicted in FIG. 34 so that the vertical rods 628, 630 do not move or pivot with respect to the horizontal rods. Vertical rods 628 extend between the upper and middle horizontal rods 622, 624, and vertical rods 630 extend between the middle and lower horizontal rods 624, 626. The system 620 depicted in FIG. 44 resembles the system depicted in FIG. 41, but with respect to three levels. When PEEK is used for the horizontal rods 622, 624, 626, the system is substantially rigid and can be used in conjunction with spine fusion. For example, this system can be used with the placement of bone or a fusion cage between vertebra to which this system is attached. Bone can also be placed along the valleys on either side of the spinous processes for this system. The horizontal rods 622, 624, 626 can also be comprised of titanium, PEEK or other biocompatible material and be used for spine fusion. With respect to FIG. 45, to ease the transition to a one level fused area of the spine this two level system can be modified by replacing the horizontal rod 622 with a horizontal rod 115 (FIGS. 45A, 45B), which is much like horizontal rod 104 with deflection or loading rods 118, 120 of FIG. 1. This embodiment is depicted in FIG. 45A. Thus, fusion is accomplished between the two lower horizontal rods 117 which rods are like those depicted in FIG. 34, or like horizontal rods 116 in FIG. 1, and made of, preferably, titanium, and flexibility is provided by the upper horizontal rod 115 that is like horizontal rod 114 with deflection or loading rods that are shown in FIG. 1. Accordingly, there is more gradual transition from a healthier portion of the spine located above horizontal rod 115 through horizontal rod 115 to the fused part of the spine located between horizontal rod 624 and horizontal rod 606 of FIG. 45 or between the horizontal rods 117 (FIG. 45A). Method of Implantation and Revised Implantation: A method of implantation of the system in the spine of a human patient is as follows. First the vertebral levels that are to receive the system are identified. Then the anchor systems are implanted, generally two anchor systems for each level. The anchor systems can be implanted using a cannula and under guidance imaging such as x-ray imaging. Alternatively, the anchor system can be implanted using traditional spinal surgery techniques. Then the horizontal rods are inserted and secured to the anchor systems. The horizontal rods can be inserted laterally through a cannula or with an incision and the use of, for example, a lead-in cone. Alternatively, the horizontal rods can be inserted using traditional techniques when the anchor systems are implanted. Thereafter, the vertical rods can be pivoted, rotated or placed into communication with and secured to the appropriate horizontal rod. Should a dynamic stabilization system such as system 100 be initially implanted and then should there be a desire to make the system more rigid or to accomplish a fusion, the system 100 can be revised by removing the horizontal rod 104 that includes the deflection rods or loading rods and replace it with a horizontal rod 106 which has the vertical rod mounts (FIG. 34) and is thus substantially more rigid. Thus a revision to a fusion configuration can be accomplished with minimal trauma to the bone and tissue structures of the spine. Materials of Embodiments of the Invention In addition to Nitinol or nickel-titanium (NiTi) other super elastic materials include copper-zinc-aluminum and copper-aluminum-nickel. However for biocompatibility the nickel-titanium is the preferred material. As desired, implant 100 can be made of titanium or stainless steel. Other suitable material includes by way of example only polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), polyetherketone (PEK), polyetherketoneetherketoneketone (PEKEKK), and polyetheretherketoneketone (PEEKK). Still, more specifically, the material can be PEEK 450G, which is an unfilled PEEK approved for medical implantation available from Victrex of Lancashire, Great Britain. (Victrex is located at www.matweb.com or see Boedeker www.boedeker.com). Other sources of this material include Gharda located in Panoli, India (www.ghardapolymers.com). As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, other suitable similarly biocompatible thermoplastic or thermoplastic polycondensate materials that resist fatigue, have good memory, are flexible, and/or deflectable have very low moisture absorption, and good wear and/or abrasion resistance, can be used without departing from the scope of the invention. Reference to appropriate polymers that can be used in the spacer can be made to the following documents. These documents include: PCT Publication WO 02/02158 A1, dated Jan. 10, 2002, entitled “Bio-Compatible Polymeric Materials;” PCT Publication WO 02/00275 A1, dated Jan. 3, 2002, entitled “Bio-Compatible Polymeric Materials;” and PCT Publication WO 02/00270 A1, dated Jan. 3, 2002, entitled “Bio-Compatible Polymeric Materials.” The foregoing description of preferred embodiments of the present invention has been provided for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many embodiments were chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and its practical application, thereby enabling others skilled in the art to understand the invention for various embodiments and with various modifications that are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims and their equivalents.
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A
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17
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04
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11947740
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US20080076967A1-20080327
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SERIALIZATION OF SINGLE USE ENDOSCOPES
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ACCEPTED
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20080312
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20080327
|
[]
|
A61B104
|
["A61B104", "G06F1730"]
|
9230324
|
20071129
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20160105
|
600
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117000
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62471.0
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LEUBECKER
|
JOHN
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Couvillon", "inventor_name_first": "Lucien", "inventor_city": "Concord", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A system, device and method for serializing and authorizing a single use imaging device are provided. In one embodiment, the invention provides a single use imaging device comprising a memory having a stored code that includes a unique serial identifier. In another embodiment, the invention provides a system for authorizing a single use imaging device comprising a single use imaging device with an image of a verification object that includes a serial identifier uniquely associated with the device, a control unit capable of electronically receiving the verification object image, a decoder capable of extracting a serial identifier from the verification object image, a database of authorized serial identifiers, and means for determining if the single use imaging device is authorized.
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1-28. (canceled) 29. A medical imaging device, comprising: an image sensor that produces images of tissue; a memory in which an image of a verification object is stored that includes an image of a serial identifier that uniquely identifies the medical imaging device; and a circuit that transmits the image of the verification object to a remote processor. 30. The medical imaging device of claim 29, further comprising: a shaft having a distal end and a proximal end. 31. The medical imaging device of claim 30, wherein the image sensor is positioned at or adjacent the distal end of the shaft. 32. The medical imaging device of claim 29, wherein the image of the verification object includes one or more images of calibration objects. 33. The medical device of claim 29, wherein the serial identifier is a linear barcode. 34. The medical device of claim 29, wherein the serial identifier is a tuc-dimensional barcode. 35. The medical device of claim 29, wherein the image of the verification object is pre-stored in the memory. 36. The medical device of claim 29, wherein the verification object is printed on a test target that is imaged by the image sensor. 37. A system for retrieving information regarding medical device, including: a server computer coupled to a computer communication link having a database that stores information regarding medical devices; a control unit that receives an image of verification object having a serial identifier therein from a medical device, the control unit transmitting the serial identifier to the server computer; wherein the server computer retrieves information regarding a particular medical from the serial identifier received from the control unit. 38. The system of claim 37, wherein the information stored in the database is indicative of a use of the medical device. 39. The system of claim 37, wherein the information stored in the database is indicative of a non-use of the medical device.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>As an aid to the early detection of disease, it has become well established that there are major public health benefits from regular endoscopic examinations of internal structures such as the alimentary canals and airways, e.g., the esophagus, lungs, colon, uterus, and other organ systems. A conventional imaging endoscope used for such procedures comprises a flexible tube with a fiber optic light guide that directs illuminating light from an external light source to the distal tip where it exits the endoscope and illuminates the tissue to be examined. An objective lens and fiber optic imaging light guide communicating with a camera at the proximal end of the scope, or an imaging camera chip at the distal tip, produce an image that is displayed to the examiner. Navigation of the endoscope through complex and tortuous paths is critical to success of the examination with minimum pain, side effects, risk or sedation to the patient. To this end, modern endoscopes include means for deflecting the distal tip of the scope to follow the pathway of the structure under examination, with minimum deflection or friction force upon the surrounding tissue. Control cables similar to puppet strings are carried within the endoscope body in order to connect a flexible portion of the distal end to a set of control knobs at the proximal endoscope handle. By manipulating the control knobs, the examiner is able to steer the endoscope during insertion and direct it to a region of interest. Conventional endoscopes are expensive medical devices costing in the range of $25,000 for an endoscope, and much more for the associated operator console. Because of the expense, these endoscopes are built to withstand repeated disinfections and use upon many patients. Conventional endoscopes are generally built of sturdy materials, which decreases the flexibility of the scope and thus can decrease patient comfort. Furthermore, conventional endoscopes are complex and fragile instruments that frequently need expensive repair as a result of damage during use or during a disinfection procedure. Single use disposable medical devices have become popular for instruments with small lumens and intricate, delicate working mechanisms that are difficult to sterilize or clean properly. Single use disposable devices packaged in sterile wrappers avoid the risk of pathogenic cross-contamination of diseases such as HIV, hepatitis, and other pathogens. Hospitals generally welcome the convenience of single use disposable products because they no longer have to be concerned with product age, overuse, breakage, malfunction and sterilization. However, with the advent of single use devices comes the need for authorization of a particular device prior to use to determine if it is new or used, that associated console software is up-to-date (e.g., sensitivity and color calibration tables, steering algorithms, etc.), when and where it was manufactured, whether it is a current model, and information regarding recall notices. Therefore, in order to prevent improper use of single use devices, there is a need for a method of serializing a device so that prior to use, the user can be assured that the system is current, all elements are compatible, and the device can be authorized as new and unused, and ready for use.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>To address these and other problems in the prior art, the present invention provides devices, systems and methods for serializing and authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The device form of the invention includes a single use imaging device having a shaft with a proximal and distal end and a connector on the proximal end for connecting the device to a control unit. An image sensor is included at or adjacent to the distal end for producing images in a predefined format for receipt by an imaging board within the control unit. The device includes a memory with a stored code encoding a serial identifier transferable to the control unit for analysis, wherein the serial identifier is uniquely associated with the imaging device at the time of manufacture. A transmit circuit is included that transmits the code to the imaging board in the format of the image signals produced by the image sensor. In accordance with further aspects of the invention, another device form of the invention includes a control unit for authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The control unit comprises a connector for connecting the control unit to the single use medical imaging device and a device interface capable of receiving a code in a format of an image signal produced by an image sensor of the medical imaging device, wherein the code encodes a serial identifier uniquely associated with the single use imaging device. The control unit includes a processor that extracts the serial identifier from the code, and means for determining if the single use device is authorized based upon the serial identifier associated with the device. In some embodiments, the processor further includes logic for calibrating the single use imaging device upon authorization. In some embodiments, calibration includes imaging properties and also the navigation characteristics such as deflection ranges and sensitivities, dynamic and static, of the single use device. In further embodiments, the memory comprises logic for functionally testing the single use imaging device upon successful calibration. In another aspect, the present invention provides a medical imaging system comprising a single use medical imaging device having an image of a verification object encoding a serial identifier uniquely associated with the device and a control unit for authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The control unit has a device interface capable of receiving the image of the verification object and means for determining if the single use device is authorized based upon the serial identifier encoded in the image. In some embodiments, the verification object image is stored in the memory of the single use device. In other embodiments, the verification object image is printed on a test target associated with the single use device. In some embodiments, the device is authorized by reference to a registry contained in a remote database accessible from the control unit via a network connection. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for authorizing a single use imaging device. The methods of this aspect of the invention comprise connecting the imaging device to a control unit, electronically obtaining an image of a prerecorded verification object associated with the imaging device, wherein the verification object encodes a serial identifier, extracting the serial identifier from the image, and authorizing the imaging device by comparing the serial identifier to a database containing information on authorized serial identifiers. A match between the serial identifier and information in the database results in the device being authorized for use. In some embodiments, the comparison is made to a remote database by connecting to a remote server. In some embodiments, the authentication method further comprises automatic calibration and functional self-testing. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for serializing a set of single use imaging devices comprising assigning a unique serial identifier to each device to be manufactured, encoding the serial identifier in a verification object image, wherein the verification object image also includes a set of calibration objects, associating the verification object with each imaging device at the time of its manufacture, and maintaining a registry of authorized serial identifiers corresponding to manufactured serialized imaging devices, wherein a user of an imaging device may determine if the device is authorized by comparing the serial identifier to the registry.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to serialization of medical devices in general and single use imaging devices in particular. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION As an aid to the early detection of disease, it has become well established that there are major public health benefits from regular endoscopic examinations of internal structures such as the alimentary canals and airways, e.g., the esophagus, lungs, colon, uterus, and other organ systems. A conventional imaging endoscope used for such procedures comprises a flexible tube with a fiber optic light guide that directs illuminating light from an external light source to the distal tip where it exits the endoscope and illuminates the tissue to be examined. An objective lens and fiber optic imaging light guide communicating with a camera at the proximal end of the scope, or an imaging camera chip at the distal tip, produce an image that is displayed to the examiner. Navigation of the endoscope through complex and tortuous paths is critical to success of the examination with minimum pain, side effects, risk or sedation to the patient. To this end, modern endoscopes include means for deflecting the distal tip of the scope to follow the pathway of the structure under examination, with minimum deflection or friction force upon the surrounding tissue. Control cables similar to puppet strings are carried within the endoscope body in order to connect a flexible portion of the distal end to a set of control knobs at the proximal endoscope handle. By manipulating the control knobs, the examiner is able to steer the endoscope during insertion and direct it to a region of interest. Conventional endoscopes are expensive medical devices costing in the range of $25,000 for an endoscope, and much more for the associated operator console. Because of the expense, these endoscopes are built to withstand repeated disinfections and use upon many patients. Conventional endoscopes are generally built of sturdy materials, which decreases the flexibility of the scope and thus can decrease patient comfort. Furthermore, conventional endoscopes are complex and fragile instruments that frequently need expensive repair as a result of damage during use or during a disinfection procedure. Single use disposable medical devices have become popular for instruments with small lumens and intricate, delicate working mechanisms that are difficult to sterilize or clean properly. Single use disposable devices packaged in sterile wrappers avoid the risk of pathogenic cross-contamination of diseases such as HIV, hepatitis, and other pathogens. Hospitals generally welcome the convenience of single use disposable products because they no longer have to be concerned with product age, overuse, breakage, malfunction and sterilization. However, with the advent of single use devices comes the need for authorization of a particular device prior to use to determine if it is new or used, that associated console software is up-to-date (e.g., sensitivity and color calibration tables, steering algorithms, etc.), when and where it was manufactured, whether it is a current model, and information regarding recall notices. Therefore, in order to prevent improper use of single use devices, there is a need for a method of serializing a device so that prior to use, the user can be assured that the system is current, all elements are compatible, and the device can be authorized as new and unused, and ready for use. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To address these and other problems in the prior art, the present invention provides devices, systems and methods for serializing and authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The device form of the invention includes a single use imaging device having a shaft with a proximal and distal end and a connector on the proximal end for connecting the device to a control unit. An image sensor is included at or adjacent to the distal end for producing images in a predefined format for receipt by an imaging board within the control unit. The device includes a memory with a stored code encoding a serial identifier transferable to the control unit for analysis, wherein the serial identifier is uniquely associated with the imaging device at the time of manufacture. A transmit circuit is included that transmits the code to the imaging board in the format of the image signals produced by the image sensor. In accordance with further aspects of the invention, another device form of the invention includes a control unit for authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The control unit comprises a connector for connecting the control unit to the single use medical imaging device and a device interface capable of receiving a code in a format of an image signal produced by an image sensor of the medical imaging device, wherein the code encodes a serial identifier uniquely associated with the single use imaging device. The control unit includes a processor that extracts the serial identifier from the code, and means for determining if the single use device is authorized based upon the serial identifier associated with the device. In some embodiments, the processor further includes logic for calibrating the single use imaging device upon authorization. In some embodiments, calibration includes imaging properties and also the navigation characteristics such as deflection ranges and sensitivities, dynamic and static, of the single use device. In further embodiments, the memory comprises logic for functionally testing the single use imaging device upon successful calibration. In another aspect, the present invention provides a medical imaging system comprising a single use medical imaging device having an image of a verification object encoding a serial identifier uniquely associated with the device and a control unit for authorizing a single use medical imaging device. The control unit has a device interface capable of receiving the image of the verification object and means for determining if the single use device is authorized based upon the serial identifier encoded in the image. In some embodiments, the verification object image is stored in the memory of the single use device. In other embodiments, the verification object image is printed on a test target associated with the single use device. In some embodiments, the device is authorized by reference to a registry contained in a remote database accessible from the control unit via a network connection. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for authorizing a single use imaging device. The methods of this aspect of the invention comprise connecting the imaging device to a control unit, electronically obtaining an image of a prerecorded verification object associated with the imaging device, wherein the verification object encodes a serial identifier, extracting the serial identifier from the image, and authorizing the imaging device by comparing the serial identifier to a database containing information on authorized serial identifiers. A match between the serial identifier and information in the database results in the device being authorized for use. In some embodiments, the comparison is made to a remote database by connecting to a remote server. In some embodiments, the authentication method further comprises automatic calibration and functional self-testing. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for serializing a set of single use imaging devices comprising assigning a unique serial identifier to each device to be manufactured, encoding the serial identifier in a verification object image, wherein the verification object image also includes a set of calibration objects, associating the verification object with each imaging device at the time of its manufacture, and maintaining a registry of authorized serial identifiers corresponding to manufactured serialized imaging devices, wherein a user of an imaging device may determine if the device is authorized by comparing the serial identifier to the registry. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this invention will become more readily appreciated as the same become better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrative of a system for authorizing a single use imaging device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an imaging system of a single use imaging device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an illustrative architecture for a control unit for a single use imaging device in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates the transfer of authorization data between a control unit and a remote central server in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5A illustrates an embodiment of a verification object image that encodes a serial identifier in the form of a linear bar code and a set of calibration objects; FIG. 5B illustrates an embodiment of a verification object image that encodes a serial identifier in the form of a two-dimensional bar code and a set of calibration objects; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of a process for remotely authorizing use of a single use medical device according to another embodiment of the method of the invention; FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of a process for locally authorizing use of a single use medical device according to another embodiment of the method of the invention; FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of a process for authorization, calibration and self-testing in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 9 is a flow diagram of a process for authorization, calibration and self-testing in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Unless specifically defined herein, all terms used herein have the same meaning as they would be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art of the present invention. The following definitions are provided in order to provide clarity with respect to the terms as they are used in the specification and claims to describe the present invention. As used herein, the term “verification object image” refers to any machine-readable image or portion thereof that is capable of encoding a serial identifier that is uniquely associated with a particular single use imaging device. A verification object image may include an encoded serial identifier and a set of imaging calibration objects. As used herein, the term “serial identifier” refers to any combination or arrangement of members, letters, symbols, characters, colors or patterns capable of uniquely identifying a single use imaging device. Typically, a serial identifier comprises at least 10 characters and may be many more, including possibly an Internet web address or URL. Examples of verification object images capable of encoding serial identifiers used in accordance with the devices, systems and methods of the invention include linear bar codes and two-dimensional bar codes as further described below. Generally described, the present invention provides a system, device, and method for authorizing a single use imaging device prior to use. Single use imaging devices, such as endoscopes, imaging catheters, fiber optic guide wires and the like are useful to avoid the need to sterilize and repair complex and fragile instruments that frequently need expensive repair as a result of damage during use or during a disinfection procedure. The devices, systems and methods of the invention may be used to authorize single use imaging devices through the use of a unique serial identifier that is encoded in a verification object image that is associated with a single use device at the time of manufacture. In some embodiments, the code encoding the serial identifier is stored in the memory of the single use device. In other embodiments, the serial identifier is encoded in a verification object image that is printed on a test target that is associated with the single use device at the time of manufacture. In numerous embodiments, a remote central server authorizes the device. In further embodiments, the verification object is an image that includes an encoded serial identifier and a set of imaging calibration objects. The various embodiments of the devices, systems and methods of the present invention may be used by any user who would benefit from devices, systems and methods for authenticating an imaging device, such as, for example, manufacturers and retailers of medical devices, physicians, surgeons, and other medical personnel, as well as patients. For example, the devices, systems and methods of the invention may be used to verify that a single use medical device is new and unused, of current production, and to further update operation parameters as well as to obtain recall information from a remote central registry. The detailed description is divided into six sections. In the first section, a brief introductory overview of the system for authorizing a single use imaging device is provided. In the second section, a device in the form of a single use imaging device comprising a memory with a stored code encoding a serial identifier is presented. In the third section, a device in the form of a control unit that interfaces with a single use imaging device in accordance with one embodiment of the invention is presented. In the fourth section, a medical imaging system comprising a single use imaging device with a verification object image is provided. In the fifth section, a method for authorizing a single use imaging device is presented. Finally, in the sixth section, a method of serializing single use imaging devices is described. For ease of understanding, a brief overview of certain aspects of the exemplary authorization system 100 for a single use imaging device is illustrated by FIG. 1. The authorization system 100 includes a verification object image 400 that is printed on a test target 410. A single use imaging device 120, such as an endoscope, comprises a shaft 123 having a distal tip 122 that includes an imaging element and a proximal end 124 with a connector 128 that is attachable to a control unit 200. Proximal to the distal tip 122 is an articulation joint 125 that provides sufficient flexibility to the distal section of the shaft such that the distal tip 122 can be directed over the required deflection range (180° or more) by the steering mechanism and can be directed to make that bend in any direction desired about the circumference of the distal tip. In the embodiment shown, the single use imaging device 120 also includes a breakout box 126 that is positioned approximately midway along the length of the endoscope. The breakout box 126 provides an entrance to a working channel and may include additional attachment points for collection of samples and surgical manipulation. The control unit 200 includes a device interface 210 and a network interface 220. The device interface 210 allows the single use imaging device 120 to transfer a stored code in the format of an image signal to the control unit for analysis. While the illustrative embodiment of the system depicted in FIG. 1 shows an endoscope as the imaging device, it will be understood by one skilled in the art that any type of single use imaging device can be used in accordance with the devices, systems and methods of the invention. FIG. 2 shows further detail of one embodiment of an imaging sensor assembly positioned at or adjacent to the distal tip 122 of an exemplary single use imaging device 120. The distal tip 122 includes light illumination ports 130 and 132, an entrance to a working channel 134, a camera port 138 and a flushing cap 136. With continued reference to FIG. 2, the imaging assembly includes a cylindrical lens assembly 140, and a pair of LEDs 142 and 144 bonded to a circuit board 152 which is affixed to a heat exchanger 146. Fitted to the rear of the heat exchanger 146 is an image sensor 150 that preferably comprises a CMOS imaging sensor chip or other solid state imaging device. A circuit board or flex circuit 152 is secured behind the image sensor 150 and contains circuitry to transmit and receive signals to and from the control unit 200. The image sensor 150 is preferably a low light sensitive, low noise, CMOS color imager with VGA resolution or higher such as SVGA, SXGA, or XGA. If less resolution is required, a one-half VGA sensor could also be used. The video output of the system may be in any conventional digital or analog format, including PAL or NTSC or high definition video format. In some embodiments, the image sensor 150 comprises a VGA CMOS image sensor with 640×480 active pixels and an on-chip serializer that transmits image data to the control cabinet in a serial form. Such a CMOS image sensor is available as Model No. MI-370 from Micron Electronics of Boise, Id. Further detail of the imaging system and its generation can be found in U.S. patent Ser. No. 10/811,781 filed Mar. 29, 2004 and which is herein incorporated by reference. In some embodiments of the present invention, the single use imaging device 120 comprises a memory having a code stored therein that encodes a serial identifier uniquely associated with the imaging device. The code is transferable to the control unit in the same format as image signals are transmitted to the control unit 200 for analysis. The memory may be provided in the circuit board 152 and coupled to the image sensor 150, or the memory may be integrated within the image sensor 150. Alternatively memory chips may also be added at, or adjacent to, the proximal end 122 of the imaging device 120. The memory can be any digital memory which is designed to store individual bits of information. Code information such as a program or data can be programmed into a memory chip at the time of manufacture. Code information encoding a unique serial identifier or a verification object image embedding a code can be programmed or “burned” into the chip at the time of manufacture. The serial identifier is in general a character string of sufficient length to uniquely characterize a single unit from within large production runs. The identifier could be similar to the codes used in familiar UPC barcodes (see, e.g., the Uniform Code Council, Inc., Princeton Pike Corporate Center, 1009 Lenox Drive, Suite 202, Lawrenceville, N.J. 08648) or more extensive codes such as web addresses (uniform resource locators, URLs). The character string can be impressed upon an EPROM component included in the single use-device camera electronics or stored at manufacture in nonvolatile memory. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the image sensor 150 stores in its memory an image signal that contains the serial identifier used to authorize the single use device in the same format as the medical images obtained during clinical use of the device. In accordance with this aspect of the invention, the imaging device 120 is capable of transferring the code containing a serial identifier in the format of the image signals produced by the image sensor to the control unit 200 for analysis. In order to transmit serial image data and control signals along the length of the endoscope, the data and control signals are preferably sent differentially along a pair of twisted micro-coaxial cables. The stored code encoding the serial identifier can be read as a video output signal by the control unit and used to determine if use of the imaging device is authorized. In another aspect, the present invention provides a control unit 200 for authorizing a single use imaging device comprising an interface that is capable of receiving an electronic image that includes a unique serial identifier. The code may be stored in the memory of a single use imaging device as described above, or, alternatively, the code may be embedded in a verification object image that is obtained from a test target associated with the single use imaging device as further described below. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an illustrative architecture for a control unit 200 containing a computer 205 in accordance with this aspect of the invention. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the computer 205 may include additional components. However, it is not necessary that all of these generally conventional components be shown in order to disclose an illustrative embodiment of the invention. As shown in FIG. 3, the exemplary embodiment of the control unit 200 shown includes a network interface 220, a processing unit 230, a device interface 210, a display 240 and an image processor 242 that are connected to the processing unit 230. The computer 205 also includes a memory 252 that stores a serial identifier database 258, an image recognition program 256, a calibration program 260, and an operating system 262. The memory 252, display 240, network interface 220, and device interface 210 are all connected to the processor 230 via a bus. Other peripherals may also be connected to the processor in a similar manner. Although the embodiment of the computer 205 shown in FIG. 3 contains a calibration program 260 and a local database 258, these features are optional and not required in some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments of the invention, the calibration program 260 interfaces with a servo motor controller (not shown) that in turn controls a number of servo motors. Each of the servo motors is connected to one or more control cables within the endoscope. Motion of the servo motors pulls or releases the control cables in order to change the orientation of the distal tip 122 of the imaging device 120. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the network interface 220 includes the necessary circuitry for connecting the computer 205 directly to a LAN or WAN, or for connecting remotely to a LAN or WAN with various communication protocols, such as the TCP/IP protocol, the Internet Inter-ORB protocol, any of various wireless protocols (e.g., the IEEE 802.1x family) and the like. The device interface 210 includes hardware and software components that facilitate interaction with a device that provides an input digital image, such as an electronic image sensor (FIG. 2). The interface can receive an input digital signal via a wired connection, or alternatively, via a wireless signal from the single use imaging device. The processing unit 230 is of sufficient power and speed to provide processing of an input digital image either alone or in cooperation with the image processor 242. With continued reference to FIG. 3, the memory 252 generally comprises a random access memory (“RAM”), a read-only memory (“ROM”) and a permanent mass storage device, such as a hard disk drive, tape driver, optical drive, floppy drive, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or removable storage drive. The memory 252 stores an operating system 262 for controlling operation of the computer 205. In operation of one embodiment of the authorization system 100, upon attachment of the imaging device 120 to the control unit 200, the imaging element in the distal tip 122 of the device 120 becomes activated and captures an image of the verification object 400 that is printed on the test target 410 (FIG. 1). In another embodiment of the authorization system 100, the image of verification object 400 is pre-stored in the memory of the single use device (FIG. 2) as a code at the time of manufacture. The image of verification object 400 is transferred from the endoscope imaging element (or other memory) to the control unit 200. The computer 205 and the image processor 242 receives the image of the verification object and extracts the serial identifier of the single use imaging device. To decode the serial number, the processor 230 and/or the image processor executes an image decoder program that detects digitized bar space patterns or other predetermined spatial, color or numeric codes to detect the serial number. Once the image of the verification object 400 has been decoded into the serial identifier, the authorization system 100 authorizes the device for use by comparing the serial identifier to a database of authorized serial identifiers. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 3, the serial identifier database 258 is stored locally in the memory 252 of the computer 205 contained within the control unit 200, and the determination is made using the recognition program 256. The database 258 may be downloaded from a remote location such as from the manufacturer of the single use imaging device into the memory of the computer 205 via a local area network. Alternatively, periodic updates to the serial identifier database 258 may also be provided on a CD-ROM or other machine-readable storage medium and accessible via the network interface 220 or by using a CD-ROM drive within the control unit 200 itself. The serial number database may also include additional information such as model information, product recall notices, product parameter updates, and the like. In another embodiment of the invention, the serial number database 258 is located at a remote central server that registers the use of single use imaging devices and marks a particular device as having been used to prevent future authorization. FIG. 4 illustrates the operation of a remote authorization system 300 to transfer authorization information regarding a particular serial identifier between the control unit 200 connected to the single use imaging device 120 and a remote central server 330 accessible via the Internet 320. In operation, a user may be positioned in front of a display device 240 connected to the control unit 200 and may initiate a request for authorization of a single use imaging device based upon the serial identifier decoded from the verification object. Alternatively, a request for authorization may be automatically initiated by the control unit 200 via the network interface 220 (FIG. 1). As shown in FIG. 4, two-way communication may be initiated by accessing the central server 330 from the control unit 200. Once a connection has been established, the control unit 200 may configure the transmission of a request for authorization for a particular serial identifier, as shown in the embodiment of system 300 depicted in FIG. 4. The central server 330 receives the serial identifier and sends an appropriate response as to whether the device is authorized to the control unit 200 via the Internet 320. In some embodiments of the authorization system 300, the remote central server comprises a registry that tracks usage information of single use medical devices. In some embodiments of the authorization system 100, as shown in FIG. 1, the verification object image 400 is printed onto a test target 410 that is associated with the imaging device 120 at the time of its manufacture. The serial identifier encoded in the verification object image can be any combination of letters, symbols, characters, colors or patterns capable of uniquely identifying a single use imaging device. A serial identifier can be encoded in any type of machine readable image, such as a linear bar code or a two-dimensional bar code as further described below. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a verification object image 400A,B printed on a test target 410A,B. The verification object image 400A,B includes an encoded serial identifier 420A,B that is uniquely associated with a single use device at time of its manufacture. In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, the verification object images 400A,B additionally include a set of imaging calibration objects 430 A-H. In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 5A, the serial identifier is encoded in a linear bar code 420A. As shown, the exemplary linear bar code 420A illustrated in FIG. 5A is a series of vertical lines of varying widths (called bars) and spaces. Different combinations of the bars and spaces represent different characters. To decode the serial number, the processor 230 or image processor executes a bar code reading program that detects the patterns of bars and spaces in the image of the verification object. For example, the linear bar code 420A may represent numeric characters only (e.g., UPC, EAN, Interleaved 2 of 5), or may represent both members and alphabetic characters (e.g., Code 93, Code 128 and Code 39). In other embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 5B, the serial identifier is encoded in a two-dimensional bar code 420B. As illustrated in FIG. 5B, the two-dimensional bar code 420B stores information along the height as well as the length of the symbol. Illustrative non-limiting examples of two-dimensional bar codes useful in the present invention include stacked bar codes, PDF417 codes, and data matrix codes. In a preferred embodiment, the serial identifier 420A,B of the single use device 120 will comply with the voluntary labeling standards developed by the Health Industry Business Communications Council (HIBCC). The HIBCC labeler identification code (LIC) primary data structure specifies the use of either Code 128 or Code 39 symbology which utilize an alphanumeric character set. The 36 alpha and numeric characters combined with the flexibility of a 1-13 digit variable length format provide over 75 million trillion identifiers, thereby vastly reducing the possibility of duplicate identifiers in the same database. HIBCC standards further specify the use of two-dimensional symbologies, such as data matrix and PDF417 for small device and instrument marking (see “The Health Industry Bar Code Supplier Labeling Standard,” American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI), Health Industry Business Communications Council, 2525 East Arizona Biltmore Circle, Suite 127, Phoenix, Ariz. 85016, incorporated herein by reference). In further embodiments, the verification objects 400A,B that are printed on the test targets 410A,B include a set of calibration objects. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate an exemplary set of calibration objects 430A-H useful for calibrating the imaging element of the single use imaging device 120. Each calibration object 430A-H is positioned at predetermined point coordinates within the verification object image. The positioning of the calibration objects 430A-H allows an imaging device to capture the verification object image 400A,B, and to determine if the position of the calibration objects is distorted in comparison to a pre-set standard with respect to focus, radial distortion, warping, and the like. The calibration objects 430A-H may also be positioned on various surfaces in order to test the motor and steering function of the image device 120. The pre-set standard may be stored as code within the single use device and transmitted to the imaging board in the format of an imaging signal as previously described. Alternatively, the pre-set standard may be stored locally in the control unit or obtained via a network connection upon authorization. The image of verification object 400A,B may be captured from the test target 410A,B using the imaging device 120 at various deflection angles or focal lengths/zoom settings (if available). In operation, the calibration objects 430A-H are compared to the pre-set standards using the calibration program 260. Once a distortion or other discrepancy is detected, a set of coefficients is derived and used to perform a corrective calibration, if necessary, prior to clinical use of the device. In some embodiments, the verification object 400A,B contains at least four calibration objects. In some embodiments, the verification object image 400A,B contains at least seven calibration objects 430A-H. In some embodiments, the identical calibration object is positioned at two or more different predetermined locations within the verification object as shown in FIGS. 5A,B calibration objects 430A-H. In some embodiments, two or more calibration objects within a particular verification object image are different from one another (see FIGS. 5A,B calibration objects 430A and 430H). In some, embodiments, a principal calibration object may be designated in the center of the image. In addition, an orientation calibration object may also be designated. In addition to predetermined positions of the calibration objects, the pixel aspect ratio of the imaging element can be calibrated based on detection of the pixel value of the calibration objects in order to adjust contrast, white-balance and exposure control of the imaging device. In some embodiments, a set of calibration objects are provided without a serial identifier. The test target 410A,B can be any item upon which the verification object 400A,B associated with the device 120 can be printed and that is accessible to the imaging element in the distal tip 122. For example, test target 410A,B may be printed on packaging associated with the device 120 or on an accessory such as a cap, cable, or other accessory. In some embodiments, the test target 410A,B is imprinted directly onto the device 120 at a position where the image sensor can be positioned to capture an image of the verification object. In some embodiments, the test target 410A,B is provided on a three dimensional structure such that the calibration objects 430 A-H are positioned at various deflection angles with respect to the position of the distal tip 122 of the imaging device 120. For example, a set of calibration objects could include targets at the corners of the specified deflection range, which would be imaged in sequence to verify that the navigation function is working correctly and the device can be steered, e.g., to its up/down/left/right limits. These calibration objects could include encoded identifiers of their location, so that the response to simulated user commands regarding position and transit time can be measured, compared to quality assurance criteria, passed with respect to acceptability thresholds (which can be tailored to individual users and procedures) and reported to a central database. The three dimensional positioning of the calibration objects 430 A-H provides objects with which to test the steering and motor functions of the single use imaging device 120. For example, the test target 410A,B may be printed on various surfaces of a hood that is placed over the distal tip 122. As another example, the test target 410A,B may be printed on several panels of packaging material provided with the device. The packaging material may be folded into various shapes, such as a box shape to allow for image capture at various deflection angles. In such embodiments, the test targets 410A,B are positioned at an appropriate distance for the focal properties of the imaging device 120. There are various methods of printing the verification object 400 on the test target 410 in accordance with some embodiments of this aspect of the invention. In some embodiments, the printed verification object image contains an encoded serial identifier uniquely associated with a particular single use device. In other embodiments, the printed verification object image contains both an encoded unique serial identifier and a set of calibration objects. In such embodiments, the set of calibration objects are identical for a particular set of devices, such as a particular model of device, while the serial identifiers are different for each device. The verification object 400A,B can be printed on the test target 410A,B using labeling software with a printer (dot matrix, laser or inkjet printer) and affixing the image to the test target 410A,B, or by printing the verification object image 400A,B with a specialized bar code label printer. In some embodiments, verification object images in the form of data matrix can be etched directly onto a single use device 120. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods for authorizing a single use imaging device. In some embodiments of this aspect of the method of the invention, authorization is verified remotely. FIG. 6 is a flow chart of a process for remote authorization using a verification object. The remote authorization process begins at 600 and comprises requesting an electronic image of the verification object associated with the single use device at 610, and obtaining the verification object image at 620. As indicated above, the control unit requests the verification image after the single use device is connected to the control unit. In some embodiments, the electronic image is obtained from the memory of the single use device. In other embodiments, the electronic image is obtained using the imaging sensor of the single use device. Once the machine obtains the electronic image, the image is decoded to extract the serial identifier at 630. The machine then sends the serial identifier information to a remote server with an authentication database at 640. A test is made at 650 to determine if the serial identifier is valid. If not, the remote server sends a message to the user that the device is not authorized at 660, and there is no activation. If the remote server verifies that the serial identifier is authorized, a message is sent that the identifier is valid at 650 and activation of the device is allowed at 670. The activation of the device triggers a message to the remote server to flag the database or otherwise indicate that the device has been used at 680. The use of the remote authorization method of the invention allows a service provider of a central server, such as a manufacturer of a device, to maintain a registry of new authorized devices associated with unique serial identifiers and to prevent unauthorized use or reuse of a device. Once a device is registered as used, the serial identifier is flagged or otherwise marked as having been used so that the identical identifier will not be authorized for future use. Using a real-time server logic, the authorization information can be returned to the client. There are various suitable methods for providing user registration and tracking of single use imaging devices, including, for example, sending the serial identifier to a Web server application with an automatic real-time response. Upon request for verification from a user, the service provider can determine that the device is new, and also provide important upgrades prior to unlocking features required for activation, thus maintaining control over single use devices. Moreover, the use of the remote authorization method allows a central server to verify that the client is a licensed customer, by receiving an identification number associated with the client when the request for authorization is made. For example, the central server may require information in addition to the serial identifier such as the control unit serial number, the client's name and location, and the like before the device is authorized for use. Alternatively, in another embodiment, the invention provides a method for local authorization. FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of a process for local authorization and activation using a verification object. The local authorization process starts at 700 and comprises requesting an electronic image of the verification object associated with the single use device at 710, and obtaining the verification object image 720. Once the control unit obtains the electronic image, the image is decoded to extract the serial identifier at 730. The control unit then obtains data for a verification at 740 from a local database at 750. The control unit then verifies that the serial identifier is authorized at 760 by comparing the serial identifier to information in the database using a set of predetermined rules for authorization. In some embodiments, the local database contains a list of authorized serial identifiers provided by the manufacturer of the single use device which may be entered into the control unit via a CD-ROM, or other form of electronic download such as a periodic Internet update. Such authorization data may include the serial identifiers, as well as other information for updating the rules for authorization. Thus, the authorization rules and serial identifiers may be dynamically updated so that a control unit receives and maintains authorization rules and data that are current. A test is made to determine if the serial identifier is valid at 770. If not, the control unit provides a message to the user at 780 that the device is not authorized, and there is no activation. If the serial identifier is determined to be valid at 770, the single use device is authorized and activated at 790. Upon activation, the control unit sends a message to the database at 750 to set a flag or otherwise indicate that the device has been used at 795. This indication in the database allows a user to track the usage of the single use device and to verify that any imaging device connected to the control unit is new and unused. In some embodiments, the features used for authorization further allow the calibration and functional self-testing of the single use imaging device. As shown in FIG. 8, a calibration and self-test process begins at 800 and comprises obtaining authorization based on a valid identifier at 810 and initiating a calibration mode at 820. In the calibration mode, calibration objects obtained from the verification object image are compared to pre-set standards at 830. A test is made at 835 to determine if the calibration parameters are valid. If not, a corrective calibration is performed at 840, a new image of the verification object is captured at 845, and the calibration objects from the most recent verification object image are compared to the pre-set standards at 830. If the parameters at 835 are determined to be valid, the control unit initiates a functional self-test at 850. In some embodiments, the self-test parameters are updated during the authorization process. Self-test parameters may include navigation functions such as motor functions, steering and braking functions, transient response, position accuracy or error, and imaging functions like color fidelity, balance, sensitivity, linearity across a field, glare, blooming, etc. If the device fails the functional self-test at 850, a message is returned to the user that the functional test failed at 860. If the device passes the functional self-test, the single use device is activated for use at 870. Upon activation, a message is sent to the database to set a flag or otherwise indicate that the device is used at 880. A corrective calibration and functional testing may be automatically performed by the control unit using predetermined algorithms, or alternatively, these functions may be performed by the user utilizing user-interactive commands. In some embodiments, the features used for calibration allow for functional self-testing of the single use imaging device. As shown in FIG. 9, a calibration and functional self-test process begins at 900 and comprises obtaining authorization based on a valid identifier at 910 and initiating a calibration mode at 920. In the calibration mode, calibration objects obtained from the verification object image are compared to pre-set standards at 930. A test is made at 935 to determine if the calibration parameters are valid. If not, a corrective calibration is performed at 940, a new image of the verification object is captured at 945, and the calibration objects from the most recent verification object image are compared to the pre-set standards at 930. If the parameters at 935 are determined to be valid, the control unit initiates a functional self-test at 950. In the functional self-test mode, a navigation program is activated that actuates servo motors connected to cables inside the single use imaging device at 955. The distal tip of the imaging device is deflected at various angles (left, right, up, down, and the like) in order to aim at and capture an image of each calibration object at 960. Once an image of each calibration object is captured, the image is compared to pre-set standards for each location at 965. A test is made at 970 to determine if the device functional parameters are valid. The functional parameters may include motor functions, steering and capture of images at predetermined locations. If the device fails the functional self-test at 970, a message is returned to the use that the functional test failed at 975. If the device passes the functional self-test, the single use device is activated for use at 980. Upon activation, a message is sent to the database to set a flag or otherwise indicate that the device is used at 985. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the calibration and functional self-testing functions may be accomplished in a variety of sequential steps. For example, a functional self-test may be performed prior to or concurrent with the steps of calibration. Although the presently preferred embodiment of the invention serializes a single use endoscope, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention is applicable to other single use medical imaging devices such as catheters, imaging guide wires and the like. The methods of this aspect of the invention comprise assigning a unique serial identifier to each single use imaging device to be manufactured, encoding the serial identifier in a verification object image, and associating the serial identifier with the device at the time of manufacture. The verification object image may also include a set of calibration objects, thereby allowing a device to be authorized and calibrated using the same captured validation object image. The method further includes maintaining a database of authorized serial identifiers corresponding to manufactured serialized medical devices to users. In accordance with this aspect of the invention, the user of the medical device may determine if a particular device is authorized by comparing the unique serial identifier to the database of manufactured serialized medical devices by utilizing the systems and methods of the invention previously described. The method of calibration using a captured validation object may be performed as described herein. While the preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention. It is therefore intended that the scope of the invention be determined from the following claims and equivalents thereof.
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A
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1
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04
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11901299
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US20080103355A1-20080501
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Autofluorescent imaging and target ablation
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ACCEPTED
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20080416
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20080501
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[]
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A61B100
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["A61B100"]
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8936629
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20070824
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20150120
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607
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088000
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69815.0
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LEWIS
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RALPH
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Boyden", "inventor_name_first": "Edward", "inventor_city": "Cambridge", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hyde", "inventor_name_first": "Roderick", "inventor_city": "Redmond", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ishikawa", "inventor_name_first": "Muriel", "inventor_city": "Livermore", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Leuthardt", "inventor_name_first": "Eric", "inventor_city": "St. Louis", "inventor_state": "MO", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Myhrvold", "inventor_name_first": "Nathan", "inventor_city": "Medina", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rivet", "inventor_name_first": "Dennis", "inventor_city": "Portsmouth", "inventor_state": "VA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Weaver", "inventor_name_first": "Thomas", "inventor_city": "San Mateo", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wood", "inventor_name_first": "Lowell", "inventor_city": "Bellevue", "inventor_state": "WA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Apparatus, devices, methods, systems, computer programs and computing devices related to autofluorescent imaging and ablation are disclosed.
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1. A device for treating or ameliorating H. pylori infection comprising: an untethered ingestible mass having one or more optical energy source configured to emit variable directional electromagnetic energy in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is shaped for random movement. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is shaped for predictable movement. 4. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is shaped for continual movement. 5. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is cylindrical. 6. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is a rotationally symmetrical body with an axial dimension greater than an equatorial dimension. 7. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is spherical. 8. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is designed to predictably rotate. 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is designed to continually rotate. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is designed to randomly rotate. 11. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is designed to randomly tumble. 12. The device of claim 1, wherein the untethered ingestible mass is designed to randomly wobble. 13. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a motor coupled to a movable mass. 14. The device of claim 13, wherein the movable mass is configured to cause variable moments of inertia. 15. The device of claim 13, wherein the movable mass is configured to undergo unbalanced rotation. 16. The device of claim 13, wherein the movable mass is configured to undergo linear oscillatory motion. 17. The device of claim 13, wherein the movable mass is configured to undergo eccentric motion. 18. The device of claim 13, further comprising: a power source. 19-23. (canceled) 24. The device of claim 18, further comprising: control circuitry coupled to the power source. 25. The device of claim 24, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control the motor. 26. The device of claim 24, wherein the control circuitry is configured to control the one or more optical energy source. 27. The device of claim 24, wherein the power source is connected to the motor. 28. The device of claim 24, wherein the power source is connected to the one or more optical energy source. 29-33. (canceled) 34. The device of claim 24, wherein the control circuitry is configured to be monitored by one or more external sources. 35. The device of claim 24, wherein the control circuitry is configured to provide one or more outputs to one or more external sources. 36. (canceled) 37. The device of claim 24, further comprising: a sensor coupled to the control circuitry and configured to detect one or more environmental parameters. 38-45. (canceled) 46. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to emit the electromagnetic energy from one or more locations. 47. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to emit the electromagnetic energy in one or more directions. 48. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to continuously emit the electromagnetic energy. 49. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to intermittently emit the electromagnetic energy. 50. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to randomly emit the electromagnetic energy. 51. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to emit the electromagnetic energy in a time-dependent manner. 52. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to emit the electromagnetic energy in a spatially variable manner. 53. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured emit the electromagnetic energy in a pH-dependent manner. 54. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured emit the electromagnetic energy in an orientation-dependent manner. 55. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more optical energy source is configured to emit the electromagnetic energy in a programmable manner. 56. The device of claim 55, the one or more optical energy source is programmed to emit the electromagnetic energy in a time-dependent manner. 57. The device of claim 55, the one or more optical energy source is programmed to emit the electromagnetic energy in a pH-dependent manner. 58. The device of claim 1, wherein the emission of the electromagnetic energy is remote-controlled. 59. The device of claim 1, further comprising: control circuitry coupled to the optical energy source and configured to control the emission of the electromagnetic energy. 60-67. (canceled) 68. The device of claim 59, further comprising: a sensor coupled to the control circuitry and configured to detect one or more environmental parameters. 69-70. (canceled) 71. A device for ablating H. pylori comprising: an untethered ingestible mass shaped for non-uniform movement having an optical energy source configured to emit electromagnetic energy in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. 72. (canceled) 73. A method for treating or ameliorating H. pylori infection comprising: providing to a digestive tract of a subject an untethered ingestible mass; and emitting variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. 74-78. (canceled) 79. The method of claim 73, wherein the untethered ingestible mass comprises: a motor coupled to a movable mass. 80. The method of claim 79, further comprising: inducing variable moments of inertia by moving the movable mass. 81. The method of claim 79, further comprising: inducing the movable mass to undergo unbalanced rotation. 82. The method of claim 79, further comprising: inducing the movable mass to undergo linear oscillatory movement. 83. The method of claim 79, further comprising: inducing the movable mass to undergo eccentric movement. 84. The method of claim 79, wherein the untethered ingestible mass includes a power source. 85-98. (canceled) 99. The method of claim 73, further comprising: monitoring the untethered ingestible device from one or more external sources. 100. The method of claim 73, further comprising: providing one or more outputs from the untethered ingestible device to one or more external sources. 101. The method of claim 73, further comprising: detecting one or more environmental parameters. 102-119. (canceled) 120. The method of claim 73, wherein emitting variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori comprises: emitting the variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a spatially variable manner. 121. The method of claim 73, wherein emitting variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori comprises: emitting the variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass at one or more intervals at least partially based on pH. 122. The method of claim 73, wherein emitting variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori comprises: emitting the variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass at one or more intervals at least partially based on orientation. 123-124. (canceled) 125. The method of claim 73, further comprising: controlling the emission of the variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass using control circuitry. 126. The method of claim 125, further comprising: detecting one or more environmental parameters using a sensor coupled to the control circuitry. 127. The method of claim 126, further comprising: emitting the variable directional electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass at least partially based on the one or more environmental parameters. 128-129. (canceled)
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present application relates, in general, to apparatus and devices for fluorescent-based imaging and ablation of medical targets, as well as related methods and systems implementations. Such apparatus, devices, methods and/or systems are useful for ablating target cells and/or tissues as well as treatment, prevention, and/or amelioration of a variety of diseases and disorders. Apparatus and/or devices may be configured to be used externally or internally, to be handheld, intra-luminal, or ingestible, and/or to be tethered or untethered. Various methods and/or systems implementations include using one or more of the apparatus or devices for ablating target cells in wounds and/or surgical lesions, intra-lumenally, or in the digestive tract. Illustrative examples include using one or more of the apparatus, devices, methods and/or systems to treat H. pylori infection, and/or to test and ablate cancer margins. The foregoing summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. In addition to the illustrative aspects, embodiments, and features described above, further aspects, embodiments, and features will become apparent by reference to the drawings and the following detailed description.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is related to and claims the benefit of the earliest available effective filing date(s) from the following listed application(s) (the “Related Applications”) (e.g., claims earliest available priority dates for other than provisional patent applications or claims benefits under 35 USC § 119(e) for provisional patent applications, for any and all parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, etc. applications of the Related Application(s)). RELATED APPLICATIONS For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/403,230, entitled LUMENALLY-ACTIVE DEVICE, naming Bran Ferren; W. Daniel Hillis; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y Ishikawa; Edward K. Y. Jung; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Elizabeth A. Sweeney; Clarence T. Tegreene; Richa Wilson; Lowell L. Wood, Jr. and Victoria Y. H. Wood as inventors, filed 12 Apr. 2006, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/645,357, entitled LUMENALLY-TRAVELING DEVICE, naming Bran Ferren; W. Daniel Hillis; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y Ishikawa; Edward K. Y. Jung; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Elizabeth A. Sweeney; Clarence T. Tegreene; Richa Wilson; Lowell L. Wood, Jr. and Victoria Y. H. Wood as inventors, filed 21 Dec. 2006, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012A-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled SYSTEMS FOR AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012B-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled SYSTEMS FOR AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012C-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012D-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of United States Patent Application No. [To Be Assigned], entitled SYSTEM FOR AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012E-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012G-000000] For purposes of the USPTO extra-statutory requirements, the present application constitutes a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. [To Be Assigned], entitled AUTOFLUORESCENT IMAGING AND TARGET ABLATION, naming Edward S. Boyden; Roderick A. Hyde; Muriel Y. Ishikawa; Eric C. Leuthardt; Nathan P. Myhrvold; Dennis J. Rivet; and Lowell L. Wood, Jr. as inventors, filed 24 Aug. 2007, which is currently co-pending, or is an application of which a currently co-pending application is entitled to the benefit of the filing date. [Attorney Docket No. 0606-002-012H-000000] The United States Patent Office (USPTO) has published a notice to the effect that the USPTO's computer programs require that patent applicants reference both a serial number and indicate whether an application is a continuation or continuation-in-part. Stephen G. Kunin, Benefit of Prior-Filed Application, USPTO Official Gazette Mar. 18, 2003, available at http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/sol/og/2003/week11/patbene.htm. The present Applicant Entity (hereinafter “Applicant”) has provided above a specific reference to the application(s) from which priority is being claimed as recited by statute. Applicant understands that the statute is unambiguous in its specific reference language and does not require either a serial number or any characterization, such as “continuation” or “continuation-in-part,” for claiming priority to U.S. patent applications. Notwithstanding the foregoing, Applicant understands that the USPTO's computer programs have certain data entry requirements, and hence Applicant is designating the present application as a continuation-in-part of its parent applications as set forth above, but expressly points out that such designations are not to be construed in any way as any type of commentary and/or admission as to whether or not the present application contains any new matter in addition to the matter of its parent application(s). All subject matter of the Related Applications and of any and all parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, etc. applications of the Related Applications is incorporated herein by reference to the extent such subject matter is not inconsistent herewith. SUMMARY The present application relates, in general, to apparatus and devices for fluorescent-based imaging and ablation of medical targets, as well as related methods and systems implementations. Such apparatus, devices, methods and/or systems are useful for ablating target cells and/or tissues as well as treatment, prevention, and/or amelioration of a variety of diseases and disorders. Apparatus and/or devices may be configured to be used externally or internally, to be handheld, intra-luminal, or ingestible, and/or to be tethered or untethered. Various methods and/or systems implementations include using one or more of the apparatus or devices for ablating target cells in wounds and/or surgical lesions, intra-lumenally, or in the digestive tract. Illustrative examples include using one or more of the apparatus, devices, methods and/or systems to treat H. pylori infection, and/or to test and ablate cancer margins. The foregoing summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. In addition to the illustrative aspects, embodiments, and features described above, further aspects, embodiments, and features will become apparent by reference to the drawings and the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 shows a schematic of an illustrative apparatus in which embodiments may be implemented. FIG. 2 shows a schematic of illustrative embodiments of the apparatus of FIG. 1, with illustrative examples of an energy source. FIG. 3 shows a schematic of illustrative embodiments of the apparatus of FIG. 1, with illustrative examples of a sensor. FIGS. 4-6 show a schematic of an illustrative untethered device in which embodiments may be implemented. FIG. 7 shows a schematic of an illustrative tethered device in which embodiments may be implemented. FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 show an operational flow representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. FIG. 10 and FIG. 11 show an operational flow representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating a target area. FIG. 12 and FIG. 13 show an operational flow representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. FIGS. 14-19 show a partial view of an illustrative embodiment of a computer program product that includes a computer program for executing a computer process on a computing device. FIGS. 20-25 show an illustrative embodiment of a system in which embodiments may be implemented. FIG. 26 shows a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a handheld device in use on an illustrative subject. FIG. 27 shows a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a device in use on an illustrative subject. FIG. 28 shows a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a handheld device in use on an illustrative subject. FIG. 29 shows a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a device in use on an illustrative subject. FIGS. 30-31 show a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a handheld device. FIGS. 32A, 32B, and 32C show a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of a handheld device. FIG. 33 shows a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of an untethered device in use on an illustrative subject. FIGS. 34-40 show a schematic of an example of an illustrative embodiment of an untethered device in use on an illustrative subject. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof. In the drawings, similar symbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detailed description, drawings, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Other embodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presented here. The present application relates, in general, to apparatus, devices, systems, and methods of fluorescent imaging, optionally autofluorescent imaging, and ablation of medical targets. Those having skill in the art will appreciate that the specific systems, apparatus, devices, and methods described herein are intended as merely illustrative of their more general counterparts. In one aspect, FIG. 1 through FIG. 7 depict one or more embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 configured to detect and ablate targets at least partially based on a fluorescent response. Although one or more embodiments of one or more apparatus and/or devices may be presented separately herein, it is intended and envisioned that one or more apparatus and/or devices and/or embodiments of one or more apparatus and/or devices, in whole or in part, may be combined and/or substituted to encompass a full disclosure of the one or more apparatus and/or devices. In some embodiments, one or more apparatus and/or devices may include one or more system implementations including methods of operations, and/or include one or more computing devices and/or systems configured to perform one or more methods. As disclosed below, one or more apparatus and/or devices may be used in one or more methods of treatment and/or methods for ablating targets described herein. FIG. 1, FIG. 2, and FIG. 3 depict illustrative embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 having a first energy source 110 alignable to a lesion and configured to provide electromagnetic energy selected to induce a fluorescent response from a target area in the lesion; a sensor 120 configured to detect the fluorescent response; control circuitry 130 coupled to the sensor 120 and responsive to identify the target area; and a second energy source 110 responsive to the control circuitry 130 and configured to emit energy selected to at least partially ablate the target area. FIG. 4, FIG. 5, and FIG. 6 depict illustrative embodiments of one or more untethered device 200, 300, and 400, respectively. FIG. 4 depicts illustrative embodiments of one or more untethered device 200 having an energy source 100, optionally a first electromagnetic energy source 111 configured to function in a lumen and configured to provide electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in proximity to the lumen; a sensor 120 configured to detect the auto-fluorescent response; control circuitry 130 coupled to the sensor 120 and responsive to identify a target area; optionally a second electromagnetic energy source 111 responsive to the control circuitry 130 and configured to emit energy selected to at least partially ablate the target area, optionally a power source 140, and optionally a motive source 150. FIG. 5 depicts illustrative embodiments of one or more devices 300 for treating or ameliorating H. pylori infection including an untethered ingestible mass 310 optionally shaped for non-uniform movement having an electromagnetic energy source 111 optionally configured to emit variable directional electromagnetic energy in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori4. In some embodiments, one or more devices 300 for ablating H. pylori include an untethered ingestible mass 310, optionally shaped for non-uniform movement, having an electromagnetic energy source 111 optionally configured to emit variable directional electromagnetic energy in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. FIG. 6 depicts illustrative embodiments of one or more devices 400 including an untethered ingestible mass 310 optionally configured to rotate, optionally shaped for non-uniform movement, wherein the untethered ingestible mass 310 includes: an energy source 110, optionally a first electromagnetic energy source 111 configured to provide electromagnetic energy selected to stimulate an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in a digestive tract; a sensor 120 configured to detect the auto-fluorescent response; control circuitry 130 coupled to the sensor 120 and responsive to identify a target area; optionally a second electromagnetic energy source 111 responsive to the control circuitry 130 and configured to emit energy selected to at least partially ablate the target area, optionally a power source 140, and optionally a motive source 150. FIG. 7 depicts illustrative embodiments of one or more tethered 510 apparatus 500 including a first energy source 110 configured to provide electromagnetic energy selected to stimulate an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in an internal location; a sensor 120 configured to detect the auto-fluorescent response; control circuitry 130 coupled to the sensor 120 and responsive to identify a target area in real time; and optionally a second energy source 110 responsive to the control circuitry 130 and configured to emit energy selected to at least partially ablate the target area. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may be configured for use in one or more lesions, lumens, and/or internal locations of an organism. In illustrative embodiments, one or more apparatus 100, in part or in whole, is optionally a handheld device configured for detecting and ablating microbial and/or pathological contamination or cancer cells, for example, in lesions, optionally wounds or surgical incisions. In illustrative embodiments, one or more devices 200, in part or in whole, is an intra-lumenally sized device (e.g. small enough to be placed in a blood vessel while not obstructing the flow) configured for detecting and ablating microbial and/or pathogenic infections or cancer cells/metastases, for example, in the blood stream. In illustrative embodiments, one or more devices 300 and/or 400, in whole or in part, is an ingestibly-sized device (e.g. the size of a large vitamin pill) configured for detecting and ablating microbial and/or pathogenic infections or cancer cells, for example, in the digestive tract. In illustrative embodiments, one or more apparatus 500, in whole or in part, is part of or attached to a device, optionally handheld (e.g. an endoscope or fiber optic cable) and configured for detecting and ablating microbial and/or pathogenic infections or cancer cells, for example, in internal locations. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may be configured as a self-contained unit that includes all functionalities necessary for operation of the device and/or apparatus, or configured as one or more subparts in one or more locations separate from one another, wherein one or more of the subparts includes one or more essential and/or non-essential functionalities. In illustrative examples, one subpart may be placed within a lumen of, for example, a blood vessel, and another subpart placed, for example, sub-cutaneously or within a larger or more accessible lumen. In illustrative embodiments, a remote portion may provide for monitoring of the lumen-based device or data collection or analysis. The remote portion may be at a separate location within the body of the subject, or outside the body of the subject. Data and/or power signals may be transmitted between the one or more subparts using electromagnetic signals, for example, or electrical or optical links. Methods of distributing functionalities of a system between hardware, firmware, and software at located at two or more sites are well known to those of skill in the art. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 may be configured as a handheld unit, optionally self-contained and/or with one or more subparts in one or more other locations. In illustrative embodiments, a hand held unit includes one or more sources of energy 110, and at least one monitor to provide viewing of the lesion and targeting electromagnetic energy 118. In illustrative embodiments, a hand held unit includes control circuitry and at least one monitor for viewing lesion targeting information, as well as being connected to an energy source 110 and optionally one or more power sources 140 through one or more conduits. In illustrative embodiments, a handheld unit is wirelessly connected to control circuitry and to a monitor providing targeting information to an operator. In illustrative embodiments, apparatus 100 is a mounted, non-handheld, unit. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may be described as having one or more subparts including, but not limited to, one or more energy sources 110, one or more sensors 120, one or more control circuitry 130, one or more power sources 140, and/or one or more motive sources 150. In some embodiments, one or more subpart may be a physically distinct unit. In some embodiments, one or more subpart is combined with one or more other subpart to form a single unit with no physically discernible separation. Some embodiments include a first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. energy source 110, sensor 120, control circuitry 130, power source 140, and/or motive source 150. One or more of the one, two three, four, five, etc. components may be the same component and/or physical entity, or one or more components may be a separate physical entity. For example, there may be two lasers in a device, or there may be one laser able to provide both excitation and ablation energy. For example, there may be two sensors in a device, or there may be one sensor able to detect a variety of energy wavelengths. As used herein, the term “lesion” may include wounds, incisions, and/or surgical margins. In some embodiments, the term “lesion” may include, but is not limited to, cells and/or tissues, optionally including cells and/or tissues of the skin and/or retina. Wounds may include, but are not limited to, scrapes, abrasions, cuts, tears, breaks, punctures, gashes, slices, and/or any injury resulting in bleeding and/or skin trauma sufficient for foreign organisms to penetrate. Incisions may include those made by a medical professional, such as but not limited to, physicians, nurses, mid-wives, and/or nurse practitioners, dental professionals, such as but not limited to, dentists, orthodontists, dental hygienists, and veterinary professionals, including but not limited to, veterinarians during treatment optionally including surgery. As used herein, the term “surgical margins” may include the edges of incisions, for example, cancer margins. As used herein, the term “lumen” may include, but is not limited to, part or all of a nostril or nasal cavity, the respiratory tract, the cardiovascular system (e.g., a blood vessel, including for example, arteries, veins, and capillaries), the lymphatic system, the biliary tract, the urogenital tract (e.g. a ureter), the oral cavity, the digestive tract, the tear ducts, a glandular system, a male or female reproductive tract (e.g. fallopian tubes, uterus, the epididymis, vas deferens, ductal deferens, efferent duct, ampulla, seminal duct, ejaculatory duct, and/or urethra), the cerebral-spinal fluid space (e.g. the cerebral ventricles, the subarachnoid space, and/or the spinal canal), the thoracic cavity, the abdominal cavity, and other fluid-containing structures of an organism. Other lumens may be found in the auditory or visual system, or in interconnections thereof, e.g., the Eustachian tubes. Also included within the scope of the term “lumen” are man-made lumens within the body, including vascular catheters, spinal fluid shunts, vascular grafts, bowel re-anastomoses, bypass grafts, indwelling stents of various types (e.g., vascular, gastrointestinal, tracheal, respiratory, urethral, genitourinary, etc.) and surgically created fistulas. Other man-made lumens may be found associated with one or more implants, such as but not limited to, partial and/or complete joint replacements (knee, hip, shoulder, ankle, etc.) and/or partial and/or complete bone replacements (spinal vertebra, femur, shin, etc.). As used herein, the term “internal location” may include locations within the body of a subject appropriate for the placement of one or more device and/or apparatus. Internal locations may be natural and/or man-made. In illustrative embodiments, one or more devices and/or subparts may be associated with one or more manmade objects within a subject, such as but not limited to, one or more stents, screws, rods, artificial joints, etc. Such internal locations are known to those with skill in the art and/or described herein. As used herein, the term “in proximity to” may include, but is not limited to, a space and/or area near to a defined area, such as a lesion, lumen and/or internal location. Locations that are in proximity to a lumen may include, for example, locations internal to the lumen, parts, or all, of the width of the lumen wall, and locations external to the lumen wall. In some embodiments, “in proximity to” may include distances such as, but not limited to, approximately 0.1, 1.0, 10, and/or 100 μms and/or 0.1, 1.0, 10, and/or 100 mms, and may optionally include larger and/or smaller distances depending on the energy provided (e.g. electromagnetic energy, particle beam, two-photon, pulsed, etc.) and/or the sensitivity of detection. Those of skill in the art would know (and/or are able to calculate) the applicable distance for each form of energy. As used herein, the term “subject” may include, but is not limited to, one or more living entities including, but not limited to, animals, mammals, humans, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and/or fish. The animals may include, but are not limited to, domesticated, wild, research, zoo, sports, pet, primate, marine, and/or farm animals. Animals include, but are not limited to, bovine, porcine, swine, ovine, murine, canine, avian, feline, equine, and/or rodent animals. Domesticated and/or farm animals include, but are not limited to, chickens, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, donkeys, mules, rabbits, goats, ducks, geese, chickens, and/or turkeys. Wild animals include, but are not limited to, non-human primates, bear, deer, elk, raccoons, squirrels, wolves, coyotes, opossums, foxes, skunks, and/or cougars. Research animals include, but are not limited to, rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, rabbits, pigs, dogs, cats and/or non-human primates. Pets include, but are not limited to, dogs, cats, gerbils, hamsters, guinea pigs and/or rabbits. Reptiles include, but are not limited to, snakes, lizards, alligators, crocodiles, iguanas, and/or turtles. Avian animals include, but are not limited to, chickens, ducks, geese, owls, sea gulls, eagles, hawks, and/or falcons. Fish include, but are not limited to, farm-raised, wild, pelagic, coastal, sport, commercial, fresh water, salt water, and/or tropical. Marine animals include, but are not limited to, whales, sharks, seals, sea lions, walruses, penguins, dolphins, and/or fish. The dimensions and mechanical properties (e.g., rigidity) of the one or more apparatus 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400, and particularly of the structural elements of the one or more apparatus and/or device, may be selected for compatibility with the location of use in order to provide for reliable positioning and/or to provide for movement of the apparatus and/or device while preventing damage to the lesion, lumen, and/or internal location and its surrounding structure. In illustrative embodiments, an apparatus and/or device may be internal or external, tethered or untethered, motile or immobile, and/or optionally ingestible. The choice of structural element size and configuration appropriate for a particular body lumen and/or internal location may be selected by a person of skill in the art. Structural elements may be constructed using a variety of manufacturing methods, from a variety of materials. Appropriate materials may include metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials having suitable biocompatibility, sterilizability, mechanical, and physical properties, as will be known to those of skill in the art. Examples of materials and selection criteria are described, for example, in The Biomedical Engineering Handbook (Second Edition, Volume I, J. D. Bronzino, Ed., Copyright 2000, CRC Press LLC, pp. IV-1-43-31). Manufacturing techniques may include injection molding, extrusion, die-cutting, rapid-prototyping, etc., and will depend on the choice of material and device size and configuration. Sensing and energy-emitting portions of the devices as well as associated control circuitry may be fabricated on the structural elements using various microfabrication and/or MEMS techniques (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Applications 2005/0221529, 2005/0121411, 2005/0126916, and Nyitrai, et al. “Preparing Stents with Masking & Etching Technology” (2003) 26th International Spring Seminar on Electronics Technology pp. 321-324, IEEE), or may be constructed separately and subsequently assembled to the structural elements, as one or more distinct components. See also, U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 11/403,230 and 11/645,357. The choice of structural element size and configuration appropriate for a motile, optionally affixable, device may be selected by a person of skill in the art. Configurations for structural elements of motile devices include, but are not limited to, a substantially tubular structure, one or more lumens in fluid communication with the body lumen, and/or an adjustable diameter (see, e.g., U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 11/403,230 and 11/645,357). Structural elements may have the form, for example, of a short cylinder, an annulus, a cylinder, and/or a spiral. A spiral structure is disclosed, for example, in Bezrouk et al, (“Temperature Characteristics of Nitinol Spiral Stents” (2005) Scripta Medica (BRNO) 78(4):219-226. Elongated forms such as cylinders or spirals may be suitable for use in tubular lumen-containing structures such as, for example, blood vessels. In additional to materials disclosed above, flexible material having adjustable diameter, taper, and length properties may be used as part of the structural material. For example, some materials may change from a longer, narrower configuration, to a shorter, wider configuration, or may taper over their length. Structural elements that may exhibit this type of expansion/contraction property may include mesh structures formed of various metals or plastics, and some polymeric materials, for example (see, e.g., “Agile new plastics change shape with heat” MIT News Office (Nov. 20, 2006) pp. 1-4; MIT Tech Talk (Nov. 22, 2006) p. 5; http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/triple-shape.html; and Shanpoor et al., Smart Materials and Structures (2005) 14:197-214, Institute of Physics Publishing). In some embodiments, the structural element may include a self-expanding material, a resilient material, or a mesh-like material. Flexibility may also be conferred by configuration as well as material; the structural element may include a slotted structure and/or mesh-like material, for example. Structural elements may be formed from various materials, including metals, polymers, fabrics, and various composite materials, including ones of either inorganic or organic character, the latter including materials of both biologic and abiologic origin, selected to provide suitable biocompatibility and mechanical properties. The structural element may include a biocompatible material, and may include a bioactive component (such as a drug releasing coating or bioactive material attached to or incorporated into the structural element). It is contemplated that additional components, such as energy sources 110, sensors 120, control circuitry 130, power sources 140, and/or motive sources 150 (e.g. propelling mechanisms), for example, will be attached, connected to, place within, manufactured on or in, and/or formed integrally with the structural element. Methods for manufacture and/or assembly are known in the art and/or described herein. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may include one or more energy sources 110. One or more energy sources 110 may include, but are not limited to, one or more electromagnetic energy sources 111 and/or one or more charged particle energy sources 112. One or more electromagnetic energy sources 111 may include, but are not limited to, one or more optical energy sources 113 and/or one or more X-ray energy sources 115. One or more optical energy sources 113 may include, but are not limited to, one or more visual energy sources 114. In some embodiments one or more electromagnetic energy source 111 is a laser. In some embodiments, one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 is, in whole or in part, handheld. In some embodiments one or more energy source 110, optionally one or more electromagnetic energy source 111, is handheld. In some embodiments one or more energy source 110, optionally one or more electromagnetic energy source 111, is in the same handheld unit. In some embodiments one or more energy source 110, optionally one or more electromagnetic energy source 111, is in a different handheld unit. In some embodiments, one or more energy sources 110 optionally provide energy for excitation of a fluorescent response 116, energy for targeting 118, and/or energy for ablation 117 of one or more targets. In some embodiments, one energy source 110 provides excitation energy 116, targeting energy 118, and ablation energy 117. In some embodiments, different energy sources 110 provide excitation energy 116, targeting energy 118, and ablation energy 117. In some embodiments, one energy source 110 provides excitation energy 116 and ablation energy 117, and optionally targeting energy 118. In some embodiments, more than one energy source 110 provides excitation energy 116. In some embodiments, more than one energy source provides ablation energy 117. In some embodiments, one or more electromagnetic energy sources 111 provide one or more of excitation energy 116, ablation energy 117, and/or targeting energy 118. In some embodiments, one or more optical energy sources 113 (optionally visual energy sources 114) provide one or more of excitation energy 116, ablation energy 117, and/or targeting energy 118. In some embodiments, one or more X-ray energy sources 115 provide ablation energy. In some embodiments, one or more particle beam sources 112 provide ablation energy. In some embodiments, one or more energy sources 110 are programmable, remote-controlled, wirelessly controlled, and or feedback-controlled. As used herein, the term “electromagnetic energy” may include radio waves, microwaves, tetrahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays. In some embodiments, one or more of these frequencies may be explicitly excluded from the general category of electromagnetic energy (e.g. electromagnetic energy sources, but not including X-ray energy sources). Electromagnetic energy (or radiation) with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Optical light may also include near infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm). In illustrative embodiments, electromagnetic energy is generated at one or more wavelengths of approximately 100-280 nm, 180-350 nm, 200-340 nm, 250-400 nm, 250-450 nm, 280-315 nm, 280-540 nm, 300-460 nm, 300-600 nm, 300-700 nm, 310-510 nm, 315-400 nm, 350-390 nm, 350-700 nm, 360-370 nm, 360-600 nm, 375-425 nm, 375-440 nm, 400-1000 nm, 407-420 nm, 410-430 nm, 445-470 nm, 450-490 nm, 450-560 nm, 455-490 nm, 465-495 nm, 490-690 nm, 505-550 nm, 515-555 nm, 580-600 nm, 600-1600 nm, 250 nm, 265 nm, 290 nm, 330 nm, 335 nm, 337 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 352 nm, 360 nm, 365 nm, 385 nm, 395 nm, 400 nm, 405 nm, 410 nm, 420 nm, 430 nm, 435 nm, 436 nm, 440 nm, 444 nm, 450 nm, 455 nm, 460 nm, 465 nm, 469 nm, 470 nm, 480 nm, 481 nm, 483 nm, 485 nm, 486 nm, 487 nm, 488 nm, 490 nm, 495 nm, 500 nm, 506 nm, 514 nm, 516 nm, 520 nm, 530 nm, 538 nm, 545 nm, 546 nm, 550 nm, 560 nm, 570 nm, 581 nm, 585 nm, 600 nm, 609 nm, 610 nm, 620 nm, 630 nm, 632 nm, 635 nm, 636 nm, 640 nm, 644 nm, 665 nm, 670 nm, 700 nm, 880 nm, 950 nm, 1064 nm, 1320 nm, 2070 nm, and/or 2940 nm, among others. As used herein, the term “charged particle” may include particles generated using one or more particle beams. A particle beam is optionally an accelerated stream of charged particles or atoms that may be directed by magnets and focused by electrostatic lenses, although they may also be self-focusing. Particle beams may be high energy beams (e.g. created in particle accelerators), medium and/or low energy beams. Electromagnetic or optical energy is made up of photons. Electromagnetic energy includes, but is not limited to, single photon electromagnetic energy, two photon electromagnetic energy, multiple wavelength electromagnetic energy, and extended-spectrum electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy may be used for excitation of fluorescence, targeting, and/or for ablation of one or more targets. As used herein, the term “fluorescence” may include the production of light (emission) following excitation by electromagnetic energy. Fluorescence may result from emissions from exogenously provided tags and/or markers, and/or an inherent response of one or more targets to excitation with electromagnetic energy. As used herein, the term “auto-fluorescence” may include an inherent fluorescent response from one or more targets. Electromagnetic energy sources 111 may be configured to emit energy as a continuous beam or as a train of short pulses. In the continuous wave mode of operation, the output is relatively consistent with respect to time. In the pulsed mode of operation, the output varies with respect to time, optionally having alternating ‘on’ and off periods. In illustrative examples, one or more energy sources are configured to emit pulsed energy to specifically ablate a limited area and/or a limited number of target cells. In illustrative examples, one or more energy sources are configured to emit continuous energy to excite endogenous fluorophores to emit fluorescence. One or more electromagnetic energy sources 111 may include one or more lasers having one or more of a continuous or pulsed mode of action. One or more pulsed lasers may include, but are not limited to, Q-switched lasers, mode locking lasers, and pulsed-pumping lasers. Mode locked lasers emit extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds, the pulses optionally separated by the time that a pulse takes to complete one round trip in the resonator cavity. Due to the Fourier limit, a pulse of such short temporal length may have a spectrum which contains a wide range of wavelengths. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy is focused at a depth of approximately 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.7 mm, 0.8 mm, 0.9 mm, 1.0 mm, 1.1 mm, 1.2 mm, 1.3 mm, 1.4 mm, 1.5 mm, 1.6 mm, 1.7 mm, 1.8 mm, 1.9 mm, 2.0 mm, 2.1 mm, 2.2 mm, 2.3 mm, 2.4 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.6 mm, 2.7 mm, 2.8 mm, 2.9 mm, or 3.0 mm below the surface of the lesion, beyond the surface of a wall of the lumen, and/or beyond a surface of an internal location. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy is focused at a depth of approximately 0.1 to 3 mm, 0.1 to 2.5 mm, 0.1 to 2.0 mm, 0.1 to 1.5 mm, 0.1 to 1.0 mm, 0.1 to 0.5 mm, 0.5 to 3.0 mm, 0.5 to 2.5 mm, 0.5 to 2.0 mm, 0.5 to 1.5 mm, 0.5 to 1.0 mm, 1.0 to 3.0 mm, 1.0 to 2.5 mm, 1.0 to 2.0 mm, 1.0 to 1.5 mm, 1.5 to 3.0 mm, 1.5 to 2.5 mm, 1.5 to 2.0 mm, 2.0 to 3.0 mm, 2.0 to 2.5 mm, or 2.5 to 3.0 mm below the surface of the lesion, beyond the surface of a wall of the lumen, and/or beyond a surface of an internal location. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy is generated by two photons having the same wavelength. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy is generated by two photons having a different wavelength. Electromagnetic energy generated by two photons is optionally focused at a depth below the surface of the lesion, beyond the surface of a wall of the lumen, and/or beyond a surface of an internal location, optionally at one or more depths as described above and/or herein. As used herein, the term “two-photon” may include excitation of a fluorophore by two photons in a quantum event, resulting in the emission of a fluorescence photon, optionally at a higher energy than either of the two excitatory photons, optionally using a femtosecond laser. In some embodiments, two photon electromagnetic energy is coupled through a virtual energy level and/or coupled through an intermediate energy level. As used herein, the term “extended-spectrum” may include a range of possible electromagnetic radiation wavelengths within the full spectrum of possible wavelengths, optionally from extremely long to extremely short. One of skill in the art is able to select appropriate ranges for the devices and methods disclosed herein based on information publicly available and/or disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy may be defined spatially and/or directionally. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy may be spatially limited, optionally spatially focused and/or spatially collimated. In illustrative embodiments, the electromagnetic energy optionally contacts less than less than an entire possible area, or an entire possible target, and/or is limited to a certain depth within a tissue. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy may be directionally limited, directionally varied, and/or directionally variable. In illustrative embodiments, the electromagnetic energy may be provided only in a single direction, for example 90 degrees from the horizontal axis of a device, or toward a lumen wall, a lesion, or an internal location. In illustrative embodiments, the electromagnetic energy may be provided over a range of directions for example, through movement of the electromagnetic source, through movement of the entire device (e.g. rotation, random movement, wobbling, tumbling), and/or through illumination from a variety of sources in the device. Electromagnetic energy configured to induce a fluorescent response in a target may be selected, optionally manually, remotely, programmably, wirelessly, and/or using feedback information. Frequencies that induce a fluorescent response in one or more targets are known in the art and/or discussed herein. In some embodiments, selection of excitation energy 116 may be performed in advance, or as a result of information received, optionally including feedback information, optionally from one or more sensors 120. Electromagnetic energy and/or particle beam energy configured to ablate one or more targets may be selected, optionally manually, remotely, programmably, wirelessly, and/or using feedback information. Frequencies useful to at least partially ablate one or more targets are known in the art and/or discussed herein. In some embodiments, selection of ablation energy 117 may be performed in advance, or as a result of information received, optionally including feedback information, optionally from one or more sensors 120. In addition to electromagnetic energy described herein, the ablation energy may be supplied by energetic charged particles, such as electrons, protons, or other ions. In one embodiment, the charged particles are directed towards the autofluorescent target in the form of particle beams. In another embodiment, the charged particles are emitted over relatively wide solid-angles, and address the designated autofluorescent target by virtue of spatial proximity. In one embodiment, particle beams are generated outside the body by beam generators such as particle accelerators, cathode ray tubes, electrostatic accelerators, voltage-multiplier accelerators, Cockcroft-Walton accelerators, Van de Graaff accelerators, Alvarez accelerators, linear accelerators, circular accelerators, wakefield accelerators, collimated radioactive emitters, etc. The beams from these sources can be directed towards the autofluorescent target by mechanical, electrical, or magnetic methods. In some embodiments, the particle beams may be generated and directed from locations separate from the light source used to induce the autofluorescent response. In other embodiments, the particle beam may be generated in proximity to the autofluorescence inducing light source, by using compact particle sources such as electrostatic accelerators, Alvarez accelerators, linear accelerators, voltage-multiplier accelerators, Cockcroft-Walton accelerators, wakefield accelerators, collimated radioactive emitters, etc. In some embodiments, particle beams are generated and delivered from inside the body. Compact particle beam generators such as electrostatic accelerators, Alvarez accelerators, linear accelerators, voltage-multiplier accelerators, Cockcroft-Walton accelerators, or wakefield accelerators can be used. In one embodiment of a voltage-multiplier accelerator, the staged voltage elements can use high-field-strength capacitors. In another embodiment, the staged voltages can be generated in an array of photocells by photogeneration using on-board or off-board light sources. In another embodiment of an in-vivo particle source, a radioactive emitter can be used to provide a charged particle source. One example of such a source is the Beta-Cath™ System, developed by Novoste Corp. In one embodiment, in-vivo radioactive sources can be encapsulated within shielding which can be used to control charged particle exposure to nearby tissue. The shielding can have one or more portals, allowing for collimated emission. The shielding can be movable, either across all or part of its extent, or across one or more portal openings, in order to provide switchable particle sources. Shielding can be controllably moved by mechanical techniques such as valves, shutters, or similar devices, can utilize movable liquids, such as Hg, or utilize other methods. The particles from these in-vivo sources can be directed towards the autofluorescent target by mechanical, electrical, or magnetic methods, or may rely upon proximity. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may include one or more targeting electromagnetic energy sources 118. Targeting electromagnetic energy is optionally from one or more optical energy sources 113, optionally from one or more visible light sources 114. In some embodiments, the one or more targeting energy source 118 is aligned with the excitation energy source 116 and/or the ablation energy source 117. In illustrative embodiments, the targeting energy source 118 provides a visual indication of the directional alignment of the excitation energy 116 to induce a fluorescent response, and/or the ablation energy 117 to at least partially ablate one or more targets. In some embodiments, the one or more targeting energy source 118 has the same spatial extent as the excitation energy 116 and/or the ablation energy 117. In some embodiments, the one or more targeting energy source 118 has a different spatial extent than the excitation energy 116 and/or the ablation energy 117. In illustrative embodiments, the targeting energy is a visually detectable beam of light that is narrower than the excitation energy and/or ablation energy beam. In illustrative embodiments, the targeting energy is a visually detectable beam of light that is focused at the midpoint of the excitation and/or ablation energy beam. In illustrative embodiments, the targeting energy is a visually detectable beam of light that is broader than the excitation and/or ablation energy beam. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may include one or more sensors 120. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are the same sensor. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are different sensors. In some embodiments, one or more sensors are in the same unit, optionally a handheld unit. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are in separate units. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are in the same and/or different units than one or more energy sources 110. The one or more sensors may include, but are not limited to, electromagnetic energy detectors 121 (e.g. optical energy such as near IR, UV, visual), pH detectors 122, chemical and biological molecule detectors 123 (e.g. blood chemistry, chemical concentration, biosensors), physiological detectors 124 (e.g. blood pressure, pulse, peristaltic action, pressure sensors, flow sensors, viscosity sensors, shear sensors), time detectors 125 (e.g. timers, clocks), imaging detectors 126, acoustic sensors 127, temperature sensors 128, and/or electrical sensors 129. One or more sensors may be configured to measure various parameters, including, but not limited to, the electrical resistivity of the fluid, the density or sound speed of the fluid, the pH, the osmolality, or the index of refraction of the fluid at least one wavelength. The selection of a suitable sensor for a particular application or use site is considered to be within the capability of a person having skill in the art. One or more of these and/or other sensing capabilities may be present in a single sensor or an array of sensors; sensing capabilities are not limited to a particular number or type of sensors. One or more biosensors 123 may detect materials including, but not limited to, a biological marker, an antibody, an antigen, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a complex, a nucleic acid, a cell (and, in some cases, a cell of a particular type, e.g. by methods used in flow cytometry), a cellular component, an organelle, a gamete, a pathogen, a lipid, a lipoprotein, an alcohol, an acid, an ion, an immunomodulator, a sterol, a carbohydrate, a polysaccharide, a glycoprotein, a metal, an electrolyte, a metabolite, an organic compound, an organophosphate, a drug, a therapeutic, a gas, a pollutant, or a tag. A biosensor 123 may include an antibody or other binding molecule such as a receptor or ligand. One or more sensors optionally include, in part or whole, a gas sensor such as an acoustic wave, chemiresistant, or piezoelectric sensors, or an electronic nose. One or more sensors are optionally small in size, for example a sensor or array that is a chemical sensor (Snow (2005) Science 307:1942-1945), a gas sensor (Hagleitner, et al. (2001) Nature 414:293-296.), an electronic nose, and/or a nuclear magnetic resonance imager (Yusa (2005), Nature 434:1001-1005). Further examples of sensors are provided in The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Volume I, J. D. Bronzino, Ed., Copyright 2000, CRC Press LLC, pp. V-1-51-9, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,802,811). One or more electromagnetic energy sensors 121 may be configured to measure the absorption, emission, fluorescence, or phosphorescence of one or more targets. Such electromagnetic properties may be inherent properties of all or a portion of one or more targets (e.g. auto-fluorescence), or may be associated with materials added or introduced to the body, surface, lumen, interior, and/or fluid, such as tags or markers for one or more targets. One or more targets may include, but are not limited to, at least a portion of one or more of a wound, a lesion, and/or an incision, one or more internal surfaces, one or more lumen fluids, one or more cells, one or more lumen walls, and/or one or more other interior locations. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to detect a fluorescent response at a single wavelength of electromagnetic energy, at two wavelengths of electromagnetic energy, at multiple wavelengths of electromagnetic energy, or over extended-spectrum electromagnetic energy. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to detect excitation energy, ablation energy, and/or targeting energy. In illustrative embodiments, one or more sensors are configured to detect wavelengths of approximately 100-280 nm, 180-350 nm, 200-340 nm, 250-400 nm, 250-450 nm, 280-315 nm, 280-540 nm, 300-460 nm, 300-600 nm, 300-700 mm, 310-510 nm, 315-400 nm, 350-390 nm, 350-700 nm, 360-370 nm, 360-600 nm, 375-425 nm, 375-440 nm, 400-1000 nm, 407-420 nm, 410-430 nm, 445-470 nm, 450-490 nm, 450-560 nm, 455-490 nm, 465-495 nm, 490-690 nm, 505-550 nm, 515-555 nm, 580-600 nm, 600-1600 nm, 250 nm, 265 nm, 290 nm, 330 nm, 335 nm, 337 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 352 nm, 360 nm, 365 nm, 385 nm, 395 nm, 400 nm, 405 nm, 410 nm, 420 nm, 430 nm, 435 nm, 436 nm, 440 nm, 444 mm, 450 nm, 455 nm, 460 nm, 465 nm, 469 nm, 470 nm, 480 nm, 481 nm, 483 nm, 485 nm, 486 nm, 487 nm, 488 nm, 490 nm, 495 nm, 500 mm, 506 mm, 514 nm, 516 mm, 520 nm, 530 nm, 538 nm, 545 nm, 546 nm, 550 nm, 560 nm, 570 nm, 581 nm, 585 nm, 600 nm, 609 nm, 610 nm, 620 nm, 630 mm, 632 mm, 635 nm, 636 nm, 640 nm, 644 nm, 665 nm, 670 nm, 700 nm, 880 nm, 950 nm, 1064 nm, 1320 nm, 2070 nm, and/or 2940 nm. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to detect a cumulative fluorescent response over a time interval. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to detect a fluorescent response at a specific time interval and/or at a specific time. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to detect a time-dependent fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, the cumulative fluorescent response is determined over milliseconds, seconds, and/or minutes following excitation. In some embodiments, the fluorescent response is detected over millisecond, second, and/or minute time intervals following excitation. In some embodiments, the fluorescent response is detected approximately femtoseconds, picoseconds, nanoseconds, milliseconds, seconds, and/or minutes after excitation. In some embodiments, one or more sensors 120 are configured to be calibrated optionally at least partially based an expected baseline fluorescence (e.g. normal fluorescence) for the fluid, tissue, cells, internal location, lesion, and/or lumen. As used herein, the term “normal fluorescence” may include the intrinsic fluorescence of one or more fluid, tissue, cells, internal location, lesion, and/or lumen as determined by researchers and/or medical or veterinary professionals for subjects of a certain age, ethnicity, etc. who do not have pathological conditions (e.g. control subjects). “Normal fluorescence” may include the intrinsic fluorescence of fluid, tissue, cells, internal location, lesion, and/or lumen of a subject prior to a pathological condition and/or of a comparable location not affected by the pathological condition. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 may be configured to detect a condition of interest including, but not limited to, a temperature, a pressure, a fluid flow, an optical absorption, optical emission, fluorescence, or phosphorescence, an index of refraction at least one wavelength, an electrical resistivity, a density or sound speed, a pH, an osmolality, the presence of an embolism, the presence (or absence) of an object (such as a blood clot, a thrombus, an embolus, a plaque, a lipid, a kidney stone, a dust particle, a pollen particle, a gas bubble, an aggregate, a cell, a specific type of cell, a cellular component or fragment, a collection of cell, a gamete, a pathogen, or a parasite), and/or the presence (or absence) of a substance such as a biological marker, an antibody, an antigen, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a complex, a nucleic acid, a cell (and, in some cases, a cell of a particular type, e.g. by methods used in flow cytometry), a cellular component, an organelle, a gamete, a pathogen, a lipid, a lipoprotein, an alcohol, an acid, an ion, an immunomodulator, a sterol, a carbohydrate, a polysaccharide, a glycoprotein, a metal, an electrolyte, a metabolite, an organic compound, an organophosphate, a drug, a therapeutic, a gas, a pollutant, or a tag, for example. As used herein, the term “target” may include a condition and/or material of interest. Materials of interest may include, but are not limited to, materials identifiable by their autofluorescent emissions (individually or as an aggregate signal), or through the use of tags detectable through fluorescence. Such materials may include, but are not limited to, target cells, target tissues, and/or target areas. Such targets may include, but are not limited to, a blood clot, a thrombus, an embolus, a plaque, a lipid, a kidney stone, a dust particle, a pollen particle, an aggregate, a cell, a specific type of cell, a cellular component, an organelle, a collection or aggregation of cells or components thereof, a gamete, a pathogen, or a parasite. One or more targets may include, but are not limited to, cancer, microbial cells, infected cells, and/or atherosclerotic cells. One or more cancer cells may include, but are not limited to, neoplastic cells, metastatic cancer cells, precancerous cells, adenomas, and/or cancer stem cells. Cancer types may include, but are not limited to, bladder cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, endometrial cancer, kidney (renal) cancer, lung cancer, leukemia, melanoma, non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, skin (non-melanoma) cancer, and thyroid cancer. Cancers may include, but are not limited to, bone, brain, breast, digestive, gastrointestinal, endocrine, eye, genitourinary, germ line, gynecological, head and neck, hematologic/blood, leukemia, lymphoma, lung, musculoskeletal, neurologic, respiratory/thoracic, skin, and pregnancy-related. Microbial cells (microorganisms) may include, but are not limited to, bacteria, protists, protozoa, fungi, and/or amoeba. Pathogens may include, but are not limited to, bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, fungi, and/or proteins. Bacteria may include, but are not limited to, Escherichia colt, Salmonella, Mycobacterium spp., Bacillus anthracis, Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Francisella tularensis, and/or Helicobacter pylori. Viruses may include, but are not limited to, Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and/or E, Influenza virus, Herpes simplex virus, Molluscum contagiosum, and/or Human Immunodeficiency virus. Protozoa may include, but are not limited to, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma spp., Giardia lamblia, Trypanosoma spp., Plasmodia spp. and/or Leishmania spp. Fungi may include, but are not limited to, Pneumocystis spp., Tinea, Candida spp., Histoplasma spp., and/or Cryptococcus spp. Parasites may include, but are not limited to tapeworms and/or roundworms. Proteins may include, but are not limited to, prions. As used herein, the term “fluid” may refer to liquids, gases, and other compositions, mixtures, or materials exhibiting fluid behavior. The fluid within the body lumen may include a liquid, or a gas or gaseous mixtures. As used herein, the term fluid may encompass liquids, gases, or mixtures thereof that also include solid particles in a fluid carrier. Liquids may include mixtures of two or more different liquids, solutions, slurries, or suspensions. Examples of liquids present within body lumens include, but are not limited to, blood, lymph, serum, urine, semen, digestive fluids, tears, saliva, mucous, cerebro-spinal fluid, intestinal contents, bile, epithelial exudate, or esophageal contents. Liquids present within body lumens may include synthetic or introduced liquids, such as blood substitutes, or drug, nutrient, fluorescent marker, or buffered saline solutions. Fluids may include liquids containing dissolved gases or gas bubbles, or gases containing fine liquid droplets or solid particles. Gases or gaseous mixtures found within body lumens may include inhaled and exhaled air, e.g. in the nasal or respiratory tract, or intestinal gases. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 may include control circuitry 130. In some embodiments, the control circuitry is configured to control one or more of one or more energy sources 110, one or more sensors 120, and/or one or more power sources 140. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 may be directly coupled, indirectly coupled, and/or wirelessly coupled to one or more energy sources 110, one or more sensors 120, and/or one or more power sources 140. Control circuitry 130 may be electrical circuitry and/or other types of logic/circuitry including, for example, fluid circuitry, chemo-mechanical circuitry, and other types of logic/circuitry that provide equivalent functionality. The control circuitry 130 may include at least one of hardware, software, and firmware; in some embodiments the control circuitry may include a microprocessor. The control circuitry 130 may be located in or on the structural element of a device and/or at a location separate from the structural element. Various operation flows (e.g. 600, 700, and/or 800) operable on control circuitry 130 are described herein and/or known in the art. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 is responsive to identify a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 identifies a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues by determining one or more of the direction, the distance, the tissue depth, the time, and/or the coordinates from which a fluorescent response originated, optionally in relation to the excitation energy 116 and/or the targeting energy 118. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 identifies a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues by analysis of one or more characteristics of a fluorescent response (e.g. presence and/or absence of a fluorescent response and/or density of a fluorescent response—grouping of cells that if non-grouped would not be considered a target), optionally including but not limited to, the electromagnetic spectrum, or parts thereof, of a fluorescent response. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 identifies a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues in real time. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 is responsive to select one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 selects one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating a target, target area, and/or target cells, molecules, and/or tissues responsive to one or more characteristics of the fluorescent response and/or the electromagnetic energy selected to elicit the fluorescent response. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 increases the ablation energy 117 responsive to an increase in the fluorescent response, and/or decreases the ablation energy 117 responsive to a decrease in the fluorescent response. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 selects one or more characteristics of the ablation energy 117 at least partially responsive to detection of one or more wavelengths of the fluorescent response. In some embodiments, the control circuitry 130 is responsive to update targeting information on the basis of movement of part or all of an apparatus 100, and/or 500 and/or a device 100, 200, and/or 300 and/or a target and/or target area. In illustrative embodiments, such target updating may be useful when the ablating energy 117 may be delivered at a time substantially later than the time at which autofluorescence radiation is detected, or when the target is moving in relation to the ablation energy source 117. In this case, the detected location must be updated to take into account possible motion of the target area and/or the device. Motion of the autofluorescence location can be updated by registering the detected autofluorescence location relative to other, updatable, location information. In one example, the detected autofluorescence location is registered relative to fiducials on or within the individual. Then, the location of the fiducials is updated, and the site of the autofluorescence location at such time can be predicted based upon its known registration relative to the fiducial locations. In another example, the detected autofluorescence location is registered relative to features within an image of a related portion of the individual. Then, the image is updated and the location of the autofluorescence location at such time can be predicted based upon its known registration relative to the image features. Motion, which may include location and/or orientation, of the device can be updated by a variety of methods, including inertial navigation, measurements based on beacons or fiducials, measurements based on orientation sensors, or combinations of such techniques. Inertial navigation can be performed with the support of accelerometers on the device, and may also incorporate use of gyroscopic sensors on the device. Beacons and/or fiducials can be used to measure the device's motion; the beacons or fiducials may be on the device and their location or direction measured by remote sensors. Alternatively, measurements of remote beacons or fiducials may be made by sensors on the device. Combined systems may be used, with mixtures of remote and on-board sensors, measuring the location or direction of remote or on-board beacons or fiducials. Orientation sensors, such as tilt sensors may be used to provide information of one or more aspects of the device's orientation. Motion information obtained from different sources or methods can be combined together to give improved motion estimates, using techniques such as nonlinear filtering, least-squares filtering, Kalman filtering, etc. The updated autofluorescence location may then be combined, via a coordinate translation and rotation, with the updated position and location of the device. This results in updated coordinates or directions of the autofluorescence location with respect to the device, and can be used to direct the delivery of ablation energy. In some embodiments, control circuitry receives information from one or more sensors and/or one or more external sources. Information may include, but is not limited to, a location of an untethered device, allowable dose limits (e.g. of energy for excitation and/or ablation and/or targeting), release authority (e.g. for release of energy for excitation, ablation, and/or targeting, and/or release from a tethered location, or from an affixed and/or stationary location), control parameters (e.g. for energy release, for motion, for power, for sensors, etc.), operating instructions, and/or status queries. In some embodiments, control circuitry is feedback controlled, optionally from information from one or more sensors, and/or one or more external sources. In some embodiments, control circuitry is monitored by one or more external sources, provides outputs to one or more sources, and/or sends outputs to one or more sources. In some embodiments control circuitry is remote-controlled, wirelessly controlled, programmed, and/or automatic. Embodiments of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300 and/or 400 optionally include a power source 140. One or more power sources may be configured to provide power to one or more of one or more motive sources, one or more control circuitry, one or more sensor, and/or one or more energy source. Power sources 140 may include, but are not limited to, one or more batteries 141, fuel cells 142, energy scavenging 143, electrical 144, and/or receivers 145 located on and/or in the one or more apparatus and/or devices or separately from the one or more apparatus and/or devices. The one or more batteries may include a microbattery such as those available from Quallion LLC (http://www.quallion.com), may be designed as a film (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,338,625 and 5,705,293), or may be a nuclear battery. The one or more fuel cells may be enzymatic, microbial, or photosynthetic fuel cells or other biofuel cells (US2003/0152823A1; WO03106966A2 Miniature Biofuel cell; Chen T et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 8630-8631, A Miniature Biofuel Cell), and may be of any size, including the micro- or nano-scale. The one or more energy-scavenging devices may include a pressure-rectifying mechanism that utilizes pulsatile changes in blood pressure, for example, or an acceleration-rectifying mechanism as used in self-winding watches, or other types of flow rectifying mechanisms capable of deriving energy from other flow parameters. The one or more electrical power sources may be located separately from the structural element of the device and connected to the structural element by a wire, or an optical power source located separately from the structural element and connected to the structural element by a fiber-optic line or cable. The one or more power receivers may be capable of receiving power from an external source, acoustic energy from an external source, and/or a power receiver capable of receiving electromagnetic energy (e.g., infrared energy) from an external source. In illustrative embodiments, one or more power sources 140 are optionally part of and/or are configured to propel, move, and/or provide power to one or more motive sources 150. One or more of the propelling mechanisms may include mechanical or micromechanical structures driven by at least one motor, micromotor, or molecular motor, or by expansion or change in configuration of a shape change polymer or metal. A molecular motor may be a biomolecular motor that runs on a biological chemical such as ATP, kinesin, RNA polymerase, myosin dynein, adenosinetriphosphate synthetase, rotaxanes, or a viral protein. In illustrative embodiments, one or more power sources 140 are configured to power one or more rotary motors, propellers, thrusters, and/or provide for jet propulsion, among others. In some embodiments, the power source 140 optionally includes a power transmitter capable of transmitting power from one or more device to a secondary location. The power transmitter may be capable of transmitting at least one of acoustic power, electrical power, or optical power. The secondary location may be, for example, another device within the body, either in a body lumen or elsewhere that includes a power receiver and structures for using, storing and/or re-transmitting the received power. Embodiments of one or more devices 200, 300 and/or 400 may include one or more motive sources 150. The one or more motive sources 150 are configured for the type and nature of the lumen and/or internal location to be traveled. A lumen and/or internal location having a relatively uniform cross-section (height and/or width) over the length to be traveled may be traversed by most propelling mechanisms including, but not limited to, mechanisms that engage the lumen wall on more than one and/or several sides, that engage the lumen wall on one side only, that are able to change shape/size (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application 2005/0177223), and/or that employ more than one means of propulsion. A lumen and/or internal location that varies significantly in cross-section over the length to be traveled may be traversed using some propelling mechanisms including, but not limited to, those that walk or roll along one side of a lumen, those that are able to change shape/size, and/or those that employ more than one mode of propulsion. In illustrative embodiments, one or more motive sources 150 may encompass part or all of the structural elements of one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400. For example, one or more structural elements of one or more devices may be substantially cylindrical, and hollow and tubular in configuration, with a single central opening, optionally allowing the exterior of the cylindrical structural element to contact and engage the wall of a lumen, and the interior of the structural element (within the single central opening) to optionally form a fluid-contacting portion of the structural element. Optionally, one or more structural elements of one or more devices may be approximately hemi-spherical or hemi-elliptoid, optionally allowing a portion of its cross-section to contact and/or engage the wall of a lumen without obstructing the movement of fluid within the body lumen. Optionally, one or more structural elements of one or more devices may be pill- or capsule-shaped, and adapted to move through a central portion of a body lumen. Lumen wall engaging portions may include, but are not limited to, rotating wheels, projections (e.g. arms), springs, hooks (e.g. claws), and/or tissue adhesives that are configured to engage wall portions and optionally to provide mobility to one or more devices. A variety of motive sources 150 applicable for one or more devices are known in the art and/or described herein. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,337,732; 5,386,741; 5,662,587; and 6,709,388; and Kassim, et al. “Locomotion Techniques for Robotic Colonoscopy”; IEEE Engineering in Med & Biol. Mag. (2006) pp. 49-56; Christensen “Musclebot: Microrobot with a Heart” (2004) Technolegy.com, pp. 1-2 located at http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/Science-Fiction-News.asp?NewsNum=46; Ananthaswamy “First robot moved by muscle power” (2004), pp. 1-3; New Scientist; located at http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4714; and Freitas “8.2.1.2 Arteriovenous Microcirculation”; “9.4.3.5 Legged Ambulation”; “9.4.3.6 Tank-Tread Rolling”; “9.4.3.7 Amoeboid Locomotion”; “9.4.3.8 Inchworm Locomotion”; “Nanomedicine Volume I: Basic Capabilities” (1999) pp. 211-214, pp. 316-318; Landes Bioscience; Georgetown, Tex., USA. One or more motive source 150 may include, but is not limited to, one or more propelling mechanisms such as one or more cilium-like structures (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application 2004/0008853; Mathieu, et al. “MRI Systems as a Mean of Propulsion for a Microdevice in Blood Vessels” (2003) pp. 3419-3422, IEEE; Lu, et al. “Preliminary Investigation of Bio-carriers Using Magnetotactic Bacteria”; Proceedings of the 28th IEEE EMBS Annual International Conference (2006); pp. 3415-3418 IEEE, and Martel “Towards MRI-Controlled Ferromagnetic and MC-1 Magnetotactic Bacterial Carriers for Targeted Therapies in Arteriolocapillar Networks Stimulated by Tumoral Angiogenesis” Proceedings of the 28th IEEE EMBS Annual International Conference (2006) pp. 3399-3402 IEEE. One or more motive source 150 may include propelling mechanisms such as, but not limited to, rollers or wheel-like structures (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,042,184 and U.S. Patent Application 2006/0119304; screw-like structures (see, e.g., Ikeuchi, et al. “Locomotion of Medical Micro Robot with Spiral Ribs Using Mucus” Seventh International Symposium on Micro Machine and Human Science (1996) pp. 217-222 IEEE); and/or appendages capable of walking motion (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,574,347; Shristensen “Musclebot: Microrobot with a Heart” Technovelgy.com; pp. 1-2; (2004); located at http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/Science-Fiction-News.asp?NewsNum=46; and Martel “Fundamentals of high-speed piezo-actuated three-legged motion for miniature robots designed for nanometer-scale operations” pp. 1-8), and others. Appendage-like structures may intermittently engage the lumen wall and push the structural element with respect to the lumen wall with a walking-type motion, or may push against fluid within the lumen in a paddling or swimming motion. In some embodiments, the propelling mechanism may drive rotational movement of a lumen-wall-engaging structure with respect to the structural element, e.g., as in turning of a wheel or a screw element to propel the structural element through a lumen. One or more motive source 150 may include propelling mechanisms such as, but not limited to, an inchworm-type propulsion mechanism with suction mechanisms for engaging a surface (see, e.g., Patrick, et al. “Improved Traction for a Mobile Robot Traveling on the Heart”, Proceedings of the 28th IEEE EMBS Annual International Conference (2006) pp. 339-342 IEEE; Dario, et al. “A Micro Robotic System for Colonoscopy” Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (1997) pp. 1567-1572 IEEE; and Dongxiang, et al. “An earthworm based miniature robot for intestinal inspection” Proceedings of SPIE (2001) 4601:396-400 SPIE). One or more motive source 150 may include propelling mechanisms such as, but not limited to, multiple lumen wall engaging structures, operating in sequence to alternately engage and disengage the lumen wall, to produce “peristaltic” motion (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,764,441; U.S. Patent Application 2006/0004395; Mangain, et al. “Development of a Peristaltic Endoscope” IEEE International Conference on Robotics & Automation 2002; pp. 1-6; http://biorobots.cwru.edu/publications/ICRA02_Mangan_Endoscope.pdf; and Meier, et al. “Development of a compliant device for minimally invasive surgery” Proceedings of the 28th IEEE EMBS Annual International Conference (2006) pp. 331-334 IEEE). One or more motive source 150 may include propelling mechanisms such as, but not limited to, one or more paddles, propellers, or the like, which push against fluid contained within the lumen rather than engaging the wall of the body lumen (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,240,312; and Behkam, et al. Proceedings of the 28th IEEE EMBS Annual International Conference (2006) pp. 2421-2424 IEEE. One or more motive source 150 may include mechanisms configured to allow affixation to a lumen wall or other interior location, either permanent or temporary. In illustrative embodiments, configurations for affixing may include, but are not limited to, one or more anchors configured to attach at least temporarily to a wall of the lumen, one or more hooks and/or claws, one or more adhesive materials and/or glues, one or more brakes to oppose the action of the propelling mechanism, one or more expanding elements, one or more suction-generating elements, and/or or a shutoff for the propelling mechanism and/or for one or more power source 140. In some embodiments, one or more configurations for affixing one or more devices may be activated responsive to control circuitry. In some embodiments, one or more configurations for affixing one or more devices may be fixed or movable. Movable structures may include, but are not limited to, mechanical elements and/or materials that change shape or rigidity in response to temperature, electric field, magnetic field, or various other control signals. Affixation may be permanent, for extended periods, and/or temporary. As used herein, the term “extended periods” may include weeks to months to years and subsets thereof. As used herein, the term “temporary” may include seconds, to minutes, to hours, to days and subsets thereof. One or more motive source 150 may include mechanisms configured to allow one or more device to become stationary relative to a flow of fluid through a lumen and/or an internal location. In illustrative embodiments, configurations for becoming stationary include, but are not limited to, becoming affixed to a lumen or other internal location (e.g. by one or more mechanism described above), and/or reversing the propelling mechanism. Illustrative embodiments of configurations for reversing a propelling mechanism include, but are not limited to, reverse orientation of one or more motive source 150 (e.g. oriented to provide motive force in a reverse direction, such as against the flow of fluid, for example), one or more motive source 150 configured to allow bi-directional orientation (e.g. provide motive force in two directions, optionally 180 degrees apart (in opposition)), and/or one or more motive source configured to allow motive force to be applied in variable orientations. In one aspect, the disclosure is drawn to one or more methods for ablating one or more targets optionally at least partially based on a fluorescent response, optionally using one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300 and/or 400 described herein. Although one or more methods may be presented separately herein, it is intended and envisioned that one or more methods and/or embodiments of one or more methods may be combined and/or substituted to encompass the full disclosure. In some embodiments, one or more methods may include one or more operations, and be implemented using one or more computing devices and/or systems. In some embodiments, one or more methods of treatment include providing to a lesion electromagnetic energy selected to induce a fluorescent response from a target area; detecting the fluorescent response; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected fluorescent response; and providing energy to at least partially ablate the identified target area in real time. In some embodiments, one or more methods for ablating one or more target cells include providing to a lesion electromagnetic energy selected to induce a fluorescent response from a target area; detecting the fluorescent response; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected fluorescent response; and providing energy to at least partially ablate the identified target area in real time. In some embodiments, one or more methods for detecting and ablating a target area include providing an untethered device to a lumen of a subject; providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in proximity to the lumen; detecting the auto-fluorescent response using a sensor in the untethered device; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing from the untethered device energy configured to at least partially ablate the identified target area. In some embodiments, one or more methods of treatment include providing an untethered device to a lumen of a subject; providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in the lumen; detecting the auto-fluorescent response using a sensor in the untethered device; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy configured to at least partially ablate the identified target area. In some embodiments, one or more methods for treating or ameliorating H. pylori infection include providing to a digestive tract of a subject an untethered ingestible mass, the untethered ingestible mass configured for non-uniform movement; and emitting electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. In some embodiments, one or more methods for ablating H. pylori include providing to a digestive tract of a subject an untethered ingestible mass, the untethered ingestible mass configured for non-uniform movement; and emitting electromagnetic energy from the untethered ingestible mass in a manner selected to induce photodynamic cell death in H. pylori. In some embodiments, one or more methods for detecting and ablating a target area in a digestive tract include providing to a subject an optionally rotating untethered ingestible mass and/or optionally configured for non-uniform movement; providing from the untethered ingestible mass electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in the digestive tract; detecting the auto-fluorescent response using a sensor in the untethered device; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy configured to at least partially ablate the identified target area. In some embodiments, one or more methods for treating a disease or disorder in a digestive tract include providing to a subject a rotating untethered ingestible mass; providing from the untethered ingestible mass electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in the digestive tract; detecting the auto-fluorescent response using a sensor in the untethered device; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy configured to at least partially ablate the identified target area. In some embodiments, one or more methods of treatment include providing to a subject a rotating untethered ingestible mass; providing from the untethered ingestible mass electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response in one or more target cells in the digestive tract; detecting the auto-fluorescent response using a sensor in the untethered device; identifying the target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing from the untethered device electromagnetic energy configured to at least partially ablate the identified target area. In some embodiments, one or more methods for detecting and ablating one or more target cells include providing to an internal location a tethered device; providing from the tethered device electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response from the one or more target cells; detecting the auto-fluorescent response; identifying a target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing energy to at least partially ablate the identified target area in real time. In some embodiments, one or more methods of treatment include providing to an internal location a tethered device; providing from the tethered device electromagnetic energy selected to induce an auto-fluorescent response from one or more target cells; detecting the auto-fluorescent response; identifying a target area at least partially based on an analysis of the detected auto-fluorescent response; and providing energy to at least partially ablate the identified target area in real time. Embodiments of one or more methods include affixing one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400 to a location in a lumen and/or an interior location. As used herein, the term “affixing” may include, but is not limited to one or more processes by which the one or more devices may be held stationary in the lumen or internal location. The affixation may be temporary and/or permanent as described herein. Mechanisms by which one or more device may become affixed are known in the art and/or described herein. Embodiments of one or more methods include moving one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400 from one location to another within a lumen and/or internal location. As used herein, the term “moving” may include, but is not limited to, one or more processes by which a device may traverse a lumen and or internal location in one or more directions. Movement may be with the flow of an optional moving fluid (and/or gravity), against the flow of an optional moving fluid (and/or gravity), and or at an angle oblique to a moving flow of fluid (and/or gravity). Movement may be irrespective of the presence and/or absence of fluid and/or moving fluid. Movement may be temporary, intermittent, and/or continuous. Movement may be random and/or non-uniform. Movement may be controlled by control circuitry, either internal or external to the device. Movement may be associated with identification and/or ablation of a target. Mechanisms for moving one or more device are known in the art and/or are described herein. In illustrative embodiments, moving an untethered device includes moving an untethered device by providing a motive force to the untethered device. As used herein, the term “motive force” may include, but is not limited to, a mechanism that allows the untethered device to move within a lumen and/or internal location, such as for example, those described for a motive source and a power source herein. In some embodiments, a motive force is responsive to control circuitry, is remote-controlled, is programmable, and/or is feedback-controlled. In some embodiments, a motive force is powered by a battery, a capacitor, receives power from one or more external sources, and/or from one or more physiological sources. In some embodiments, a motive force is responsible for the random and or non-uniform movement of a device. Embodiments of one or more methods include providing electromagnetic energy, optionally optical energy, to a target, target area, target cell, target tissue, lesion, incision, wound, internal location, and/or lumen, optionally selected to induce a fluorescent response. Providing electromagnetic energy optionally includes using a laser, optionally handheld, or other device to provide optical energy to a target. Parameters associated with the selection of electromagnetic energy to induce a fluorescent response include, but are not limited to, the target, the environment associated with the target, the characteristics of the electromagnetic energy source, and/or the characteristics of the sensor. The parameters associated with the target include, but are not limited to, the distance of the target from the electromagnetic source, the depth of the target beneath a surface (e.g. a lumen wall, an internal surface, a lesion surface), the inherent fluorescence of the target, the markers/tags used to identify the target, the size of the target, and/or the movement of the target (e.g. stationary, steady movement, variable movement, predictable movement, etc.). The parameters associated with the environment include, but are not limited to, location (e.g. external, internal, lumen, wound, incision, etc.), milieu (e.g. fluid-filled, air-filled, blood, digestive contents, etc.), movement (e.g. stationary, steady movement, intermittent movement, predictable movement, etc.), physiologic parameters (e.g. pH, temperature, etc.), and/or non-target fluorescence (e.g. background fluorescence, non-specific fluorescence, intrinsic non-target fluoresce, etc.). The parameters associated with the characteristics of the electromagnetic energy source include, but are not limited to, the wavelengths available for selection (e.g. single, two-photon, multiple, extended-spectrum, etc.), the strength of the emitted electromagnetic energy (e.g. limitations on distance and/or depth, etc.), the type of output (e.g. pulsed, two-photon, etc.), directionality (e.g. limited, variable, varied, etc.), and/or spatial parameters (e.g. limited, focused, collimated, etc.). The parameters associated with the characteristics of the sensor include, but are not limited to, the detection limits associated with wavelength (e.g. single, two-photon, multiple, extended-spectrum, etc.), signal strength (e.g. sensitivity of detection, level above background, etc.), and/or time (e.g. detects cumulative readings over time, detects readings at certain time intervals, or at a certain time post excitation, etc.). Embodiments of one or more methods include selecting the electromagnetic energy, optionally optical energy, to induce the fluorescent response. Methods for selecting include, but are not limited, manually, remotely, automatically, programmably, wirelessly, and/or using control circuitry. Manually selecting includes, but is not limited to, manually operating one or mechanism (e.g. a switch, dial, button, etc.) on one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500, and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400, that controls the emitted wavelength from one or more electromagnetic energy source. Remotely selecting includes, but is not limited to, optionally wirelessly interacting with circuitry on one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500, and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 that controls the wavelength emitted from one or more electromagnetic energy source. Programmably selecting includes, but is not limited to, optionally using control circuitry, optionally part of one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500, and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. internal and/or external), programmed, optionally manually, remotely, and/or wirelessly, to select the wavelength emitted from one or more electromagnetic energy source. Methods for programming control circuitry are well-known to one of skill in the art, and some applicable control circuitry is described herein. Embodiments of one or more methods include monitoring the electromagnetic energy selected to induce a fluorescent response, optionally an auto-fluorescent response, optionally a target fluorescent response, monitoring the energy selected to ablate the target, optionally electromagnetic energy, optionally particle beam energy, and/or monitoring the targeting electromagnetic energy, optionally visual light. Methods of monitoring electromagnetic energy and/or particle beam energy are known in the art and/or described herein. Methods include, but are not limited to, using sensors able to detect one or more characteristics of the energy. Embodiments of one or more methods include detecting a fluorescent response. Methods of detecting a fluorescent response include, but are not limited to, detecting a fluorescent response using one or more sensors, detectors, and/or monitors. Sensors, detectors, and/or monitors appropriate for detection and/or monitoring of the fluorescent response are known in the art and/or described herein. As used herein, the term “detecting” may include any process by which one or more characteristics of a fluorescent response may be measured and/or quantified. Embodiments of one or more methods include identifying a target for ablation (e.g. target area, target cells, and/or target tissues). As used herein, the term “identifying a target” may include, but is not limited to, processes including selecting a target and/or determining a target. One or more methods for identifying a target for ablation optionally include analyzing a fluorescent response and/or other information, optionally using control circuitry, optionally in real time. Analyzing a fluorescent response to at least partially identify a target for ablation may include, but is not limited to, evaluating a fluorescent response at least partially in reference to baseline fluorescence, background fluorescence, expected fluorescence, normal fluorescence, reference fluorescence, non-specific fluorescence, and/or intrinsic non-target fluorescence, etc. Analyzing a fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, subtractively determining a target fluorescent response (e.g. subtracting the non-target fluorescence from the total fluorescence to determine the target fluorescence). Analyzing a fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, evaluating a fluorescent response at least partially based on detection at one or more wavelengths (e.g. single, multiple, extended-spectrum, etc.), based on time (e.g. one or more times, time intervals, and/or over time, etc.), based on direction (e.g. of origination of the emission, etc.), based on strength, and/or based on distance (e.g. of origination of emission from a sensor). In illustrative embodiments, analyzing a fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, identifying “clumps” and/or “groups” of autofluorescent cells that in another context might be considered “normal”, but that are not normally grouped and so may be a target for ablation. In illustrative embodiments, an analyzed target fluorescent response is used to determine the direction from which the response originated in order to provide ablation energy to the location and/or general area. In illustrative embodiments, an analyzed target fluorescent response is used to determine the coordinates from which the response originated in order to provide ablation energy to the location and/or general area. As used herein, the term “location” may include, but is not limited to, one or more of a direction, an area, a depth, a site, or a size, etc. A location may be defined by spatial coordinates and/or temporal coordinates. A location may be defined as precisely as the cellular level, for example, or as broadly as a general area, or a general direction. Methods of determining a location based on the detection of a fluorescent response are known in the art and/or described herein. In illustrative embodiments, a target location may be the cancerous and/or pre-cancerous cells remaining in a surgical margin. In illustrative embodiments, a target location may be the microbial cell contamination remaining in a wound following a sterile wash. In illustrative embodiments, a target location may be the lumen of a blood vessel following detection of a target fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, a target location may be the lumen of the digestive tract in a area with an acidic pH. Analyzing other information to at least partially identify a target for ablation may include, but is not limited to, analyzing information optionally provided by one or more sensors (e.g. intrinsic and/or extrinsic to one or more device and/or apparatus) and/or provided by one or more external sources (e.g. remotely and/or wirelessly, etc.). Analyzing information optionally provided by one or more sensors may include analyzing information including, but not limited to, environmental information such as, but not limited to, pH, temperature, pressure, chemistry, physiological measurements, dietary measurements, biological measurements, etc. In illustrative embodiments, identifying a target fluorescent response is a least partially based on identifying the pH of the environment, optionally detecting an acidic pH. Analyzing information optionally provided by one or more external sources may include analyzing information including, but not limited to, environmental information and/or medical and/or veterinary professional information. Analyzing a fluorescent response to at least partially identify a target for ablation may include, but is not limited to, evaluating a fluorescent response in real time. As used herein, the term “in real time” may include, but is not limited to, immediate, rapid, not requiring operator intervention, automatic, and/or programmed. In real time may include, but is not limited to, measurements in femtoseconds, picoseconds, nanoseconds, milliseconds, as well as longer, and optionally shorter, time intervals. In illustrative embodiments, analysis in real time is sufficiently rapid such that the target and the device have not moved and/or changed positions/locations significantly with respect to each other. In illustrative embodiments, a fluorescent response is detected and analyzed, and a target is identified without operator intervention and the target ablation information is provided to an energy source. Embodiments of one or more methods include providing energy to at least partially ablate a target. One or more methods include providing energy to at least partially ablate a target in real time. As used herein the term “ablation or ablate” may include, but is not limited to, processes including destroying, modifying, removing, and/or eliminating, in part or in whole, a target and/or a material of interest. As used herein, ablation may include the process of removing material, optionally from a surface, by irradiating it, optionally with a laser beam. At low laser flux, the material is heated by the absorbed laser energy and evaporates or sublimes. At high laser flux, the material is typically converted to a plasma. Ablation may include the process of removing material with a pulsed laser, or a continuous wave laser. Energy for ablation may include, but is not limited to, electromagnetic energy, X-ray energy, and particle beam energy. Electromagnetic energy such as light may cause, for example, a photoreaction, molecular bond breakage, heating, or other appropriate effect. Electromagnetic energy sources may include, but are not limited to, light sources such as light emitting diodes and laser diodes, or sources of other frequencies of electromagnetic energy, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet rays, infra-red rays, optical rays, terahertz beams, and the like. As used herein, the term “at least partially ablate” may include partially and/or completely ablating a target. As used herein, the term “completely ablate” may include ablation of a target up to the applicable limits of detection (e.g. no longer detectable by the sensors used to detect the fluorescent response, no longer detectable over background, and/or no longer statistically significant). As used herein the term “partially ablate” may include ablation less than complete ablation, but where at least some detectable ablation occurs. At least some detection ablation includes, but is not limited to, ablation detectable by the sensors used to detect the fluorescent response, statistically significant ablation, detection by external sensors, and/or detection by inference from other measurements and/or sensor readouts. Embodiments of one or more methods include providing targeting electromagnetic energy to a lesion, a lumen, an internal location, etc. methods for providing targeting electromagnetic energy are known in the art, and/or described herein. Targeting electromagnetic energy is optionally optical energy, optionally visible to the human eye. Targeting electromagnetic energy is optionally alignable with electromagnetic energy emitted to induce a fluorescent response and/or with energy emitted to at least partially ablate a target. In illustrative embodiments, targeting electromagnetic energy is aligned with the output from one or more energy sources as a visual aid to a medical and/or veterinary professional during treatment of a subject. EXAMPLES The following Examples are provided to illustrate, not to limit, aspects of the present invention. Materials and reagents described in the Examples are commercially available unless otherwise specified. Example 1 Detection and Ablation of Pathogens Prior to Closing a Surgical Incision A surgical incision is screened with a device that detects and ablates pathogens within the open lesion prior to closing to prevent postoperative infection. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens within the incision. The device detects the autofluorescence associated with the pathogens, and in real time automatically delivers energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogens. Optionally, the device detects the autofluorescence, collects and processes the data, and at the discretion of the surgeon or other medical practitioner (or veterinarian), a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogens at the coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. The device may be handheld, for example, and either self-contained or connected wirelessly or by wire to optionally a power supply, energy sources, control circuitry, and/or monitor. Alternatively, the device may be a fixed component of the surgical theater. A pathogen or pathogens may be detected at the site of incision based on autofluorescence induced, for example, by electromagnetic energy. Naturally occurring autofluorescence in bacteria, for example, is derived from biomolecules containing fluorophores, such as porphyrins, amino acids tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, and the coenzymes NADP, NADPH, and flavins (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40; Kim, et al. (2004) IEEE/EMB Magazine January/February 122-129). The excitation maxima of these biomolecules lie in the range of 250-450 nm (spanning the ultraviolet/visible (UV/VIS) spectral range), whereas their emission maxima lie in the range of 280-540 (spanning the UV/VIS spectral range; Ammor (2007) J. Fluoresc. published on-line ahead of publication). For example, two clinically important bacteria, Enterococcus faecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus, may be differentiated based on their respective autofluorescence in response to excitation spectra of 330-510 nm and emission spectra of 410-430 nm (Ammor (2007) J. Fluoresc. published on-line ahead of publication). Similarly, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Haemophilus influenzae may be detected using fluorescence spectroscopy at excitation wavelengths of 250 and 550 nm and emission wavelengths of 265 and 700 nm (Ammor (2007) J. Fluoresc. published on-line ahead of publication). Bacteria associated with community acquired pneumonia, Legionella anisa and Legionella dumoffii, autofluoresce blue-white when exposed to long-wave (365-nm) UV light (Thacker, et al. (1990) J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:122-123). Bacillus spores will autofluoresce when excited by UV irradiation at a wavelength of 352 nm (Laflamme, et al. (2006) J. Fluoresc. 16:733-737). Clostridium sporogenes, Pseuodomonas aeruginose, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Kocuria rhizophila, Bacteroides vulgatis, Serratia marcescens, and Burkholderia cepacia emit yellow-green fluorescent signal when illuminated with blue light (Sage, et al. (2006) American Biotechnology Laboratory 24:20-23). Autofluorescence of endogenous porphyrins may also be used to detect bacteria. A number of bacteria produce protoporphyrins, including Propinibacterium acnes, Bacillus thuringiensis, Staphylococcus aureus, and some strains of Clostridium, Bifidobacterium, and Actinomyces (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40). Bacteria may also be detected using fluorescence lifetimes measured at 430, 487, and 514 nm after selective excitation at 340, 405, and 430 nm (Bouchard, et al. (2006) J. Biomed. Opt. 11:014011, 1-7). Autofluorescence may also be used to detect members of the fungi family. For example, Candida albicans irradiated with electromagnetic energy at wavelengths of 465-495 nm autofluoresces at an emission wavelength of 515-555 nm (Mateus, et al. (2004) Antimicrob. Agents and Chemother. (2004) 48:3358-3336; Graham (1983) Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 79:231-234). Similarly, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus versicolor may be detected using autofluorescence in response to excitation at 450-490 nm and emission at 560 nm (Sage, et al. (2006) American Biotechnology Laboratory 24:20-23; Graham (1983) Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 79:231-234). A pathogen or pathogens at the site of incision may be inactivated or killed by energy emitted from a device in response to detection of the pathogen by autofluorescence using the same device. Many pathogens are inactivated or killed by UV germicidal irradiation (Anderson, et al. (2000) IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28:83-88; Hancock, et al. (2004) IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 32:2026-2031). UV light ranges from UVA (400-315 nm), also called long wave or ‘blacklight’; UVB (315-280 nm), also called medium wave; and UVC (<280 nm), also called short wave or ‘germicidal’.” Optionally, a wavelength may be used that completely or partially inactivates pathogens but limits damage to surrounding tissue. For example, a wavelength of 630 nm partially inhibits growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli (Nussbaum, et al. (2002) J. Clin. Laser Med. Surg. 20:325-333). Similarly, a number of oral bacteria, including Acinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphromonas gingivalis, Pnevotella intermedia, and Streptococcus sanguis, may be partially inactivated using a diode 665 laser at 100 mW for 30 s (energy density 10.6 J/cm2) or 60 s (energy density 21.2 J/cm2) at a distance of 5 mm (Chan, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 18:51-55). Inactivation of bacteria by a diode 665 laser may be enhanced, for example, by pre-staining the bacteria with methylene blue (Chan, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 18:51-55). Similarly, oral bacteria may be inactivated using a He—Ne laser at 30 mW for 30 s (energy density 3.2 J/cm2) or 60 s (energy density 6.4 J/cm2) in combination with methylene blue (Chan, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 18:51-55). Alternatively, a pathogen or pathogens may be inactivated or killed at the incision site with a form of laser thermal ablation using, for example, a CO2 or Nd:YAG laser (Bartels, et al. SPIE Vol 2395:602-606). For example, Staphylococcus aureus may be partially inactivated or killed using high-power Nd:YAG laser radiation between 50 and 300 W with laser pulse frequencies of 5 to 30 Hz and pulse energies from 2 to 30 J, resulting in a range of energy densities from 800 to 270 J/cm2 (Yeo, et al. (1998) Pure Appl. Opt. 7:643-655). Escherichia coli 0157:H7, for example, is extremely sensitive to heat with a maximum tolerance of approximately 35 degrees centigrade (U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,653). Pathogens may be inactivated or killed using X-ray and gamma electromagnetic energy. For example, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Salmonella, and Campylobacter jejuni may be at least partially inactivated or killed using cobalt-60 gamma radiation at doses of 0.5 to 3 kGy (Clavero, et al. (1994) Applied Environ. Microbiol. 60:2069-2075). Alternatively, pathogens may be inactivated or killed using a form of particle beam irradiation. For example, Salmonella, Yersinia, and Campylobacter may be at least partially ablated using accelerated electrons with doses of irradiation ranging from 1-3 kGy (Sarjeant, et al. (2005) Poult. Sci. 84:955-958). Similarly, Bacillus endospores may be at least partially ablated using electron beam irradiation with doses ranging from 5 to 40 kGy (Helfinstine, et al. (2005) Applied Environ. Microbiol. 71:7029-7032). Viruses may be inactivated on a surface using UV irradiation (Tseng & Li, (2007) J. Occup. Envirn. Hyg. 4:400-405). Fungi, for example Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus, may also be inactivated using UV germicidal irradiation at 12-98 mJ/cm2 (Green, et al. (2004) Can. J. Microbiol. 50:221-224). Alternatively, energy may be used that disrupts the function of heme iron porphyrins associated with iron uptake and utilization, inactivating iron dependent bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella (U.S. Pat. No. 6,030,653). Pathogens may be inactivated by irradiating the surface with visible and near infrared light having wavelengths of approximately 465 nm, 600 nm, and 950 nm, respectively. In some instances, the entirety of the affected tissue may be irradiated to at least partially inactivate or kill pathogens. Alternatively, focused energy may be directed only to those sites emitting pathogen-associated autofluorescence or fluorescence. A pathogen or pathogens at the site of incision may be inactivated or killed by energy emitted from a device in either the presence or absence of prophylactic antibiotics (Dellinger, et al. (1994) Clin. Infect. Dis. 18:422-427). There are a number of microbial pathogens of concern during surgical treatment that may lead to difficult to treat nosocomial or hospital acquired infection, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), extended spectrum b-lactamase-producing bacteria (ESBL), multi-drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDRTB) strains as well as multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria (Lichtenstern, et al. (2007) Dig. Surg. 24: 1-11; NIAID (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease) Profile Fiscal Year 2005, Selected Scientific Areas of Research, Antimicrobial Resistance, pages 52-55). The Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus is a common cause of superficial skin infections such as boils, furuncles, styes, impetigo. S. aureus is also a major cause of nosocomial and community-acquired infections, particularly in individuals debilitated by chronic illness, traumatic injury, burns or immunosuppression, as well as a common cause of postoperative infection. The infection may produce abscesses at the stitches or may cause extensive destruction of the incision site. Postoperative infections caused by S. aureus may appear a few days to several weeks after an operation but may develop more slowly in an individual taking antibiotics. Upon bloodstream dissemination or by continuous spread, S. aureus can readily survive in various deep tissues and can cause, among others, abscess formation, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, and sepsis. S. aureus may be detected by autofluorescence at the incision site using a device emitting electromagnetic energy at a wavelength, for example, of 488 nm (Hilton (1998) SPIE 3491:1174-1178). Optionally, S. aureus may be distinguished from, for example, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis based on emission spectra induced by excitations at 410-430 nm (Giana, et al. (2003) J. Fluoresc. 13:489-493; Ammor (2007) J. Fluoresc. published on-line ahead of publication). S. aureus associated with the incision site may be killed or inactivated by irradiating the tissue with energy, for example, at a short UV “germicidal” wavelength as described above. Alternatively, S. aureus may be inactivated using a blue light with a wavelength, for example, of 405 nm at doses ranging from 1-20 Jcm−2 (Guffey, et al. (2006) Photomed. Laser Surg. 24:680-683). Optionally, a blue light may be combined, for example, with an infrared light at a wavelength of 880 nm to promote tissue repair in combination with bacterial ablation (Guffey, et al. (2006) Photomed. Laser Surg. 24:680-683). In some instances, the entirety of the effected tissue may be irradiated. Alternatively, focused energy may be directed only to those sites emitting S. aureus-associated autofluorescence. The Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa is another common cause of nosocomial infections, particularly in patients hospitalized with cancer, cystic fibrosis, and burns, and has a mortality rate of 50%. Other infections caused by Pseudomonas species include endocarditis, pneumonia, and infections of the urinary tract, central nervous system, wounds, eyes, ears, skin, and musculoskeletal system. P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic and ubiquitous pathogen with limited tissue penetration on its own, gaining entry to the host, for example, through burns, wounds, intravenous and urinary catheterization, and surgical procedures. P. aeruginosa may be detected by autofluorescence at the incision site using a device emitting electromagnetic energy at a wavelength, for example, of 488 nm (Hilton (1998) SPIE 3491:1174-1178). P. aeruginosa contains a pigment called pyocyanin which appears blue in visible light and may also be used for detection. P. aeruginosa may be killed using a blue light with a wavelength, for example, of 405 nm at doses ranging from 1-20 Jcm−2 (Guffey, et al. (2006) Photomed. Laser Surg. 24:680-683). Alternatively, irradiation using a wavelength, for example, of 630 nm at 1-20 Jcm−2 may partially inactivate P. aeruginosa (Nussbaum, et al. (2002) J. Clin. Laser Med. Surg. 20:325-333). Example 2 Detection and Ablation of Pathogens Prior to Closing and/or Bandaging a Wound A wound may be screened with a handheld device that detects and ablates pathogens within the open lesion prior to closing (e.g. suturing) and/or bandaging to prevent possible microbial infection. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens within the wound. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce fluorescence of reagents applied to the wound to selectively detect pathogens, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathogens may include bacteria, fungi and/or viruses. The handheld device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time automatically delivers energy sufficient to ablate or kill the pathogens. Optionally, the handheld device detects the autofluorescence, collects and processes the data, and at the discretion of the user, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogens at the coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. Pathogens commonly associated with wound infections include the Gram-positive cocci Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus, the Gram-negative rods Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter species, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, and Proteus species, the anaerobes Bacteroides and Clostridium, and the fungi Candida and Aspergillus (World Wide Wounds January 2004). Additional microbes of concern include Burcella, which infects cows, sheep, and goats, and can be transmitted through secretion and excretion to open wounds, Bartonella henselae, which is associated with cats and can cause “cat scratch fever”, and Clostridium tetani which survives for years in soil and animal feces and can cause infection in both superficial wounds and deep in contaminated wounds of individuals not immunized against tetanus (Park, et al. (2001) J. Bacteriol. 183:5751-5755). In addition, Vibrio vulnificus is an emerging human pathogen which is found primarily in sea water and can be transmitted into open wounds and cause infection (Oliver, et al. (1986) Applied Environmental Microbiology 52:1209-1211). Among healthy individuals, ingestion of V. vulnificus can cause vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In immunocompromised persons, particularly those with chronic liver disease, V. vulnificus can invade the bloodstream through a wound, causing primary septicemia and a 50% mortality rate. A pathogen or pathogens may be detected at the wound site based on autofluorescence induced by electromagnetic energy at specific or multiple wavelengths, as described herein. Bartonella henselae, for example, has weak autofluorescence at an excitation wavelength of 485 nm and emission wavelength of 538 nm (Park, et al. (2001) J. Bacteriol. 183:5751-5755). Some strains of V. vulnificus exhibit bioluminescence with maximal light emission at 483 nm (Oliver, et al. (1986) Applied Environmental Microbiology 52:1209-1211). Alternatively, pathogens may be detected at the wound site based on addition of an agent or agents that fluoresces and binds selectively to the pathogen, allowing for detection and subsequent ablation of the pathogen. For example, a fluorescent stain such as BacLight™ Green or BacLight™ Red bacterial stain (absorption/emission: 480/516 and 581/644, respectively) may be used to detect, for example, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). S. aureus may also be detected at the wound site based on binding of immunoglobulins to the bacterial cell wall. Protein A on the surface of S. aureus readily binds the IgG class of immunoglobulins (Hjelm, et al. (1972) FEBS Lett. 28:73-76). To detect S. aureus, the incision site may be briefly sprayed with a sterile saline solution containing, for example, an IgG antibody conjugated to a fluorescent tag, for example FITC, Rhodamine, or Cy3, and rinsed. The fluorescence is detected by the handheld device. In response, energy is emitted specifically to the fluorescing site and the bacteria are killed. Alternatively, pathogens may be detected at the wound site using fluorescently labeled antibodies. For example, Streptococcus pyogenses, one of the main pathogens associated with necrotizing fasciitis, may be detected using antibodies from commercial sources (e.g. AbD SEROTEC, Oxford, UK; Affinity BioReagents, Golden, CO; GeneTex, Inc. San Antonio, Tex.). Antibodies against S. pyogenses may be conjugated, for example, with a fluorescent tag such as the Alexa Fluors, FITC, Oregon Green, Texas Red, Rhodamine, Pacific Blue, Pacific Orange, Cy3, or Cy5 using labeling kits available from commercial sources (e.g. Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.; Pierce, Rockford, Ill.). Alternatively, antibodies to S. pyogenses may be labeled with quantum dot nanocrystals using labeling kits from commercial sources (e.g. Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Similarly, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, for example, may be detected at the wound site using commercially available antibodies tagged with a fluorophore (e.g. Accurate Chemical & Scientific Co., Westbury, N.Y.; AbD SEROTEC, Oxford, UK; Cell Sciences Inc., Canton, Mass.). The fluorescing bacterial stain, immunoglobulin, antibody, or aptamer may be administered to the wound in a sterile solution, rinsed and the wound subsequently screened with the handheld device. The handheld device may be placed in close proximity to a wound and emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths ranging, for example, from 300 to 700 nm to excite autofluorescence of endogenous molecules or fluorescence of a probe associated with the pathogen. The resulting fluorescence is detected by the handheld device which subsequently emits energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogen. In some instances, the entirety of the effected tissue may be irradiated. Alternatively, focused energy may be directed only to those sites emitting pathogen-associated autofluorescence or fluorescence. Autofluorescence may also be used to detect members of the fungi family. For example, Candida albicans irradiated with electromagnetic energy at wavelengths of 465-495 nm autofluoresces at an emission wavelength of 515-555 nm (Mateus, et al. (2004) Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 48:3358-3336; Graham (1983) Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 79:231-234). Similarly, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus versicolor may be detected using autofluorescence in response to excitation at 450-490 nm and emission at 560 nm (Sage, et al. (2006) American Biotechnology Laboratory 24:20-23; Graham (1983) Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 79:231-234). Alternatively, fungi may be detected in a wound using the non-selective dye, Congo Red, which fluoresces at excitation maxima of 470 and 546 nm when irradiated with electromagnetic energy at wavelengths ranging from 450-560 nm (Slifkin, et al. (1988) J. Clin. Microbiol. 26:827-830). A pathogen or pathogens at the wound site may be inactivated or killed by energy emitted from a handheld device in response to detection of the pathogen or pathogens by autofluorescence using the same handheld device. Energy in the form of UV irradiation may be used to at least partially inactivate or kill a pathogen or pathogens as described herein. Alternatively, a pathogen, for example Escherichia coli, may be at least partially inactivated or killed at a wound site in response to fluence doses ranging from 130-260 J/cm2 using a 810 nm diode laser (Jawhara, et al (2006) Lasers Med. Sci. 21:153-159). Alternatively, a pathogen or pathogens may be at least partially inactivated or killed at the wound site with a form of laser thermal ablation using energy emitted, for example, from a CO2 (10,600 nm) or a Nd:YAG (1064 nm) laser (Bartels, et al. SPIE Vol 2395:602-606). For example, Staphylococcus epidermidis, a common skin bacteria, may be killed using pulsed radiation from a Nd:YAG laser with an exposure of 1000-2000 J/cm2 (Gronqvist, et al. (2000) Lasers Surg. Med. 27:336-340). Alternatively, a pathogen at a wound site may be at least partially inactivated or killed using electron beam or x-ray or gamma irradiation as described herein. Optionally, energy emitted from the handheld device may be combined with a photosensitive agent applied directly to the wound (Maisch (2007) Lasers Med. Sci. 22:83-91; Jori, et al. (2006) Lasers Surg. Med. 38:468-481). As such, the photosensitive agent may be administered to the wound in a sterile solution, allowed to incubate for a certain interval, for example 1-30 minutes, rinsed and subsequently screened with the handheld device. The wound may be irradiated by the handheld device first with wavelengths sufficient to detect the photosensitive agent and second with energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or kill the pathogens. For example, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may be inactivated using either a 0.95-mW helium-neon laser (632 nm) or a 5-mW indium-gallium-aluminum-phosphate laser (670 nm) with exposure doses ranging from 0.1 to 10.0 J/cm2 in combination with the bacterial sensitizing agent, toluidine blue O, (DeSimone, et al. (1999) Phys. Ther. 79:839-846). Alternatively, a diode laser with an emission wavelength, for example, of 808 nm may be used in combination with a topically applied fluorescing dye, for example, indocyanine green (ICG), to inactive a pathogen or pathogens (Bartels, et al. SPIE Vol 2395:602-606). ICG may be used to concentrate the diode laser energy to very specific “stained” areas with minimal damage to surrounding tissue. Optionally, a polycationic photosensitizer conjugated between, for example, poly-L-lysine and chlorinε6, may be topically applied to a wound and subsequently irradiated with a diode laser at 665 nm at doses ranging from, for example, 40-160 J/cm2 to kill bacteria (Hamblin, et al. (2002) Photochem. Photobiol. 75:51-57). Optionally, pathogens in a wound site, such as, for example, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis, may be at least partially inactivated using energy from, for example, an argon-ion pumped dye laser (wavelength of 630 nm with total light dose of 180 J/cm2) in combination with 5-aminolevulinic acid or Photofrin (Karrer, et al (1999) Lasers Med. Sci. 14:54-61; Nitzan, et al (1999) Lasers Med. Sci. 14:269-277). Example 3 Detection and Ablation of Pathogens on Oral or Skin Surfaces An oral cavity or surface of the skin may be screened with a device that detects and ablates pathogens associated with plaque and acne, respectively. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens on the surface. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the surface to selectively detect pathogens, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathogens may include bacteria, fungi and/or viruses. The device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time automatically delivers energy sufficient to ablate or kill the pathogens. Optionally, the device detects the autofluorescence, collects and processes the data, and at the discretion of the physician or other medical practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogens at the coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. The device may be handheld, for example, and either self-contained or connected wirelessly or by wire to optionally a power supply, energy sources, control circuitry, and/or monitor. Alternatively, the device may be a fixed component of, for example, a dentist's or doctor's office. A device emitting energy may be used to detect and ablate the pathogens associated with dental plaque. For example, pathogens associated with caries and dental plaques, including Actinomyces odontolyticus, Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Peptostreptococcus, Candida albicans, and Corynebacterium, all autofluoresce red in response to violet-blue light at a wavelength of 405 nm (van der Veen, et al. (2006) Caries Res. 40:542-545; Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40). Similarly, healthy dental tissue may be distinguished from carious lesions based on the autofluorescence of the associated pathogens (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40). For example, healthy dental tissue irradiated with an excitation wavelength, for example, of 405 nm may exhibit a broad emission spectra in the short-wavelength portion of the visible spectrum while fluorescence spectra from a carious lesion may have a maxima in the red spectral region with a main band at 635 nm, for example (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40). Once the autofluorescence is detected, energy emitted from the device may be used to at least partially inactivate or kill the fluorescing bacteria in real time using the methods and/or devices described herein. A device emitting energy may be used to detect and ablate the pathogens associated with acne vulgaris. For example, the Gram-positive bacteria Propionibacterium acnes, which are involved in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris, may be detected on the surface of the skin using autofluorescence (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40; Shalita, et al (2001) SPIE Vol. 4244, p. 61-73). A laser emitting radiation at 407 nm, for example, may be used to detect fluorescent spots in the nasal area and in pimples of acne patients. The spots may differ in color, with their spectrum consisting of three main peaks, at about 580-600, 620, and 640 nm, and may be associated with autofluorescence induced by endogenous porphyrins such as protoporphyrin and coproporphyrin (Koenig, et al. (1994) J. Fluoresc. 4:17-40). Once the autofluorescence is detected, energy emitted from the device, for example, UV radiation, may be used to at least partially inactivate or kill the fluorescing bacteria in real time using the methods described herein. Alternatively, electromagnetic energy emitted from the device in the violet-blue range (407-420 nm) may be used to at least partially inactivate or kill pathogens associated with acne vulgaris by activating the endogenous porphyrins and causing photo-destructive ablation of the bacteria (Shalita, et al (2001) SPIE Vol. 4244, p. 61-73). For example, patients with acne vulgaris may be treated with a 400 w UV-free, enhanced blue (407-420 nm) metal halide lamp producing, for example, 90 mW/cm2 homogeneous illumination (Shalita, et al (2001) SPIE Vol. 4244, p. 61-73). Alternatively, a pathogen in the oral cavity or on the surface of the skin may be at least partially inactivated or killed using electron beam or x-ray or gamma irradiation as described herein. Example 4 Detection and Ablation of Cancer and Cancer Margins Tissue may be screened with a device that detects and ablates cancerous cells optionally in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths to induce autofluorescence selected to differentiate between normal and cancerous cells. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the tissue to selectively detect cancerous cells, such as, for example, a photosensitizer, a chemical dye, or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with cancerous cells may be used to detect cancers and to aide in surgical intervention. In addition, autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with cancerous cells may be used to aide a medical practitioner in defining the margins of a solid tumor to ensure thorough excision of the lesion. The device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the cancerous cells and in real time delivers energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the cancerous cells. Optionally, the device detects the autofluorescence, collects and processes the data, and at the discretion of the surgeon or other medical (or veterinary) practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the cancerous cells at the coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. The device may be handheld, for example, and either self-contained or connected wirelessly or by wire to optionally a power supply, energy sources, control circuitry, and/or monitor. Alternatively, the device may be a fixed component of a surgical theater, doctor's office, or other venue for patient treatment. Electromagnetic energy emitted from a device may be used to induce autofluorescence of a tissue such as, for example, the surface of the skin or the surface of an internal organ exposed during surgery. The differences in the properties of emitted fluorescence may be used to distinguish between normal and pathological tissue. Tissue may be illuminated with electromagnetic energy at specific wavelengths of ultraviolet or visible light, for example. Endogenous fluorophores will absorb the energy and emit it as fluorescent light at a longer wavelength. Tissue autofluorescence may originate from aromatic amino acids such as tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine (excitation wavelengths of 200-340 nm, emission wavelengths of 360-370, 455 nm), from reduced pyridine nucleotides such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH, excitation wavelength of 360 nm, emission wavelength of 460 nm), from flavins and flavin nucleotides such as riboflavin and flavin mononucleotide (excitation wavelengths of 360 nm, 445-470 nm, emission wavelengths of 440 nm, 520 nm), from structural proteins such as collagen, and from lipopigments such as ceroid and lipofuscin (Chung, et al. (2005) Current Surgery 62:365-370; DaCosta, et al. (2005) J. Clin. Path. 58:766-774). Differences in the properties of emitted autofluorescence may be used to distinguish, for example, between normal and cancerous cells and tissue in a variety of epithelial organ systems, including the cervix, colon, bladder, bronchus and oral mucosa (Ann. Surg. Oncol. (2003) 11:65-70; Weingandt, et al. (2002) BJOG 109:947-951; DaCosta, et al. (2005) J. Clin. Path. 58:766-775; Chiyo, et al. (2005) Lung Cancer 48:307-313). For example, changes in autofluorescence emission (350 to 700 nm) of premalignant or malignant lesions in the oral cavity relative to normal tissue may be detected using excitation wavelengths of 337 nm, 365 nm, and 410 nm (Gillenwater, et al. (1998) Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 124:1251-1258). In this instance, the fluorescence intensity of normal mucosa may be greater than that of abnormal areas, while the ratio of red fluorescence (635 nm) to blue fluorescence (455-490 nm) intensities may be greater in abnormal areas. Autofluorescence may also be used to distinguish between normal and cancerous cells in non-epithelial organ systems, such as, for example, between normal white and gray matter and cancerous cells in the brain (U.S. Pat. No. 6,377,841). Alternatively, cancerous cells may be detected using electromagnetic energy in combination with a light-activated dye. For example, Photofrin® (Axcan Pharma, Inc.) administered systemically to patients with cancer in the oral cavity, esophagus or bronchus accumulates preferentially in cancerous cells. Fluorescence of activated Photofrin® in cancer cells may be measured at 630 nm, for example, in response to excitation wavelengths of 405 nm and 506 nm 1-50 hours after administration (Braichotte, et al. (1995) Cancer 75:2768-2778). As cancerous cells are identified based on differences in autofluorescence relative to normal cells using the device, the same device may be used in real time to ablate the identified cancerous cells. A cancerous cell or cells may be ablated by energy in the form of high-intensity light emitted, for example, by a laser. Lasers are commonly used to treat superficial cancers, such as basal cell skin cancer and the very early stages of some cancers, such as cervical, penile, vaginal, vulvar, and non-small cell lung cancer (National Cancer Institute (2004) Lasers in Cancer Treatment FactSheet). Energy emitted from a laser may also be used to relieve certain symptoms associated with cancer, such as bleeding or obstruction. For example, a laser may be used to shrink or destroy a tumor blocking the trachea or the esophagus or to remove polyps or tumors blocking the colon or stomach. A variety of lasers with varied excitation wavelengths and penetration potential may be used to generate electromagnetic energy sufficient to ablate a cancer cell or cells (Burr Interventional Technologies for Tissue Volume Reduction, October 2004). For example, a cancer cell or cells may be ablated using a CO2 laser (10,600 nm, 0.1-0.2 mm penetration depth). Alternatively, cancer cells may be ablated by a Yttrium-Aluminium-Garnet (YAG) laser with Neodymium (Nd, 1064 nm or 1320 nm, 3-4 mm penetration depth), Erbium (Eb, 2940 nm, with <0.1 mm penetration depth), or Holmium (Ho, 2070 nm). Alternatively, cancer cells may be ablated by diode lasers (600-1600 nm), argon laser (488 nm and 514 nm, 1-1.5 mm penetration depth), or an excimer laser (180-350 nm, cell/tissue disintegration). As such, the device may contain one or more of the lasers described herein as an optical energy source for use in exciting and/or ablating the target tissue. Alternatively, a cancer cell or cells may be ablated by electromagnetic energy emitted from a laser in combination with a photosensitizing agent in a process termed photodynamic therapy (PDT; National Cancer Institute (2004) Lasers in Cancer Treatment FactSheet). For example, a patient may be injected with a photosensitizing agent such as, for example, Photofrin or 5-aminolevulinic acid, which after a few days concentrates in the cancerous cells. Electromagnetic energy from, for example, a laser is then used to activate the photosensitizing agent which has a subsequent toxic effect on the cancer cell or cells and results in cell death. Alternatively, a cancer cell or cells may be ablated using x-ray energy. X-ray therapy or radiotherapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, spine, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas (National Cancer Institute (2004) Radiation Therapy for Cancer FactSheet). As such, the device may include a standard linear accelerator that emits X-ray electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient for therapeutic ablation of cancerous cells. Alternatively, the device may contain a miniature X-ray emitter (see e.g. U.S. Patent Application 2004/218724 A1). Alternatively, the device may contain radioisotopes such as cobalt 60, cesium 137, or europium 152, for example, that emit strong gamma rays and may be used to ablate cancerous cells. Optionally, the device may contain other intrinsically radioactive isotope such as those that might be used for brachytherapy, including, for example, iodine 125, iodine 131, strontium 89, phosphorous, palladium, or phosphate (National Cancer Institute (2004) Radiation Therapy for Cancer FactSheet). Alternatively, a cancer cell or cells may be ablated by using particle beam energy generated for example by a betatron, cyclotron or microton (Podgorsak, Chapter 5). Alternatively, particle beam energy may be generated using LINAC (linear accelerator)-based external beam radiotherapy. Medical LINACs accelerate electrons to kinetic energies from 4 to 25 MeV using microwave radiofrequency waves at 103 to 104 MHz (Podgorsak, Chapter 5). A LINAC may provide X-rays in the low megavoltage range (4 to 6 MV). Alternatively, a LINAC may provide both X-rays and electrons at various megavoltage energies, for example, two photon energies (6 and 18 MV) and several electron energies (6, 9, 12, 16, and 22 MeV; Podgorsak, Chapter 5). Breast cancer may be detected using a device that emits electromagnetic energy at a wavelength or wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of malignant tissue. For example, an excitation-emission matrix of tissue autofluorescence generated using incremental excitation and emission wavelengths may be used to differentiate between normal and malignant breast tissue (Ann. Surg. Oncol. (2003) 11:65-70). Breast tissue may be irradiated with electromagnetic energy at excitation wavelengths of 300 to 460 nm, for example, in 10 to 20 nm increments and the resulting fluorescence emission recorded in 5 to 10 nm increments beginning with a wavelength, for example, 10 nm longer than the excitation wavelength, up to, for example, 600 nm (e.g. 360 to 600 nm for a 350 nm excitation). An excitation-emission matrix may be generated using this information and changes in peaks and valleys of fluorescence intensity may be used to distinguish between normal and malignant tissue. Optionally, a N2 laser emitting 7 nsec pulses with a repetition rate of 10 Hz, pulse energy of 200 μJ, and filtered excitation wavelength of 337 nm may be used to distinguish between autofluorescence of normal and malignant breast tissue (Gupta, et al. (1997) Lasers Surg. Med. 21:417-422). Alternatively, cancerous breast tissue may be ablated using X-ray energy, for example, from a miniature electron beam-driven X-ray source at doses of 5 to 20 Gy (Ross, et al. (2005) Breast Cancer Res. 7:110-112). Alternatively, a breast tumor may be at least partially ablated using electron beam intra-operative radiotherapy with a radiation dose of 17 to 21 Gy (Ross, et al. (2005) Breast Cancer Res. 7:110-112). Squamous intraepithelial lesions of the cervix may be differentiated from normal squamous tissue by autofluorescence using an electromagnetic energy emission wavelength of 460-nm (U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,932). Alternatively, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia may be differentiated from normal tissue by autofluorescence using a frequency tripled Nd:YAG laser with an excitation wavelength of 355 nm (Nordstrom, et al. (2001) Lasers Surg. Med. 29:118-127). Under these conditions, normal tissue may have an autofluorescence maxima (˜460 nm) that is shifted to the left relative to neoplastic tissue (˜470 nm) and is of higher intensity, allowing for differentiation between normal and abnormal tissue (Nordstrom, et al. (2001) Lasers Surg. Med. 29:118-127). Optionally, excitation wavelengths between 375 and 440 nm to induce autofluorescence may be used to distinguish between normal and precancerous lesions of the cervix (Weingandt, et al. (2002) BJOG 109:947-951). Alternatively, a fluorophore synthesized in the tissue after administration of a precursor molecule may be used in combination with electromagnetic energy to detect cancerous cells, for example, in the cervix (Andrejevic-Blant, et al. (2004) Lasers Surg. Med. 35:276-283). For example, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia may be detected by first applying 5-aminolevulinic acid topically to the cervix followed by porphyrin fluorescence spectroscopy (Keefe, et al. (2002) Lasers Surg. Med. 31:289-293). Cervical cancer may be ablated using laser conization or vaporization using, for example, a CO2 laser focused to spot size of 0.1-0.2 mm with a continuous beam of 40-60 W and a power density of 80,000-165,000 W/cm2 (Bekassy, et al. (1997) Lasers Surg. Med. 20:461-466) or a garnet (Nd:YAG) laser. The early stages of melanoma may be detected using a device that emits electromagnetic energy at incremental wavelengths ranging, for example, from 400-1000 nm using, for example, an acoustic-optic tunable filter (ACTF) in combination with, for example, a white light generated with an Kr—Ar laser (Farkas, et al. (2001) Pigment Cell Res. 14:2-8). Spectral imaging of this sort may also be accomplished, for example, using rotating interference filters, the Fabry-Perot interferometer, liquid crystal tunable filters (LCTF), gratings or prisms, or Fourier transform spectroscopy (Chung, et al. (2005) Current Surgery 62:365-370). The reflected light from the potentially cancerous pigmented tissue is collected at specific wavelengths. A microprocessor may be used to generate a profile of emission intensity across the electromagnetic energy spectrum. The resulting profile may be compared with that of normal pigmented tissue to identify specific areas of dysplasia. Autofluorescence may also be used to differentiate between normal skin and non-melanoma skin lesions. For example, autofluorescence induced by an excitation wavelength of 410 nm may be used to distinguish between normal tissue, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and actinic keratosis (Panjepour, et al. (2002) Lasers Surg. Med. 31:367-373). Optionally, autofluorescence may be used to distinguish between sun-exposed and sun-protected areas of skin and may also indicate regions of sun damage (Davies, et al. (2001) Applied Spectroscopy 55:1489-1894). Once the areas of dysplasia or sun damage are identified, the device may emit in real time energy sufficient to ablate the abnormal cell or cells. For example, the lesion may be ablated using a carbon dioxide laser with a wavelength of 10,600 nm and a power output of 80 W (Gibson, et al. (2004) Br. J. Surg. 91:893-895). Example 5 Detection and Ablation of Gastrointestinal Pathogens with an Untethered Ingestible Device An untethered ingestible device may be used to detect and ablate gastrointestinal pathogens optionally in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens within the gastrointestinal tract. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce fluorescence of reagents added to the gastrointestinal tract to selectively detect pathogens, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathogens may include bacteria, fungi and/or viruses. The untethered ingestible device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time delivers energy sufficient to inactivate or ablate the pathogens. Optionally, the untethered ingestible device detects the autofluorescence, wirelessly transmits data to an external source, and at the discretion of the physician or other medical practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate or ablate the pathogens at the coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. Pathogens commonly associated with gastrointestinal disorders include bacteria, such as certain strains of Escherichia coli (e.g. Escherichia coli O157:H7), various strains of Salmonella, Vibrio cholera, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, shigella, and Helicobacter pylori, viruses such as rotovirus and Calicivirus, and parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica and Cryptosporidium. A pathogen may be detected in the gastrointestinal tract based on autofluorescence induced, for example, by electromagnetic energy. In general, pathogens such as bacteria and fungi may be detected by autofluorescence as described herein. For example, Escherichia coli autofluorescence may be detected using excitation wavelengths of 250-400 nm and examined at an emission wavelength of 495 nm and higher through, for example, a long pass optical filter (Glazier, et al. (1994) J. Microbiol. Meth. 20:23-27; Hilton, et al. (2000) Proc. SPIE 4087:1020-1026). Alternatively, Escherichia coli autofluorescence maxima of 350 nm and 485 nm may be detected following excitation at 290 nm (Cabreda, et al. (2007) J. Fluoresc. 17:171-180). Alternatively, Salmonella as well as Escherichia coli autofluoresce when irradiated with electromagnetic energy at a wavelength of 488 nm (Hilton (1998) SPIE 3491:1174-1178). The Coccidia class of bacteria, which are transmitted through a fecal-oral route via contaminated water and food and are associated with watery diarrhea, may also be detected based on autofluorescence (Bialek, et al. (2002) Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67:304-305). For example, Isospora belli and Cyclospora fluoresce a bluish violet color under UV excitation (365 nm) and fluoresce a bright green under violet excitation (405 nm). A pathogen within the gastrointestinal tract may be inactivated or killed by energy emitted from an untethered ingestible device in response to detection of the pathogen by autofluorescence using the same untethered ingestible device. In general, pathogens such as bacteria and fungi may be inactivated or killed by various wavelengths of electromagnetic energy as described herein. For example, Escherichia coli may be partially or completely inactivated, for example, by a 60 s exposure to a UV electromagnetic energy source at wavelengths of 100-280 nm (Anderson, et al. (2000) IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28:83-88). The intestinal parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia may also be at least partially inactivated or killed using UV irradiation from, for example, a mercury arc lamp at a fluence of 40 mJ/cm2 (Li, et al. (2007) Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:2218-2223). Alternatively, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteritidis may be inactivated using pulsed broad-spectrum electromagnetic energy with high UV content from, for example, a Xenon lamp (Anderson, et al. (2000) IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28:83-88). In this instance, targeted bacteria are subjected to 100-1000 pulses of broad-spectrum light with each pulse lasting, for example, 85 ns and having, for example, a power output of 10 MW. Alternatively, a pathogen within the gastrointestinal tract may be inactivated or killed by a particle beam, or x-ray, or gamma ray electromagnetic energy, as described herein. Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative bacterium which selectively colonizes the stomach and duodenum and is associated with chronic gastritis, gastric ulcer and increased risk for gastric adenocarcinoma. H. pylori may be detected in the antrum of the stomach by autofluorescence using an excitation wavelength, for example, of 405 nm (Hammer-Wilson, et al. (2007) Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 42:941-950). H. pylori naturally accumulates coproporphyrin and protoporphyrin which sensitize the bacteria to inactivation by visible light at wavelengths ranging from 375 to 425 nm (Hamblin, et al. (2005) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:2822-2827; U.S. Patent Application 2004/0039232 A1). As such, an untethered ingestible device emitting electromagnetic energy as described herein may be used to detect and at least partially inactivate or kill H. pylori in the gastrointestinal tract. The untethered ingestible device may transit through the gastrointestinal tract by natural peristalsis after ingestion. Transit times may vary depending, for example, on the time required for gastric emptying and for transit through the small bowel. For example, transit time of an untethered ingestible device out of the stomach may range from 20-160 minutes depending upon, for example, the age of the patient and whether polyethylene glycol (PEG 400) or erythromycin are administered prior to and following ingestion of the device (Fireman, et al. (2005) World J. Gastroenterol 11:5863-5866). Similarly, transit time through the small bowel may range from 220-320 minutes depending, for example, upon the age of the patient and co-administered agents (Fireman, et al. (2005) World J. Gastroenterol 11:5863-5866). The untethered ingestible device may be affixed to a specific site within the gastrointestinal tract, for example, by expanding to fill the lumen of the tract (U.S. Patent Application 2007/015621 A1). As such, the untethered ingestible device may be cylindrical in shape with a central core enabling free flow of fluids within the digestive tract. Optionally, the untethered ingestible device may contain a means of locomotion with internal or external control that allows an operator to control movement of the device within the gastrointestinal tract. The device may use a locomotion system based on “inch-worm” motion using, for example, grippers and extensors, rolling tracks, or rolling stents (Rentshcler, et al. (2006) SAGES Meeting; Rentschler, et al. (2007) Surg. Endosc. on-line ahead of publication). Alternatively, the device may use a helical wheel configuration on its surface with, for example, two independent motors that control the wheels, providing forward, backward, and turning capacity (see, e.g., Rentshcler, et al. (2006) SAGES Meeting; Rentschler, et al. (2007) Surg. Endosc. on-line ahead of publication; U.S. Patent Application 2006/119304 A1). Alternatively, the device may use a locomotion system based on wheels or expanding and contracting components (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application 2006/119304 A1). Example 6 Detection and Ablation of Pathological Gastrointestinal Tissue with an Untethered Ingestible Device An untethered ingestible device may be used to detect and ablate pathological gastrointestinal tissue in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathological tissue within the gastrointestinal tract. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the gastrointestinal tract to selectively detect pathological tissue, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathological tissue may include, for example, cancer or lesions associated with Crohns disease. The untethered ingestible device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathological tissue and in real time delivers energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue. Optionally, the untethered ingestible device detects the autofluorescence, wirelessly transmits data to an external source, and at the discretion of the physician or other medical practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue at coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. For example, changes in autofluorescence emission (350 to 700 nm) of premalignant or malignant lesions in the oral cavity relative to normal tissue may be detected using excitation wavelengths of 330, nm, 337 nm, 365 nm, and 410 nm (Gillenwater, et al. (1998) Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 124:1251-1258; Tsai, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 33:40-47). In this instance, the fluorescence intensity of normal mucosa may be greater than that of abnormal areas, while the ratio of red fluorescence (635 nm) to blue fluorescence (455-490 nm) intensities may be greater in abnormal areas. Alternatively, autofluorescence induced by excitation wavelengths of 365, 385, 405, 420, 435, and 450 nm may be combined with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to detect pre-malignant and malignant lesions in the oral mucosa (de Veld, et al. (2005) Lasers Surg. Med. 36:356-364). Based on the relative autofluorescence, the cancerous cells may be identified and irradiated with electromagnetic energy sufficient to ablate the cell or cells, as described herein. Autofluorescence may be used to distinguish between normal and neoplastic tissue in patients with Barrett's esophagus (Borovika, et al. (2006) Endoscopy 38:867-872; Pfefer, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 32:10-16) For example, fluorescence spectra excited at 337 nm and 400 nm may be used to distinguish between normal and neoplastic tissue (Pfefer, et al. (2003) Lasers Surg. Med. 32:10-16). Alternatively, fluorescence maxima may be compared at various emission wavelengths, for example, 444, 469, 481, 486, 545, 609, and 636 nm following excitation at 337 nm and 400 nm. Autofluorescence may be observed with a long-pass filter with a cut-off wavelength >470 nm to optimize fluorescence detection and minimize excitation light (Borovika, et al. (2006) Endoscopy 38:867-872). Alternatively, adenocarcinoma in patients with Barrett's esophagus may be detected using electromagnetic energy in combination with an agent that concentrates in cancerous cells and that fluoresces upon laser excitation, such as, for example, Photofrin® (von Holstein, et al. (1999) Gut 39:711-716). Autofluorescence may be used to distinguish between normal, hyperplastic and adenomatous colonic mucosa (DaCosta, et al. (2005) J. Clin. Path. 58:766-774; Eker, et al. (1999) Gut 44:511-518). Irradiation of colon mucosa with ultraviolet light or blue light with a wavelength of 488 nm, for example, induces emission of green and red regions of autofluorescence. In normal tissue, collagen and elastin emit weak green fluorescence. In hyperplastic tissue or polyps, increased collagen produces intense green fluorescence. Dysplastic or malignant lesions may have enhanced red fluorescence compared with either normal or hyperplastic polyps (DaCosta, et al. (2005) J. Clin. Path. 58:766-774). An untethered ingestible device emitting electromagnetic energy at a wavelength or wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence such as ultraviolet or blue light, for example, is used to irradiate the colon. Fluorescence emission is detected at wavelengths of 505-550 nm and >585 nm, for example, to detect the green and red autofluorescence, respectively. Alternatively, shifts in the autofluorescence emission maxima following excitation at 337 nm may be used to distinguish normal from adenomatous tissue (Eker, et al. (1999) Gut 44:511-518). Optionally, electromagnetic energy may be combined with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) to differentiate between normal colon tissue and adenomatous polyps (Eker, et al. (1999) Gut 44:511-518). For example, ALA at a dose of 5 mg/kg body weight may be administered orally to patients 2 to 3 hours prior to investigation followed by irradiation of the colon tissue with excitation wavelengths of 337 nm, 405 nm, and 436 nm. Normal versus abnormal tissue may be distinguished based on relative shifts in the emission maxima (Eker, et al. (1999) Gut 44:511-518). Based on the relative autofluorescence, the cancerous cells are identified and may be irradiated with energy sufficient to ablate the cell or cells, as described herein. For example, colorectal adenomas may be ablated using an Nd:YAG (1064 nm) with maximal power output of 100 W (Norberto, et al. (2005) Surg. Endosc. 19:1045-1048). Alternatively, X-ray energy administered at a total dose of 20 Gy may be used to treat colon cancer (Kosmider, et al. (2007) World J. Gastroenterol. 13:3788-3805). Autofluorescence imaging may be used to detect the severity of ulcerative colitis (Fujiya, et al. (2007) Dig. Endoscopy 19 (Suppl. 1):S145-S149). For example, differences in inflammatory state may be distinguished by autofluorescence, with severely inflamed mucosa associated with purple autofluorescence, atrophic regenerative mucosa associated with faint purple autofluorescence with green spots, and normal mucosa associated with green autofluorescence. Example 7 Detection and Ablation of Pathogens in a Lumen with an Untethered Device An untethered device may be used to detect and ablate pathogens within a lumen in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens within the lumen. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the lumen to selectively detect pathogens, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathogens may include bacteria, fungi and/or viruses. A lumen may include that associated with blood vessels, the urogenital tract, and the respiratory tract, for example. The untethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time delivers energy sufficient to inactivate or ablate the pathogens. Optionally, the untethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence, wirelessly transmits data to an external source, and at the discretion of the physician or other medical practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathogen at coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. An untethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel may be used to detect and ablate pathogens associated with blood infections or septicemia. Gram-negative enteric bacilli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae are the most common pathogens in the United States associated with micronemia and sepsis. As such, electromagnetic energy emitted from a luminal device may be used to detect autofluorescence associated, for example, with blood borne bacteria as described herein. The pathogens are subsequently ablated using, for example, UV electromagnetic energy as described herein. An untethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel may be used to detect and ablate parasites in the blood stream. For example, autofluorescence associated with the food vacuole of the malaria parasite Plasmodium spp. may be used to detect infected erythrocytes with in the blood stream (Wissing, et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:37747-37755). As such, an untethered luminal device may induce autofluorescence of parasites at a wavelength, for example, of 488 nm (Wissing, et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:37747-37755). Alternatively, erythrocytes infected with Plasmodium spp. may be detected by pre-staining the cells with acridine orange, which when excited at 490 nm emits green light at 530 nm (Wissing, et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:37747-37755). Other nucleic-acid binding dyes may be used for this purpose including Hoechst 33258, thiazole orange, hydroethidine, and YOYO-1 (Li, et al. (2007) Cytometry 71A:297-307). As such, the dyes bind to parasite DNA in the infected erythrocytes which are otherwise free of DNA. Erythrocytes autofluoresce upon excitation at a wavelength of 545 nm with an emission wavelength of 610 nm associated with the heme porphyrin (Liu, et al. (2002) J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 22:1222-1230). As such, the untethered luminal device may optionally first identify an erythrocyte based on autofluorescence at one wavelength, followed by detection of a parasite within the erythrocyte based on autofluorescence or dye induced fluorescence at a second wavelength. The untethered luminal device may detect fluorescence associated with infected erythrocytes and in real time emit energy at wavelengths sufficient to at least partially ablate the infected cells. An untethered luminal device may be used to detect and ablate pathogens associated with urinary tract infections (UTI), for example, in the lumen of the bladder. For example, Escherichia coli uropathogenic strains are the most common cause of urinary tract infections (Finer, et al. (2004) Lancet Infect. Dis. 4:631-635). Escherichia coli may be detected in the bladder, for example, using electromagnetic energy to induce autofluorescence as described herein. An untethered luminal device may be inserted into the bladder via a catheter. Once inserted, the untethered luminal device may scan the internal surface of the bladder with electromagnetic energy sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens. In response to autofluorescence, the untethered luminal device may emit energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate pathogens, as described herein. Optionally, the untethered luminal device may be affixed to a specific site within a lumen, for example, by expanding to fill the lumen (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application 2007/015621 A1). As such, the untethered luminal device may be cylindrical in shape with a central core enabling free flow of fluids within the lumen. Alternatively, the untethered luminal device may be affixed to a specific site within a lumen using, for example, a hook or claw-like structure, an adhesive or glue-like material, or suction (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application 2007/015621 A1). Optionally, the untethered luminal device may contain a means of locomotion with internal or external control that allows an operator to control movement of the device within the lumen by means described herein. Alternatively, the untethered luminal device may be controlled by external magnetic energy. For example, an untethered luminal device in an artery, for example, may be manipulated using a clinical magnetic resonance imaging system (see, e.g., Mathieu, et al. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE, Engineering in Medicine and Biology 27th Annual Conference, Shanghai, China, Sep. 1-4, 2005, 4850-4853; Martel, et al. (2007) Applied Physics Letters 90:114105-1-3). As such, the untethered luminal device may be constructed, at least in part, with ferromagnetic material. Example 9 Detection and Ablation of Pathological Tissue in a Lumen with an Untethered Device An untethered device may be used to detect and ablate pathological tissue or cells within a lumen in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathological tissue within the lumen. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the lumen to selectively detect pathological tissue, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathological tissue may include cancer, atherosclerosis, and inflammation, for example. A lumen may include that associated with blood vessels, the urogenital tract, and the respiratory tract, for example. The untethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time delivers energy sufficient to inactivate or ablate the pathological tissue. Optionally, the untethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence, wirelessly transmits data to an external source, and at the discretion of the physician or other medical practitioner, a trigger mechanism, for example, is used to deliver energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue at coordinates associated with the autofluorescence. An untethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel, for example, may be used to detect and ablate tissue and cells associated with, for example, an atherosclerotic plaque. For example, autofluorescence associated with macrophages in a plaque may be used to characterize an atherosclerotic lesion (Marcu, et al. (2005) Atherosclerosis 181:295-303). The accumulation of macrophages in the fibrous cap of an atherosclerotic plaque are indicative of inflammation as well as instability of the plaque. The lumen of a blood vessel may be irradiated, for example, with 1 ns pulses of electromagnetic energy at a wavelength of 337 nm. The resulting autofluorescence may be detected at specific maxima wavelengths, for example, 395 nm and 450 nm, or over a range of wavelengths, for example, from 300-600 nm (Marcu, et al. (2005) Atherosclerosis 181:295-303). Differences in the autofluorescence spectra may be used to differentiate between normal, collagen thick and macrophage thick plaques (Marcu, et al. (2005) Atherosclerosis 181:295-303). Alternatively, the lumen of a blood vessel may be irradiated with electromagnetic energy ranging in wavelength from 350 to 390 nm and the resulting autofluorescence detected at critical wavelengths, for example, of 570, 600, 480, or 500 nm may be sufficient to differentiate between structurally viable tissue and an atherosclerotic plaque (U.S. Pat. No. 5,046,501). The untethered device may subsequently in real time emit energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the atherosclerotic plaque based on the differential autofluorescence. An eximer laser operating in the ultraviolet range may be used to ablate an atherosclerotic plaque (Morguet, et al. (1994) Lasers Surg. Med. 14:238-248). Alternatively, other laser systems may be used to ablate an atherosclerotic plaque, including, for example, a CO2 laser, Nd:YAG laser or an argon laser (Morguet, et al. (1994) Lasers Surg. Med. 14:238-248). An untethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel, for example, may be used to detect and ablate cells associated with, for example, a hematological form of cancer. For example, leukemia is characterized by an increase in immature lymphoblasts in circulation. These cells may have a distinct autofluorescence relative to normal lymphocytes. As such, fluorescence associated with the lymphoblasts may be detected and the cells subsequently ablated using the methods described herein. An untethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel may be used to detect and ablate cells that have migrated from a solid tumor and are on route to metastasis elsewhere in the body. These cells may be identified using the untethered device to generate and detect autofluorescence. Alternatively, these cells may be identified using the untethered device to induce and detect fluorescence associated with a reagent that specifically binds to a cancer cell, such as a fluorescent antibody or aptamer. For example, circulating tumor cells associated with breast cancer may be detected using a fluorescently tagged antibody or aptamer to a tumor specific cell-surface antigen such as, for example, the Her2/Neu epidermal growth factor receptor (Gilbey, et al. (2004) J. Clin. Pathol. 57:903-911). Patients with increased breast epithelial cells in circulation have a higher rate of metastasis and poorer outcome. As such, fluorescence associated with the breast cancer cell may be detected and the cell subsequently ablated by the untethered luminal device using the methods described herein. Example 10 Detection and Ablation of Pathogens in a Lumen with a Tethered Device A tethered device may be used to detect and ablate pathogens within a lumen in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathogens within the lumen. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the lumen to selectively detect pathogens, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathogens may include bacteria, fungi and/or viruses. A lumen may include that associated with blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, the urogenital tract, or the respiratory tract, for example. The tethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathogens and in real time delivers energy sufficient to inactivate or ablate the pathogens. A tethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel, for example, may be used to detect and ablate pathogens in the blood such as those associated with septicemia and malaria using electromagnetic energy, as described herein. A tethered device in the lumen of the lung, for example, may be used to detect and ablate pathogens associated with bronchial infections, such as bronchitis, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonias whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, Proteus, and Klebsiella are commonly associated with nosocomial-acquired pneumonia. Although the incidence of tuberculosis is low in industrialized countries, M tuberculosis infections still continue to be a significant public health problem in the United States, particularly among immigrants from developing countries, intravenous drug abusers, patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the institutionalized elderly. Autofluorescence induced by electromagnetic energy may be used to detect various bacterial pathogens, as described herein. A tethered device may be inserted into the lung comparable, for example, to a bronchoscope, and used to detect pathogens. In response to autofluorescence, the same tethered device may emit in real time energy sufficient to at least partially inactivate pathogens, as described herein. Example 11 Detection and Ablation of Pathological Tissue in a Lumen with Tethered Device A tethered device may be used to detect and ablate pathological tissue or cells within a lumen in real time. The device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence of pathological tissue within the lumen. Alternatively, the device emits electromagnetic energy at wavelengths sufficient to cause fluorescence of reagents added to the lumen to selectively detect pathological tissue, such as, for example, a chemical dye or an antibody or aptamer conjugated to a fluorescent tag. Pathological tissue may include cancer, atherosclerosis, and inflammation, for example. A lumen may include those associated with blood vessels, the urogenital tract, the gastrointestinal tract, or the respiratory tract, for example. The tethered luminal device detects the autofluorescence or reagent-induced fluorescence associated with the pathological tissue and in real time automatically delivers energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue. Autofluorescence induced by an optical energy source may be used to detect pathological tissue as described herein. Alternatively, fluorescence associated with a selective marker may be induced by an optical energy source to detect pathological tissue as described herein. A tethered device that emits optical energy to induce autofluorescence of pathological tissue may be configured, for example, like an endoscope (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,507,287; U.S. Pat. No. 5,590,660; U.S. Pat. No. 5,647,368; U.S. Pat. No. 5,769,792; U.S. Pat. No. 6,061,591; U.S. Pat. No. 6,123,719; U.S. Pat. No. 6,462,770B1). As such, a flexible optical tube sufficiently small enough to be inserted into a lumen may be attached to an optical energy source that emits wavelengths sufficient to induce autofluorescence such as for example, a nitrogen laser. The same flexible tube may transmit the emitted autofluorescence back to a CCD camera and control circuitry. Immediately upon receiving the emitted autofluorescence indicative of pathological tissue, a second emission of energy, from for example an Nd:YAG laser, is released to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue. Alternatively, the head of the flexible tube may contain a photodiode array sensor that directly detects the autofluorescence and triggers a second emission of energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the pathological tissue. Alternatively, the head of the flexible tube may contain shielded gamma emitting isotopes that exposure the tissue to radiation in real time in response to the detected autofluorescence. A tethered device in the lumen of a blood vessel, for example, may be used to detect and ablate pathological tissue, for example, atherosclerotic plaques or circulating cancer cells as described herein. Autofluorescence in combination with reflected light may be used to differentiate between normal, inflamed and pre-invasive lesions in the lung (Chiyo, et al. (2005) Lung Cancer 48:307-313; Gabrecht, et al. (2007) SPIE-OSA Vol. 6628, 66208C-1-8; U.S. Pat. No. 5,507,287). For example, bronchial tissue may be irradiated with excitation wavelengths of 395-445 nm and autofluorescence detected at wavelengths of 490-690 nm. Simultaneously or subsequently, reflected light at 550 nm (green) and at 610 nm (red) may be collected and combined with the autofluorescence data to form a composite image. As such, the ratios of green/red and green/autofluorescence may be greater in squamous dysplasia relative to inflamed lung tissue associated with bronchitis, allowing for differentiation between these two disease states (Chiyo, et al. (2005) Lung Cancer 48:307-313). Based on the relative autofluorescence detected, the tethered device emits energy sufficient to at least partially ablate the cancerous tissue. For example, electromagnetic energy sufficient to ablate cancerous cells in the lung may be generated by a Neodynium YAG laser (1064 nm) with power output up to 100 W and tissue penetration of 1-5 mm (Hansen, et al. (2006) Minim. Invasive Ther. Allied Technol. 15:4-8). Example 12 An Apparatus for Detection and Ablation of Pathogens and Pathological Tissue FIG. 26, FIG. 27, and FIG. 28 show illustrative configurations of handheld versions of an apparatus 100 of FIG. 1. for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue. FIG. 26 shows an illustrative configuration of a handheld device 2000 which is completely self-contained and easily held in the hand of the user 2001. The user 2001 may be, for example, a surgeon or other medical practitioner and/or a veterinarian, using the handheld device 2000, for example, in a surgical theater, a hospital emergency room, a doctor, dentist, veterinary, or nurse practitioner's office. Alternatively, the user 2001 may be an emergency responder, using the hand held device 2000, for example, out in the field at the site of an accident or on the battlefield. The user 2001 may hold the handheld device 2000 in proximity to a lesion or lesions 2002 on a patient 2003. The lesion 2002 may be a surgical incision or a wound. A wound, for example, may be an abrasion, a burn, a puncture, or a deep gouge. Alternatively, the lesion 2002 may be on the surface of the skin or the surface of the oral cavity. The user 2001 turns on the handheld device 2000 using an on/off switch 2004. Optionally, the user 2001 may use a button 2005 on the handheld device 2000 to activate or enable a beam of energy 2006 (optionally the same as 110). The user 2001 activates a beam of energy 2006 in proximity to the lesion 2002 to detect and ablate pathogens and pathological tissue. FIG. 27 shows an illustrative configuration of a handheld device 2007 which is held in the hand of the user 2001 and is optionally wirelessly connected to optional external control circuitry 2008. Optionally, the handheld device 2007 is connected via a wire 2009 to external control circuitry 2008 or an external power source 2010, or both. The user 2001 activates a beam of energy 2006 in proximity to the lesion 2002 to detect and ablate pathogens and pathological tissue. FIG. 28 shows an illustrative configuration of a handheld device 2011 which is held in the hand of the user 2001, and is used in conjunction with targeting aids 2014 surrounding the lesion 2002 on the surface of the patient 2003. The targeting aids 2014 are used, for example, to register the position of autofluorescence associated with pathogens or pathological tissue within the lesion 2002 with respect to the surface of the patient 2003. As such, the user 2001 may screen the entire lesion 2002, noting the position of possible pathogens or pathological tissue. The user 2001 may subsequently return to specific regions of concern and at the discretion of the user 2001, manually initiate ablation using, for example, a trigger 2012. The handheld device 2011 may include a monitor 2013 that allows the user 2001 to observe the autofluorescence emitted from the lesion 2002 in real time and/or to observe a targeting beam of optionally visual light indicating the location of emitted energy for excitation and/or ablation. Alternatively, the handheld device may be connected to an external display device and control circuitry 2008 as described in FIG. 27. The user 2001 places at least three targeting aids around the lesion 2002 on the patient 2003. The user 2001 scans the surface of the lesion 2002 with the handheld device 2011 and data is collected regarding the position of autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue. The user 2001 may analyze the accumulated data and at the discretion of the user 2001, return to specific regions of the lesion 2002 and use the trigger 2012 to initiate or enable irradiation with a beam of energy 2006 to ablate pathogens or pathological tissue. Alternatively, the targeting aids 2014 may be placed on fixed surfaces, for example, of the examination room. As such, the extremity with the lesion 2002 is immobilized to an examining surface, for example, to aide in location registration. FIG. 29 shows an illustrative configuration of a stationary version of the apparatus 100 for the real time detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue. The stationary device 2015 may be a component of a room 2016 that is, for example, part of a surgical theater, an imaging and treatment facility, or a doctor's or dentist's or veterinarian's office. The stationary device 2015 may be used in conjunction with targeting aids 2014 placed at various locations around the room 2016. In the example shown in FIG. 29, the targeting aids 2014 are affixed to the walls 2017 of the room 2016. Alternatively, the targeting aids 2014 may be affixed to the ceiling, to the floor or to objects within the room, or a combination thereof. The user 2001 may control the stationary device 2015 using control circuitry 2008 optionally in an auxiliary room 2018 optionally visually connected to the main room 2016 by a window or other viewing means, for example. The room 2016 may also contain a table 2019 upon which there is optionally a sliding platform 2020 for moving the patient 2003 into position relative to the stationary device 2015. The sliding platform 2020 may also have strategically placed targeting aids 2014. Alternatively, targeting aids 2014 may be placed on the patient 2003 in proximity to the lesion 2002 as described herein. In an alternative configuration, the patient 2003 may remain stationary on a table 2019 while some component of the stationary device 2015 is moved into the appropriate position relative to the lesion 2002. The user 2001 may scan a lesion 2002 with the stationary device 2015 using a beam of energy 2006 to detect autofluorescence associated with pathogens or pathological tissue. The beam of energy 2006 exciting the autofluorescence associated with the pathogen or pathological tissue may be emitted, for example, from a mercury arc lamp, a Xenon lamp, a UV eximer, a halogen lamp, a laser or light emitting diode at wavelengths ranging, for example, from 200 nm to 1000 nm. The stationary device 2015 may automatically ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue based on the emitted autofluorescence. Alternatively, data may be collected regarding the position of autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue. The user 2001 may analyze the accumulated data and at the discretion of the user 2001, return to a specific region of the lesion 2002 based on orientation from the targeting aids 2014 and instruct the stationary device 2015 to emit a second beam of energy 2006 to ablate pathogens or pathological tissue. The second beam of energy 2006 may or may not be of the same wavelength and intensity as the first beam of energy 2006 used to excite fluorescence. The beam of energy 2006 inducing ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue may be an optical energy source, such as those described above, an X-ray energy source, a particle beam energy source, or a combination thereof. FIG. 30, FIG. 31, and FIG. 32 show schematic representations of illustrative configurations of handheld versions of an apparatus 100 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue. FIG. 30 shows a schematic representation of an illustrative configuration of a completely self-contained handheld device 2021 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue. The handheld device 2021 contains a power source 2022 which powers the control circuitry 2023, the optical energy source 2024, and other components of the device 2021. The optical energy source 2024 may be, for example, a mercury arc lamp, a Xenon lamp, a UV eximer, a halogen lamp, a nitrogen laser or a laser diode. The electromagnetic energy 2029 emitted from the optical energy source 2024 may pass through a filter 2025 that allows for emission of specific wavelengths appropriate for inducing autofluorescence of pathogens or pathological tissue as described herein. The electromagnetic energy 2029 may pass through a lens 2026 to focus the energy and optionally through a chromatic beam splitter 2027. The electromagnetic energy 2029 hits the lesion 2002 resulting in emission of autofluorescence 2030. The autofluorescence 2030 is detected by a sensor 2028 and as a result a second wave of electromagnetic energy 2029 is emitted in real time from the optical energy source 2024 at a wavelength and intensity sufficient to ablate the detected pathogen or pathological tissue as described herein. FIG. 31 shows a schematic representation of an illustrative configuration of a handheld device 2031 in which separate energy sources are optionally used for detection and ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue. The handheld device 2031 may be powered by an internal power supply 2022. Optionally, the handheld device may be connected to an external power supply. The handheld device 2031 may be controlled by internal control circuitry 2023. Optionally, the handheld device 2031 may be connected either with or without wires to external control circuitry. The handheld device 2031 contains at least one optical energy source 2032. The handheld device 2031 may also contain a least one additional energy source 2033 for the ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue. The energy source 2033 may be an optical energy source, an X-ray source, or a particle beam source, or a combination thereof. Electromagnetic energy 2029 emitted from the optical energy source 2032 may pass through a filter 2025 that allows for emission of specific wavelengths appropriate for inducing autofluorescence of pathogens or pathological tissue as described herein. The electromagnetic energy 2029 may pass through a lens 2026, a series of beam splitters 2027, and through a final lens 2026 prior to hitting the lesion 2002. The autofluorescence 2030 emitted by pathogens or pathological tissue in the lesion 2002 is detected by the sensor 2028. As a result, a second beam of electromagnetic energy 2029 may be emitted from the first optical energy source 2032. Alternatively, a second beam of energy 2034 may be emitted from the second energy source 2033 which is a level of energy sufficient to ablate a pathogen or pathological tissue as described herein. The ablation energy may pass through portions of the same beam path, or may use a fully or partially dedicated beam path. FIG. 32 shows a schematic representation of an illustrative configuration of a handheld device 2035 in which multiple energy sources are optionally used for position, detection and ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue. As shown in FIG. 32A, the handheld device 2035 may include a monitor 2036 for observing the autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or a pathological tissue. Optionally, the handheld device 2035 may be connected with or without wires to an external display device. The handheld device 2035 may include a control panel 2037 allowing for entry of commands by the user. Optionally, the handheld device 2035 may be connected with or without wires to an external control panel associated, for example, with a computer. The handheld device may be turned on and off via a switch 2004. As shown in FIG. 32B, the handheld device 2035 may be powered by an internal power supply 2022. Optionally, the handheld device may be connected to an external power supply. The handheld device 2035 may be controlled by internal control circuitry 2023. Optionally, the handheld device 2035 may be connected either with or without wires to external control circuitry. The handheld device 2035 contains at least one optical energy source 2032. The handheld device 2035 may also contain at least two additional energy sources 2033 for the ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue. The energy source 2033 may be an optical energy source, an X-ray source, or a particle beam source, or a combination thereof. The handheld device 2035 may also contain at least one targeting energy source 2038 for positioning the autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue relative to one or more targeting sensors, as described herein. Energy emitted from the optical energy source 2032 may pass through a filter/focus unit 2039 that allows for emission of specific wavelengths appropriate for inducing autofluorescence of pathogens or pathological tissue as described herein. The autofluorescence emitted by pathogens or pathological tissue in a lesion is detected by the sensor 2028. The position of the autofluorescence in the lesion may be determined with the aide of the targeting energy source 2038 and targeting sensors positioned, for example, on the surface of the patient in proximity to the lesion or on various surfaces in a room or a combination thereof as described herein. After the autofluorescence is detected, a second beam of electromagnetic energy may be emitted from the first optical energy source 2032. Alternatively, a second beam of energy may be emitted from the second or third energy source 2033 at a level of energy sufficient to ablate a pathogen or pathological tissue as described herein. As shown in FIG. 32C, energy emitted from or detected by the device 2035 passes through one or more openings 2040 at the bottom of the device 2035. FIG. 33 and FIG. 34 show illustrative configurations of untethered versions of a device 200, 300 and/or 400 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in the lumen, for example, of a blood vessel. FIG. 33 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2041 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in the lumen 2042 of a blood vessel, for example. Alternatively, the untethered device 2041 may be used in other lumens including those associated with the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the urogenital tract, for example. In this configuration, the untethered device 2041 may be a hollow cylinder that when placed in a lumen 2042 allows for the flow of fluid and cells 2043 through the central core 2045 of the cylinder. The hollow cylinder contains a detection and ablation unit 2047, which optionally contains a power source, control circuitry, one or more energy sources, and a sensor. Control of the device may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. As normal cells 2043 and abnormal cells 2044 pass through the central core 2045 of the untethered device 2041, the detection and ablation unit 2047 detects autofluorescence associated with the abnormal cells 2044 and in real time ablates the abnormal cells 2044. Abnormal cells 2044 may be, for example, pathogens, pathological cells or cancerous cells as described herein. The untethered device 2041 may be reversibly fixed in a specific region of the lumen by virtue of inflatable pouches 2046 or other means. FIG. 34 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2048 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in the lumen 2042, for example, of a blood vessel. Alternatively, the untethered device 2048 may be used in other lumens including those associated with the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the urogenital tract, for example. In this configuration, the untethered device 2048 may be fixed to the surface of a lumen by virtue of a hook 2049 which at the appropriate time and location latches on to the surface of the lumen. Control of the untethered device 2048 may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. The untethered device 2048 may sit on the surface of a lumen and monitor the flow of fluid and normal cells 2043 and abnormal cells 2044. The untethered device 2048 emits a beam of energy 2006 which detects abnormal cells 2044 based on autofluorescence and in real time ablates the abnormal cells. FIG. 35, FIG. 36, and FIG. 37 show illustrative configurations of untethered versions of an apparatus 100 with controlled locomotion for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen associated with, for example, the circulatory system, the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, or the urogenital tract. FIG. 35 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2050 with controlled locomotion for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen 2042. In this configuration, the untethered device 2050 is a hollow cylinder and has two or more controllable wheels 2051 that allow the device to move along the surface of a lumen. Control of the movement of the untethered device 2050 may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. The hollow cylinder contains a detection and ablation unit 2047, which optionally contains a power source, control circuitry, one or more energy sources, and a sensor. As the untethered device moves along the surface of a lumen, a beam of energy 2006 is emitted towards the surface, for example, scanning for autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue. Once autofluorescence is detected, the untethered device 2050 emits a beam of energy 2006 from the detection and ablation unit 2047 sufficient to ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue. FIG. 36 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2052 with controlled locomotion for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen 2042. In the configuration shown, the untethered device 2052 is a sphere. Optionally, the untethered device 2052 may be any configuration that is compatible with housing the components necessary for detection and ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue in a lumen 2042. The untethered device 2052 has two propellers 2053 mounted on the top and on the side of the sphere to allow the controlled movement of the device in all directions. Optionally, more or less propellers 2053 may be mounted on the device. Optionally, the one or more propellers 2053 may be mounted in different locations on the device. Control of the movement of the untethered device 2052 may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. As shown, the untethered device 2052 contains an energy source 2054, control circuitry, 2055, a sensor 2056, and a power source 2057. The energy source 2054 may be an optical energy source, an x-ray energy source, a particle beam energy source, or a combination thereof. The untethered device 2052 moves through a lumen 2042 scanning the surface of the lumen or cells flowing in the lumen with electromagnetic energy 2029 (optionally the same as 111) sufficient to induce autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological cell or tissue. Once autofluorescence is detected by the sensor 2056, the untethered device 2052 emits energy sufficient to ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue. FIG. 37 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2058 with controlled locomotion for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen 2042. In this configuration, the two halves of the untethered device 2058 have grooves 2059 cut in opposite directions. The two halves of the untethered device 2058 rotate independently in opposite directions. Control of the movement of the untethered device 2058 may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. Each half of the untethered device may have the independent capability of emitting and detecting a beam of energy 2006 sufficient to detect and ablate pathogens or pathological tissue. FIG. 38 and FIG. 39 show illustrative configurations of untethered versions of an apparatus 100 with random movement for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen associated with, for example, the circulatory system, the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, or the urogenital tract. FIG. 38 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2060 with random movement for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen. In this configuration, the untethered device 2060 is a sphere. Optionally, the untethered device 2060 may be any configuration that is compatible with housing the components necessary for detection and ablation of pathogens or pathological tissue in a lumen 2042. The untethered device 2060 has one or more controllable arms 2061 attached to the surface. A paddle 2062 is attached to the end of each controllable arm 2061. The one or more arms 2061 may move in varied directions relative to the surface of the untethered device and as such, randomly turn the untethered device 2060. Control of the movement of the arms 2061 of the untethered device 2060 may be completely self-contained or controlled wirelessly by an external user. The untethered device 2060 randomly rotates based on the motion of the arms 2061 and associated paddles 2062, scanning the surface of a lumen 2042 with a beam of energy 2006 sufficient to induce autofluorescence. Once autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue is detected, the untethered device 2060 emits energy sufficient to ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue. FIG. 39 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered device 2063 with random movement for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in a lumen. In this configuration, the untethered device 2063 is a sphere with two or more tracks 2064 within the interior of the sphere. Each track 2064 has at least one associated weighted bead 2065 that is propelled along the track 2064. Differential movement of the weighted beads will cause random rotation of the untethered device 2063. The untethered device 2063 randomly rotates based on the motion of the two or more weighted beads, scanning the surface of a lumen 2042 with a beam of energy 2006, optionally electromagnetic energy 2029 from a detection and ablation unit 2047 sufficient to induce autofluorescence. Once autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue is detected, the untethered device 2063 emits a beam of energy 2006 from the detection and ablation unit 2047 sufficient to ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue. FIG. 40 shows an illustrative configuration of an untethered ingestible device 2066 for the detection and ablation of pathogens and pathological tissue in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract 2067. In the configuration shown, the untethered ingestible device is a sphere with multiple openings 2068 covering the surface of the sphere. The multiple openings 2068 may emit electromagnetic energy 2029 sufficient to induce autofluorescence of a pathogen or pathological tissue and/or pathogen cell death. The emitted autofluorescence 2070 induced by the electromagnetic energy 2029 is detected through one or more of the multiple openings 2068. Once autofluorescence associated with a pathogen or pathological tissue is detected, the untethered ingestible device 2066 emits energy sufficient to ablate the pathogen or pathological tissue. In one aspect, the disclosure is drawn to systems implementations including methods, computer programs, and systems for controlling optionally the detection and ablation and/or movement of targets optionally at least partially based on a fluorescent response. One or more of these systems implementations may be used as part of one or more methods for optionally detecting and ablating one or more targets optionally at least partially based on a fluorescent response, and/or implemented on one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400 optionally configured to detect and/or to ablate one or more target cells. One or more of the operations, computer programs, and/or systems implementations described in association with one or more embodiments are envisioned and intended to also make part of other embodiments unless context indicates otherwise. The operational flows may also be executed in a variety of other contexts and environments, and or in modified versions of those described herein. In addition, although some of the operational flows are presented in sequence, the various operations may be performed in various repetitions, concurrently, and/or in other orders than those that are illustrated. Although several operational flow sequences are described separately herein, these operational flows may be performed in sequence, in various repetitions, concurrently, and in a variety of orders not specifically illustrated herein. In addition, one or more of the steps described for one or more operational flow sequence may be added to another flow sequence and/or used to replace one or more steps in the flow sequence, with or without deletion of one or more steps of the flow sequence. Operations may be performed with respect to a digital representation (e.g. digital data) of, for example, one or more characteristics of a fluorescent response, one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116, one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, one or more movement parameters, and/or one or more targeting parameters. The logic may accept a digital or analog (for conversion into digital) representation of an input and/or provide a digitally-encoded representation of a graphical illustration, where the input may be implemented and/or accessed locally or remotely. The logic may provide a digital representation of an output, wherein the output may be sent and/or accessed locally or remotely. Operations may be performed related to either a local or a remote storage of the digital data, or to another type of transmission of the digital data. In addition to inputting, accessing querying, recalling, calculating, determining or otherwise obtaining the digital data, operations may be performed related to storing, assigning, associating, displaying or otherwise archiving the digital data to a memory, including for example, sending, outputting, and/or receiving a transmission of the digital data from (and/or to) a remote memory and/or unit, device, or apparatus. Accordingly, any such operations may involve elements including at least an operator (e.g. human or computer) directing the operation, a transmitting computer, and/or receiving computer, and should be understood to occur in the United States as long as at least one of these elements resides in the United States. FIG. 8 and/or FIG. 9 depict embodiments of an operational flow 600 representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. In FIG. 8 and/or FIG. 9, discussion and explanation may be provided with respect to one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300 and/or 400 and methods described herein, and/or with respect to other examples and contexts. In some embodiments, one or more methods include receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; and providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 600 may be employed in the process of target ablation to receive information associated with a target fluorescent response optionally from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400, optionally including, but not limited to, information relating to the wavelength, intensity, strength, directionality, and/or spatial extent of the fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 600 may be employed in the process of target ablation to analyze information associated with a target fluorescent response, optionally from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400, to determine one or more characteristics of one or more energy source 110 and/or ablation energy 117 associated with at least partially ablating one or more target. After a start operation, the operational flow 600 moves to a receiving operation 160, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of one or more target fluorescent response. For example, a first input may include, but is not limited to, data representative of one or more wavelengths of excitation energy, direction, pulse time, timing, as well as detection wavelengths and timing. For example, a first input may include, but is not limited to, a condition, an illness, a cell and/or tissue type under investigation, and/or other disease and/or preventive medicine information An optional accessing operation 260 accesses the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, one or more autofluorescent responses, and/or one or more target fluorescent responses may be accessed. For example, data representative of background fluorescence, fluorescent tags and/or markers, and/or limits of detection may be accessed. An optional generating operation 360 generates the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more target fluorescent response may be generated optionally by eliminating and/or controlling for endogenous non-target fluorescence and/or non-specific fluorescence. For example, data representative of direction and/or location of a target, the presence or absence of a target, and/or the risk to non-target cells and tissues of ablation may be generated. An optional determining operation 460 determines a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, one or more autofluorescent responses, and/or one or more target fluorescent response may be graphically represented. For example, data representative of direction and/or location of a target optionally in relation to other non-target areas and/or the likelihood of collateral damage may be graphically represented. An optional sending operation 560 sends the first output associated with the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, one or more autofluorescent responses, and/or one or more target fluorescent response may be sent as part of the first output. For example, data representative of direction and/or location of a target may be sent optionally to an external source and/or to an ablation device. An optional determining operation 660 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing the target fluorescent response. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. An optional determining operation 760 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating a target. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. An optional operation 860 includes an optional receiving operation 862 and an optional determining operation 864. The optional receiving operation 862 receives a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following the at least partial ablation of the target. The optional determining operation 864 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset. For example, data representative of a second target fluorescent response may include one or more characteristics different from the first, previous and/or original target fluorescent response, optionally as a result of the at least partial ablation of the target. For example, the one or more characteristics may include, but are not limited to, presence, absence and/or reduction in the target fluorescent response. An optional operation 960 includes an optional receiving operation 962 and an optional determining operation 964. The optional receiving operation 962 receives a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response. The optional determining operation 964 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing a target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset. For example, data representative of a fluorescent response may indicate the presence or absence of a target fluorescent response. Then, a providing operation 1060, provides a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, one or more characteristics of the excitation energy 116, one or more characteristics of the fluorescent response, one or more environmental parameters, and/or one or more targeting parameters. FIG. 10 and/or FIG. 11 depict embodiments of an operational flow 700 representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating a target area. In FIG. 10 and/or FIG. 11, discussion and explanation may be provided with respect to one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300 and/or 400 and methods described herein, and/or with respect to other examples and contexts. In some embodiments, one or more methods include receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; and providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating the target area. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 700 may be employed in the process of target ablation to receive information associated with a target fluorescent response optionally from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or devices 200, 300, and/or 400, optionally including, but not limited to, information relating to the wavelength, intensity, strength, directionality, and/or spatial extent of the fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 700 may be employed in the process of target ablation to analyze information associated with a target fluorescent response to determine data associated with the location of a target and one or more characteristics of one or more energy source 110 and/or ablation energy 117 associated with at least partially ablating one or more target. After a start operation, the operational flow 700 moves to a receiving operation 170, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of one or more target fluorescent response. For example, a first input may include, but is not limited to, data representative of one or more wavelengths of excitation energy, direction, pulse time, timing, as well as detection wavelengths and timing. For example, a first input may include, but is not limited to, a condition, an illness, a cell and/or tissue type under investigation, and/or other disease and/or preventive medicine information An optional accessing operation 270 accesses the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, one or more autofluorescent responses, and/or one or more target fluorescent responses may be accessed. For example, data representative of background fluorescence, fluorescent tags and/or markers, and/or limits of detection may be accessed. An optional generating operation 370 generates the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more target fluorescent response may be generated optionally by eliminating and/or controlling for endogenous non-target fluorescence and/or non-specific fluorescence. For example, data representative of emissions as a function of wavelength in relation to time and/or distance may be generated. An optional determining operation 470 determines a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, one or more autofluorescent responses, and/or one or more target fluorescent response may be graphically represented. For example, data representative of possible results associated with (and/or corresponding to) one or more possible ablation parameters, optionally including use of particle beam and/or electromagnetic energy for target ablation, optionally in relation to other non-target areas and/or the likelihood of collateral damage may be graphically represented. An optional determining operation 570 determining data representative of a location of one or more target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of a location of one or more target area may include, but is not limited to, direction, spatial extent, environment, and/or depth, optionally in relation to one or more excitation energy source 116, one or more targeting energy source 118, and/or one or more ablation energy source 117. An optional sending operation 670 sends the first output associated with the first possible dataset optionally to the first energy source, optionally the ablation energy source 117. For example, data representative of one or more target fluorescent response, one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, and/or one or more targeting parameters may be sent as part of the first output. An optional determining operation 770 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing the target fluorescent response. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. An optional determining operation 870 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating a target. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. An optional operation 970 includes an optional receiving operation 972 and an optional determining operation 974. The optional receiving operation 972 receives a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following the at least partial ablation of the target. The optional determining operation 974 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset. For example, data representative of a second target fluorescent response may include one or more characteristics different from the first, previous and/or original target fluorescent response, optionally as a result of the at least partial ablation of the target. For example, the one or more characteristics may include, but are not limited to, presence, absence and/or extent of reduction in the target fluorescent response. An optional operation 1070 includes an optional receiving operation 1072 and an optional determining operation 1074. The optional receiving operation 1072 receives a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response. The optional determining operation 1074 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing a target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset. For example, data representative of a fluorescent response may indicate the presence, absence, or extent of reduction of a target fluorescent response. Then, a providing operation 1170, provides a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating the target area. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, one or more characteristics of the excitation energy 116, one or more characteristics of the fluorescent response, one or more environmental parameters, and/or one or more targeting parameters. FIG. 12 and/or FIG. 13 depict embodiments of an operational flow 800 representing illustrative embodiments of operations related to providing a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. In FIG. 12 and/or FIG. 13, discussion and explanation may be provided with respect to one or more device 200 and/or 300 and methods described herein, and/or with respect to other examples and contexts. In some embodiments, one or more methods include receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; and providing a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 800 may be employed in the process of moving an untethered device in a lumen, optionally associated with target ablation, to receive information associated with a fluorescent response optionally from one or more devices 200 and/or 300, optionally including, but not limited to, information relating to the wavelength, intensity, strength, directionality, and/or spatial extent of the fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, operational flow 800 may be employed in the process of moving an untethered device in a lumen to analyze information associated with a target fluorescent response to determine data associated with the location of a target and one or more characteristics of one or more power source 140 and/or motive force, optionally associated with at least partially ablating one or more target. After a start operation, the operational flow 800 moves to a receiving operation 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of one or more fluorescent response. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, data representative of a target fluorescent response, a non-target fluorescent response, and/or a autofluorescent response. For example, a first input may include, but is not limited to, one or more characteristics of excitation energy, one or more characteristics of targeting energy, and/or one or more characteristics of ablation energy. An optional accessing operation 280 accesses the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more fluorescent responses, optionally data representative of one or more target fluorescent response and/or one or more autofluorescent response, may be accessed. For example, data representative of the presence and/or absence of a target fluorescent response and/or presence or absence of other non-target fluorescent responses may be accessed. An optional generating operation 380 generates the first possible dataset in response to the first input. For example, data representative of one or more target fluorescent response may be generated optionally based on calculations associated with background fluorescent, signal to noise ratios, non-specific fluorescence, and/or endogenous non-target autofluoresce. For example, data representative of a location of a target area determined at least partially based on the fluorescent response may also be generated. An optional determining operation 480 determines a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of one or more target fluorescent response may be graphically represented. For example, data representative of a location of one or more target area optionally in relation to the current device location may be graphically represented. For example, data representative of one or more parameters associated with the movement of the untethered device associated with target ablation and/or target detection may be determined and/or generated. A determining operation 580 determines data representative of a location of one or more target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset. For example, data representative of a location of one or more target area may include, but is not limited to, direction, spatial extent, environment, and/or depth, optionally in relation to one or more excitation energy source 116, one or more targeting energy source 118, and/or one or more ablation energy source 117. For example, data representative of a location of one or more target area may include, but is not limited to, one or more characteristics associated with movement of an untethered device for target ablation and/or target detection. An optional generating operation 680 generates the first possible output in response to the first input. For example, a first possible output may include data representative of a location of one or more target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset. For example, a first possible output may include, but is not limited to, data representative of a direction of movement, a rate of movement, a speed of movement, a time of movement, a mechanism of movement, and/or a power source. An optional sending operation 780 sends the first output associated with the first possible dataset optionally to a motive source 150 and/or a power source 140. For example, data representative of a direction of movement, a rate of movement, a speed of movement, a time of movement, a mechanism of movement, and/or a power source may be sent as part of the first output. An optional determining operation 880 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing the fluorescent response. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. An optional determining operation 980 determines data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating a target. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, optionally including, but not limited to, wavelength, strength, mode, directionality, and/or spatial limitations may be determined. Then, a providing operation 1080, provides a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. For example, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117, one or more characteristics of the excitation energy 116, one or more characteristics of the fluorescent response, one or more environmental parameters, and/or one or more targeting parameters. The following include illustrative embodiments of one or more operations of operational flow 600, operational flow 700 and/or operational flow 800. In illustrative embodiments, a target fluorescent response is optionally an auto-fluorescent response and/or elicited from one or more extrinsically provided markers. In illustrative embodiments, a first input is from a sensor configured to detect one or more of a target fluorescent response, a fluorescent response, and/or an autofluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, a first input is from one or more external sources, optionally remotely, programmably, and/or wirelessly received. The one or more external sources may include, but are not limited to, sensors, control circuitry, databases, and/or user interfaces. In illustrative embodiments, a first input includes data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy. One or more measurements of electromagnetic energy optionally include, but are not limited to, one or more measurements of one or more wavelengths of the electromagnetic energy and/or measurements of an extended-spectrum of the electromagnetic energy. One or more measurements of electromagnetic energy optionally include, but are not limited to, measurements over a cumulative time interval and/or time dependent electromagnetic energy measurements. One or more time dependent measurements may include, but are not limited to, measurements at one or more times and/or measurements at one or more time intervals following excitation of a fluorescent response. One or more measurements of electromagnetic energy optionally include, but are not limited to, one or more measurements of the location of the source and/or incidence of electromagnetic energy (e.g. a fluorescent response, excitation energy 116, ablation energy 117, and/or targeting energy 118). One or more measurements of the location of the source and/or incidence of electromagnetic energy include, but are not limited to, one or more measurements of a direction of incidence electromagnetic energy, and/or one or more measurements of a tissue depth of incidence electromagnetic energy. One or more measurements of electromagnetic energy optionally include, but are not limited to, one or more measurements of a strength of the electromagnetic energy. In illustrative embodiments, a first input includes dara representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets and/or one or more diseases and/or disorders. In illustrative embodiments, a first input includes data representative of the target fluorescent response. Data representative of the target fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, and/or one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response. As used herein, the term “temporal-spatial locations” may include one or more temporal locations and/or one or more spatial locations. Data representative of a target fluorescent response may include, but is not limited to, a clustering of fluorescent responses that would otherwise be considered a normal response in the absence of clustering, or with limited clustering, or non-significant clustering. In illustrative embodiments, clustering might include cells forming a plaque, bacterial cells forming a colony, blood cells forming a clot, malaria-infected red blood cells aggregating, among others. In illustrative embodiments, a first possible dataset includes data representative of one or more fluorescence characteristics of one or more possible constituents of the target area. As used herein, the term “constituents” may include, but is not limited to, cells, tissues, lumen, proteins, plaques, membranes, pathogens, microorganisms, and/or parasites, among others. In illustrative embodiments, a first possible dataset includes data representative of one or more numerical measurements for one or more possible constituents of the target area. One or more numerical measurements may include, but are not limited to, one or more numerical measurements for normal levels of one or more possible constituents of the target area and/or for abnormal levels of one or more possible constituents of the target area. In illustrative embodiments, a first possible dataset includes data representative of excitation energy 116. Data representative of excitation energy 116 includes, but is not limited to, data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116. Data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 include, but are not limited to, strength of the excitation energy, one or more wavelengths of the excitation energy, one or more spatial parameters of the excitation energy, and/or one or more directional parameters of the excitation energy. One or more spatial parameters of the excitation energy include, but are not limited to, one or more spatial limitations of the excitation energy, optionally including, but not limited to, spatially focused and spatially collimated. One or more directional parameters of the excitation energy include, but are not limited to, directionally limited, directionally varied and directionally variable. One or more characteristics of the excitation energy include, but are not limited to, manual, programmable, automatic, remote-controlled, and feedback-control. In illustrative embodiments, for example, subsequent excitation energy characteristics may be determined based on one or more characteristics of the fluorescent emissions associated with the characteristics of the previous excitation energy selected. For example, if the previous excitation energy induced a fluorescent response with high background and/or non-specific emissions, or without a target signal, a different excitation energy might be selected. In illustrative embodiments, for example, excitation energy may be at least partially determined by the location, and/or as a result of a prior ablation. In illustrative embodiments, a first possible dataset includes data representative of ablation energy 117. Data representative of ablation energy 117 optionally includes, but is not limited to data representative of one or more characteristics of the ablation energy 117. One or more characteristics of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, strength of the ablation energy, one or more wavelengths of the ablation energy, one or more spatial parameters of the ablation energy, and/or one or more directional parameters of the ablation energy. One or more spatial parameters of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, one or more spatial limitations of the ablation energy, optionally including, but not limited to, spatially focused and spatially collimated. One or more directional parameters of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, directionally limited, directionally varied and directionally variable. One or more characteristics of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, manual, programmable, automatic, remote-controlled, and feedback-controlled. One or more characteristics of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, the minimum energy associated with at least partially ablating one or more target areas and/or one or more non-target areas. One or more characteristics of the ablation energy include, but are not limited to, the one or more characteristics of the optimum energy associated with at least partially ablating one or more target areas while minimizing and/or reducing the ablation of one or more non-target areas (e.g. reducing collateral damage). In illustrative embodiments, one or more characteristics of ablation energy may be determined based on detection of only partial ablation from a prior ablation. In some embodiments, ablation energy 117 is one or more of charged particles (e.g. from a particle beam) 112 or electromagnetic energy 111. In some embodiments, particle beam energy 112 may include, but is not limited to, electrons, protons, alpha particles, beta particles and/or gamma particles. In some embodiments, electromagnetic energy 111 may include, but is not limited to, optical energy 113 and/or X-ray 115 energy. In some embodiments, ablation energy 117 is pulsed energy. In illustrative embodiments of a receiving operation 160, 170, and/or 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first data entry associated with the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, a first data entry may include, but is not limited to, one or more measurements of energy (optionally electromagnetic energy) and/or one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of a fluorescent response (e.g. a target fluorescent response). In illustrative embodiments, a first data entry may include, but is not limited to, data representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets, one or more diseases, and/or one or more disorders. In illustrative embodiments of a receiving operation 160, 170, and/or 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first data entry from a sensor, from a database, and/or from a user interface (e.g. from at least one submission element of a graphical user interface). In illustrative embodiments of a receiving operation 160, 170, and/or 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first data entry at least partially identifying one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, one or more elements of the first possible dataset include one or more of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of a target fluorescent response, data representative of excitation energy, and/or data representative of ablation energy 117. In illustrative embodiments of a receiving operation 160, 170, and/or 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request associated with the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, the first request includes, but is not limited to, selecting and/or determining data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy. In illustrative embodiments of a receiving operation 160, 170, and/or 180, receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request from a user interface (e.g. at least one submission element of a graphical user interface). In illustrative embodiments, the first request at least partially identifies and/or selects one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, the first request provides instructions identifying, specifying, and/or determining data representative of one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments of an optional accessing operation 260, 270, and/or 280 accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset using a database management system engine. In some embodiments, the database management system engine is configured to query a first database to retrieve the first possible dataset therefrom. In illustrative embodiments, accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset by querying a first database to retrieve data representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets associated with one or more diseases and/or disorders. In illustrative embodiments of an optional accessing operation 260, 270, and/or 280 accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset from within a first database associated with a plurality of measurements of electromagnetic energy, a plurality of measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or a plurality of characteristics of ablation energy. In illustrative embodiments of an optional accessing operation 260, 270, and/or 280 accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset by associating data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy with one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments of an accessing operation 260, 270, and/or 280 accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset by corresponding data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy with one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments of an accessing operation 260, 270, and/or 280 accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, accessing the first possible dataset as being associated with data representative one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, generating the first possible dataset using a database management system engine. In illustrative embodiments, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, generating the first possible dataset using a database management system engine to retrieve data representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets associated with one or more diseases and/or disorders. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, generating the first possible dataset by corresponding and/or associating data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy with one or more elements of the first possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request associated with the first possible dataset; and generating the first possible dataset in response to the first request, the first request specifying data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy. In illustrative embodiments, the first request specifies one or more characteristics of one or more targets. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request, the first request specifying data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy; and generating the first possible dataset in response to the first request at least partially by performing an analysis of data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request, the first request specifying data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response; and generating the first possible dataset in response to the first request at least partially by performing an analysis of data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request, the first request specifying data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy; and generating the first possible dataset in response to the first request at least partially by performing an analysis of data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 360, 370, and/or 380, generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, receiving a first request, the first request specifying data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy; and generating the first possible dataset in response to the first request at least partially by performing an analysis of data representative one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining the graphical illustration of the first possible dataset for inclusion in a display element of a graphical user interface. In illustrative embodiments, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining a graphical illustration of data representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets associated with one or more diseases and/or disorders. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset to determine the location of the target area; and determining the graphical illustration based on the analysis. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset to determine the location of the target area; and determining the graphical illustration including data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy in association with a visual indicator related to the location of the target area. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset to determine a first possible outcome; and determining the graphical illustration based on the analysis. In illustrative embodiments, the first possible outcome optionally includes, but is not limited to, one or more of a possible risk, a possible result, or a possible consequence. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset to determine a first possible outcome; and determining the graphical illustration including data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of one or more temporal-spatial locations of the target fluorescent response, and/or data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy in association with a visual indicator related to the first possible outcome. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining a correlation between a first possible outcome and a type or characteristic of a visual indicator used in the graphical illustration to represent the first possible outcome. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 460, 470, and/or 480, determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining the graphical illustration of a first possible outcome based on use of ablation energy having one or more characteristics. A first possible outcome may include, but is not limited to, partial ablation, complete ablation, non-target partial ablation, and/or non-target complete ablation, among others. In illustrative embodiments of a determining operation 570 and/or 580, determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining data representative of the location of the target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, and/or one or more measurements of the target fluorescent response. In illustrative embodiments, determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, determining data representative of one or more characteristics of one or more targets associated with one or more diseases and/or disorders. In illustrative embodiments of a determining operation 570 and/or 580, determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset; and determining data representative of the location of the target area at least partially based on the analysis. In illustrative embodiments, analysis of the first possible dataset my include a determination of coordinates for ablation, and/or a determination that one or more target locations are not within range of ablation energy, and/or a determination that ablation of one or more targets has a possibility of causing non-target damage. In illustrative embodiments of a determining operation 570 and/or 580, determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, performing an analysis of one or more elements of the first possible dataset and at least one additional instruction; and determining data representative of the location of the target area at least partially based on the analysis. In illustrative embodiments of an optional generating operation 680, generating the first possible output in response to the first input includes, but is not limited to, generating the first possible output at least partially based on information associated with the location of a target and movement of an untethered device associated with ablation. In illustrative embodiments, one or more target is identified, optionally in a location too distant and/or obstructed for ablation and one or more parameters associated with movement of the untethered device to a location optionally to facilitate ablation are generated. In illustrative embodiments, no targets are identified in a particular location and one or more parameters associated with movement of the untethered device to another location optionally to facilitate further screening are generated. In illustrative embodiments of an optional sending operation 560, 670, and/or 780, sending a first output associated with the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, sending a first output to one or more of a motive source 150, a power source 140, and/or an energy source 110, optionally an excitation energy source 116 and/or an ablation energy source 117. In some embodiments, sending a first output associated with the first possible dataset includes, but is not limited to, sending a first output to one or more external sources, optionally to one or more control circuitry 130, optionally in an external and/or remote location, that optionally provide a graphical illustration of the output, and/or that provide analysis and feedback at least partially based on the output. In illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 660, 770, and/or 880, determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 for inducing the target fluorescent response includes, but is not limited to, determining one or more characteristics of excitation energy 116 based at least partially on one or more of, but not limited to, the location of the lesion, the lumen, and/or the internal location, the environmental characteristics of the location, the distance, depth of tissue, and putative target, as well as the characteristics of the expected surrounding constituents. In illustrative embodiments, one or more characteristics of the excitation energy 116 include, but are not limited to, one or more of strength of the excitation energy, wavelengths of the excitation energy, spatial parameters of the excitation energy, and/or directional parameters of the excitation energy. In some embodiments, one or more spatial parameters of the excitation energy include, but are not limited to, one or more spatial limitations of the excitation energy and/or a depth of focus of the excitation energy. In some embodiments, one or more spatial limitations include, but are not limited to, spatially focused and spatially collimated. In some embodiments, one or more characteristics of the depth of focus of the excitation energy includes, but are not limited to, a depth of focus is below a surface of a lesion, beyond a surface of a wall of a lumen, and/or beyond a surface of an internal location. In illustrative embodiments, a depth of focus is approximately 0.1 mm to 3 mm below a surface of a lesion, beyond a surface of a wall of a lumen, and/or beyond a surface of an internal location. In some embodiments, one or more directional parameters include, but are not limited to, directionally limited, directionally varied and directionally variable. In illustrative embodiments, one or more characteristics of the excitation energy 116 include, but are not limited to, manual, programmable, automatic, remote-controlled, and feedback-controlled. In illustrative embodiments, a care-giver (physician, veterinarian, dentist, etc.) makes the final determination for ablation based on information determined by one or more program, and manually releases the programmably determined ablation energy. In illustrative embodiments, excitation energy 116 is electromagnetic energy, optionally optical energy. In illustrative embodiments, excitation energy 116 is pulsed energy. In illustrative embodiments, excitation energy 116 is optionally single photon electromagnetic energy, two photon electromagnetic energy, multiple wavelength electromagnetic energy, and/or extended-spectrum electromagnetic energy. In some embodiments, two photon electromagnetic energy is coupled through a virtual energy level and/or through an intermediate energy level. In some embodiments, two photon electromagnetic energy is generated by two photons having the same wavelength or by two photons having a different wavelength. In Illustrative embodiments of an optional determining operation 760, 870, and/or 980, determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating the target area includes, but is not limited to, assessing one or more characteristics of one or more constituents, assessing one or more characteristics of the target (e.g. location, size, depth, distance, etc.), and/or selecting one or more energy sources. In illustrative embodiments, the one or more characteristics of the ablation energy are selected to optimally ablate the target area while minimizing ablation outside the target area. In illustrative embodiments, optional receiving and determining operations 860 and/or 970 include receiving a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following at least partial ablation of the target area; and determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for further ablating the target area at least partially based on the second possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, excitation energy is optionally provided following at least partial ablation of one or more target optionally to determine the extent of ablation of target and/or non-target tissues and/or cells. Emission information detected by one or more sensor is optionally used to determine locations (optionally coordinates) for additional ablation, as necessary. In illustrative embodiments, optional receiving and determining operations 960 and/or 1070 include receiving a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; and determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset. In illustrative embodiments, excitation energy of one or more characteristics may not elicit an identifiable and/or detectable target fluorescent response by the sensor. At least partially based on the lack of detection of a target fluorescent response (and the characteristics of the excitation energy released), characteristics of an additional excitation energy for release are selected, and optionally provided to the electromagnetic energy source 111, optionally one or more excitation energy source 116. In illustrative embodiments of a providing operation 1060 and/or 1170, providing a first output to a first energy source in real time includes, but is not limited to, sending the first output to the first energy source in real time. In illustrative embodiments of a providing operation 1060 and/or 1170, providing a first output to a first energy source in real time includes, but is not limited to, sending a first instruction associated with the first possible dataset to the first energy source. In illustrative embodiments, the first instruction contains data representative of one or more measurements of electromagnetic energy, data representative of one or more measurements of target fluorescent energy, data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy, data representative of one or more characteristics of targeting energy, and/or data representative of the location of the target area to be at least partially ablated. In illustrative embodiments of a providing operation 1060 and/or 1170, providing a first output to a first energy source in real time includes, but is not limited to, sending the first output to the first targeting energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of the one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating the target area. In illustrative embodiments, a first energy source 110 is an electromagnetic energy source 111, optionally an optical energy source 113 and/or an X-ray energy source 115. In some embodiments, the first energy source 110 is a laser. In illustrative embodiments, a first energy source 110 is a charged particle source 112 that optionally provides particles including, but not limited to, electrons, protons, alpha particles, beta particles, and/or gamma particles. In illustrative embodiments, a first output includes data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy 117 for at least partially ablating the target area. In illustrative embodiments, ablation energy 117 is electromagnetic energy and/or charged particles. In illustrative embodiments, a first output includes targeting data for at least partially ablating the target area. In illustrative embodiments, a first output includes data representative of the location of the target area to be at least partially ablated. In illustrative embodiments, a first targeting energy 118 has a different spatial irradiation extent than the first energy source 110. in some embodiments, the first targeting energy source provides electromagnetic targeting energy, optionally optical targeting energy, optionally visual targeting energy. In illustrative embodiments of a providing operation 1080, providing a first output to a first motive source includes, but is not limited to, providing a first output to a first motive source in real time. In illustrative embodiments of a providing operation 1080, providing a first output to a first motive source includes, but is not limited to, sending the first output to the first motive source optionally in real time. The following provides a description of illustrative computer program products 1200, 1300, and/or 1400 based on one or more of the operational flows 600, 700, and/or 800 and variations thereof as described above. These computer program products may also be executed in a variety of other contexts and environments, and or in modified versions of those described herein. In addition, although some of the computer program products are presented in sequence, the various instructions may be performed in various repetitions, concurrently, and/or in other orders than those that are illustrated. Although instructions for several computer program products are described separately herein, these instructions may be performed in sequence, in various repetitions, concurrently, and in a variety of orders not specifically illustrated herein. In addition, one or more of the instructions described for one or more computer program products may be added to another computer program product and/or used to replace one or more instructions in the computer program products, with or without deletion of one or more instructions of the computer program products. FIG. 14 and FIG. 15 show a schematic of a partial view of an illustrative computer program product 1200 that includes a computer program for executing a computer process on a computing device. An illustrative embodiment of the illustrative computer program product is provided using a signal bearing medium 1210, and may include at least one of one or more instructions 1215 including: one or more instructions for receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; one or more instructions for accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for sending the first output associated with the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; one or more instructions for receiving a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following at least partial ablation of a target; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset; one or more instructions for receiving a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset; one or more instructions for providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. The one or more instructions may be, for example, computer executable and/or logic implemented instructions. In some embodiments, the signal bearing medium 1210 of the one or more computer program products 1200 include a computer-readable medium 1220, a recordable medium 1230, and/or a communications medium 1240. FIG. 16 and FIG. 17 show a schematic of a partial view of an illustrative computer program product 1300 that includes a computer program for executing a computer process on a computing device. An illustrative embodiment of the illustrative computer program product is provided using a signal bearing medium 1310, and may include at least one of one or more instructions 1315 including: one or more instructions for receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; one or more instructions for accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for sending the first output associated with the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; one or more instructions for receiving a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following at least partial ablation of a target; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset; one or more instructions for receiving a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset; one or more instructions for providing a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating the target area. The one or more instructions may be, for example, computer executable and/or logic implemented instructions. In some embodiments, the signal bearing medium 1310 of the one or more computer program products 1300 include a computer-readable medium 1320, a recordable medium 1330, and/or a communications medium 1340. FIG. 18 and FIG. 19 show a schematic of a partial view of an illustrative computer program product 1400 that includes a computer program for executing a computer process on a computing device. An illustrative embodiment of the illustrative computer program product is provided using a signal bearing medium 1410, and may include at least one of one or more instructions 1415 including: one or more instructions for receiving a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; one or more instructions for accessing the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for generating the first possible dataset in response to the first input; one or more instructions for determining a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for determining data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for generating the first possible output in response to the first input; one or more instructions for sending the first output associated with the first possible dataset; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; one or more instructions for determining data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; one or more instructions for providing a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. The one or more instructions may be, for example, computer executable and/or logic implemented instructions. In some embodiments, the signal bearing medium 1410 of the one or more computer program products 1400 include a computer-readable medium 1420, a recordable medium 1430, and/or a communications medium 1440. The following provides a description of illustrative systems based on one or more of the operational flows 600, 700, and/or 800 and/or computer program products 1200, 1300, and/or 1400 and/or variations thereof as described above. These systems may also be executed in a variety of other contexts and environments, and or in modified versions of those described herein. FIG. 20 and FIG. 21 show a schematic of an illustrative system 1500 in which embodiments may be implemented. In some embodiments, system 1500 may be the same as system 1600 and/or system 1700. In some embodiments, system 1500 may be different from system 1600 and/or system 1700. System 1500 may include a computing system environment 1510. System 1500 also illustrates an operator 1501 (e.g. a medical or veterinary professional, optionally a surgeon, a veterinarian, a nurse, a technician, etc.) using a device 1540 that is optionally shown as being in communication with a computing device 1520 by way of an optional coupling 1545. The optional coupling may represent a local, wide area, or peer-to-peer network, or may represent a bus that is internal to a computing device (e.g. in illustrative embodiments the computing device 1520 is contained in whole or in part within the device 1510, 1540, 200, 300, and/or 400 or within one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500, or one or more control circuitry 130). An optional storage medium 1525 may be any computer storage medium. The computing device 1520 includes one or more computer executable instructions 1530 that when executed on the computing device 1520 cause the computing device 1520 receive a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; access the first possible dataset in response to the first input; generate the first possible dataset in response to the first input; determine a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; send the first output associated with the first possible dataset; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; receive a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following at least partial ablation of a target; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset; receive a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset; provide a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data associated with at least partial ablation of a target at least partially based on the first possible dataset. In some illustrative embodiments, the computing device 1520 may optionally be contained in whole or in part within one or more parts of an apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130 of one or more tethered and/or untethered, internal and/or external, movable and/or fixed apparatus and/or device), or may optionally be contained in whole or in part within the operator device 1540. The system 1500 includes at least one computing device 1510, 1520, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 on which the computer-executable instructions 1530 may be executed. For example, one or more of the computing devices 1510, 1520, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may execute the one or more computer executable instructions 1530 and output a result and/or receive information from the operator 1501, from other external sources, and/or from one or more sensor 120, on the same or a different computing device 1510, 1520, 1540, 1610, 1620, 1640, 1710, 1720, and/or 1740 and/or output a result and/or receive information from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more device 200, 300 and/or 400 in order to perform and/or implement one or more of the techniques, processes, or methods described herein, and/or other techniques. The computing device 1510, 1520, and/or 1540 may include one or more of a desktop computer, a workstation computer, a computing system comprised a cluster of processors, a networked computer, a tablet personal computer, a laptop computer, or a personal digital assistant, or any other suitable computing unit. In some embodiments, any one of the one or more computing devices 1510, 1520, and/or 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may be operable to communicate with a database to access the first possible dataset and/or subsequent datasets. In some embodiments, the computing device 1510, 1520, and/or 1540 is operable to communicate with the one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130). FIG. 22 and FIG. 23 show a schematic of an illustrative system 1600 in which embodiments may be implemented. In some embodiments, system 1600 may be the same as system 1500 and/or system 1700. In some embodiments, system 1600 may be different from system 1500 and/or system 1700. System 1600 may include a computing system environment 1510. System 1600 also illustrates an operator 1501 (e.g. a medical or veterinary professional, optionally a surgeon, a veterinarian, a nurse, a technician, etc.) using a device 1540 that is optionally shown as being in communication with a computing device 1620 by way of an optional coupling 1545. An optional storage medium 1525 may be any computer storage medium. The computing device 1620 includes one or more computer executable instructions 1630 that when executed on the computing device 1620 cause the computing device 1620 to receive a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a target fluorescent response; access the first possible dataset in response to the first input; generate the first possible dataset in response to the first input; determine a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; determine data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; send the first output associated with the first possible dataset; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; receive a second input associated with a second possible dataset, the second possible dataset including data representative of a second target fluorescent response following at least partial ablation of a target; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for further ablating a target at least partially based on the second possible dataset; receive a third input associated with a third possible dataset, the third possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response at least partially based on the third possible dataset; provide a first output to a first energy source in real time, the first output providing data representative of one or more ablation characteristics for at least partially ablating the target area. In some illustrative embodiments, the computing device 1620 may optionally be contained in whole or in part within one or more parts of an apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130 of one or more tethered and/or untethered, internal and/or external, movable and/or fixed apparatus and/or device), or may optionally be contained in whole or in part within the operator device 1540. The system 1600 includes at least one computing device 1510, 1620, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 on which the computer-executable instructions 1630 may be executed. For example, one or more of the computing devices 1510, 1620, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may execute the one or more computer executable instructions 1630 and output a result and/or receive information from the operator 1501, from other external sources, and/or from one or more sensor 120, on the same or a different computing device 1510, 1520, 1540, 1620, and/or 1720 and/or output a result and/or receive information from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more device 200, 300 and/or 400 in order to perform and/or implement one or more of the techniques, processes, or methods described herein, and/or other techniques. The computing device 1510, 1620, 1540 may include one or more of a desktop computer, a workstation computer, a computing system comprised a cluster of processors, a networked computer, a tablet personal computer, a laptop computer, or a personal digital assistant, or any other suitable computing unit. In some embodiments, any one of the one or more computing devices 1510, 1620, and/or 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may be operable to communicate with a database to access the first possible dataset and/or subsequent datasets. In some embodiments, the computing device 1510, 1620, and/or 1540 is operable to communicate with the one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130). FIG. 24 and FIG. 25 show a schematic of an illustrative system 1700 in which embodiments may be implemented. In some embodiments, system 1700 may be the same as system 1500 and/or system 1600. In some embodiments, system 1700 may be different from system 1500 and/or system 1600. System 1700 may include a computing system environment 1510. System 1700 also illustrates an operator 1501 (e.g. a medical or veterinary professional, optionally a surgeon, a veterinarian, a nurse, a technician, etc.) using a device 1540 that is optionally shown as being in communication with a computing device 1720 by way of an optional coupling 1545. An optional storage medium 1525 may be any computer storage medium. The computing device 1720 includes one or more computer executable instructions 1730 that when executed on the computing device 1720 cause the computing device 1720 receive a first input associated with a first possible dataset, the first possible dataset including data representative of a fluorescent response; access the first possible dataset in response to the first input; generate the first possible dataset in response to the first input; determine a graphical illustration of the first possible dataset; determine data representative of a location of a target area at least partially based on the first possible dataset; generate the first possible output in response to the first input; send the first output associated with the first possible dataset; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of excitation energy for inducing the target fluorescent response; determine data representative of one or more characteristics of ablation energy for at least partially ablating a target; provide a first possible output to a first motive source, the first possible output providing data representative of one or more parameters associated with movement of an untethered device in a lumen at least partially based on the location of the target area. In some illustrative embodiments, the computing device 1720 may optionally be contained in whole or in part within one or more parts of an apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more devices 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130 of one or more tethered and/or untethered, internal and/or external, movable and/or fixed apparatus and/or device), or may optionally be contained in whole or in part within the operator device 1540. The system 1700 includes at least one computing device 1510, 1720, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 on which the computer-executable instructions 1730 may be executed. For example, one or more of the computing devices 1510, 1720, 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may execute the one or more computer executable instructions 1730 and output a result and/or receive information from the operator 1501, from other external sources, and/or from one or more sensor 120, on the same or a different computing device 1510, 1520, 1540, 1620, and/or 1720 and/or output a result and/or receive information from one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or one or more device 200, 300 and/or 400 in order to perform and/or implement one or more of the techniques, processes, or methods described herein, and/or other techniques. The computing device 1510, 1720, 1540 may include one or more of a desktop computer, a workstation computer, a computing system comprised a cluster of processors, a networked computer, a tablet personal computer, a laptop computer, or a personal digital assistant, or any other suitable computing unit. In some embodiments, any one of the one or more computing devices 1510, 1720, and/or 1540 and/or control circuitry 130 may be operable to communicate with a database to access the first possible dataset and/or subsequent datasets. In some embodiments, the computing device 1510, 1720, and/or 1540 is operable to communicate with the one or more apparatus 100 and/or 500 and/or device 200, 300, and/or 400 (e.g. control circuitry 130). There is little distinction left between hardware and software implementations of aspects of systems; the use of hardware or software is generally (but not always, in that in certain contexts the choice between hardware and software can become significant) a design choice representing cost vs. efficiency tradeoffs. There are various vehicles by which processes and/or systems and/or other technologies described herein can be effected (e.g., hardware, software, and/or firmware), and that the preferred vehicle will vary with the context in which the processes and/or systems and/or other technologies are deployed. For example, if an implementer determines that speed and accuracy are paramount, the implementer may opt for a mainly hardware and/or firmware vehicle; if flexibility is paramount, the implementer may opt for a mainly software implementation; or, yet again alternatively, the implementer may opt for some combination of hardware, software, and/or firmware. The foregoing detailed description has set forth various embodiments of the devices and/or processes via the use of block diagrams, flowcharts, and/or examples. Insofar as such block diagrams, flowcharts, and/or examples contain one or more functions and/or operations, it will be understood by those within the art that each function and/or operation within such block diagrams, flowcharts, or examples can be implemented, individually and/or collectively, by a wide range of hardware, software, firmware, or virtually any combination thereof. In one embodiment, several portions of the subject matter described herein may be implemented via Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), digital signal processors (DSPs), or other integrated formats. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that some aspects of the embodiments disclosed herein, in whole or in part, can be equivalently implemented in integrated circuits, as one or more computer programs running on one or more computers (e.g., as one or more programs running on one or more computer systems), as one or more programs running on one or more processors (e.g., as one or more programs running on one or more microprocessors), as firmware, or as virtually any combination thereof, and that designing the circuitry and/or writing the code for the software and or firmware would be well within the skill of one of skill in the art in light of this disclosure. In addition, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the mechanisms of the subject matter described herein are capable of being distributed as a program product in a variety of forms, and that an illustrative embodiment of the subject matter described herein applies regardless of the particular type of signal bearing medium used to actually carry out the distribution. Examples of a signal bearing medium include, but are not limited to, the following: a recordable type medium such as a floppy disk, a hard disk drive, a Compact Disc (CD), a Digital Video Disk (DVD), a digital tape, a computer memory, etc.; and a transmission type medium such as a digital and/or an analog communication medium (e.g., a fiber optic cable, a waveguide, a wired communications link, a wireless communication link, etc.). Those skilled in the art will recognize that it is common within the art to describe devices and/or processes in the fashion set forth herein, and thereafter use engineering practices to integrate such described devices and/or processes into data processing systems. That is, at least a portion of the devices and/or processes described herein can be integrated into a data processing system via a reasonable amount of experimentation. Those having skill in the art will recognize that a typical data processing system generally includes one or more of a system unit housing, a video display device, a memory such as volatile and non-volatile memory, processors such as microprocessors and digital signal processors, computational entities such as operating systems, drivers, graphical user interfaces, and applications programs, one or more interaction devices, such as a touch pad or screen, and/or control systems including feedback loops and control motors (e.g., feedback for sensing position and/or velocity; control motors for moving and/or adjusting components and/or quantities). A typical data processing system may be implemented utilizing any suitable commercially available components, such as those typically found in data computing/communication and/or network computing/communication systems. The herein described subject matter sometimes illustrates different components contained within, or connected with, different other components. It is to be understood that such depicted architectures are merely exemplary, and that in fact many other architectures can be implemented which achieve the same functionality. In a conceptual sense, any arrangement of components to achieve the same functionality is effectively “associated” such that the desired functionality is achieved. Hence, any two components herein combined to achieve a particular functionality can be seen as “associated with” each other such that the desired functionality is achieved, irrespective of architectures or intermedial components. Likewise, any two components so associated can also be viewed as being “operably connected”, or “operably coupled”, to each other to achieve the desired functionality, and any two components capable of being so associated can also be viewed as being “operably couplable”, to each other to achieve the desired functionality. Specific examples of operably couplable include but are not limited to physically mateable and/or physically interacting components and/or wirelessly interactable and/or wirelessly interacting components and/or logically interacting and/or logically interactable components. With respect to the use of substantially any plural and/or singular terms herein, those having skill in the art can translate from the plural to the singular and/or from the singular to the plural as is appropriate to the context and/or application. The various singular/plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sake of clarity. For ease of reading, all values described herein, and all numerical ranges described herein are approximate and should be read as including the word “about” or “approximately” prior to each numeral, unless context indicates otherwise. For example, the range “0.0001 to 0.01” is meant to read as “about 0.0001 to about 0.01.” It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms used herein, and especially in the appended claims (e.g., bodies of the appended claims) are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,” etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intent will be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of such recitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid to understanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of the introductory phrases “at least one” and “one or more” to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinite articles “a” or “an” limits any particular claim containing such introduced claim recitation to inventions containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and indefinite articles such as “a” or “an” (e.g., “a” and/or “an” should typically be interpreted to mean “at least one” or “one or more”); the same holds true for the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited, those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should typically be interpreted to mean at least the recited number (e.g., the bare recitation of “two recitations,” without other modifiers, typically means at least two recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, and C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, and C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). In those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, or C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, or C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that virtually any disjunctive word and/or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplate the possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, or both terms. For example, the phrase “A or B” will be understood to include the possibilities of “A” or “B” or “A and B.” All references, including but not limited to patents, patent applications, and non-patent literature are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.
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A
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| 17A61B
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1
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00
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11709874
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US20070276274A1-20071129
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Electrocardiogram analyzer
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ACCEPTED
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20071114
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20071129
|
[]
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A61B504
|
["A61B504"]
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8874199
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20070223
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20141028
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600
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509000
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66547.0
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BEHRINGER
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LUTHER
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Kawada", "inventor_name_first": "Hiroshi", "inventor_city": "Shiroi-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Inui", "inventor_name_first": "Kiyoshi", "inventor_city": "Shiroi-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nakai", "inventor_name_first": "Kenji", "inventor_city": "Morioka-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Itoh", "inventor_name_first": "Manabu", "inventor_city": "Morioka-shi", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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The estimated contour positions of the atrium and ventricle are obtained from multi-channel electrocardiographic waveforms. Information useful to predict the possibility of the occurrence of fatal arrhythmia, such as the position of the maximum excitation propagation point, the distribution of the late potential(LP) as an index of depolarization abnormality, and the distribution of the RT dispersion as an index of repolarization abnormality are displayed together with the estimated contour positions.
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1. An electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a current distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a current distribution at a certain point of time in one heartbeat from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a position calculating unit adapted to calculate information concerning estimated contour positions of an atrium and a ventricle and an excitation propagation position, on the basis of the current distribution; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display, in one display area of a display device, the information concerning the estimated contour positions of the atrium and the ventricle and the excitation propagation position. 2. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 1, wherein said position calculating unit calculates a position of a maximum excitation propagation point from the current distribution, as the information concerning the excitation propagation position, and wherein said display control unit simultaneously displays the maximum excitation propagation position together with the estimated contour positions. 3. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 1, wherein said display control unit divides the display area into divisional areas each corresponding to one channel of the multi-channel electrocardiogram, and displays a pattern visually representing a magnitude and direction of an electric current obtained by said current distribution calculating unit from each channel of the multi-channel electrocardiogram. 4. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 1, wherein said display control unit superposes a mark representing an assumed precordial lead electrode position in the display area. 5. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 1, wherein while a certain point of time in one heartbeat is sequentially changed, the display of the information concerning the estimated contour positions of the atrium and the ventricle and the excitation propagation position is updated to display changes in estimated contour positions and excitation propagation position with time. 6. An electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a late potential distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a late potential in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a RT dispersion distribution calculating unit adapted to calculate a dispersion of an RT interval in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display a distribution of the late potential and a distribution of the RT interval such that the two distributions are comparable. 7. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 6, further comprising: a potential distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a potential distribution at a certain point of time in one heartbeat from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; and a position calculating unit adapted to calculate estimated contour positions of an atrium and a ventricle on the basis of the potential distribution, wherein said display control unit displays the estimated contour positions of the atrium and the ventricle together with the distribution of the late potential and the distribution of the RT interval. 8. The electrocardiogram analyzer according to claim 6, further comprising a (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion calculating unit adapted to obtain an interval from a maximum peak of a T wave to a minimum peak in a first derivative waveform of a T-wave descending limb, for each channel of the multi-channel electrocardiogram, wherein said display control unit is capable of displaying a distribution of the interval from the maximum peak of the T wave to the minimum peak in the first derivative waveform of the T-wave descending limb.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Conventionally, an electrocardiogram is widely used as a heart disease diagnostic index. The electrocardiogram is a signal waveform obtained by detecting the electrical activity of the heart on the body surface, and various kinds of information concerning the heart activity can be obtained by analyzing the electrocardiogram. Recently, information such as the late potential (LP) or QT dispersion obtained from the electrocardiogram is considered as useful as an index for predicting the occurrence of fatal arrhythmia, and an apparatus which obtains these values from the electrocardiogram is also proposed (see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2002-224068). Conventionally, however, the indices such as the LP and QT dispersion are individually measured, and no means for comprehensively evaluating the two indices has been provided. Also, although the heart is a three-dimensional organ, no means for intuitively evaluating the distributions and temporal changes of the index values has been provided.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been made in consideration of the problems of the prior art as described above, and has as its primary object to provide an electrocardiogram analyzer useful to evaluate the electrical activity of the heart in view of the distributions of index values. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a current distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a current distribution at a certain point of time in one heartbeat from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a position calculating unit adapted to calculate information concerning estimated contour positions of an atrium and a ventricle and an excitation propagation position, on the basis of the current distribution; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display, in one display area of a display device, the information concerning the estimated contour positions of the atrium and the ventricle and the excitation propagation position. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a late potential distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a late potential in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a RT dispersion distribution calculating unit adapted to calculate a dispersion of an RT interval in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display a distribution of the late potential and a distribution of the RT interval such that the two distributions are comparable. With the arrangements as described above, the present invention can provide an electrocardiogram analyzer useful to evaluate the electrical activity of the heart in view of the distributions of index values. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the figures thereof.
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CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-147362, filed on May 26, 2006, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an electrocardiogram analyzer and, more particularly, to an electrocardiogram analyzer for obtaining information useful to diagnose a heart disease by analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Conventionally, an electrocardiogram is widely used as a heart disease diagnostic index. The electrocardiogram is a signal waveform obtained by detecting the electrical activity of the heart on the body surface, and various kinds of information concerning the heart activity can be obtained by analyzing the electrocardiogram. Recently, information such as the late potential (LP) or QT dispersion obtained from the electrocardiogram is considered as useful as an index for predicting the occurrence of fatal arrhythmia, and an apparatus which obtains these values from the electrocardiogram is also proposed (see Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 2002-224068). Conventionally, however, the indices such as the LP and QT dispersion are individually measured, and no means for comprehensively evaluating the two indices has been provided. Also, although the heart is a three-dimensional organ, no means for intuitively evaluating the distributions and temporal changes of the index values has been provided. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in consideration of the problems of the prior art as described above, and has as its primary object to provide an electrocardiogram analyzer useful to evaluate the electrical activity of the heart in view of the distributions of index values. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a current distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a current distribution at a certain point of time in one heartbeat from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a position calculating unit adapted to calculate information concerning estimated contour positions of an atrium and a ventricle and an excitation propagation position, on the basis of the current distribution; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display, in one display area of a display device, the information concerning the estimated contour positions of the atrium and the ventricle and the excitation propagation position. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electrocardiogram analyzer for analyzing a multi-channel electrocardiogram, comprising: a late potential distribution calculating unit adapted to obtain a late potential in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; a RT dispersion distribution calculating unit adapted to calculate a dispersion of an RT interval in each channel from the multi-channel electrocardiogram; and a display control unit adapted to simultaneously display a distribution of the late potential and a distribution of the RT interval such that the two distributions are comparable. With the arrangements as described above, the present invention can provide an electrocardiogram analyzer useful to evaluate the electrical activity of the heart in view of the distributions of index values. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the figures thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 shows an example of the arrangement of an electrocardiogram analyzer according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 shows a display example of synthetic lead waveforms of a total of 187 channels in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 3A and 3B show a display example of the atrium and ventricle contours and the excitation propagation point in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 4A to 4C show moving image display examples of the atrium and ventricle contours and the excitation propagation point in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 shows another display example of the atrium and ventricle contours and the excitation propagation point in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 6A to 6C show another moving image display examples of the atrium and ventricle contours and the excitation propagation point in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7A shows an example in which the distribution of the late potential(LP) is displayed by using the lead waveforms of the 187 channels. FIG. 7B shows an example in which the RT dispersion calculated and reconstructed by using the lead waveforms of the 187 channels is superposed on the distribution of the late potential(LP) shown in FIG. 7A, in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a view for explaining the definitions of the RT dispersion and (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 9A and 9B shows display examples of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 10A and 10B show another display examples of the RT dispersion in the electrocardiogram analyzer according to the embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A preferred embodiment of the present invention will now be described in detail in accordance with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an example of the arrangement of an electrocardiogram analyzer according to an embodiment of the present invention. An electrocardiogram analyzer 100 of this embodiment comprises electrodes 10, an input box 20, and a main apparatus 30. The number of the electrodes 10 is five in this embodiment, and the electrodes 10 are attached to C2 (the left sternal border in the fourth intercostal space), R (the right hand), L (the left hand), F (the left foot), and RF (the right foot). One terminal of each electrode 10 is connected to the input box 20. The input box 20 has a function of generating and outputting X, Y, and Z lead waveforms from individual lead waveforms detected by the electrodes 10. An A/D converter 21 samples the input lead waveforms (electrocardiographic signals) from the electrodes 10 at a predetermined frequency and accuracy, and outputs the sampled waveforms to an XYZ lead waveform generator 22. The XYZ lead waveform generator generates X, Y, and Z lead waveforms as the X, Y, and Z component waveforms of a cardiac vector, and a high-accuracy amplifier amplifies the waveforms so that they can be used in the calculation of the late potential(LP) (to be described later). The X, Y, and Z lead waveforms can be obtained by the linear sum of standard lead waveforms, and this is known as “the inverse Dower method”. Accordingly, the XYZ lead waveform generator 22 can synthesize the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms by synthesizing the lead waveforms obtained by the five electrodes described above by using a known coefficient. An isolation circuit 23 has, e.g., a light-emitting element and light-receiving element, and transmits the XYZ lead waveform data in the form of an optical signal, thereby achieving electrical isolation (insulation) between the input-side circuit and output-side circuit. This circuit is formed to prevent an accident in which, e.g., an electric current flows into a patient through the electrodes 10. An interface circuit (I/F) 24 provides a physical and logical communication interface for communicably connecting the input box 20 to the main apparatus 30. Although a protocol supported by the I/F 24 is not particularly limited, examples are communication interfaces complying with USB and IEEE1394 for wired connection, and communication interfaces complying with BlueTooth™ and IEEE802.11x for wireless connection. The main apparatus 30 performs an electrocardiogram analyzing process as the main function of the electrocardiogram analyzer 100. In the main apparatus 30, an interface circuit (I/F) 31 provides a communication interface with the input box 20. The main body 30 can communicate with the input box 24 by establishing a connection between the I/F 31 and I/F 20. A waveform synthesizer 32 generates a multi-channel electrocardiographic signal from the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms received from the input box 20. Details of the processing by the waveform synthesizer 32 will be described later. A storage unit 33 is a large-volume, nonvolatile storage device such as a hard disk drive, and stores, e.g., the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms received from the input box 20, the synthetic waveform output from the waveform synthesizer 32, data concerning a patient, application programs executed by a controller 35 (to be described later), and GUI data. Note that the analyzing process may also be performed by using X, Y, and Z lead waveforms or multi-channel electrocardiographic signals measured in the past, without using the input box 20. In this case, it is also possible to install a reader/writer of a removable storage medium such as a memory card reader/writer or optical disk drive and obtain waveform data from the storage medium, or to obtain waveform data from an external device connected via the I/F 31 or another interface. A waveform analyzer 34 analyzes the multi-channel electrocardiographic signals stored in the storage unit 33 or the multi-channel electrocardiographic signals output from the waveform synthesizer 32, and generates information useful to diagnose the electrical activity of the heart. Practical processing performed by the waveform analyzer 34 will be explained in detail later. The controller 35 controls the whole electrocardiogram analyzer 100. The controller 35 comprises, e.g., a CPU, ROM, and RAM, and controls the operation of the apparatus by executing control programs (an OS and application programs) stored in the storage unit 33. It is also possible to implement at least a portion of the waveform synthesizer 32 or waveform analyzer 34 by software by using the same CPU as that implementing the controller 35. An operation unit 36 is a man-machine interface for allowing the user to input instructions to the electrocardiogram analyzer of this embodiment, and normally comprises, e.g., a keyboard, a mouse, and a touch panel attached on the screen of a display device. An output unit 37 is a display device or printer, and used by the user to display a GUI for operating the electrocardiogram analyzer and the results of analysis, or to print out a report of the results of analysis. The operation of the electrocardiogram analyzer 100 having the above arrangement will be explained below. The electrocardiogram analyzer 100 of this embodiment is characterized by analyzing multi-channel electrocardiographic signals, and presenting indices useful to diagnose the electrical activity of the heart, e.g., the estimated position of the heart contour and the position of the maximum excitation propagation point, and the two-dimensional distributions of the late potential (LP) as an index of depolarization abnormality and the RT dispersion as an index of repolarization defect. The electrocardiogram analyzer of this embodiment generates electrocardiographic signals for channels larger in number than actual measurement channels by using the waveform synthesizing technique. In this embodiment, lead waveforms of 187 channels are synthesized by using the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms generated by the XYZ lead waveform generator 22 from the actual waveforms measured using the five electrodes. The use of the waveform synthesizing technique as described above has the advantages that the time and labor for measurements can be omitted and the load on the patient can be reduced. The waveform synthesizer 32 generates a synthetic lead waveform by using the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms received via the I/F 31, and a prepared lead vector corresponding to the lead waveform to be synthesized. The lead vector can be obtained by using, e.g., the torso model and image surface described in Frank's paper (Ernest Frank, “THE IMAGE SURFACE OF A HOMOGENEOUS TORSO”, Amer. Heart. J, 47: pp. 757-768, 1954). More specifically, coordinates on the image surface to which the electrode position in the torso model corresponds are obtained, and a lead vector (synthetic bipolar lead vector) for each lead waveform is determined from the coordinates of the electrode position. In this case, the coordinates of a CT (central terminal) are the barycentric coordinates of a triangle having, as its apexes, the coordinates of R (the right hand), L (the left hand), and F (the left foot). A lead waveform in each electrode position is generated by using the x, y, and z components of the synthetic bipolar lead vector and the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms. This embodiment uses lead vectors corresponding to a total of 187 electrode positions as the intersections of 17 lines which vertically equally divide a portion extending from the electrode position of V4R lead to the electrode position of V9 lead at the left back via the left side, and 11 horizontal lines drawn at equal intervals from a horizontal line passing through the right and left edges of the first intercostal sternum to a horizontal line passing through the right and left costal arches of the 12th rib. Note that the lead vector herein obtained is determined by assuming a certain specific figure or the like, so it is favorable to prepare a plurality of lead vector sets corresponding to, e.g., the sexes, heights, and weights of patients, and selectively use an appropriate set from these sets. The waveform synthesizer 32 stores the synthetic lead waveforms in the storage unit 33. Some or all of the synthetic lead waveforms may also be output to the output unit 37 via the controller 35 in real time, in accordance with the performance of the waveform synthesizer 32. FIG. 2 is a view schematically showing a state in which the synthetic lead waveforms of the 187 channels are displayed in real time. FIG. 2 shows a state in which the waveforms are displayed while the patient is viewed front ways, and the synthetic lead waveforms of 11 vertical channels×17 horizontal channels in one heartbeat are displayed in one-to-one correspondence with the electrode positions. Also, symbols O 201 to 206 indicating the electrode positions of assumed precordial leads V1 to V6 are superposed on the waveforms. When the number of channels is very large as in this embodiment, it is sometimes difficult to display all channels in real time depending on the performance of hardware. In this case, channels which cannot be synthesized in real time are synthesized in a period during which no real-time display is performed. Although the timing of synthesis is not limited, it is possible to synthesize unprocessed channels by using the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms stored in the storage unit 33, when, e.g., display of all channels is designated via the operation unit 36. Multi-channel synthetic lead waveforms are generated and stored in the storage unit 33 as described above, and the electrocardiogram analyzer 100 of this embodiment is characterized by analyzing these multi-channel lead waveforms, and presenting the two-dimensional distributions and changes of various index values. The analyzing process by the electrocardiogram analyzer 100 of this embodiment will be explained below. (Display of Atrium and Ventricle Contours and Excitation Propagation Point) First, a process of displaying the atrium and ventricle contours and the excitation propagation point will be explained. For example, when a contour display process is designated from an application menu, the controller 35 detects the designation and instructs the waveform analyzer 34 to execute the contour display process. The waveform analyzer 34 reads out the lead waveform of each channel in one heartbeat of the designated patient at the designated time from the storage unit 33. The waveform analyzer 34 then obtains, for the lead waveform of each channel, the potential of a P-wave interval representing the electrical excitation of the atrium and the potential of a QRS-wave interval representing the electrical excitation of the ventricle in one heartbeat. For the P-wave interval of each channel, the waveform analyzer 34 obtains a current value (the size of a vector F) by a method to be described later, and obtains the square integral value in the interval. Generally, the square integral value of a current value reflects the energy of the cardiac muscle activity (the atrium and ventricle), so the heart presumably exists in a portion where the current value is large. For the square integral value in the P-wave interval of each channel, therefore, a predetermined value smaller than a minimum value is determined as a threshold value, and a closed curve representing the estimated contour position of the atrium is generated by connecting points corresponding to the threshold value. A closed curve representing the estimated contour position of the ventricle can be generated by using the square integral value of a current value in the QRS-wave interval of each channel, in the same manner as for the estimated contour position of the atrium. In addition, the waveform analyzer 34 calculates a position where the potential is probably a maximum in the region as the maximum excitation propagation point, from a maximum current value of each channel. The waveform analyzer 34 outputs these pieces of information to the output unit 37 via the controller 35. FIG. 3A shows an example of the display state. In FIG. 3A, reference numeral 41 denotes the closed curve representing the atrium contour; 42, the closed curve representing the ventricle contour; and 43, the maximum excitation propagation point. In the interiors of the contours, a range within which a lead waveform having a potential whose ratio to the potential at the maximum excitation propagation point is equal to or higher than a predetermined value is also displayed in a different color. Furthermore, symbols O indicate the assumed electrode positions of the precordial leads V1 to V6 as in FIG. 2. Although FIG. 3A displays the information for one hear beat, the movement of the maximum excitation propagation point and the changes in atrium and ventricle contours can be presented to the user by performing this display process in a time series manner. It is also possible to allow the user to designate the point of time of potential calculation in one heartbeat by displaying an image as shown in FIG. 3B adjacent to the image shown in FIG. 3A. Referring to FIG. 3B, the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms (the average waveform) in one heartbeat are synthetically displayed together with a cursor 45 movable by the user. When the user moves the cursor 45 to the right or left by operating the operation unit 36, the potential at the point of time indicated by the cursor position in one heartbeat is calculated and dynamically displayed as shown in FIG. 3A. As shown in FIGS. 4A to 4C, the change in heart contour and the movement of the maximum excitation propagation point can also be displayed as a moving image by sequentially performing the display process by automatically sequentially changing the potential calculation time. Furthermore, the excitation propagation can be similarly visually displayed by using vector arrows instead of the maximum excitation propagation point. FIG. 5 shows vector arrows 44 drawn instead of the maximum excitation propagation point by obtaining the contour lines of the atrium and ventricle at a point of time in one heartbeat designated by the cursor 45 in the same manner as in FIGS. 3A and 3B. The vector arrows are calculated and drawn as follows. For the sake of descriptive simplicity, processes of calculating and drawing one vector arrow will be explained. First, a potential V(ch1, t) at a certain point of time in one heartbeat is acquired from one (e.g., channel 1) of the electrocardiograms of the 187 channels. Potentials V(ch2, t) to V(ch187, t) at the same point of time are similarly acquired from the electrocardiograms of 186 other channels. Then, an electric field F(ch1, ch2) between the measurement position (electrode position) of channel 1 and the measurement position of another channel (e.g., channel 2) is obtained by F(ch1, ch2)=k×(V(ch2, t)−V(ch1, t))/d(ch1, ch2)2 where k is a proportional constant, and d(ch1, ch2) is the interval between the measurement positions. F(ch1, ch2) can be regarded as a vector which points in a direction from the measurement position of channel 1 to the measurement direction of channel 2 or in the opposite direction. Similar calculations are performed on channels 3 to 187, and 186 obtained vectors F(ch1, ch1) (i=2, 3, . . . , 187) are added to obtain a vector F1 representing the magnitude and direction of an electric field in the measurement position of channel 1. Vectors F2 to F187 are analogously obtained in the measurement positions of channels 2 to 187. The display area is divided into 11 (vertical)×17 (horizontal)=187 divisional areas, and a vector F at a measurement position corresponding to each individual divisional area is drawn by a vector arrow in the area. Note that the size of each vector arrow is normalized so that a maximum one of the 187 vector arrows can be drawn in a square area. Since current density=relative dielectric constant x electric field, the vectors F1 to F187 relatively represent the magnitudes and directions of electric currents in the corresponding measurement positions if the relative dielectric constant on the body surface is constant. Accordingly, the current distribution of the heart can be obtained by the above-mentioned calculations. This current distribution can be used in the calculation of the estimated position of the heart contour described above. The current distribution of the heart can be displayed to be visually easy to understand by a vector arrow map as shown in FIG. 5 which displays an electric current corresponding to the measurement position of each channel by a vector arrow as a pattern visually representing the magnitude and direction of the electric current. In addition, in the example shown in FIG. 5, the background color of a divisional area for drawing each vector arrow is changed in accordance with the polarity and absolute value of each electrocardiogram when the vector value is obtained. More specifically, the background colors are red for positive, blue for negative, and white for 0, and the larger the absolution value, the darker the background color. Drawing like this allows the user to visually readily grasp the potential distribution of the heart by the background colors. Note that in the example shown in FIG. 5, the background color of each divisional area is not even but is changed by subdividing the area so that the color smoothly changes between this divisional area and adjacent divisional areas. FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate an example when a moving image is displayed as in FIGS. 4A to 4C. By thus obtaining the potential distribution and current distribution and displaying the changes in atrium and ventricle contours and excitation propagation with time, the user can intuitively grasp whether the electrical excitation of the heart is correctly moving. For example, although the maximum excitation propagation point propagates through a correct path from the atrium to the ventricle in FIGS. 4A to 4C, the path of the movement of the maximum excitation propagation point changes if the excitation transmission system is defective, so the user can obtain information concerning the presence/absence of defect from this display. Also, FIGS. 6A to 6C using the vector arrow map can display excitation propagation more visually. For example, each of FIGS. 6A to 6C shows an intraventricular conduction delay in the right ventricle in a complete right bundle branch block, and an intraventricular conduction delay in the left ventricle in a complete left bundle branch block. FIGS. 6A to 6C also respectively shows a detour of the vector arrows in a portion of infarction for myocardial infarction. (Calculation of Two-Dimensional Distribution of Late Potential(LP)) A process of calculating the two-dimensional distribution of the late potential(LP) will be explained below. For example, when a process of displaying the late potential(LP) or a process of simultaneously displaying the late potential(LP) and the RT dispersion (to be described later) is designated from an application menu, the controller 35 detects this designation and instructs the waveform analyzer 34 to execute the following late potential display process. The late potential(LP) is a high-frequency component which appears behind the terminal portion of the QRS wave, and presumably indicates a local ventricular excitation propagation disorder. Since the late potential is a very low potential, the XYZ lead waveform generator 22 in the input box 20 of this embodiment amplifies the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms by using a high-accuracy amplifier, and uses the amplified waveforms in synthesis by the waveform synthesizer 32. Of lead waveform data of the designated patient, the waveform analyzer 34 reads out the lead waveform of each channel for, e.g., 100 heartbeats from the storage unit 33. The waveform analyzer 34 than performs a bandpass filtering process at, e.g., 100 to 300 Hz by using the R wave as a trigger, adds and averages the lead waveforms of each channel, and well reduces noise components. After that, the waveform analyzer 34 calculates, as the late potential(LP), the integral value of the potential after QRS in the sum average waveform of each channel. FIG. 7A shows an example in which the distribution of the late potential(LP) is displayed by using the lead waveforms of the 187 channels. Similar to the display form shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms (average waveform) in one heartbeat are displayed on the left side, and a region (probably abnormal region) 81 whose late potential(LP) is larger than a predetermined threshold value is displayed step by step in accordance with the LP value on the right side, but the late potential(LP) can be displayed by any arbitrary method. (Calculation of Two-Dimensional Distribution of RT Dispersion) A process of calculating the RT dispersion will be explained below. When a process of displaying the RT dispersion or a process of simultaneously displaying the RT dispersion and the late potential(LP) described above is designated from an application menu, the controller 35 detects the designation and instructs the waveform analyzer 34 to execute the following RT dispersion display process. As described above, the QT dispersion as a dispersion of the interval from the start point of the Q wave to the end point of the T wave is conventionally used as an index of repolarization defect. However, it is not easy to locate the end point of the T wave. Accordingly, this embodiment obtains the RT dispersion which can be detected more clearly and presumably has information equivalent to the QT dispersion, and obtains the distribution of the RT dispersion. A process of calculating the RT dispersion and its distribution will be explained below with reference to FIG. 8 as a view for explaining the definition of the RT dispersion. Of lead waveform data of the designated patient, the waveform analyzer 34 reads out the lead waveform of each channel in one heartbeat from the storage unit 33. The waveform analyzer 34 then generates a first derivative waveform for each individual waveform. Referring to FIG. 8, the upper stage indicates the electrocardiographic waveform (synthetic lead waveform), and the lower stage indicates the first derivative waveform of the electrocardiographic waveform. This embodiment defines the RT interval as a time difference (RT in FIG. 8) between the point of time corresponding to a minimum peak of the R-wave descent in a first derivative waveform and the point of time corresponding to a maximum peak of the T-wave ascent in the same first derivative waveform. Also, the RT dispersion as a dispersion of the RT interval is defined as a difference between a maximum RT interval (RTmax) and a minimum RT interval (RTmin) in all channels of lead waveforms for the same heartbeat. That is, RT dispersion=RTmax−RTmin The waveform analyzer 34 obtains the RT interval, RTmax, and RTmin of each channel in accordance with the above definitions. The waveform analyzer 34 then obtains the difference between the RT interval and RTmin of each channel, and displays the distribution of the difference as the RT dispersion distribution on the output unit 37 via the controller 35. FIG. 7B is a view showing an example in which the RT dispersion calculated and reconstructed by using the lead waveforms of the 187 channels is superposed on the distribution of the late potential(LP) shown in FIG. 7A. This display facilitates comparison of the late potential(LP) with the RT dispersion. Note that the display of the RT dispersion will be explained in detail later. Note that when the distributions of the late potential(LP) and RT dispersion are simultaneously displayed (or printed) so that they can be compared as shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B, it is preferable to display the distribution of the RT dispersion calculated by using the lead waveform of the first heartbeat of the lead waveforms of the 100 heartbeats used in the calculation of the late potential(LP), thereby matching the timings of the two data. Note that the electrocardiogram analyzer of this embodiment can also calculate the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion as an index reflecting the state of an M cell existing from the epicardium to the subendocardium. Generally, the QT dispersion reflects a repolarization defect of the ventricular muscle indicated by the action potential. On the other hand, the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion reflects a transmural repolarization fluctuation (in a direction perpendicular to the ventricular wall) of the action potential. Experimentally, repolarization of the M cell relates to the terminal portion of the T wave. Therefore, the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion can be considered as an index reflecting the transmural repolarization defect of the M cell. (Antzelevitch C, et al., “Cullular basis for QT dispersion”, J. Electrocardiol. 30 168-75, 1998) As shown in FIG. 8, the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion is defined as a time from a maximum peak of the T wave to a minimum peak in a first derivative waveform of the T-wave descending limb. When calculating the RT dispersion, the waveform analyzer 34 also obtains the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) interval for each channel. In the same manner as for the RT dispersion distribution, the waveform analyzer 34 obtains, for each channel, a difference from a minimum (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) interval of all the channels, and displays the difference as the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion distribution on the output unit 37 via the controller 35. Since the value of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion presumably increases if the function of the M cell isimpaired, the display of the two-dimensional distribution has the advantage that a possible abnormal lesion or injured myocardium can be easily estimated. FIGS. 9A and 9B show display examples of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion. FIG. 9A shows a normal example, and FIG. 9B shows a case with myocardial infarction. Each display shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B includes a color bar 95 indicating the relationship between the value of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion and the display color, in addition to the X, Y, and Z lead waveforms (average waveform) in one heartbeat and the heart contour. The (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion is obtained for the 187 channels on the basis of the current distribution described above. A gradation is formed by assigning blue to 0 ms, red to 100 ms, green to 50 ms, and intermediate colors to corresponding intermediate values, and displayed as the color bar 95. A linear line 96 in the color bar 95 represents a maximum value of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersions of the 187 channels. Also, a region 94 surrounded by a closed curve 42 representing the ventricle contour is drawn by a color in the gradation which corresponds to the value of each point in the region obtained by interpolating the values of (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion in channels contained in the region and in peripheral channels. Furthermore, in the average waveform display, the T-wave peak (Tpeak) is set at 0 ms, and a region 91 corresponding to a minimum value (min) to a maximum value (max) of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion is drawn by the corresponding color in the color bar. If the minimum value (min) of the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion is 0 ms, therefore, the left end of the region 91 matches the Tpeak. FIGS. 10A and 10B show examples in which the RT dispersions are displayed by the same method as in FIGS. 9A and 9B. The RT dispersion differs from that shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B in that a region 103 in the average waveform display is drawn in a position where the R-wave peak (Rpeak) is 0 ms. The display form shown in FIG. 7B is obtained by superposing the RT dispersion displayed in the form shown in either FIG. 10A or 10B on the LP distribution. As described above, the display examples shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B, and FIGS. 10A and 10B allow the user to readily grasp the distributions and sizes of the RT dispersion and (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion. As has been explained above, the electrocardiogram analyzer of this embodiment can perform electrocardiogram mapping with a few measurement channels, thereby reducing the load on the patient. It is also possible, by using the two-dimensional distribution of the values of an index concerning the electrical activity of the heart, to visually display the index values together with the assumed positions of the atrium and ventricle contours, thereby allowing the user to intuitively perform spatial local evaluation on a disordered cardiac muscle. The user can also readily check the path through which excitation propagates with the passage of time, and this helps evaluate the present/absence of propagation abnormality. In particular, since the distribution of the late potential(LP) as an index of depolarization abnormality and the distribution of the RT dispersion as an index of repolarization defect are simultaneously presented, these indices conventionally separately measured can be comprehensively evaluated. Additionally, the (Tpeak-negative dV/dt) dispersion usable as an index reflecting the transmural repolarization fluctuation of the M cell can be displayed so as to be visually readily graspable. Other Embodiments In the electrocardiogram analyzer 100 of the above embodiment, the use of waveform synthesis is not essential, and it is possible to use either actual measurements or synthesis as long as multi-channel lead waveforms are obtained. As many apparently widely different embodiments of the present invention can be made without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments thereof except as defined in the appended claims.
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A
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| 17A61B
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5
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04
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12001933
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US20080146936A1-20080619
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Ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers particularly for ultrasound imaging and ultrasound probe with said housing
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ACCEPTED
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20080605
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20080619
|
[]
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A61B800
|
["A61B800"]
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8118747
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20071213
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20120221
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600
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437000
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78314.0
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ROZANSKI
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MICHAEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Furia", "inventor_name_first": "Roberto", "inventor_city": "Genova", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IT"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Rezzonico", "inventor_name_first": "Fabio", "inventor_city": "Como", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "IT"}]
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An ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, includes at least an inner space (4) housing, one or more electroacoustic transducers (5) and possible further electric and/or electronic components (6/7). The housing (1) has at least an acoustic window (2) at which the one or more electroacoustic transducers (5) are placed. Further included is a handle part (101) composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by a hand or a portion thereof. The gripping surface has such a shape or profile (301) to be ergonomically fitted for being gripped by inserting it in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand.
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1. An ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers for ultrasound imaging, comprising: at least one inner space housing; at least one electroacoustic transducer; at least one other electrical component, wherein said housing has at least one acoustic window at which the at least one electroacoustic transducer is placed and a handle part composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by an hand or a part thereof; and said gripping surface having such a shaped portion constructed and arranged to be ergonomically fitted for being gripped by inserting it in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand. 2. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the gripping surface provides a gripping extension that is ergonomically shaped to be gripped between fingers. 3. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the gripping surface provides a gripping extension that is shaped to be anatomically fitted for the engagement in the space between two adjacent fingers of the hand. 4. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping surface has a resting part having a spherical shape, the resting part is positioned opposite to the at least one acoustic window, the gripping extension is positioned at the top of said resting part. 5. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension is composed of an elongated member having a rounded shape. 6. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension has at least one pair of opposite gripping recesses with a laid down U-shaped section, each of said at least one pair of opposite gripping recesses are constructed and arranged to house one of the two adjacent fingers for the engagement between the fingers and said gripping extension. 7. The ergonomic housing according to claim 6, characterized in that the at least one pair of opposite gripping recesses has a bottom wall that is oriented in the axial direction of the gripping extension, a first side wall and a second side wall both perpendicular to the axis of the gripping surface, the first side wall being composed of a region of the resting part and the second side wall being provided at a distance adapted to the size of human fingers. 8. The ergonomic housing according to claim 7, characterized in that the gripping extension has an annular recess having a laid down U-shaped section, said U-shaped section has a bottom surface formed by a band of shell axial surfaces connected in a rounded way with the first side wall and the second side wall surfaces that are formed by surfaces transversal to the longitudinal axis of the extension and connected to said bottom surface, possibly only one or both in a rounded way, while one of said two side surfaces of the annular recess is composed of the resting part of the gripping surface and the other side surface is composed of the surface of a radial annular enlargement provided at a certain distance from said resting part. 9. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension has a rotation symmetrical shape. 10. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension has an elliptical cross-section with a major axis substantially oriented in the antero-posterior direction of the hand and with a minor axis oriented in the direction transversal to the antero-posterior direction of the hand. 11. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension defines a sleeve for the introduction of an electrical cable for connecting the at least one electroacoustic transducer. 12. The ergonomic housing according to claim 2, characterized in that the gripping extension has a longitudinal axis that coincides with the prolongation of a vector perpendicular to a surface tangential to the center of the at least one acoustic window. 13. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the at least one acoustic window is composed of a flat member. 14. The ergonomic housing according to claim 4, characterized in that the at least one acoustic window has a curved arrangement according to at least one axis of curvature, the curved arrangement being positioned opposite the resting part of the gripping surface. 15. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that at an intermediate region of the ergonomic housing between the gripping surface and the at least one acoustic window, the ergonomic housing further having two opposite side recesses having a rounded cross-section. 16. The ergonomic housing according to claim 15, characterized in that the gripping surface is composed of a spheroidal body flattened on two diametrically opposite sides such to have two different diameters in the equatorial plane and one of which is a greater diameter and the other one is a smaller diameter in the plane, the two opposite side recesses provided at the intermediate region of the housing being made hollow in the direction of said major axis. 17. The ergonomic housing according to claim 16, characterized in that the spheroidal body is gripped by being tightened by fingers of the hand in addition to holding between the fingers the gripping extension. 18. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the housing has two different thicknesses in the direction of each one of the two axes perpendicular one with respect to the other and enclosed in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the gripping extension. 19. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the housing is shaped to provide a pen type grip. 20. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that in the housing has a flattened portion between the gripping surface and the at least one acoustic window shaped to form a pen type grip handle. 21. The ergonomic housing according to claim 20, characterized in that in the pen type grip handle has two opposite faces, the opposite faces having opposite depressions. 22. The ergonomic housing according to claim 20, characterized in that the housing comprises the at least one acoustic window provided on the head side of the flattened portion which extends in the direction opposite to the at least one acoustic window with a spheroidal body provided at the top opposite to the acoustic window of the gripping extension. 23. The ergonomic housing according to claim 22, characterized in that the housing is made of a first housing part and a second housing part, said first housing part and said second housing parts are harmonically connected and are separated along an intermediate separation plane between the pen type grip handle and the gripping surface. 24. The ergonomic housing according to claim 23, characterized in that the first housing part and the second housing part can be movably fastened one with the other. 25. The ergonomic housing according to claim 24, characterized in that the housing is provided in combination with at least one electroacoustic transducers, an electrical circuit, a cable connecting the electrical circuit to a remote processing unit, a connecting member connecting the cable to the electrical circuit, the connecting member having a first connector part and a second connector part that can be mechanically and electrically coupled and uncoupled, the first connector part being provided integral with the first housing part and the second connector part being provided integral with the second housing part, the first connector part and second connector part being automatically engaged and disengaged one with the other contemporaneously when said first housing part and second housing part are fastened and separated. 26. Ultrasound probe comprising at least one electroacoustic transducer connected to a communication cable, said at least one electroacoustic transducer being housed in a space of a housing of said probe, characterized in that said housing has an acoustic window at which the at least one electroacoustic transducer is provided and at least one handle part located opposite to the at least one acoustic window, said at least one handle part ergonomically shaped to be held between human fingers. 27. The ultrasound probe according to claim 26, characterized in that the handle part is composed of a gripping extension to be held between the fingers. 28. The ultrasound probe according to claim 27, characterized in that it comprises a housing with the characteristics of claim 1. 29. An ultrasound probe comprising at least one electroacoustic transducer that is connected to a communication cable, said at least one electroacoustic transducer being housed in a space of a housing of said probe and to which a communication cable is connected, characterized in that the communication cable is connected to the at least one electroacoustic transducer by a connector comprising a first connector part connected to said at least one electroacoustic transducer and a second connector part constructed and arranged for movable engagement with the first connector part, the housing being formed of a first housing part and a second housing part that can be fastened and separated, a separation plane between said first housing part and said second housing part being provided at an intermediate region of the housing between an acoustic window at which at least one electroacoustic transducer is provided and a tubular extension for passing the communication cable, the first connector part is fastened to the first housing part and second connector part is fastened to the second housing part such that when said first housing part and second housing part are fastened or separated said first connector part and second connector part respectively are automatically electrically engaged or disengaged. 30. A set of ultrasound probes each one comprising one or more electroacoustic transducers connected to a communication cable, said electroacoustic transducers being housed in a space of a probe housing part of one of said probes, said probe housing part forms the partial region of a gripping handle of the probe, and wherein the communication cable is connected to the one or more electroacoustic transducers by a connector comprising a first connector part connected to one or more electroacoustic transducers and associated to the probe housing part and a second connector part connected to the communication cable, the first connector part and second connector part of the connector being movably engageable and disengageable one with respect to the other, the second connector part being associated to a connector housing part forming the remaining handle part of the probe, the second connector part can be movably fastened and separated from the end of the connector housing part at which there is provided the first connector part, when connector housing part is fastened or separated from the probe housing part said connector housing part and probe housing part are automatically engaged and disengaged one with the other, the outer surfaces of said connector housing part and probe housing part being harmonically completed and the first connector part and second connector part of the connector associated to said first housing part and to said second housing part respectively are automatically engaged and disengaged one with the other. 31. The set of ultrasound probes according to claim 30, characterized in that the probe housing part has a shape that is anatomically adapted as a pen type grip, while the connector housing part has a gripping extension to be held between the fingers. 32. The set of ultrasound probes according to claim 30, characterized in that the probe housing part and the connector housing part are coupled to form a spheroidal gripping part. 33. The ergonomic housing according to claim 1, characterized in that the outer surface of the handle part is made of a soft material. 34. An ultrasound machine comprising means for controlling an ultrasound probe and means for processing receiving signals of the ultrasound probe and an ultrasound probe connected to said controlling and processing means by a control and communication cable, characterized in that control and communications cable is firmly associated to the ultrasound machine there being provided with a terminal for the connection to the probe made according to claim 26. 35. The ultrasound machine according to claim 34, characterized in that the control and communication cable is provided in communication with means for winding and unwinding a reel.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, including at least an inner space housing, one or more electroacoustic transducers and possible further electric and/or electronic components. The housing has at least an acoustic window at which the one or more electroacoustic transducers are placed. Further included is a handle part composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by a hand or a portion thereof. Housings of this broad type or category are known in the technical field. The ultrasound imaging is considerably widespread and it is often used. By means of studies in the field it has been found that users of ultrasound systems have muscle-skeletal diseases of the hand, wrist, neck and back coinciding with the use of ultrasound probes. In order to avoid or at least to reduce the above issues, housings whose shape has been ergonomically modified are known. One observation is that observed diseases can be eliminated or reduced by allowing the hand and the muscle-skeletal structure associated thereto to have relaxation moments. However, this must be done without losing the control of the probe such that when the examination is carried out the probe can be gripped with a sufficient security in order to guide it and to exert the necessary pressure against the patient. One solution to this challenge is described in the document WO2005/053537 (Koninklijke Philips electronics N.V.) wherein in the location opposite to the acoustic window from which soundproofing pulses are emitted, the probe housing has a cap-like surface that is wide enough to allow the surface of the palm of the hand to grip the housing. The gripping surface, called a palmar gripping surface, is a kind of spherical or spheroidal gripping member that is gripped by the hand as a ball. A similar solution is provided in the U.S. patent publication document US2006/0173331 (Siemens Corporation). In this disclosure, the housing of the probe provides a palmar gripping surface provided in an opposite location with respect to the acoustic window. However, this palmar grip does not completely solve the above issues, since it does not allow the user to relax the hand without losing the grip on the housing of the probe. As such, the hand has to remain substantially tight on the surface of the housing forming the manual handle part. Even if during rest moments while the tightening force can somewhat be relaxed, the hand cannot be absolutely stretched in the correct relaxation position of the muscle-skeletal structure. Even if such configuration of the housing for ultrasound probes providing the palmar grip increases somewhat the situation with respect to the conventional pen type grip by which the probe is held between the fingers (position called pinching in the technical jargon) for performing the scanning, probes providing a palmar grip do not allow to alternatively grip the probe by a pen type grip (pinching). Considering the above, the present invention aims at providing an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, for overcoming the issues with known housings and allowing one to surely hold the probe in the hand even in a position of substantial complete relaxation of the muscle-skeletal structure thereof. The invention aims also at improving the housing such as to avoid drastic changes to the conventional structure of probes, to make simpler and to rationalize the manufacturing of ultrasound probes. The invention achieves the above aims by providing an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, of the type described herein. The housing has a shape or profile constructed and arranged to be ergonomically fitted for being gripped between two adjacent fingers of the hand, i.e. to be inserted in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand of the user. Advantageously the shape and sizes of the housing are such that the adjacent fingers of the hand holding the housing do not force fingers of the hand to be opened wide or to be tightened leading fingers to not be relaxed. On the contrary, particularly the shape and sizes of the housing are such to allow the holding between the two fingers in a natural relative spacing position thereof. An advantageous embodiment provides the gripping surface of the housing to have a gripping surface that is ergonomically shaped in order to be gripped between the fingers, i.e. by interposing it in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand. The gripping extension to be held between the fingers is shaped such to be anatomically adapted to be engaged in the hollow between the fingers between two adjacent fingers of the hand, particularly between the forefinger and the middle finger or between the middle finger and the forefinger. Advantageously the gripping surface of the housing from which the gripping extension to be held between the fingers comes out has a resting part that is like a spherical or spheroidal cap or dome and that is provided opposing the acoustic window, the gripping extension to be held between the fingers being provided at the top of the resting part. The gripping extension that is held between the fingers may have various shapes and sizes. It can be also composed of an elongated member like a pen or the like having a rounded shape in section. According to a further characteristic improving the security of the grip between the fingers, the gripping extension to be held between the fingers has at least a pair of opposite gripping recesses with a U-shaped section, each of which is intended for housing one of the two adjacent fingers for the engagement between the fingers of the gripping extension. As a further improvement, the gripping extension that is held between the fingers has an annular recess having substantially a U-shaped section, whose bottom surface is formed by a band of shell axial surface connected in a rounded way with the two side surfaces that are formed by surfaces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the extension and connected to the bottom surface, possibly only one or both in a rounded way. One of the two side surfaces of the annular recess is composed of the resting part of the gripping surface and the other side surface is composed of the surface of a radial annular enlargement provided at a certain distance from the resting part of the gripping surface. The gripping extension that is held between the fingers has a rotation symmetrical shape or alternatively a non-circular shape of the section, with a greater axis substantially oriented towards the fingers gripping it and/or in the antero-posterior direction of the hand and/or in the direction of the hollow between the fingers and with a smaller axis oriented in the direction transversal to the longitudinal axis of the fingers and/or to the antero-posterior direction of the hand. In a related embodiment, the gripping extension that is held between the fingers is a sleeve for the introduction of an electrical cable for connecting the transducer. Various relative arrangements of the acoustic window with respect to the gripping surface and with respect to the gripping extension that is held between the fingers are possible. A particular choice for example provides gripping extension that is held between the fingers to have a longitudinal axis that coincides with the prolongation of a vector perpendicular to the center of the acoustic window. With regard to the acoustic window, it has to be shaped in a way corresponding to the array of electroacoustic transducers that can be linear, i.e. flat or curved such as in convex probes or the curvature may be according to two axes that are perpendicular one with respect to the other or anyway they are not parallel. In this case, the acoustic window is composed of a flat member or it has a curved configuration respectively only according to a curvature axis or according to two or more curvature axes there being possible also the fact that the curvature can be opposite to the one of the gripping surface. In order to allow the gripping of the housing with a so called pen type grip (pinching), the housing has such a shape and such a thickness at least in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis to be gripped with a position of the hand corresponding to the so called pen type grip, the shape and the thickness being provided for a part of the housing associated to the end having the acoustic window. Other manufacturing variants improving the gripping comfort may provide the housing to have two opposite recesses with a section rounded shape, at an intermediate region of the housing, between the gripping surface and the acoustic window. Moreover the housing may have, from the intermediate region and in the direction of the acoustic window, two different thicknesses in the direction of each one of two axes perpendicular one with respect to the other and enclosed in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the gripping extension to be held between the fingers or in a plane tangential or parallel to the acoustic window. The handle part of the housing forming the cap-like gripping surface opposite to the acoustic window, is advantageously composed of a spheroidal body that is flattened on two sides that are diametrically opposite one with respect to the other. This construction provides two different diameters, a greater one and a smaller one in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the gripping extension to be held between the fingers. The two opposite side recesses provided in the intermediate region of the housing are made as hollow ones in the direction of the greater axis. Therefore the invention provides a housing made of a first housing part and a second housing part, which housing parts are harmonically completed one with the other and are divided along an intermediate separation plane between a part that is shaped so as to form a gripping handle with a pencil type grip position and a gripping handle part that is shaped such to be held by gripping it between fingers. It is possible to provide the two housing parts to be integrally made or to be movably fastened one to the other or it is possible to provide the two housing parts to be movably fastened one to the other. Still according to an advantageous characteristic of the present invention, the housing is provided in combination with one or more transducers, an electronic circuit, a cable connecting the electronic circuit to remote processing and control devices and a member connecting the cable to the electronic circuit. A part of the two cooperating connector parts is integral with the first housing part and the other one is integral with the second housing part. The two connector parts are automatically engaged and disengaged one with the other contemporaneously when the two housing parts are fastened and separated. By the latter characteristic, it is possible to provide a first housing part that is firmly associated with transducers and with possible circuits and electric or electronic components, different combinations of first housing parts and transducers and possible circuits and electronic components that are different one with respect to the other being provided. While it is possible to provide only a second housing part that is firmly associated to the control cable, all first housing parts have a movable fastening end that is the same and it can be fastened and separated from only a second housing part. Differently from present machines, by means of the above for different probes it is possible to provide the same cable that can be firmly integrated in the frame of an ultrasound machine for example, or possibly by providing also automatic winding means as in supplying and control cables of dental tools in so called dental drill units. The present invention relates also to an ultrasound probe having a housing of the type described herein and a combination of ultrasound machine and probe with the housing described above. Further, the control and supplying cable of the ultrasound probe that is firmly integrated in the machine structure is mounted on automatic unwinding and winding means. Further improvements of the housing, of the probe and of the ultrasound machine according to the present invention are described herein. Characteristics of the invention and advantages deriving therefrom will be further understood from the following description and accompanying drawings.
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<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>An ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, includes an inner space housing, one or more electroacoustic transducers and possible further electric and/or electronic components. The housing has at least an acoustic window at which the one or more electroacoustic transducers are placed. Further included is a handle part composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by a hand or a portion thereof. One object of the present disclosure is to describe an improved ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers.
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CROSS REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to European Patent Application No. EP 06425843.7, filed Dec. 18, 2006, entitled “ERGONOMIC HOUSING FOR ELECTROACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS PARTICULARLY FOR ULTRASOUND IMAGING AND ULTRASOUND PROBE WITH SAID HOUSING”, which is expressly incorporated by reference herein, in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, including at least an inner space housing, one or more electroacoustic transducers and possible further electric and/or electronic components. The housing has at least an acoustic window at which the one or more electroacoustic transducers are placed. Further included is a handle part composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by a hand or a portion thereof. Housings of this broad type or category are known in the technical field. The ultrasound imaging is considerably widespread and it is often used. By means of studies in the field it has been found that users of ultrasound systems have muscle-skeletal diseases of the hand, wrist, neck and back coinciding with the use of ultrasound probes. In order to avoid or at least to reduce the above issues, housings whose shape has been ergonomically modified are known. One observation is that observed diseases can be eliminated or reduced by allowing the hand and the muscle-skeletal structure associated thereto to have relaxation moments. However, this must be done without losing the control of the probe such that when the examination is carried out the probe can be gripped with a sufficient security in order to guide it and to exert the necessary pressure against the patient. One solution to this challenge is described in the document WO2005/053537 (Koninklijke Philips electronics N.V.) wherein in the location opposite to the acoustic window from which soundproofing pulses are emitted, the probe housing has a cap-like surface that is wide enough to allow the surface of the palm of the hand to grip the housing. The gripping surface, called a palmar gripping surface, is a kind of spherical or spheroidal gripping member that is gripped by the hand as a ball. A similar solution is provided in the U.S. patent publication document US2006/0173331 (Siemens Corporation). In this disclosure, the housing of the probe provides a palmar gripping surface provided in an opposite location with respect to the acoustic window. However, this palmar grip does not completely solve the above issues, since it does not allow the user to relax the hand without losing the grip on the housing of the probe. As such, the hand has to remain substantially tight on the surface of the housing forming the manual handle part. Even if during rest moments while the tightening force can somewhat be relaxed, the hand cannot be absolutely stretched in the correct relaxation position of the muscle-skeletal structure. Even if such configuration of the housing for ultrasound probes providing the palmar grip increases somewhat the situation with respect to the conventional pen type grip by which the probe is held between the fingers (position called pinching in the technical jargon) for performing the scanning, probes providing a palmar grip do not allow to alternatively grip the probe by a pen type grip (pinching). Considering the above, the present invention aims at providing an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, for overcoming the issues with known housings and allowing one to surely hold the probe in the hand even in a position of substantial complete relaxation of the muscle-skeletal structure thereof. The invention aims also at improving the housing such as to avoid drastic changes to the conventional structure of probes, to make simpler and to rationalize the manufacturing of ultrasound probes. The invention achieves the above aims by providing an ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, of the type described herein. The housing has a shape or profile constructed and arranged to be ergonomically fitted for being gripped between two adjacent fingers of the hand, i.e. to be inserted in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand of the user. Advantageously the shape and sizes of the housing are such that the adjacent fingers of the hand holding the housing do not force fingers of the hand to be opened wide or to be tightened leading fingers to not be relaxed. On the contrary, particularly the shape and sizes of the housing are such to allow the holding between the two fingers in a natural relative spacing position thereof. An advantageous embodiment provides the gripping surface of the housing to have a gripping surface that is ergonomically shaped in order to be gripped between the fingers, i.e. by interposing it in the hollow between two adjacent fingers of the hand. The gripping extension to be held between the fingers is shaped such to be anatomically adapted to be engaged in the hollow between the fingers between two adjacent fingers of the hand, particularly between the forefinger and the middle finger or between the middle finger and the forefinger. Advantageously the gripping surface of the housing from which the gripping extension to be held between the fingers comes out has a resting part that is like a spherical or spheroidal cap or dome and that is provided opposing the acoustic window, the gripping extension to be held between the fingers being provided at the top of the resting part. The gripping extension that is held between the fingers may have various shapes and sizes. It can be also composed of an elongated member like a pen or the like having a rounded shape in section. According to a further characteristic improving the security of the grip between the fingers, the gripping extension to be held between the fingers has at least a pair of opposite gripping recesses with a U-shaped section, each of which is intended for housing one of the two adjacent fingers for the engagement between the fingers of the gripping extension. As a further improvement, the gripping extension that is held between the fingers has an annular recess having substantially a U-shaped section, whose bottom surface is formed by a band of shell axial surface connected in a rounded way with the two side surfaces that are formed by surfaces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the extension and connected to the bottom surface, possibly only one or both in a rounded way. One of the two side surfaces of the annular recess is composed of the resting part of the gripping surface and the other side surface is composed of the surface of a radial annular enlargement provided at a certain distance from the resting part of the gripping surface. The gripping extension that is held between the fingers has a rotation symmetrical shape or alternatively a non-circular shape of the section, with a greater axis substantially oriented towards the fingers gripping it and/or in the antero-posterior direction of the hand and/or in the direction of the hollow between the fingers and with a smaller axis oriented in the direction transversal to the longitudinal axis of the fingers and/or to the antero-posterior direction of the hand. In a related embodiment, the gripping extension that is held between the fingers is a sleeve for the introduction of an electrical cable for connecting the transducer. Various relative arrangements of the acoustic window with respect to the gripping surface and with respect to the gripping extension that is held between the fingers are possible. A particular choice for example provides gripping extension that is held between the fingers to have a longitudinal axis that coincides with the prolongation of a vector perpendicular to the center of the acoustic window. With regard to the acoustic window, it has to be shaped in a way corresponding to the array of electroacoustic transducers that can be linear, i.e. flat or curved such as in convex probes or the curvature may be according to two axes that are perpendicular one with respect to the other or anyway they are not parallel. In this case, the acoustic window is composed of a flat member or it has a curved configuration respectively only according to a curvature axis or according to two or more curvature axes there being possible also the fact that the curvature can be opposite to the one of the gripping surface. In order to allow the gripping of the housing with a so called pen type grip (pinching), the housing has such a shape and such a thickness at least in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis to be gripped with a position of the hand corresponding to the so called pen type grip, the shape and the thickness being provided for a part of the housing associated to the end having the acoustic window. Other manufacturing variants improving the gripping comfort may provide the housing to have two opposite recesses with a section rounded shape, at an intermediate region of the housing, between the gripping surface and the acoustic window. Moreover the housing may have, from the intermediate region and in the direction of the acoustic window, two different thicknesses in the direction of each one of two axes perpendicular one with respect to the other and enclosed in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the gripping extension to be held between the fingers or in a plane tangential or parallel to the acoustic window. The handle part of the housing forming the cap-like gripping surface opposite to the acoustic window, is advantageously composed of a spheroidal body that is flattened on two sides that are diametrically opposite one with respect to the other. This construction provides two different diameters, a greater one and a smaller one in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the gripping extension to be held between the fingers. The two opposite side recesses provided in the intermediate region of the housing are made as hollow ones in the direction of the greater axis. Therefore the invention provides a housing made of a first housing part and a second housing part, which housing parts are harmonically completed one with the other and are divided along an intermediate separation plane between a part that is shaped so as to form a gripping handle with a pencil type grip position and a gripping handle part that is shaped such to be held by gripping it between fingers. It is possible to provide the two housing parts to be integrally made or to be movably fastened one to the other or it is possible to provide the two housing parts to be movably fastened one to the other. Still according to an advantageous characteristic of the present invention, the housing is provided in combination with one or more transducers, an electronic circuit, a cable connecting the electronic circuit to remote processing and control devices and a member connecting the cable to the electronic circuit. A part of the two cooperating connector parts is integral with the first housing part and the other one is integral with the second housing part. The two connector parts are automatically engaged and disengaged one with the other contemporaneously when the two housing parts are fastened and separated. By the latter characteristic, it is possible to provide a first housing part that is firmly associated with transducers and with possible circuits and electric or electronic components, different combinations of first housing parts and transducers and possible circuits and electronic components that are different one with respect to the other being provided. While it is possible to provide only a second housing part that is firmly associated to the control cable, all first housing parts have a movable fastening end that is the same and it can be fastened and separated from only a second housing part. Differently from present machines, by means of the above for different probes it is possible to provide the same cable that can be firmly integrated in the frame of an ultrasound machine for example, or possibly by providing also automatic winding means as in supplying and control cables of dental tools in so called dental drill units. The present invention relates also to an ultrasound probe having a housing of the type described herein and a combination of ultrasound machine and probe with the housing described above. Further, the control and supplying cable of the ultrasound probe that is firmly integrated in the machine structure is mounted on automatic unwinding and winding means. Further improvements of the housing, of the probe and of the ultrasound machine according to the present invention are described herein. Characteristics of the invention and advantages deriving therefrom will be further understood from the following description and accompanying drawings. BRIEF SUMMARY An ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers, particularly for ultrasound imaging, includes an inner space housing, one or more electroacoustic transducers and possible further electric and/or electronic components. The housing has at least an acoustic window at which the one or more electroacoustic transducers are placed. Further included is a handle part composed of an opposing gripping surface having a shape that is ergonomically fitted for being gripped by a hand or a portion thereof. One object of the present disclosure is to describe an improved ergonomic housing for electroacoustic transducers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side elevation view taken on the larger side of an ultrasound probe according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is a side elevation view of the probe according to FIG. 1 but taken from the smaller side thereof. FIGS. 3 and 4 show conditions of the hand in positions holding the probe between the fingers under the relaxed condition of the hand and under the operating condition. FIGS. 5A to 5E are different positions for gripping a convex probe according to the present invention for alternatively the pen type grip and the grip between the fingers. FIGS. 6A to 6E are different positions for gripping a linear probe according to the present invention for alternatively the pen type grip and the grip between the fingers. FIGS. 7 and 8 are two views similar to FIGS. 1 and 2 of a convex probe according to the present invention, wherein the probe housing can be separated in two parts thereof along a median plane. FIGS. 9 and 10 are two views similar to FIGS. 1 and 2 of a linear probe according to the present invention, wherein the probe housing can be separated in two parts thereof along a median plane. FIG. 11 is a variant embodiment of probes according to FIGS. 7 to 10, wherein the pen type gripping part and housing electroacoustic transducers and possible electronics of different configurations of probes can be movably fastened to a housing part composing the between-finger gripping part that is identical for all probes. FIGS. 12 and 13 are a cross-section according to a median plane longitudinal and parallel to the wider face of a convex probe and a linear probe respectively, wherein the array of electroacoustic transducers and the possible electronics or electric circuitry are schematically indicated. FIGS. 14 and 15 schematically show a linear probe according to the present invention and according to previous FIGS. 11 to 13. FIG. 16 schematically shows an ultrasound machine wherein the cable communicating and controlling the probe is firmly mounted in the machine by an automatic winding arrangement. DETAILED DESCRIPTION For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the disclosure, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the disclosure is thereby intended, such alterations and further modifications in the illustrated device and its use, and such further applications of the principles of the disclosure as illustrated therein being contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the disclosure relates. In FIGS. 1 and 2 there is shown a probe of the type called convex, wherein electroacoustic transducers generating ultrasound pulses and receiving reflected ultrasound pulses being part of a transducer set, called an array, are arranged on a curved surface or are moved along a curved surface. In this case the probe has a housing 1 that at one end, the one proximal to the object to be examined and particularly to the epithelial region coinciding with the anatomical region to be examined, has an acoustic window 2 behind which there is arranged the transducer array housed in a space enclosed by the housing 1. The acoustic window 2 is composed of a wall portion that is permeable (i.e. transparent to ultrasound pulses), both the ones transmitted by transducers and the ones reflected towards the transducers. The housing extends from the acoustic window in the direction of a distal end, (i.e. an end opposite to the one of the acoustic window). At such end the housing 1 forms a handle part 101 having a gripping and/or resting surface 201 that is rounded like a spherical or spheroidal cap or dome extending in the direction opposite to the end provided with the acoustic window 2 by a gripping extension to be held between the fingers denoted by 301. Such extension having a shape with a rounded cross section is connected to the gripping or resting surface 201 by at least two diametrically opposite recesses being shaped like a “U” denoted by 401 and which recesses 401 have a rounded bottom wall connected to a first side wall radially oriented with respect to the axis of the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers and composed of the region of the top of the gripping/resting surface 201. The opposite wall laterally delimiting the opposite U-shaped recesses 401 is composed of two diametrically opposite radial enlargements of the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers. Advantageously such as shown in examples of figures instead of two opposite laid down U-shaped recesses it is advantageous to provide an annular groove of the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers delimited by two radial walls spaced in the direction of the axis of the extension and one of which is composed of the top portion of the gripping/resting surface 201, while the other one is composed of the radial annular surface of a radial enlargement 501 of the extension 401 that is provided as being spaced to a certain extent from the gripping/resting surface 201. The bottom of the annular groove is connected to the two annular, radial walls in a rounded and harmonic way. Advantageously the distance between the two annular radial walls substantially corresponds to the average diameter or it is adapted to the average diameter of two adjacent fingers of a hand such that they can be partially housed in the groove or in the opposite recesses and such that the annular radial surface that is more far away from the acoustic window 2 partially overlaps the top of the hand and so of the corresponding two adjacent fingers between which the gripping extension to be held between the fingers is intended to be gripped. The section of the extension is advantageously rounded and it can have different shapes. In order to avoid the two adjacent fingers, generally but not exclusively the forefinger and the middle finger to take an unnatural and too much wide apart position at least at the region of the two opposite laid down U-shaped recesses 401 or of the annular groove, the section of the extension part corresponding to the region of the bottom of the groove is not rounded but it is flattened at the sides intended to be faced towards the two adjacent fingers. Therefore, in this case, the section is made oval or flattened such to have a smaller axis in the direction transverse to the fingers and to the hollow therebetween and a greater axis in the direction parallel to the longitudinal extension of the fingers and of the hollow therebetween. This allows to reduce the spreading of fingers such to have such a position guaranteeing a relaxed condition of the muscle-skeletal structure of the hand during the gripping condition between the fingers but also to guarantee a condition for the sufficient control or holding of the extension between the two fingers by means of an increased surface contacting the fingers in the longitudinal direction thereof. The gripping/resting surface 201 is composed of an handle part like a spheric or spheroidal member or however a rounded member that is not a palmar gripping surface and having a maximum outwardly projecting equatorial line beyond which the handle part tapers connecting with a thinned handle part having a pen type grip denoted by 601 and ending by the end provided of the acoustic window 2. The spheroidal handle part is connected to the tapered handle part 601 having the pen type grip with two hollow recesses 701 at diametrically opposite sides and that in the gripping condition between the fingers condition are a recess for gripping or housing the thumb of the hand. The two opposite recesses 701 are provided at the two side ends of the larger sides of the pen type grip tapered handle part 601, while the two narrower sides of the pen type grip tapered handle part are connected by a continuous flaring to the spheroidal handle part such as shown in FIG. 2. In the median region of the two wider sides of the pen type grip tapered part 601 of the probe, the two wider sides have a hollow 801 for gripping or housing fingertips of the fingers in the pen type grip respectively. Even if such characteristic is not to be considered a limitative one, but it is a simple advantageous configuration, in the shown embodiments the gripping extension 301 to be held between fingers is tubular and it is opened both at the end for the connection to the housing and to the opposite end and it is a sleeve for passing the cable for a cable for the control and communication of transducers and possible electronic and/or electric components associated to transducers with other units of an ultrasound machine. Such characteristic is seen in greater detail by sections according to diametral planes of FIGS. 12 and 13. However such double functionality of the gripping extension 301 to be held between fingers is only a particular case and it can be provided also in combination with a housing provided with different inlets for the control and communication cable (not shown in details in figures). The above housing has such a shape that at a head end and particularly at the head end proximal to or contacting the epithelium of the patient is provided with an acoustic window 2 composed of a surface having a narrower side and a longer side. The surface may be flat or curved in a convex way. To the proximal head end there is connected a first pen type grip handle part denoted by 601 that is flattened having two wider sides parallel or substantially parallel to longer sides of the acoustic window and two narrower sides that are oriented in the direction of the narrower sides of the acoustic window 2. The width of the two narrower sides, that is the distance between the two wider sides is such that the pencil type grip handle part 601 can be easily gripped between the fingers of the hand with the pen type grip and substantially it has a size corresponding to the thickness of a pen with a more or less large diameter. In the central region of the two wider sides of the pen type grip handle part 601 there are provided two depressions or hollows 801 for easily tightening the part 601. These hollows allow closing of the opposite fingers like pliers when holding the probe like a pen, thus overcoming a circumference with an arc of 180° formed by pen type grip opposite fingers. The pen type grip handle tapered part 601 is connected by two opposite side hollows made in the wider side walls to a handle spheroidal part 101 to be held between the fingers that is composed of a spheroidal member having a greater diameter in the direction parallel to wider sides of the pen type grip handle part 601 and a smaller diameter in the direction parallel to narrower sides of the pen type grip handle part 601. The spheroidal member on the side faced towards the end provided with the acoustic window 2 forms wall faces of recesses 701 in wider sides of the pen type grip handle part 601 and on the opposite side it forms a resting cap or dome that in its top region has the gripping extension 301 to be held between fingers with the annular groove 401 engaging the two adjacent gripping fingers delimited on one side by the cap or dome of the resting or gripping member 101 and on the other side by the radial enlargement 501. In the particular embodiment the housing 1 has a longitudinal axis that coincides with a vector passing through the center of the acoustic window and perpendicular to the surface tangential to the acoustic window in the center such axis being coincident with the longitudinal axis of the gripping extension 401 to be held between the fingers and perpendicular to the greater and smaller diameter of the spheroid 101 in the equatorial plane thereof. FIGS. 3 and 4 clearly show the advantage of gripping the housing between the fingers according to the present invention. In this example the skeletal structure of the hand is schematized by using an arrangement of articulated rods. Joints are indicated by circles. The greatest circle is the wrist. FIG. 3 clearly shows the fact that by means of the gripping extension to be held between the fingers it is possible to relatively firmly and securely grip the probe even if the hand is in its substantial resting and stretched position. In this case the probe is not subjected to any pressures and the grip is secure as regards the holding and the control of the probe when the hand and the probe are not stressed. On the contrary FIG. 4 shows the holding between the fingers with the hand in its operating control condition wherein the probe is held not only by gripping it between the fingers, but also by tightening it or holding it like tongs along the resting and gripping cap or dome like surface 301. In this condition the thumb rests against the region of the handle spheroidal member under the equatorial line and connected to the pen type grip handle part 601. It is to be noted that the tongs-like or tightening grip occurs contemporaneously to the gripping between the fingers and however it is not a palmar grip. Moreover in this position tightening the holding between the fingers the spheroidal handle part 101 the joint of the wrist is not stressed i.e. the axis of the forearm and the one of the thumb are substantially aligned, thus reducing stresses to the carpal tunnel. At the same time the possibility of resting the middle finger and/or other fingers of the hand on the cap or dome on the side of the spheroidal gripping part opposite to the acoustic window 2, on the distal side of the equatorial line of the spheroidal part allows to exert on the probe the necessary pushing pressure indicated by the arrow F1 in FIG. 4 and so to properly control the probe. The following series of FIGS. 5A to 5E and 6A to 6E clearly show the modes for gripping the housing and so the probe according to the present invention with reference to a probe of the convex type and to a probe of the linear type. FIGS. 5A and 6A show the gripping condition by the holding between the fingers with the hand in the stretched and resting condition. FIG. 5B and FIG. 6C show the condition when the housing is gripped between the fingers and the spheroid resting and gripping part 101 is tightened the wider faces of the housing and more precisely of the pen type grip handle part 601 or longer sides of the acoustic window 2 being oriented transversely to the longitudinal direction of fingers. FIGS. 5C and 6B show the variant wherein the housing is gripped by tightening and holding between fingers the spheroid gripping and resting part 101 by using the wider faces of the housing and more precisely of the pen type grip handle part 601 or with the longer sides of the acoustic window 2 substantially oriented in the longitudinal direction of fingers. FIGS. 5D and 5E and FIGS. 6E and 6D show the housing gripped by the pen type grip with the probe in the two positions respectively with respect to the longitudinal axis of the hand respectively and that is in the two positions of the probe or housing corresponding to an orientation of the wider sides of the housing or of the flattened part 601 of the probe transverse to the axis of the forearm or parallel thereto respectively. FIGS. 7 to 15 show probes of the convex type and of the linear type according to what has been previously described. As it is clear from FIGS. 7 to 15, the two housing parts 101 and 601 composing the spheroidal handle gripping or resting part and the pen type grip handle part respectively, are advantageously made as being movably fastenable along a substantially equatorial separation plane of the spheroidal part 101. Such plane coincides with the line separating the walls of the two housing parts 101 and 601 denoted by 3 in FIGS. 7 to 15. The two housing parts 101 and 601 can be made of different materials and particularly the spheroidal gripping one can be made of a soft material and the pen type grip handle one can be made of a more rigid material. The softer material can be also an outer layer covering a more rigid supporting layer. Similarly it is also possible for one part 101 or the other one 601 to have regions with covering inserts or layers made of soft material in locations contacting the fingers or other parts of the hand, such as for example hollows 801 or islets 901 in recesses 401. Advantageously this characteristic allows to make housings for ultrasound probes and ultrasound probes such that the cap-like or dome-like part bearing the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers is in common to a series of probes which have as the probe housing the pen type grip handle part 601 and the spheroidal gripping part extending to the substantially equatorial separation surface. In this case, such as shown in FIGS. 12 to 15, in the housing space 4 of the housing there is the enclosed the array of electroacoustic transducers 5 placed at the acoustic window 2, a terminal board composed of a printed circuit 6 or it can be composed of simple conducting paths or it can also comprise an electronic circuit with corresponding electronic components and a connector 7 mounted on the printed circuit and connecting a control and communication cable (not shown) to the printed circuit and to transducers. In FIGS. 11 to 15 the two housing parts are defined by reference numbers 1A and 1B since the fact of being different is not related to the gripping task but it is related to the two parts that can be coupled or uncoupled and from a functionality point of view they coincide only partially with definitions of spheroidal gripping and resting part 101 and pen type grip handle part 601. Particularly as it results from FIGS. 14 and 15, the connector 7 is made of two parts 107 and 207 that can be coupled and uncoupled both mechanically and electrically, the two parts being firmly mounted one 107 to the printed circuit 6 in the housing part 1B and the other one 207 in the housing part 1A wherein it is firmly connected to the control and communication cable (not shown) passing inside the housing part 1A through the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers. The two connector parts are made and mounted such that the mechanical and electric coupling of the two connector parts 107, 207 occurs by the same or a part of the same relative movement coupling or uncoupling the two housing parts 1A and 1B, so that contemporaneously to the fastening of the two housing parts 1A and 1B and contemporaneously to the separation of the two housing parts 1A and 1B also the mechanical and electric coupling and the mechanical and electric uncoupling of the two connector parts 107 and 207 occur respectively. In the schematic example of FIGS. 14 and 15, the two housing parts 1A and 1B and the corresponding two connector parts 107 and 207 are coupled by approaching and compressing them in the direction of arrows F2 and F3 of FIG. 14 and they are uncoupled by pulling and bringing them farther away according to the double arrow F4 in FIG. 15. The arrows are oriented parallel to the longitudinal axis coinciding with the central axis of the acoustic window 2 that is perpendicular to the plane tangential to the center of the acoustic window and that possibly it also coincides with the axis of the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers. It is to be noted that in the case of the example of FIGS. 11 to 15, the probe housing is composed of a part 1A that is always the same and it is both the terminal connecting the control and communication cable of the ultrasound machine to the ultrasound probe intended as the array of transducers and circuits associated thereto inside the probe, and a part of the spheroidal resting and gripping part 101 and more precisely the dome or cap-like part provided at the distal end of the probe housing and opposite to the acoustic window 2 and moreover it comprises the gripping extension 301 to be held between the fingers. The other housing part 1B on the contrary becomes the real housing part of the probe firmly housing transducers and circuits associated thereto and it is different for each different probe, moreover the housing part 1B being composed of the pen type grip handle part 601 and of the part of the spheroidal gripping and resting part 101 connected to the pen type grip handle part and that is interposed between it and the substantially equatorial plane or line of separation 3, while all different probes have a housing composed of the housing part 1B and all the housing parts 1B have the same configuration and the identical coupling means, as well as an identical connector part 107 by means of which each of them can be coupled to the housing part 1A and to the corresponding connector part 207. This embodiment allows to achieve a considerable advantage as it is shown in FIG. 16. In this figure by the number 11 a general machine for acquiring ultrasound images is indicated. The machine comprises circuits 12 controlling the ultrasound probe 1 and processing signals kept by the probe as images that are displayed on a screen 13 or by other alternative displaying means. The probe 1 is connected to control and processing circuits 12 by a control and processing cable 14. This cable is made as firmly connected or coupled to the ultrasound machine and particularly to control and processing circuits 12, while it ends with a housing part 1A with a connector part 207 to which a probe can be connected and whose housing is composed of a housing part 1B with a connector 107 according to what has been described with reference to FIGS. 11 to 15. In this case, therefore for changing the type of probe it is not necessary to replace the control and communication cable 14, but only the probe. Moreover this arrangement in combination with the cable 14 allows to provide automatic means 15 for winding the cable 14 on a reel for example composed of a reel upon which a certain length of the cable is wound and that is rotatable in the unwinding direction against the action of spring means operating the rotation of the reel in the winding direction. The means, for example a spiral spring, are loaded by the rotation of the reel when unwinding the cable occurring by means of the pulling action exerted by the user, so when the pulling force is released, the reel is rotationally dragged in the opposite direction i.e. in the winding direction and the cable is automatically rewound. The functionality can be achieved also by means of other means for example with similar alternative means or by means substantially identical to means associated to cables or ducts controlling and supplying dental tools in so-called dental drill units. From the above advantages of the present invention are clear consisting in a better condition for using the probe as regards the gripping thereof and consequences of an extended use on the health conditions of the muscle-skeletal structure of the hand and/or of the wrist of the user and at the same time in modifying the present manufacturing of probes by providing a combination of a series of probes that can be coupled to a sole connector connecting a control and communication cable that is firmly associated to the ultrasound machine and therefore it can be provided in combination with automatic lengthening and shortening mechanisms. In this case costs are reduced since all probes are connected to the same cable, and moreover the security and comfort in using the device drastically increases. While the preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated and described in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character, it being understood that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the invention are desired to be protected.
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A
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8
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00
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11946790
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US20080188890A1-20080807
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MULTI-PART INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS AND METHODS
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ACCEPTED
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20080723
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20080807
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[]
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A61B1700
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["A61B1700"]
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8715270
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20071128
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20140506
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606
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001000
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64232.0
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LUKJAN
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SEBASTIAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Weitzner", "inventor_name_first": "Barry", "inventor_city": "Acton", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Smith", "inventor_name_first": "Paul J.", "inventor_city": "Smithfield", "inventor_state": "RI", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Geitz", "inventor_name_first": "Kurt", "inventor_city": "Sudbury", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Described herein are multi-part instrument systems and methods of use. The instrument can include an inner and outer body member where the inner body member is adapted to dock with the outer body member. When docked, driving the outer body member via a manipulation section can control the inner body. In use, an inner body member can be removed and replaced by a different inner body member to change the tool end effector. Alternatively, driving a manipulation section of the inner body member can control the outer body member. The outer body member can be disposable while the inner body member is reusable.
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1. A two-part instrument system, comprising: an elongate guide tube having at least one channel; and a tool sized and shaped for passage through the at least one channel, the tool comprising a first and a second body member; the first body member including a controller, an elongate body having a lumen therein extending to a distal aperture, and a distal manipulation section, the controller adapted to control at least one degree of freedom of the distal manipulation section, and the second body member including an elongate body and a distal end effector, the elongate body and distal end effector sized and shaped for receipt in the lumen of the first body. 2. The system of claim 1, further comprising a detachable connection between the first and second body members. 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the detachable connection prevents substantial relative movement between the distal aperture of the first body member and the end effector of the second body member. 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the detachable connection prevents relative movement between the first and second body members at the detachable connection. 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the first body member includes a mating feature positioned proximate to the distal articulation section. 6. The system of claim 5, wherein the second body member includes a corresponding second mating feature for mating with the first body member. 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the second body member includes a controller adapted to control at least one degree of freedom of the distal end effector. 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the second body member includes a controller adapted to mate with the controller of the first body member. 9. The system of claim 8, wherein user inputs to the proximal controller of the first body member drives the proximal controller of the second body member. 10. The system of claim 9, wherein a user can control the first and second body members simultaneously with the controller of the first body member. 11. The system of claim 9, wherein a user can control the first and second body members simultaneously with a single hand. 12. The system of claim 1, wherein the tool has at least three degrees of freedom. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the first body member has a least two degrees of freedom and the second body member has at least one degree of freedom. 14. The system of claim 1, wherein the distal end effector of the second body member is sized and shaped to extend at least partially through the distal aperture. 15. The system of claim 14, further comprising a stop to limit relative movement of the first and second body members. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the stop is configured to prevent distal movement of the second body member relative to the first body member when the end effector of the second body member extends through the distal opening. 17. The system of claim 1, wherein a detachable connection between the first and second body members inhibits relative translational and/or rotational movement between the distal manipulation section of the first body member and the distal end effector of the second body member. 18. The system of claim 1, wherein a detachable connection inhibits one of relative rotational and longitudinal movement between the first and second body members and allows the other. 19. The system of claim 1, wherein the first and second body members mate with a fluid seal therebetween. 20. A two-part instrument system, comprising: the first body member including a controller, an elongate body having a lumen therein extending to a distal aperture at the distal end of the elongate body, and a distal manipulation section, the proximal controller adapted to control at least one degree of freedom of the distal manipulation section, and the second body member including an elongate body and a distal end effector, the elongate body and distal end effector sized and shaped for receipt in the lumen of the first body, wherein the first and second body members are adapted to detachably mate with one another when the elongate body of the second body member resides within the elongate body of the first body member and the distal end effector of the second body member extends through the distal aperture in the first body member. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the proximal controller is movably mated with a frame. 22. The system of claim 20, wherein the end effector is a surgical instrument. 23. A method of using a two-part instrument, comprising: providing an elongate tool extending between a proximal and a distal end and having first and second body members, where the second body member is sized and shaped to sit within a lumen defined by the first body member and an end effector of the second body member is sized and shaped to extend through an opening at the distal end of the first body member; driving at least two degrees of freedom of the distal end effector via movement of the first body member; and driving an additional degree of freedom by actuating the distal end effector. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the first and second body members include first and second proximal controllers. 25. The method of claim 24, further comprising the step of mating the first and second proximal controllers. 26. The method of claim 25, further comprising the step of driving the second controller by manipulating the first controller. 27. The method of claim 25, wherein both steps of driving are performed by manipulating the first controller. 28. The method of claim 25, further comprising the step of manipulating the first and second body members with a single hand. 29. The method of claim 23, wherein the step of driving at least two degrees of freedom includes bending a manipulation section of the first body member. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the manipulation section is bent approximately 90 degrees. 31. The method of claim 30, further comprising moving the second body member through the manipulation section and directing the end effector in a transverse direction with respect to the elongate tool. 32. A method of assembling a tool, comprising: providing an elongate tool extending between a proximal and a distal end and having first and second body members, where the second body member is sized and shaped to reside within a lumen defined by the first body member and wherein the second body member includes an end effector; inserting the second body member through a proximal opening in the first body member and into the lumen in the first body member; moving the end effector through the lumen and out through a distal opening in the first body member; and mating the first and second body members such that movement of the first body member moves the end effector on the second body member and such that relative proximal and distal movement of the first and second body members is inhibited. 33. The method of claim 32, further comprising the step of removing the second body member and end effector through the proximal opening in the first body member. 34. The method of claim 32, further comprising the step of removing the second body member and inserting a third body member. 35. The method of claim 32, wherein the first body member includes a first proximal controller. 36. The method of claim 35, further comprising the step of mating a proximal controller of the second body member with the first proximal controller. 37. The method of claim 32, further comprising the step of inserting a third body member into the first body member. 38. A two-part instrument system, comprising: an elongate guide tube having at least one channel; and a tool sized and shaped for passage through the at least one channel, the tool comprising a first and a second body member; the first body member including a controller, an elongate body having a lumen therein, and a distal end effector, and the second body member including an elongate body sized and shaped for receipt in the lumen of the first body and a distal manipulation section for driving the first and second body members when the first body member is positioned within the second body member. 39. The system of claim 38, further comprising a detachable connection between the first and second body members. 40. The system of claim 38, wherein the first body member has a closed distal end. 41. The system of claim 38, wherein a control wire for actuating the distal end effector extends through at the second body member. 42. The system of claim 41, wherein the control wire detachably mates with a distal control wire proximate to the distal end of the lumen. 43. The system of claim 38, wherein the second body member manipulation section comprises a pre-bent section of the second body member. 44. The system of claim 38, wherein the detachable connection prevents relative movement between the first and second body members at the detachable connection.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Minimally invasive surgical tools, such as endoscopic and laparoscopic devices, can provide surgical access to surgical sites while minimizing patient trauma. Although the growing capabilities of such therapeutic devices allow physicians to perform an increasing variety of surgeries through traditional minimally invasive routes, further refinements may allow surgical access through even less invasive routes. Currently some robotic systems have been proposed to allow surgical access via a natural orifice. The user interface is remote from surgical tools and/or end effectors. Unfortunately, these systems are generally expensive and complicated. In addition, they fail to provide the tactile user feedback which traditional devices can provide. Accordingly, there is room for further refinement to conventional minimally invasive surgical devices and a need to develop new surgical systems.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Described herein are various systems and methods for driving tools. The tools, in one aspect, can be driven via user input forces that are delivered to a distal working area. The tools and/or other elements of the various systems described below, in response to user input forces, can move in multiple degrees of freedom. The systems described herein can also facilitate control of those multiple degrees of freedom. In one embodiment, multi-part instrument systems are provided. The instrument can include an inner and outer body member. The outer body member can comprise a manipulation section for controlling at least one degree of freedom and the inner body member can include an end effector. Driving the manipulation section of the outer body member can control movement of the end effector of the inner body member. In one aspect, the inner and outer body members are adapted to dock with one another. For example, the inner and outer body members can detachably mate when the inner body member is inserted into a lumen within the outer body member. When mated, the distal ends of the inner and outer body member can be fixed in positioned with respect to one another. In use, an inner body member can be removed and replaced by a different inner body member to change the tool end effector. In one aspect, the inner body member is an off-the-shelf tool. Different conventional tools can be inserted through the outer body member. Alternatively, the inner body member can be specifically adapted for use with the outer body member. In another embodiment the inner body member can comprise a manipulation section and the outer body member can include the end effector. The inner body member can be positioned within a lumen in the outer body member and articulated to drive movement of the outer body member. In one aspect, the outer body member can be disposable while the inner body member is reusable. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/872,155 entitled “Systems and Methods For Intraluminal Surgery” filed Dec. 1, 2006 and to Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/909,219 entitled “Direct Drive Endoscopy Systems and Methods” filed Mar. 30, 2007, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Minimally invasive surgical tools, such as endoscopic and laparoscopic devices, can provide surgical access to surgical sites while minimizing patient trauma. Although the growing capabilities of such therapeutic devices allow physicians to perform an increasing variety of surgeries through traditional minimally invasive routes, further refinements may allow surgical access through even less invasive routes. Currently some robotic systems have been proposed to allow surgical access via a natural orifice. The user interface is remote from surgical tools and/or end effectors. Unfortunately, these systems are generally expensive and complicated. In addition, they fail to provide the tactile user feedback which traditional devices can provide. Accordingly, there is room for further refinement to conventional minimally invasive surgical devices and a need to develop new surgical systems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Described herein are various systems and methods for driving tools. The tools, in one aspect, can be driven via user input forces that are delivered to a distal working area. The tools and/or other elements of the various systems described below, in response to user input forces, can move in multiple degrees of freedom. The systems described herein can also facilitate control of those multiple degrees of freedom. In one embodiment, multi-part instrument systems are provided. The instrument can include an inner and outer body member. The outer body member can comprise a manipulation section for controlling at least one degree of freedom and the inner body member can include an end effector. Driving the manipulation section of the outer body member can control movement of the end effector of the inner body member. In one aspect, the inner and outer body members are adapted to dock with one another. For example, the inner and outer body members can detachably mate when the inner body member is inserted into a lumen within the outer body member. When mated, the distal ends of the inner and outer body member can be fixed in positioned with respect to one another. In use, an inner body member can be removed and replaced by a different inner body member to change the tool end effector. In one aspect, the inner body member is an off-the-shelf tool. Different conventional tools can be inserted through the outer body member. Alternatively, the inner body member can be specifically adapted for use with the outer body member. In another embodiment the inner body member can comprise a manipulation section and the outer body member can include the end effector. The inner body member can be positioned within a lumen in the outer body member and articulated to drive movement of the outer body member. In one aspect, the outer body member can be disposable while the inner body member is reusable. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate exemplary embodiments of the invention and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 2A is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 along A-A. FIG. 2B is another embodiment of a cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 along A-A. FIG. 3A is a disassembled view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 3B is a cut-away view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 4A is a cut-away view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 4B is a cut-away view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 5A is a front view of one exemplary element of the system described herein. FIG. 5B is a front view of another embodiment of the element of FIG. 5A. FIG. 6A is a cross-sectional view of one exemplary embodiment of an end cap described herein. FIG. 6B is another cross-section view of the end cap of FIG. 6A. FIG. 7A is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a channel divider described herein. FIG. 7B is a longitudinal cross-section of the channel divider of FIG. 7A. FIG. 7C is a perspective view of the channel divider of FIG. 7A positioned within a guide tube. FIG. 7D is a front view of one exemplary embodiment of a guide tube described herein. FIG. 7E is a side view of the guide tube of FIG. 7D. FIG. 7F is a cross-sectional view of the guide tube of FIG. 7D. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 9A a transparent view of one exemplary embodiment of a guide tube described herein. FIG. 9B is a transparent front view of the guide tube of FIG. 9A. FIG. 10A is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 10B is a cross-section view of the system of FIG. 10A. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 12 is a perspective and partially transparent view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 13 is a side and partially transparent view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 14 is a side view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 15A is a side view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 15B is a side view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 16A is a cross-sectional view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 16B is another cross-sectional view of FIG. 16A. FIG. 16C is another cross-sectional view of FIG. 16A. FIG. 16D is a side view of FIG. 16A. FIG. 17 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of the distal end of another exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 19A through 19C are perspective views of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 22 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 23 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 24 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 26 and 27 are perspective views of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 28A and 28B are cross-sectional views of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 29A is a partly transparent view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 29B is a front view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 30 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 31A is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 31B is a transparent view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 32A and 32B are perspective views of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 33A and 33B are partially transparent views of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 34 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 35 is a perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIG. 36 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a guide tube described herein. FIGS. 37 and 38 are partially disassembled views of one exemplary embodiment of a guide tube described herein. FIG. 39 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 40A and 40B are cross-sectional views of one exemplary embodiment of the proximal end of a working channel. FIG. 40C is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of the distal end of a guide tube. FIGS. 41A through 41C are various exemplary embodiments of rigid or partially rigid guide tubes. FIGS. 42A through 42C are perspective views of various exemplary embodiments of a system described herein for laparoscopic procedures. FIGS. 43A through 43I are perspective views of various guide tube and instrument embodiments described herein. FIG. 44 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 45 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame and guide tube for use with a system described herein. FIG. 46 is a top view of one exemplary embodiment of a quick-disconnect for use with the guide tubes and frames described herein. FIG. 47 is a side view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 48 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 49 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 50 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 51 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 52 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a rail mounted on an optical device. FIG. 53 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a frame for use with a system described herein. FIG. 54 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of rails for use with a system described herein. FIG. 55 is a side view of one exemplary embodiment of tool and rail for use with a system described herein. FIG. 56 is a side view of one exemplary embodiment of tool and rail for use with a system described herein. FIGS. 57 through 58B illustrate various exemplary quick-disconnects for use with a system described herein. FIGS. 59A through 59C illustrate various locking and/or damping elements for use with a system described herein. FIGS. 60 and 61 are perspective views of exemplary features of tools and rails described herein. FIG. 62A is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a control member and rail described herein. FIGS. 62B and 62C are cross-sectional view of exemplary features of a control member described herein. FIGS. 63A through 65 are perspective views of various exemplary rails and tools described herein. FIG. 66A is a partially transparent view of one exemplary embodiment of a rail and tool described herein. FIG. 66B is a cross-sectional view along B-B of FIG. 66A. FIG. 67 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a control member and rail described herein. FIG. 68A is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a control member and rail described herein. FIG. 68B is a perspective view of another exemplary embodiment of a control member and rail described herein. FIGS. 69A and 69B are partially transparent views of various exemplary embodiments of a control member and rail described herein. FIG. 70 is a perspective view of another exemplary embodiment of a control member and rail described herein. FIGS. 71A through 73 are various exemplary embodiments of a rail and guide tube described herein. FIG. 74 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a system described herein. FIGS. 75 through 79 are views of various exemplary features of the system of FIG. 74. FIG. 80A is a perspective view of one exemplary tool described herein. FIGS. 80B through 84 are various partially disassembled views of the tool of FIG. 80A. FIGS. 85 through 89B are various partially transparent views of exemplary control mechanism for use with a control member described herein. FIGS. 90 through 96 are various perspective views of exemplary handles for use with a control member described herein. FIG. 97 is a perspective view of an exemplary embodiment of a capstan for use with a tool described herein. FIG. 98A is a perspective view of an exemplary control mechanism described herein. FIGS. 98B and 98C are cross sectional views of one exemplary element of the control mechanism of FIG. 98A. FIGS. 99 and 101 are perspective views of exemplary control mechanisms described herein. FIG. 102 is a perspective view of an exemplary control member for use with a system described herein. FIG. 103 is a perspective view of foot pedals for use with a system described herein. FIG. 104 is a partially transparent view of a control mechanism having exemplary locking and/or damping mechanisms. FIG. 105 is a partially transparent view of a control mechanism having an exemplary locking and/or damping mechanism. FIG. 106 is a partially transparent view of one exemplary embodiment of a tool and rail described herein. FIG. 107 is a side view of one exemplary embodiment of a tool and rail described herein. FIG. 108 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of an instrument described herein. FIG. 109 is a cut-away view of one exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIG. 110 is a cut-away view of another exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIGS. 111A through 111C are partially transparent views of exemplary end effectors described herein. FIG. 112 is perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIGS. 113A and 113B are perspective views of various exemplary elements of a tool described herein. FIGS. 114 through 116B are partially transparent views of exemplary embodiments of tools described herein. FIG. 117 is perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIG. 118 is perspective view of the distal end of one exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIGS. 119A and 119B are perspective views of an exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIG. 120A is a disassembled view of one exemplary embodiment of a tools described herein. FIG. 120B is a cross-sectional view of the tool of FIG. 120A. FIGS. 121A and 121B are front and cross-sectional views of an exemplary element of the tool of FIG. 102A. FIG. 122A is a cut-away view of one exemplary embodiment of a two-part tool described herein. FIG. 122B is a perspective view of the tool of FIG. 122A. FIGS. 123A through 123D are cross-sectional view of exemplary embodiments of a tool described herein. FIG. 124 is a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of a tool described herein. FIGS. 125A through 125C are partial cross-sectional views of exemplary embodiments of a two-part tool described herein. FIGS. 126 though 130 are side views of exemplary embodiments of disposable elements of tools described herein. FIGS. 131A through 131J are perspective views of exemplary steps of knot tying using a system described herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed herein are systems and methods for performing surgery at a distance via medical instruments directly connected to user controls. In one aspect, the system is adapted for trans-oral, trans-anal, trans-vaginal, trans-urethral, trans-nasal, transluminal, laparoscopic, thorascopic, orthopedic, through the ear, and/or percutaneous access. Various exemplary components of the system are described below in more detail. However, generally, the system can include at least one instrument directly connected to a user control. The system can permit a user to control at least two degrees of freedom via a controller that can be manipulated with a single hand. In another aspect, the single-hand controller can control three, four, or more than four degrees of freedom. In yet another aspect, at least two controllers, each configured for single-hand control, are provided. Each controller can provide at least two degrees of freedom, three degrees of freedom, four degrees of freedom, or more than four degrees of freedom. In order to allow the user to manipulate the multiple degrees of freedom, the systems can include a structure that provides a frame of reference between the user, the instruments, the controllers, and/or the patient. This structure can be provided by a variety of different components as described below. The following disclosure is broken into several sections, including a description of a guide tube for housing a portion of an instrument or instruments, a frame, rails which can facilitate instrument movement, a controller for manipulating the instrument or instruments, and the instruments themselves. It should be appreciated that the systems described and claimed herein can include any or all of the various disclosed components and the various embodiments of those components. In addition, a single structure can define and/or perform the function of elements described in two separate sections of the disclosure. For example, the frame or guide tube can define a rail. A portion of the disclosure is directed to exemplary systems (e.g., FIG. 1), but it should be understood that this invention is not limited to those exemplary systems. In addition, while the discussion of systems and methods below may generally refer to “surgical tools,” “surgery,” or a “surgical site” for convenience, the described systems and their methods of use are not limited to tissue resection and/or repair. In particular, the described systems can be used for inspection and diagnosis in addition, or as an alternative, to surgery. Moreover, the systems describe herein can perform non-medical applications such as in the inspection and/or repair of machinery. FIG. 1 provides a perspective view of one embodiment of a system 20 for performing intraluminal and/or transluminal surgery through a natural orifice. The system includes a frame 22 for supporting control members 24a, 24b, of tools 40a, 40b, and a guide tube 26 for housing the elongate body of tools 40a, 40b, and/or an optical device 28. When the guide tube 26 is inserted into a patient, control members 24a, 24b allow a surgeon to manipulate surgical tools 40a, 40b which extend to a surgical site positioned adjacent to the distal end 34 of guide tube 26. As will be described in more detail below, frame 22 can have a variety of configurations depending on patient location, spacing, ergonomics, physician preference, and/or the availability of an operating table frame. The Guide Tube Guide tube 26 can have an elongate body 32 extending from the frame and configured for insertion through a natural orifice and/or incision to a surgical site within a patient. While the guide tube is shown in FIG. 1 as mated with frame 22, guide tube 26 can be used without frame 22 during a portion or all of a surgical procedure. In one aspect, guide tube 26 includes a distal articulating end 34 that is controlled by proximal guide tube controls 30. A proximal end 36 of the guide tube can include at least one aperture for receipt of surgical instruments, such as, for example, tools 40a, 40b and/or optical device 28 (together generally referred to herein as “surgical instruments”). Between proximal end 36 and distal end 34 of guide tube 26, elongate body 32 can include a mid-portion 33. In one embodiment, mid-portion 33 is generally flexible and non-articulating. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the guide tube is rigid. For example, a portion or the whole of guide tube 26 can be rigid. In one embodiment, as discussed below, guide tube 26 can provide system 20 with one, two, or more than two degrees of freedom. For example, guide tube 26 can be articulated with controls 30 to move at least a portion of guide tube 26 (e.g., distal end 34) up/down and/or side-to-side. Additional degrees of freedom, provided for example, via rotation, translational movement of the guide tube with respect to the frame, and/or additional articulation or bending sections, are also contemplated. The outer surface of elongate body 32 of guide tube 26 can include a layer of lubricous material to facilitate insertion of guide tube 26 through a body lumen or surgical insertion. The interior of elongate body 32 can include at least one channel adapted to guide at least one elongate surgical instrument to a surgical site. In another aspect, the body can have two channels, three channels, or more than three channels. In one aspect, the guide tube includes multiple channels comprising a main channel for receipt of an optical device, such as an endoscope, and working channels for receipt of articulating surgical tools. The number of channels and their particular configuration can be varied depending on the intended use of the system and the resultant number and type of surgical instruments required during a procedure. For example, the guide tube can include a single channel adapted to receive multiple instruments or multiple channels for multiple instruments. FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate exemplary cross-sectional views of the mid-portion of elongate body 32 (taken along line A-A in FIG. 1) that includes main channel 42 and working channels 44a, 44b. While three channels are illustrated, fewer channels (e.g., one or two) or more channels (e.g., four or more) are also contemplated. In addition, while main channel 42 is described as the largest channel, in terms of cross-sectional width, the working channels 44a, 44b can be a larger or smaller size than main channel 43. Moreover, use of the word “channel” does not require that the optical devices and/or surgical instruments traversing the guide tube be distinct or stand alone devices. For example, in one embodiment, the system includes an optical device and/or surgical instrument formed integrally with the guide tube. In still another embodiment, the optical devices and/or instruments described herein can, themselves, define the guide tube. For example, the optical device can define the guide tube and include channels for instruments. Regardless, in the exemplary illustrated embodiment of FIG. 2A, main channel 42 can be defined by at least one elongate lumen that extends, at least partially, between proximal and distal ends 36, 34 of guide tube 26. Similarly, working channels 44a, 44b can be defined by separate lumens, with main and working channels housed in an outer lumen. Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, at least one of channels 42, 44a, 44b, can be defined by a divider that extend along at least a portion of guide tube 26. For example, all three channels 42, 44a, 44b can share a common sheath or outer jacket 54. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the divider can be defined by a portion of the guide tube and/or by a separate element that is mated with the guide tube and/or instruments (an example of which is described in more detail with respect to FIGS. 7A through 7C). Referring now to FIG. 2A, in one aspect, main channel 42 comprises an inner tubular body 46 and an outer tubular body 48. Both the inner and outer tubular bodies can comprise flexible materials. In one aspect, inner tubular body 46 has a lubricous inner surface. For example, inner tubular body 46 can be formed from a low friction material such as a fluoropolymer (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene). Alternatively, inner tubular body can defined by a coating of low friction material. In order to improve the flexible characteristics of the inner tubular body, the inner tubular body can have a configuration that reduces the risk of kinking or narrowing the tubular body and/or that increases the bend angle of the guide tube. In one aspect, the inner tubular body is spiral cut to provide open sections of inner tubular body 46. For example, the spiral cut tube can result in windings with open sections between the windings, such that the windings can move toward and away from each other when the guide tube bends. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the materials and construction of the inner tubular body can be chosen to meet the desired flexibility of the guide tube. In addition, the inner tubular body can include different materials and/or configurations along the length of the guide tube to provide varying flexibility along the length of the guide tube. Where the inner tubular body has a spiral cut or “open” configuration, the main channel can further be defined by outer tubular body 48. The outer tubular body of the main channel can provide structure to the spiral cut inner tubular body and limit the amount of play between the windings of the spiral cut tubular body. The outer tubular body can be formed from a variety of flexible materials including polymers and/or metals. In addition, outer tubular body 48 can include reinforcing materials to further strengthen the main channel, such as, for example, a mesh and/or braid. In one aspect, the wall of the outer tubular body of the main channel does not have any perforations or openings to the adjacent environment. For example, the outer tubular body can be impervious and provide a fluid barrier. The working channels 44a, 44b can have a similar or different configuration from the main channel and from each other, including, for example, one, two, or more than two coaxial tubular bodies. In addition, working channels 44a, 44b can extend for all or a part of the length of the guide tube. In one aspect, the working channels include a lubricious material that coats or defines a working channel tubular body. As shown in FIG. 2A, the working channels 44a, 44b, in one embodiment, includes single tubular bodies 50a, 50b formed of a fluoropolymer. In addition, the working channel tubular bodies 50a, 50b can include reinforcing materials 51 (FIG. 3A), such as, for example, a mesh, spiral, and/or braid. Regardless of the configuration of the channels 44a, 44b, the inner walls of the working channel bodies 50a, 50b can be lubricous. For example, a lubricous coating, film, paste, or fluid and/or secondary material (liner) can be use to facilitate insertion of a tool or optical device through the channels. Additionally, or alternatively, the inner and/or outer surfaces of the guide tube can have raised surface features, such as, for example ribs, to reduce friction. In another embodiment, one or more of the channels (e.g., main and/or working channels) can be formed from walls comprising a loose or stretchable material (not illustrated), such as an accordion-type material having folds and/or a loose bag type-liner. The folds in the walls of the channel allow longitudinal expansion and contraction of portions of the channel. The loose material can have a partially folded configuration such that when the channel bends, the folds open to allow expansion of a portion of the channel wall. In another aspect, the walls of one or more of the channels are configured to allow stretching or expanding. In still another embodiment, a single member defines two or more of the channels (e.g., main and/or working channels). For example, working channels 44a, 44b, can be defined by co-extruded lumens. Alternatively, or additionally, the multiple layers than define a channel (e.g., inner and outer tubular bodies 46, 48) could be co-extruded. With respect to FIG. 3A, In one aspect, the working and main channels are not fixedly mated to one another. Instead, a mesh, spiral, jacket, and/or filament braid 52 can cinch the channels together and keep the channels bundled together. Depending on the desired rigidity of the mid-portion of the guide tube, the mesh density, rigidity, and materials of braid 52 can be varied. In an alternative aspect, filaments, bands, or other place holders can be positioned around two or more of the channels to limit transverse movement of the channels away from one another. In still another aspect, the guide tube does not includes any connection between the channels. The guide tube can further include an outer jacket 54 surrounding the channels. The outer jacket can work with, or take the place of, filament braid 52 and assist with bundling the main and working channels together. In one aspect, the outer jacket is formed of a continuous, fluid impermeable material that acts as a barrier against the intrusion of biological material into the guide tube. In use, as mentioned above, the guide tube can be inserted through a body orifice and the outer jacket can provide a barrier to bacteria found along a body pathway. In one aspect, the outer jacket is formed of an elastomeric and/or polymeric material such as, for example, PTFE, EPTFE, silicon, urethane, and/or vinyl. In addition to protecting the inner channels, the outer jacket can have a lubricous outer surface to assist with insertion of the guide tube. The lubricous surface can minimize tissue trauma and help to ease the device through a body lumen. In one aspect, the guide tube can include variable stiffness along its length. For example, the material properties of the various layers of guide tube 26 can be varied to control the stiffness of the guide tube. In addition, or alternatively, stiffeners can be located in areas in which increased stiffness is desired. One skilled in the art will appreciate the degree of stiffness can be chosen depending on the intended use of system 20. In addition, the stiffness of guide tube 26 can be controlled by the user. For example, the guide tube can have a locking configuration. Once the guide tube is positioned within a patient, the user can lock the guide tube in position. In addition, while the guide tube channels are illustrated as enclosed and protected from the environment surrounding the guide tube, in one alternative aspect, at least one of the guide tube channels can have an open configuration. For example, the main channel can be defined by an open or split wall lumen such that a instrument can be inserted into the guide channel through the sidewall of the guide tube. Instead of inserting the instrument through the proximal opening of the guide tube, the optical device can be inserted into the working channel through the sidewall of the guide tube. In one such aspect, a snap-fit or interference fit can hold the instrument in the main channel. Distal to the mid-portion 33 of elongate body 32, the guide tube can include an articulation portion 56 (FIG. 1). In one aspect, the articulation portion provides at least one degree of freedom, and in another aspect, provides more than one degree of freedom (e.g., two, three, or more than three degrees of freedom) to system 20. In particular, the distal end of the guide tube can be moved side-to-side and/or up/down by the proximal controls 30. In another aspect, the guide tube can additionally, or alternatively, move longitudinally and/or rotate. Articulation, regardless of the number of degrees of freedom, can be controlled in a variety ways and is discussed in more detail below. In one aspect, the main channel is adapted to articulate while the working channels are mated to the main channel and move with the main channel. In other words, the working channels are not directly articulated. However, in another aspect, all the channels can be directly articulated together or independently depending on the intended use of system 20. Another embodiment includes a single lumen that articulates and is configured to receive multiple instruments or multiple channel bodies. For example, the guide tube can include one working channel for receiving multiple instruments. FIGS. 3A through 4B illustrate one embodiment of the transition between mid-portion 33 and articulation portion 56. FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate a disassembled view and partially disassembled (outer sheath removed) view of the articulation portion of the exemplary guide tube, while FIG. 4A illustrates a partially transparent view of the articulation portion with various layers removed. FIG. 4B illustrates the distal-most end of the articulation portion with outer sheath 54 removed. As shown in FIGS. 3A through 4A, the working channel bodies 50a, 50b extend through the articulation portion 56 of guide tube 26, while the inner and outer tubular bodies 46, 48 end at articulation portion 56. The main channel 42 in the articulation portion 56 of guide tube 26 can be defined by an articulation body member 58 having an inner lumen. In addition, the working channel bodies in the articulation section can have a different configuration from the working channel bodies in the mid-portion of the guide tube. For example, in the mid-portion 33 of guide tube 26, working channel bodies 50a, 50b can include a reinforcing braid or winding 51. Conversely, as shown in FIGS. 3A, 3B and 4A, the working channel bodies 50a, 50b do not include a reinforcing braid or winding 51 in the articulation portion 56. A variety of control mechanisms can be used to manipulate the articulation portion, including, for example, push-pull strands, leaf springs, cables, oversheaths, ribbons, electroactive materials, and/or fluid actuation. In one embodiment, strands 60 extend from the proximal portion of the guide tube to the articulation body member 58 to control the articulation body member. Strands 60 can comprise one or more filaments formed of a flexible material including, for example, a variety of wires and cables. In one aspect, strands 60 include an inner filament positioned within an outer casing. For example, strands 60 can be defined by bowden cables which reduce power losses along the length of the guide tube. As shown in FIGS. 3A and 4A, four strands 60 can extend to the articulation portion 56 and provide two degrees of freedom guide tube 26. When tensioned, the strands can bend the articulation body 58 by moving a series of articulation segments 62. The articulation segments 62 together define the articulation body 58 and the main channel 42 in the articulation portion 56 of the guide tube 26. In one aspect, springs 64 connect the articulation segments 62 and allow the articulation segments to move relative to one another. Strands 60 extend across the articulation portion and mate with a distal articulation segment 62′. When a strand is tensioned, the articulation segments 62 move relative to one another along at least part of the articulation portion 56 of the guide tube to allow articulation portion 56 to bend. Strands 60 can mate with articulation body member 58 in a variety of ways. In one aspect, the ends of the strands are welded to the inner surface of the articulation body member 58. Alternatively, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 4A, the distal end of the strands can include terminals 59 which mechanically engage loops attached to, or formed on, the inner surface of the articulation body member. Terminals 59 can have a larger outer diameter than the inner diameter of the loops, such that the terminals cannot be pulled proximally through the loops. FIG. 5A illustrates loops 61 welded to the interior of guide tube 26 proximate to the distal end of the guide tube (i.e., proximate to the distal end of articulating body member 58) for mating with the distal ends of strands 60. In another aspect, shown in FIG. 5B, guide tube 26 can include a mating plate 63 having apertures 65 for receiving strands 60 and preventing the passage of terminals 59. Mating plate 63 can define the location and spacing apertures 65, which can eliminate the difficult process of carefully spacing, aligning, and mating individual loops to the inner surface of the articulation body member. In addition, mating plate 63 can include one or more apertures for the passage of channels 42 and/or 44a, 44b. In one aspect, mating plate 63 is mated to the distal end of articulation body member 58 via welding, adhering, mechanical interlock, and/or frictional engagement. The mating plate can also serve to align and space a surgical instrument (e.g., an optical device), extending through the articulation section 56, from the walls of the articulation section and/or from another instrument. In one aspect, the working channel aperture 42 within the mating plate can align the a surgical instrument with the center of the articulation section. In addition, or alternatively, the location of the working channel aperture can space an optical device passing therethough from the inner surface of the articulation section. The mating plate can inhibit contact between a surgical instrument and the inner surfaces of the articulation section (e.g., springs). To prevent articulation segments 62 from binding, pinching, and/or piercing the outer jacket 54, an articulation body member mesh or braid 68 (FIGS. 3B, and 4A) can extend over the articulation body member 58. The articulation body member mesh or braid 68 can be the same or different from the mesh or braid 52 found in the mid-portion 33 of elongate body 32. As shown in FIGS. 3B and 4A, the articulation body member mesh or braid 68 extends over articulation body member 58, but not over the adjacent working channel bodies 50a, 50b. Alternatively, the mesh or braid 58 can enclose more than one channel. The degree to which the articulation portion bends can be varied by adjusting the shape of the articulation segments and/or the distance between the articulation segments. In one aspect, the articulation portion can bend up to about at least 180 degrees to allow retroflexing. For example, in a trans-oral approach to a gall bladder or liver, a surgeon may wish to turn in a cranial direction to look toward the diaphragm. Other procedures may require less bend, such as, for example, a bend of at least about 45 degrees from the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. Exemplary configurations of guide tube 26 with feature for directing surgical instruments along an increased bend, including retro-flexing, are described below. In addition, or alternatively, the guide tube can include multiple bending sections and/or can be adapted to lock in position or increase in stiffness. As the articulation portion 56 bends, the articulation body member 58 and the working channel bodies 50 bend over different arcs. As a result, the working channel bodies 50a, 50b can move or side longitudinally relative to the articulation body member 58. In order to keep the articulation body member 58 and the working channel bodies 50 bundled, the articulation body member and the working channel bodies 50 can be held together with a place holder that allows relative longitudinal movement, while restricting relative transverse movement of the channels. In one aspect, as shown in FIGS. 3A through 4B, the place holder can include a rigid strap 70 extending around the articulation body member 58 and the working channel bodies 50. Strap 70 can inhibit relative transverse movement of the articulation body member and the working channel bodies while allowing the articulation body member and the working channel bodies to move longitudinally with respect to one another. In one aspect, the articulation portion 56 includes multiple place holders, such as multiple straps, along its length. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the place holder could be defined by a variety of elements that maintain the cross-sectional relationship of the channels. At the distal end of the guide tube, system 20 can include an end cap 80 (FIGS. 3B and 4B) that provides openings through which surgical tools can pass from the channels of the guide tube into a working space within a patient. As mentioned above, when the articulation portion bends, the articulation body member (defining the main channel) and the working channel bodies (defining the working channels) move relative to one another. In one aspect, the articulation body member 58 is fixedly mated to the end cap, while the working channel bodies 50 are allowed to move longitudinally within end cap 80. For example, the end cap can provide a space for the distal ends of the working channel bodies 50 to move relative to the articulation body member 58 and the end cap 80. FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate cross-sectional views of end cap 80 with the articulation portion mated with the end cap and a working passageway 82a that receive working channel body 50a (Working channel body 50b and working passageway 82b are hidden in FIGS. 6A and 6B. The second working passageway 82b is illustrated in FIG. 4B). As shown in FIG. 6A, as the articulation portion bends in the direction of the main channel 42, working body 50a withdraws from end cap 80. Conversely, as shown in FIG. 6B, as the articulation portion bends toward the working channels, working channel body 50b move into the end cap relative to the main channel. In another embodiment, at least one channel (e.g., the working channel bodies) in the articulation section of the guide tube can be formed of a loose or stretchable material. For example, the wall of bodies 50a, 50b can be formed from a loose or stretchable material (not illustrated), such as an accordion-type material having folds or billows. The loose material can allow longitudinal expansion and/or contraction to reduce or eliminate the impact of relative longitudinal movement of the channels in the articulation section. The end cap can be mated to one or more of the articulation segments 62 and/or mating plate 63. For example, end cap 80 and articulation body member 58 can mate via welding, adhering, mechanical interlock, and/or frictional engagement. Conversely, the working channel bodies 50a, 50b can move freely within the working passageways 82a, 82b within end cap 80. To prevent working channel bodies 50a, 50b from backing out of the proximal opening of passageways 82a, 82b, passageways 82a, 82b can have a sufficient length such that working channels bodies remain within the end cap passageways even when the articulation portion is at its full bend limit. In addition, while two passageways 82a, 82b are disclosed for two working channel bodies 50a, 50b, in another aspect, a single passageway could receive two or more working channel bodies. In another aspect, end cap 80 and or working channel tubular bodies 50a, 50b can be configured to prevent the distal ends of the working channel bodies 50a, 50b from exiting the proximal and/or distal openings of working passageways 82a, 82b. For example, the distal ends of the working channel bodies 50a, 50b can have an outer diameter that is larger than the inner diameter of the proximal and/or distal openings to the working passageways 82a, 82b in end cap 80. In another aspect, the working channel bodies can include stops (not illustrated) to prevent the working channel bodies from fully withdrawing from the proximal end of end cap 80. For example, the working channel tubular bodies can include a stop formed of resilient material that can be compressed to insert the distal ends of the working channel bodies into the end cap. Once inserted, the stop can expand such that the stop has a larger diameter than the proximal opening of working passageways 82a, 82b in end cap 80. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the stops can have a variety of configurations to inhibit unwanted withdrawal of the working channel tubular bodies 50a, 50b from the proximal and/or distal end of the working passageways of the end cap. System 20 can further include a seal between the end cap and the end of the outer jacket 54. To assist with seating of the seal, as shown in FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 4B, the end cap can include a recess into which a seal 86 can sit on the outer surface of the end cap. In one aspect, the end of the articulation portion can also include surface features to facilitate seating of the seal. Seal 86 can have a variety of configurations, and in one aspect, is formed of a heat shrinkable material that sits within a recess of end cap 80 and cinches around the outer surface of end cap 80 when shrunk. The end cap can have a variety of shapes and sizes, and in particular, the distal surface of the end cap can be blunt to facilitate insertion of the guide tube through a body lumen while minimizing tissue trauma. For example, in one aspect, the end cap can have a taper to assist with moving the guide tube through a body lumen. The end cap can be formed, at least in part, of radiological opaque material that allows a surgeon to visualize the end of the guide tube within a body lumen. For example, the end cap can include, for example, metals or radiopaque polymers. In another aspect, at least a portion of the end cap can be formed of non-radio opaque material such as for example, plastic or elastomer materials. In yet another embodiment, the end cap is formed at least in part by transparent or partially transparent material to allow a user to observe a tool within a passageway of the end cap. In another aspect, the guide tube end cap can include a flexible or resilient material for holding the various channels of the guide tube in position with respect to one another. As the guide tube bends, the resilient material can permit elongation/compression of the channels and can maintain the orientation of the lumens with respect to one another. In one aspect, articulation portion 56 can be defined by resilient material, such as, for example, an extrusion having lumens defining the working and main channels 44a, 44b, 42. The resilient articulation section can be articulated via pull wires as described above. In another embodiment of guide tube 26, the guide tube the main and working channels are defined by a removable channel divider. With the channel divider removed, a large instrument channel is opened for the insertion of wider or larger tools. For example, a standard endoscope can be inserted with the channel divider removed. The channel divider can then be positioned within the large instrument channel to define several smaller channels within the guide tube. In one aspect, the channel divider defines the main and/or working channels. FIG. 7A illustrates a channel divider 700 defining main channel 42 and working channels 44a, 44b. Channel divider 700 can have an outer shape and size that generally corresponds to a lumen within the guide tube. Inserting the channel divider into the guide tube lumen can mate the channel divider and guide tube. For example, friction between the outer surface of the channel divider 700 and the inner surface of the guide tube can mate the channel divider and guide tube. In another aspect, the guide tube and/or channel divider can include mating features to lock the channel divider within the guide tube and prevent relative movement between the channel divider and guide tube. In one aspect, the passageways within channel divider 700 are enclosed by the body of the channel divider. Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 7A, the passageways can have an open or split side to allow insertion of tools and/or optics through the sidewall of channel divider 700. FIGS. 7B and 7C illustrate channel divider 700 within guide tube 26. In one embodiment, tools and/or optics can be loaded into the channel divider prior to insertion of the channel divider into the guide tube. The channel divider, with tools positioned therein, can then be inserted into the guide tube. In one aspect, channel divider 700 has a length that extends the majority of the length of the guide tube. In another aspect, multiple channel dividers can be provided. Channel divider 700 can be formed of a variety of flexible, compressible, and/or resilient materials. Where a flexible guide tube or guide tube segment is desired, the channel divider can be formed of soft, flexible material. Conversely, where increased guide tube stiffness is desired, a harder, less flexible channel divider can be provided. In one aspect, the material properties of the channel divider vary along its length to provide varying guide tube flexibility. In another embodiment of guide tube 26, channels (working and/or main) and/or tools can mate with a central control shaft. For example, as illustrated in FIGS. 7D and 7E, central control shaft 750 mates with working channels bodies 50a, 50b, 50c, and 50d defining working channels 44a, 44b, 44c, and 44d. The channel bodies can surround shaft 750 and/or attach to the outer surface of shaft 750. In one aspect, the channel bodies are exposed to the surrounding environment and not enclosed by an outer tubular body. In particular, an outer tubular body need not surround and/or constrain relative movement (e.g., relative radial movement) of the channels. Instead a central shaft or shafts 750 can mate with and hold the channel bodies in positioned with respect to one another. Shaft 750 can also include an articulation section for steering the channels. For example, control wires can extend through or along shaft 750 to a distal articulation section. Tensioning the control wires can drive one or more degrees of freedom of shaft 750, including, for example, up/down and/or left/right movement. In one aspect, one or more of the channel bodies 50a, 50b, 50c, and 50d fixedly mate with shaft 750. In another aspect, the channel bodies can detachably mate with shaft 750. A user can select the desired type of channel and/or the number of channels and attach the channel bodies to shaft 750. In still another aspect, the channel bodies can be movably mated with shaft 750. For example, the shaft can act as a guide wire. In use, a clinician can direct the shaft to the desired location and then mate the channel bodies with shaft 750. Moving the channel bodies along the shaft can delivery the channel bodies to the target area. Alternatively, the shaft and channel bodies can be delivered together and then the channel bodies can be moved relative to the central shaft to position the channels in a desired configuration. FIG. 7F illustrates a cross-section of guide tube 26 showing channel body 50a movably mated with shaft 750. In one aspect, channel body 50a includes a surface feature that mates with a surface feature of shaft 750. In the illustrated embodiment, channel body 50a includes a mating feature 752 having a curved or c-shaped outer surface corresponding to a mating feature 754 of shaft 750. In use, channel body 50a can slide along shaft 750 by slide mating feature 752 within mating feature 754. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of movable mating features could be substituted for mating features 752, 754. While guide tube 26 of FIGS. 7D through 7F is described as mating with bodies that define working or main channels, in another aspect, a tool or instrument could be substituted for one or more of the channels. For example, tool 40 and/or an optical device can be substituted for the channel bodies and directly mated with shaft 750. In yet another aspect, shaft 750 can include a lumen or lumens defining an additional channel for delivering instruments. A first instrument or channel body can be mated with shaft 750 while another channel extends through shaft 750. Alternatively, or additionally, the shaft 750 can have a lumen for delivery or withdrawal of a liquid or gas and/or a lumen for housing a control mechanism (e.g., pull wire). In another embodiment, channel bodies 50a, 50b, 50c, and/or 50d can articulate independently of shaft 750 at the distal end of guide tube 26. For example, the channel bodies can be detached from shaft 750 and independently moved via, for example, control wires and/or pre-shaped materials. In addition, or alternatively, the guide tube can include various structures for causing the channels, instruments within the channels, and/or the instruments themselves to angle away from one another (e.g., diverge). Further described herein are methods and device for providing tool divergence and/or convergence for the various embodiments of system 20 described herein. In one aspect, the working and/or main channels have an angled configuration relative to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube such that surgical tools diverge or converge as they exit the distal end of the end cap. The diverging passageways can space the distal ends of the surgical instruments from one another within a body cavity. The increased spacing between the surgical tools increases the volume of the area in which the surgical tools can work (or working with one another), referred to herein as the working volume. FIG. 8 illustrates one embodiment of guide tube 26 with main channel 42 having a diverging configuration. The main channel changes direction toward the distal end of the guide tube and directs instruments away from the central longitudinal axis of the guide tube. In one aspect, a ramped opening 92a can direct an optical device away from guide tube 26. The optical device can then be bent back toward the working area to provide a “birds eye” view. In one aspect, the optical device can be articulated (driven via user forces) to bend back toward the working area. In another aspect, the optical device can have a pre-bend that cause the optical device to bend toward the working area after exiting main channel 42. In addition, or alternatively, the working channels 44a, 44b can diverge from one another or the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. In one aspect, the working channels change direction at the distal end of the guide tube and direct surgical instruments away from one another as they pass through openings 92b, 92c. The angle of openings 92a, 92b, 92c can facilitate triangulation of the tools and optical device. In another embodiment, diverging channels within the guide tube can be provided by twisting at least two channels around one another. FIGS. 9A and 9B are partially transparent views of guide tube 26 with working channels 44a, 44b wrapping around one another to provide a spiral configuration. In one aspect, both working channels 44a, 44b have a spiral or helical shape proximate to the distal end of the guide tube. In another aspect, only one channel within the guide tube or more than two channels have a spiral or helical shape. Regardless, tools passing through wrapped channels 44a, 44b are angled away from one another as they leave the guide tube. In one aspect, working channels 44a, 44b have at least about a 90 degree turn, and in another aspect, at least about a 180 degree turn. In another aspect, guide tube channels can exit at a location proximal to the distal-most end of the guide tube. For example, the openings 92b, 92c through which the tools pass can be positioned proximally with respect to the distal surface of the guide tube. FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate openings 92b and 92c positioned proximally to the distal end of the guide tube. The working channels bodies 44a, 44b extend to openings 92b, 92c in the sidewall of the guide tube 26. The amount of convergence/divergence of the distal ends of the surgical instruments can be varied depending on the intended use. In one aspect, at least one of the passageways has an angle of at least about 7 degrees with respect to the centerline of the end cap. In another aspect, at least one of the passageways directs surgical tools at an angle of at least about 15 degrees. FIGS. 8 through 10B illustrate example of passive divergence. In another embodiment, guide tube 26 provides active or controllable divergence. The amount of divergence between passageways of guide tube 26 can be controlled via a diverging mechanism. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 11, a sliding ramp or collar 89 can translate relative to the main and/or working channels to adjust the angle between the passageways of the guide tube. The working and main passageways of the guide tube can be defined by detached (not connected) lumens that are each connected to collar 89. As collar 89 moves longitudinally it can increase or decrease the convergence of the passageways. While FIG. 11 illustrates diverging the working channels to achieve divergences of tools delivered through the channels, in another aspect, the diverging mechanism can directly diverge tools. For example, the diverging mechanism can contact and/or apply force directly on the tools. In one aspect, with respect to FIG. 11, a tool can be substituted for channel 50a and/or 50b and mate with collar 89. FIG. 12 illustrates a controllable wedge 120 positioned between tools 40a, 40b. Pulling a control wire 122 can move the wedge proximally and increase the angle at which tools 40a, 40b diverge. FIG. 13 illustrates another embodiment of adjustable divergence between tools 40a, 40b. The tools can be mated with control wires 122a, 122b such that tensioning the pull wires causes the tools to bow out and increase their convergence. Tools 40a, 40b can, in one aspect, also include a bias for bending in one direction. For example, the materials of tools 40a, 40b can be selected to bias the tools to bend in one direction when pulled via control wires 122a, 122b. As an alternative, an inflatable balloon (FIG. 14) can be used to increase convergence or divergence of tools 40a, 40b. For example, a balloon 124 can be positioned between and in contact with tools 40a, 40b. When inflated, the balloon 124 can apply pressure directly on tools 40a, 40b to cause divergence. In still another embodiment, tools 40a, 40b can include a pre-bend or shape memory material (FIGS. 15A and 15B) that moves into a bent position when unconstrained by the guide tube and/or after exposure of the working channels to a trigger (e.g., body heat). In another embodiment described herein, guide tube 26 includes channel extensions that allow increased curvature or retro-flexing. As illustrated in FIGS. 16A through 16D, guide tube 26 can include telescoping curved body 91 that when extended from the distal end of the guide tube 26, assumes a curvature of at least 45°, in another aspect, a curve of at least at 90°, and in yet another aspect, a curve of at least 150°. The curved body (or bodies) provides diverging and/or converging working channels and can thus provide one or more than one additional degree of freedom to the system. In another embodiment, an s-curve is provided. For example, body 91 can include a first and a second pre-formed curves that bend in opposite directions. In another aspect, body 91 provides a first curve and a controllable instrument is extended through body 91 and bent to provide a second curved portion. The curved bodies can have a pre-formed curvature that is constrained by a portion of system 20. In one aspect, the guide tube working channel 44 constrains curved body 91. A user can push bodies 91 out of the end of the guide tube and allows bodies 91 to bend with respect to the guide tube. In another aspect, a stiffening member can constrain the curve bodies. Withdrawing the stiffening member can allow the guide tube and/or surgical instrument to bend into a pre-curved configuration. In one aspect, body 91 can rotate in addition to translating with respect to guide tube 26. In use, body 91 can be rotated relative to working channel 44 to direct a surgical instrument in a desired direction. In one aspect, body 91 is rotated into the desired orientation prior to insertion of guide tube 26 into a patient. In another aspect, rotation of body 91 can be controlled by a user from a proximal location. In yet another embodiment, shown in FIGS. 17 and 18, precurved body 91 can be positioned outside guide tube 26. A band 93 extending from guide tube 26 can constrain the pre-curved body until a user moves body 91 relative to the guide tube. When the distal end of the body is unconstrained by the guide tube, the pre-curved body can bend into a desired configuration. When the user completes a procedure, the user can move body 91 back into its original configuration to straighten the pre-curved body and allow withdrawal of the guide tube. Body 91 can house a variety of instruments. Alternatively, band 93 can be moved relative to body 91 and/or guide tube 26. Moving band 93 in a proximal direction can permit body 91 to bend into a preformed curve. The band can then be moved distally to straighten body 91. In one aspect, a user can control movement of band 93 via a push/pull wire (not illustrated) that extends between a proximal controller and the distal portion of guide tube 26. In another aspect, an optical device extending from guide tube 26 could include a prebend like that of body 91 discussed above. As illustrated in FIG. 19A through 19C, optical device 28 could include a first and second prebend spaced longitudinally from one another. As the optical device extends from the guide tube, the first and second prebend can move the optical device into an s-curve that provides a “bird's eye” view of the work space. In another embodiment a steerable or positionable ball/socket structure can be located at the distal end of guide tube 26 for directing tools and/or optics exiting the working and/or main channels. The ball can include a passage defining a portion of the working and/or main channel. Pivoting the ball within a socket can change the direction of the channel within the ball relative to the guide tube and can direct instruments extending therethrough. Alternatively, optics can be positioned within a socket structure to allow pivoting of optics. FIG. 20 illustrates the use of multiple openings 92a, 92a′, 92a″ from a single channel. The user can select the desired opening to reach a desired location relative to the guide tube (rather than having to move the guide tube). In one such embodiment, the different openings have different angles such that an opening can be selected to change the angle of the instrument with respect to the guide tube. The multiple openings can extend longitudinally and/or radially around the outer surface of the guide tube. The choice amongst several openings (e.g., 92a, 92a′, 92a″) from a single channel (e.g., working channel 44a) can be controlled by articulating an instrument. For example, the user can direct a instrument through a desired opening. Alternatively, or additionally, the guide tube can include articulating ramps that are controlled by a proximally located controller. The ramp associated with a desired opening can be engaged to direct the instrument through the desired opening. In another aspect, the guide tube can include more channels than openings 92. For example, two or more channels can merge into a single channel in the distal portion of the guide tube. FIG. 21 illustrates first and second lumens 44b, 44c each containing a tool or optical device, that merge in a single lumen 44d at the distal end of the guide tube. As shown, tool 40b extends from the device while tool 40c remains in lumen 44c. If a surgeon desires to switch tools, tool 40b can be withdrawn into lumen 44b, and tool 40c can be advanced into 44d and on to the surgical site. This configuration allows surgeons to switch quickly between tools without the need to completely withdraw one tool before switching to a second tool. The desired configuration of the surgical instruments can be achieved by articulating the instruments in addition to, or as an alternative to, converging/diverging channels. For example, a user can control the instruments after the instruments exit the distal end of the guide tube. The instruments can be bent, rotated, and/or moved longitudinally to reach a desired working area. Articulation of the instruments is discussed in more detail below. Further described herein are methods and device for preventing the ingress of materials (e.g., biomaterials) into the guide tube. In one embodiment, at least one passageway in the guide tube can include an obturator, end cover, and/or outer sleeve that can prevent or inhibit the ingress of biological materials into the at least one passageway during insertion of the guide tube into a patient. FIGS. 22 and 23 illustrate a breakable membrane 90 configured to seal the end of the end cap during introduction to prevent gas, tissue, and/or fluid from entering the guide tube. In FIG. 22, the breakable membrane 90 is formed as part of an outer sleeve, while in FIG. 23, individual membranes 90a, 90b, 90c cover the distal openings 92a, 92b, 92c of the end cap. FIGS. 24 and 25 illustrate obturators 94 that can be positioned within the channels of the guide tube and/or passageways of the end cap. In one aspect, the plug, obturators, sleeves, and/or membranes can be formed of a bioadsorbable or dissolvable material. In use, a physician can push the bioadsorbable material out of the end of the guide tube to open the guide tube channels. Alternatively, the bioadsorbable material can be fast dissolving and the guide tube channels can open when biofluids (e.g., blood or stomach acid) dissolve the plug, obturator, sleeve, and/or membrane. In still another embodiment, non-bioadsorbable materials are used and a clinician can withdraw the obturators through the proximal openings of the guide tube. In yet another embodiment, a user can pierce the sleeve and/or membrane to deliver an instrument through end cap 80. The use of an obturator, sleeve, and/or membrane can preserve sterility of guide tube 26 and/or inhibit the ingress of fluids during insertion of guide tube 26. FIGS. 26 through 27 illustrate yet another exemplary embodiment of an obturator. A sleeve or cover 97 can shield at least one of the openings at the distal end of the guide tube. When the guide tube is positioned at a desired location, cover 97 can be moved to expose openings 92b, 92c. In one aspect, the cover can be controlled via a control wire extending to a proximal controller. Alternatively, as illustrated in FIGS. 26 and 27, cover 97 can be mated with one of the instruments, such as, for example, an optical device 28. To expose openings 92b, 92c, the optical device can be moved away from the distal end of the guide tube causing cover 97 to lift away from openings 92b, 92c (FIG. 27) and/or the optical device can be advanced away from the guide tube. In one aspect, the sleeve does not cover the distal-most end of the optical device, such that optics can be utilized during positioning of the guide tube. In another aspect, the sleeve, skirt, or shroud is transparent or partially transparent. Instead of, or in addition to, closing the distal opening of guide tube 26, the pressure within the working and/or main channels can be increased to inhibit ingress of biomaterial. In one aspect, the working channels are fluidly connected with a source of pressurized gas or fluid. For example, a compressor, pump, or pressurized vessel can mate with a proximal opening to the working channels. In another embodiment, the guide tube can store a tool or tools for use during a surgical procedure. FIGS. 28A through 35 illustrate various embodiments of a guide tube configured for the storage of a tool such as needle 100. Depending on the shape and size of the channels within the guide tube, delivering a curved needle through the guide tube may be difficult. FIGS. 28A and 28B illustrate a recess 102 in which a needle 100 is stored prior to use. Instead of delivering the needle through the guide tube, the needle is housed in a distal portion of the guide tube. Recess 102 can have a curved configuration sized and shaped for storing one or more needles. The recess can be formed separately from the guide tube working and main channels or defined by a portion of one the guide tube channels. In one aspect, the distal end of at least one of the working channels is shaped and sized to house a needle. For example, the working channel can have a larger width at its distal end. To deliver the needle, a tool can be moved through the working channel and can grab the needle and/or push the needle out of the working channel. Alternatively, recess 102 is separate from the channels of guide tube 26. To deliver the needle a pusher wire 104 can be manipulated to move the needle out of recess 102. In another embodiment, illustrated in FIGS. 29A and 29B, a needle can be stored in a transverse position. For example, instead of recess 102 having a shape and size (e.g., diameter) corresponding to the width of needle 100, the recess can accommodate the length of the needle. In yet another embodiment, a needle can be clipped to the end of the guide tube. For example, FIG. 30 illustrates a needle 100 clipped to the distal surface 84 of the end cap 80. In still another embodiment, shown in FIGS. 31A and 31B, a needle or needles can be stored in a sleeve 108 that extends distally from the distal surface 84 of the end cap 80. One skilled in the art will appreciate that one or more needles can be stored at the distal portion of the guide tube. For example, as shown in FIGS. 32A and 32B, multiple needles can be placed in a needle cartridge 110 located within the end cap. As an alternative, or in addition to a needle or needles, the end cap can contain a variety of other tools. In one aspect, as shown in FIGS. 33A and 33B, a bag 114 can be stored in, and or deployed from, the end cap. In another aspect, a snare or loop 116, as shown in FIG. 34, can be delivered from the end cap for grabbing and pulling tissue. In still another aspect, illustrated in FIG. 35, multiple tools, such as, for example, loops, needles, bags, and/or other tools, can be stored in a tool kit 118 that is delivered from end cap 80. In use, a surgeon can select amongst the tools of the tool kit without having to fully withdraw a surgical tool from the channels of the guide tube. In another embodiment, end cap 80 and/or tools can be detachably mated with guide tube 26. A user can choose amongst several end caps and/or tools (or tool sets) and attach the desired end cap or tool to the end of the guide tube. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of mechanical and/or frictional mating configurations can provide a detachable end cap or tool. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 36, proximal to the mid-portion 33 of elongate body 32, guide tube 26 can include a proximal portion 36 that includes apertures for insertion of surgical tools into the channels of the guide tube and controls 30 for manipulating the articulation portion 56 of the guide tube. In addition, proximal portion 36 can be adapted for mating with frame 22. In one aspect, proximal portion 36 includes a housing member 150 that contains the main and working channels. Housing member 150 can be formed of a rigid material that provides support for controls 30 and that mates with frame 22. With respect to FIG. 36, the main and working channels can enter the housing 150 at separate proximal apertures 152a, 152b, 152c. In one aspect, proximal apertures 152a, 152b, through which the working channels pass, are positioned in the housing member 150 at a location distal to the proximal end of the housing member 150 and distal to aperture 152c. In addition, working channels can exit housing member 150 on opposite lateral sides and/or can exit at an angle with respect to the longitudinal axis of the guide tube. For example, housing member 150, including apertures 152a, 152b, can direct the working channel bodies 50a, 50b (which house tools 40a, 40b) at an angle with respect to one another. The size of the angle between working channel bodies, as defined by housing 150, can be varied depending on the intended use of system 20, user ergonomics, and/or the configuration of frame 22. FIG. 37 illustrates a cut-away view of housing member 150 showing main channel 42 and one of the working channel bodies 50b. Housing member 150 can also contain control mechanism 156 of controls 30. Strands 60a, 60b, 60c, 60d (for controlling the proximal articulation portion of the guide tube) can exit the outer tubular bodies (46, 48) of main channel 42 inside of housing 150. In one aspect, the strands can exit through a seal (not illustrated) to prevent liquids or gasses from exiting main channel 42 and entering the interior of housing member 150. After exiting main channel 42, strands extend to control mechanism 156 and mate therewith. In one aspect, the strands can pass through a tensioner 166 between main channel 42 and control mechanism 156. For example, where strands are formed by bowden cables, the outer sheath of the bowden cables can extend to, but not beyond tensioner 166, while the inner filament extends to control mechanism 156. Tensioner 166 includes a spring 167 that can keep the filament taught between the tensioner and the control mechanism, while allowing the bowden cables distal to the tensioner to flex and/or translate longitudinally. In one aspect, control mechanism 156 includes wheels 160a and 160b, where two strands (e.g., 60a, 60b) mate with one of wheels 160a, 160b to control left/right movement of the articulation portion 56 of guide tube 26 and the other two strands (e.g., 60c, 60d) mate with other of wheels 160a, 160b to control up/down movement of the articulation section. Depending on the configuration of controls 30, more or fewer than four strands can mate with more or fewer wheels. For example, while the articulation section is described as providing two degrees of freedom, fewer strands and/or wheels can be used where only a single degree of freedom is necessary. Regardless of the configuration of the control mechanism, the strands can mate with wheels via welding, adhering, mechanically interlocking, and/or frictionally engaging. The use of two wheels 160a, 160b allows independent articulation of up/down and side-to-side movement of the articulation portion 56 of guide member 26. Thus, the control mechanism 156 allows independent control of two degrees of freedom. One skilled in the art will appreciate that depending on the desired use of guide tube 26, control mechanism 156 could alternatively be configured to control two degrees of freedom with a single movement such that the up/down and side-to-side degrees of freedom are not independent. FIG. 38 illustrates a disassembled view of housing 150 showing the various components of guide tube controls 30 that are located on an outer surface of housing member 150. First and second dials 170a, 170b can be drive wheels 160a, 160b, respectively. In use, operation of first dial 170a drives one degree of freedom, while operation of second dial 170b drives a second, independent degree of freedom. However, in another aspect, controls 30 could be configured to manipulated up/down and side-to-side movement with a single movement of one mechanism. Controls 30 also include one or more switches 172 that controls a locking mechanism to lock guide tube 26 in position once a desired configuration of articulation portion 56 is reached. In one aspect, at least one of switches 172 are friction locks that when tightened, inhibits movement of dials 170a, 170b. While the illustrated embodiment is configured to independently lock each degree of freedom, in another aspect, a single switch could lock both dials at the same time. One skilled in the art will appreciate the variety of conventional endoscopic locks and steering mechanisms can be used with system 20. In another embodiment of the guide tube described herein, the guide tube controls can be positioned remotely from housing 150. FIG. 39 illustrates a perspective view of housing 150 with the main channel extending distally from housing 150. Controls 30′ are positioned on main channel 42 proximate to the controls for the optical device. Instead of the control mechanism positioned within housing 150, the strands can extend to a control mechanism 156′ positioned on main channel 42. Controls 30′ can include various slides, switches, levers, or other such mechanisms to control one, two, or more than two degrees of freedom with respect to guide tube 26. For example, controls 30′ can include the various capabilities of controls 30 discussed above. In one aspect, the distal portion of main channel 42 is flexible to permit the user to position control 30′ at a desired location. In addition, having controls 30′ located at a more distal location and/or adjacent to the controls for the optical device, can facilitate user interaction with the system. With respect to FIGS. 1 and 36, the proximal end of housing member 150 can further include a mating member for mating the housing member to frame 22. As shown in FIG. 36, the frame can include an elongate mating bar 174 that includes a slot 208 for receiving mating member 178 of housing member 150. In one aspect, the mating member can slide within slot 208 and lock in place at a desired location. While the illustrated mating member allows longitudinal movement of the guide tube, one skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of additional degrees of freedom can be achieved between frame 22 and guide tube 26. For example, guide tube 26 could be moved transversely with respect to the frame, could be moved up and down with respect to the frame, pivoted with respect to the frame, and/or rotated with respect to the frame. In addition, mating can be achieved via guide tube 26 or a separate mating element that connect frame 22, housing 150, and/or guide tube 26. In addition, as described in more detail below, a portion or all of the frame can be incorporated into guide tube 26. Once the main and working channels exit housing member 150, the main and working channels can extend to proximal apertures 38a, 38b, 38c (FIG. 36) that define the proximal ends of the main channel and working channels. In one aspect, the proximal ends of the main and/or working channels can include a seal between the wall of the channels and a surgical instrument extending through the channels. The seal can reduce or inhibit the flow of fluid (e.g., solid, liquid and/or gas) to allow insufflation and/or aspiration of a body cavity and/or to prevent retrograde blood flow. System 20 can include a variety of seals such as, for example, a wiper, septum, and/or duckbill type seal. With respect to the main channel the seal can be sized and shape for receipt in housing 150. The distal end of the seal can mate with the guide tube (e.g., with inner and/or outer tubular bodies 46, 48 that defines the main channel), while the proximal end of the seal can form a seal with the instrument passing through the main channel. FIG. 40A illustrates one exemplary embodiment of a seal 182 position at the proximal end of working channels 44a, 44b. Seal 182 includes an outer surface 192 sized and shaped to mate with a portion of frame 22 and an inner surface adapted to prevent the flow of fluid between a surgical instrument and the seal. The proximal end of seal 182 can define the opening 38a, 38b to working channels 44a, 44b, while the distal end of seal 182 can mate with the tubular body defining a portion of the working channel. FIG. 40A illustrates a wiper-type seal positioned adjacent to the proximal end of a working channel. Blades 180 can be formed of a resilient material such that as a surgical instrument (not shown) is moved through seal 182, blades 180 form an interference fit with the outer surface of the surgical instrument. In addition, or as an alternative, the inner walls of seal 182 can have a size and shape corresponding to the outer surface of an optical device or tool to limit fluid flow between the outer surface of the surgical instrument and the inner surface of the seal. FIG. 40B illustrates seal 182 with grommet 194 for supporting seal 182 and permitting mating of seal 182 and working channel 44a with frame 22. Grommet 194 can provide a rigid structure having a surface which corresponds to a mating surface on frame 22, such as, for example, a “U” shaped bracket of frame 22. One skilled in the art will appreciate that grommet 194 can have a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the configuration of frame 22 or that grommet 194 can be defined by a portion of frame 22. In addition, working channel 44 can mate directly to frame 22 without the use of grommet 194. In addition to apertures for the receipt of surgical instruments into working channels 44a, 44b and main channel 42, the proximal end of guide tube 26 can include at least one aperture for the delivery of a gas or liquid and/or the application of suction. In one aspect, a fluid can be delivered and/or withdrawn through one of the channels, such as, for example, the main channel. Alternatively, the fluid can be delivered and/or withdrawn through a separate channel. And in yet another embodiment, the fluid pathway can be defined by a portion of the guide tube between the inner surface of the guide tube and the outer surface of the main and working channels or delivered via an instruments that passes therethrough. In one aspect, insufflation gas or suction can be delivered via housing 150. An aperture defined, for example by a luer fitting, can provide ingress/egress for an insufflation gas. In one aspect, the luer fitting can be placed adjacent to the entrance of working channel 44. Insufflation gas can be delivered at a variety of locations to system 20. For example, pressurized gas can be delivered via a separate lumen, through the main channel, and/or via a more proximally/distally positioned aperture. The distal end of guide tube 26 can include apertures for delivery and/or withdrawal of a irrigation, aspiration, and/or insufflation. In addition, or in the alternative, an aperture can be provided for water jets for the delivery of a liquid for fluid dissection, raising lesions, separating tissue planes, and/or other liquid based procedures. Where the guide tube spans an anatomical wall, such as, for example, the abdominal wall, the location of insufflation, irrigation, and/or aspiration apertures can be chosen to deliver or receive fluid to or from multiple body cavities. In addition, while transfer of liquids or gasses is generally described, in an alternative aspect, solids could be delivered or withdrawn. In one embodiment, at least one opening 196′ for applying suction is positioned along the outer sidewall of guide tube 26. In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 40C, openings 196′ are located along the distal portion of the guide tube sidewall, but are spaced from the distal-most end of guide tube 26. The location of suction openings '196 can permit withdrawal of fluids (e.g., blood) without the need to withdraw tools into guide tube 26 and/or to move guide tube 26 in the distal direction. In another embodiment of guide tube 26, the working and/or main channel proximal openings are positioned at a location distal to the proximal-most end of the guide tube. For example, an instrument port can be positioned distal to guide tube housing 150. In one aspect, the instrument port can mate with a detachable instrument channel. In addition, a variety of other ports for delivery of tools, fluids, electrosurgical energy, or other treatment apparatus can be positioned along the mid or distal portion of the guide tube. As mentioned above with respect to guide tube 26, the guide tube and instruments can bend or flex to allow insertion of at least a portion of system 20 along a non-linear or curved pathway. However, in another aspect, a portion of guide tube 26 and/or the instruments can be rigid. With respect to FIG. 41A guide tube 26 and/or tool 40 can comprise a rigid shaft with an articulation section at a distal end. The guide tube can have any of the properties and structures described above, but be formed at least in part of rigid materials. Alternatively, or in addition, a stiffening material can be added to guide tube 26 to increase rigidity. In one aspect, the guide tube includes rigid links that are movably mated to one another. As illustrated in FIG. 41B, a rigid link 26a can pivot with respect to an adjoining link (26b, 26c) to allow the guide tube to bend. In one aspect, the links can be driven. For example, pull wire can drive one link with respect to another link. Alternatively, the links can move freely with respect to one another. As the guide tube is moved through a passageway, the contour of the pathway can cause the links to move relative to one another and cause the guide tube to bend. While FIG. 41A illustrates a linear, rigid guide tube, in another aspect, the guide tube curved. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 41C, the guide tube can have a rigid, pre-formed shape with at least one change in direction along its length. In another embodiment of system 20, guide tube 26 is configured for use in a laparoscopic procedure. In one aspect, a distal portion of guide tube 26 can dock with a laparoscopic port. FIG. 42A illustrates tools 40a, 40b extending through guide tubes 26a, 26b which are mated with ports 780a, 780b. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of locking structures, including mechanical interlocks and/or frictional engagements can mate system 20 with ports 780a, 780b. In one aspect, guide tubes 26a, 26b include mating features that mate with corresponding mating features on ports 780a, 780b. Alternatively, instead of system 20 mating with laparoscopic ports, the ports are defined by a portion of the system such as, for example, guide tube (or tubes) 26. The ports can be integral with guide tube 26 and/or fixedly mated therewith. In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 42A a single tool passes through each of ports 780a, 780b. However, multiple tools, fluid lumens, optical devices, and other instruments be delivered through a single port. In one aspect, illustrated in FIGS. 42B and 42C, tools 40a, 40b extend through a single guide tube 26 and through a single port 780. FIGS. 43A through 43I, describe other exemplary configurations of the guide tube 26, optical device 28, and tools 40a, 40b. FIG. 43A, illustrates a non-articulating guide tube. In one aspect, the guide tube can be bent or articulated into a desired configuration and instruments (e.g., optical device 28 and/or tools 40a, 40b) can be articulated to perform a procedure. The instruments in this configuration do not rely on the working channel for articulation. For example, the instruments 40a, 40b can be supported by a single working lumen 44. FIG. 43B illustrates a guide tube with a built-in optical device. The optical device body can mate with the guide tube, while the distal end of the optical device is configured to articulate with respect to the guide tube. FIG. 43C illustrates a conventional endoscope with tools 40a, 40b passing therethrough. FIG. 43D illustrates an articulating optical device with tools 40a, 40b passing therethrough. In one aspect, the guide tube of FIG. 43D does not articulate. Instead, guide tube 26, can supply supporting structure and pathway to enable a procedure at a site within a body. FIG. 43E illustrates a guide tube similar to guide tube 26 with an additional tool extending through the optical device. In another embodiment of system 20, FIGS. 43F and 43G illustrate a system with no guide tube. Instead, an optical device and tools are mated with one another. With respect to FIG. 43F, a clip 77 defines lumens or apertures through which tools and the optical device pass. The clip is positioned proximally from the articulation section of the optical device and tools to allow independent articulation of the instruments. FIG. 43G illustrates a clip 77′ that holds an optical device and working channels relative to one another. As the optical device articulates, the working channels move with the optical device. In one aspect, the clip detachably mates the working channels and optical device. In yet another embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 43H, instead of an articulating guide tube for the passage of an optical device and tools, system 20 can include a steerable member to which tools and/or optics are attached. In still another embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 43I, additional degrees of freedom are provided to system 20 with steerable instrument channels. With regard to any of the guide tube and/or instruments discussed above or below, the guide tube and/or instruments can include more than one articulation section. For example, two independent articulation sections can provide additional degrees of freedom to the systems described herein. The additional articulation section can provide a “wrist” and/or “elbow” to the guide tube and/or instruments. Frame As mentioned above, the systems described herein can include a frame for mating with the guide tube and/or instruments (e.g., tools 40a, 40b, and/or an optical device 28). The frame not only can support the instruments, but can allow the user to obtain useful control of those instruments. In particular, the frame can provide a reference point for manipulating the various degrees of freedom relative to one another (and/or relative to a portion of the system and/or relative to a patient) in a manner which allows execution of complicated surgical procedures. In addition, or alternatively, the frame can permit a user to apply a force relative to the frame to control and/or move the guide tube and/or instruments. In one aspect, the frame is connected with the instruments and/or guide tube and is defined by a separate and distinct structure. In another aspect, various portions and/or all of the frame is incorporated into the guide tube and/or instruments. As mentioned above, and with respect to FIG. 1, system 20 can include frame 22 that is adapted to mate with surgical instruments and/or guide tube 26. In one aspect, referring now to FIG. 44, frame 22 includes an upper portion 200 having a first body 201 for mating with and supporting the various elements of system 20 and a lower portion 202 (also referred to as a second body 202) that supports the upper portion. In use, frame 22 provides a work space for a surgeon to manipulate surgical instruments (e.g., tools 40a, 40b and optical device 28). In addition, frame 22 can provide a reference between the surgical instruments and a patient. FIG. 44 illustrates frame 22 without the surgical instruments attached. Frame 22 includes a guide tube mating surface 204, rails 224a, 224b for control members 24a, 24b, and an optical device holder 206. In one aspect, guide tube mating surface 204 allows frame 22 to detachably mate with guide tube 26 such that the guide tube can be inserted into a patient and then mated with frame 22. In use, guide tube mating surface 204 can also allow a user to adjust the position of guide tube 26 relative to the frame. In one aspect, the guide tube can be mated with an elongate slot 208 on the frame that allows longitudinal movement of the guide tube with respect to the frame. Alternatively, or additionally, guide tube mating surface can be configured to allow pivotal, up/down, transverse, and/or rotational movement of guide tube 26 relative to frame 22. In another aspect, guide tube 26 could be configured for a quick disconnect from frame 22. For example, FIG. 45 illustrates a post 209 that extends from guide tube 26. The guide tube can be mated to frame 22 by sliding post 209 into a slot in frame 22. Post 209 can provide additional degrees of freedom by allowing the guide tube to move relative to a point of reference (e.g., the frame, the operating room, and/or a patient). For example, the guide tube post can rotate and/or move longitudinally in frame 22. When the guide tube is in a desired location, the guide tube can be locked in position with respect to the frame. In one aspect, a lock, such as, for example, locking collar 211 can allow a user to quickly attach/detach the guide tube and frame. Alternatively, or additionally, a locking features such as a clamp or pin 211 (Detail B) on frame 22 can frictionally or mechanically engage post 209. FIG. 46 shows a another example of a quick release defined by a male/female interlock 203 with a switch 205 configured to lock the guide tube and frame. The male or female portion of interlock 203 can be positioned on the guide tube while the other of the male or female portion can be positioned on the frame. Seating the male portion in the female portion and closing switch 205 can lock the guide tube and frame. In another aspect, locking guide tube 26 to frame 22 locks the rails 224 to the frame. For example, as shown in FIG. 45, rails 224 can be mated with or defined by a portion of guide tube 26. The rail and guide tube can then be attached/detached from frame 22 as a single unit. Regardless, the ability to adjust the guide tube with respect to the frame allows a user to change the location of the working volume of the tools with respect to the frame. As mentioned above, the space in which the distal end of the tools can move adjacent to the distal end of the guide tube is the working volume. Because the tools have a limit to the amount of travel (longitudinal movement and/or articulation) relative to the guide tube, the working volume is not unlimited. However, by moving the guide tube (and therefore the tools) relative to the frame, the location of the working volume is changed. In another aspect, moving the first body member 201 (which is attached to the guide tube) relative to the second body member 202 can change the location of the working volume. The first body member can have one, two, three, or more degrees of freedom of movement with respect to the second body member which provide one, two, three, or more degrees of freedom in which to adjust the location of the working volume. With respect to FIGS. 44 and 45 (and as discussed in more detail elsewhere), frame 22 can permit, for example, the first and second body members to pivot, rotate, and/or move forward/back, up/down, and/or side-to-side. Once the working volume is in the desired location the first body member can then be locked with respect to the second body member. Similarly, moving the whole frame relative to a point of reference (e.g., a patient) can change the location of the working volume. In one embodiment, frame 22 can include a holder 206 upon which a surgeon can rest optical device 28. Holder 206 allows the user to steady optical device 28 before and/or after placing the optical device in a desired orientation. For example, the optical device can be placed in holder 206 and then articulated. Adjustability of the holder allows the user to rotate the optical device such that the image viewed by the user matches the user's orientation (i.e., the image is not upside down) and/or the orientation of the surgical site. The holder provide a location for the user to place the optical device so that the optical device will hold its orientation during a procedure and allow access to controls for articulation. In one aspect, with respect to FIG. 44, holder 206 comprises a three arm structure such that a surgeon can have a full range of motion when adjusting the position of an optical device relative to frame 22. In one aspect, a first and second arm 210, 212 are rigid and a third arm 214 is flexible. Third arm 214 can be adapted to hold its position once bent into a desired configuration by a user. For example, the force required to move third arm 214 can be greater than the force applied by the weight of optical device 28 when placed in holder 206. In another aspect, illustrated in FIG. 47, holder 206 can include a telescoping arm in addition, or as an alternative, to first, second, or third arm 210, 212, 214. The holder of FIG. 47 can allow pivoting and/or rotational movement in addition to telescoping. In yet another aspect, a single flexible arm could be used to allow articulation of holder 206. Holder 206 can include first and second pivot points 216, 218, respectively. As shown in FIG. 44, holder 206 is mated with frame 22 via a first pivot point 216. First arm 210 can extend between first and second pivot points 216, 218, while second arm 212 extends between second pivot point 218 and third arm 214. Pivot points 216, 218 can also be designed to hold their position once place in a desired configuration. Alternatively, or additionally, holder 206 can include locks that a user can activate to prevent movement of pivot points 216, 218. Holder 206 can mate with a variety of surgical instruments, such as, for example the illustrated optical device 28. In one aspect, holder 206 includes a clip 220 into which optical device 28 can sit. Clip 220 can have an open sided configuration which relies upon gravity and/or friction to hold optical device 28 in place. Alternatively, clip 220 can include a locking mechanism (not illustrated) to prevent movement of optical device 28 relative to clip 220. As mentioned above, upper portion 200 can further include rails 224a, 224b that receive controls 24a, 24b for tools 40a, 40b. Rails 224a, 224b allow control members 24a, 24b to move longitudinally and/or to pivot with respect to other portions of system 20 (e.g., frame) and/or the surrounding environment (e.g., with respect to a patient). Since the rails can be defined by a portion of frame 22, by a portion of guide tube 26 (e.g., part of housing 150), and/or as a stand alone structure, the rails will be described in a separate section below. The lower portion 202 of frame 22 can have a variety of configurations adapted to support upper portion 200 and to hold frame 22 in place relative to a patient and/or an operating table. In one aspect, lower portion 202 has a tripod configuration that rests on an operating room floor. To facilitate movement of frame 22, the frame can include wheels or sliders. For example, FIG. 48 illustrates system 20 mounted on a rollable lower portion 202. Frame 22 allows rolling or sliding of the guide tube and tool 40. In addition, the frame of FIG. 48 can allow a user to adjust the angle of rail 224, guide tube 26, and/or tool 40. The connection between the upper and lower portions can be configured to allow upper portion 200 to move relative to the lower portion 202. As shown in FIG. 44 upper portion 200 can be pivoted and lock in position relative to upper portion 200. In another aspect, lower portion 202 can mate with an operating table such that frame 22 moves with the operation table as the table and patient are moved. FIG. 49 illustrates system 20 mated to an operating table rail. In one aspect, frame 22 is adjustably mated with a frame of an operating room table. In yet another aspect, system 20 can be mounted on a movable chair. FIG. 50 illustrates system 20 mounted on a chair 246 that can be moved via rolling. In still another aspect, as shown in FIG. 51, system 20 can be harnessed to a physician. As mentioned above, in one aspect, the rail is movably mated with frame 22, for example, via pivoting joints. In another aspect, additional degrees of freedom can be provided to rails 224a and/or 224b with respect to frame 22, an operating room, and/or a patient. For example, FIG. 47 (discussed above) illustrates a holder 206 that can provide one, two, three, or more than three degrees of freedom to an optical instrument. In one aspect, the rails can be mounted on an adjustable frame similar to holder 206 to permit adjustment of the rails with respect to the guide tube 26 and/or to improve user ergonomics. In other embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 52, the rails can be mounted to an optical device. A user can hold the optical device 28 (e.g., endoscope) in one hand and drive the control member 24a with the other hand. As described below, the control member 24a and rails 224a can facilitate control of multiple degrees of freedom with a single hand. Mounting rail 224a to the endoscope can permit manipulation of optical controls 215 and surgical instrument handle 24a via a single user. The rail 224a can be mounted at various angles, such as, for example, parallel to the optical device control housing. In one embodiment, the catheter body of instrument 40a has sufficient rigidity that moving handle 24a along rail 224a cause the body (and distal end) of instrument 40a to move relative to the optical device 28 (and/or relative to a frame, patient, point of reference, etc.). For example, a user can torque handle 24a and cause the body of instrument 40a to rotate. Similarly, moving the handle longitudinally along the rail can cause the body of instrument 40a to move longitudinally within a working channel in optical device 28. In one aspect, optical device 28 acts as the frame. In another aspect a separate structure could provide support to optical device 28 and act as the frame. In one such aspect, tissue or a natural body orifice acts as a frame to support optical device 28. With respect to FIG. 52, a strap 213 mates rail 224a with optical device 28. However a variety of other detachable or fixed mating features can be used to attach rail 224a to optical device 28. Rails In one aspect, control members 24a, 24b of tools 40a, 40b can mate with rails 224a, 224b. As mentioned above, rails 224a, 224b can be formed by a portion of frame 22. However, in another embodiment, the rails can be defined by or mate with another portion of system 22 and/or be used without a frame. In addition, while the discussion below generally refers to two rails, the systems described herein can include a single rail or more than two rails. Generally, the rails and control members allow a user to manipulate (i.e., move and/or freeze) multiple degrees of freedom of the tools. For example, the tools 40a, 40b can be moved longitudinally with respect to and/or rotated with respect to the rails (or another portion of system 20) to control longitudinal and/or rotational movement of the distal ends of the tools (i.e., the end effectors). However, not only do the rails permit movement and provide a frame of reference for a user, but they can also facilitate control of multiple degrees of freedom. Thus, in addition to providing multiple degrees of freedom, the systems described herein can enable a user to make use of the multiple degrees of freedom. In one aspect, the system 20 allows a user to control multiple degrees of freedom with a single hand. In another aspect, system 20 permits simultaneous control of multiple degrees of freedom (e.g., movement of tool 40 relative to a patient while manipulating control member 24). As described above, in one aspect, tools 40a, 40b include proximal control members 24a, 24b, elongate bodies referred to herein as catheters 25a, 25b, and distal end effectors 502. The various elements of tools 40a, 40b are described in more detail below, however for the purpose of discussing rails 224a, 224b, it should be understood that the rails mate with the proximal control members 24a, 24b and facilitate movement of the proximal control members 24a, 24b. Moving the proximal control members relative to the rails (or another portion of system 20) is one way to control the movement of catheters 25a, 25b and the end effectors 502. In one aspect described below, rotating and/or translating the proximal control members causes the catheters and end effectors to rotate and/or translate relative to the rails, frame, and/or guide tube. Thus, the rails can provide one, two, or more than two degrees of freedom to each tool. In another aspect described below, the proximal control members can be fixedly mated with the rails and the rails can move relative to the frame, guide tube, and/or patient to provide one, two, or more than two degrees of freedom to each tool. In yet another aspect described below, the tools can be movable mated with the rails and the rails can move relative to the frame, guide tube, and/or patient. For example, movement of the rails can provide one or more degrees of freedom to the tools (e.g., rotation and/or longitudinal movement) and movement of the tools relative to the rails can provide one or more additional degrees of freedom (e.g., rotation and/or longitudinal movement of the tools with respect to the rails). In one embodiment, rails 224a, 224b extend proximally from frame 22. In use, a surgeon can stand or sit with control members 24a, 24b on opposites sides of his or her body. To improve ergonomics, rails 224a, 224b can be adjustable with respect to frame 22. FIG. 53 illustrates frame 22 with rails 224a, 224b attached to frame 22 at pivot points 226a, 226b. In another aspect, rails 224a, 224b, could be attached to frame 22 such that the position of the rails can be adjusted and locked with respect to frame 22. For example, the rails can be adjusted longitudinally, moved up/down, rotated, and/or moved transversely with respect to frame 22 to accommodate different users. In addition, more than two rails can be provided. In yet another aspect, two rails could be stacked on one another. In one aspect, the rails 224a, 224b constrain movement of the control members 24a, 24b within a control member volume. The maximum travel of the control members (longitudinal movement and rotation) defines the control member volume. Adjusting the rails with respect to the frame can change the location of the control member volume. In another aspect, adjusting the frame (e.g., movement of first body member 201 relative to second body member 202) can change the location of the control member volume. In one embodiment, the rails can extend from the system in a non-linear configuration. For example, FIG. 54 illustrates curved guide rails that arc around a user. The curved rails can improve user ergonomics and/or allow for longer rails. For example, the curved rails can provide increased control member travel while keeping the control members within reach of the user. Depending upon the user and/or the intended use of system 20, the curve of the rails can be adjustable. A user can bend the rails into a desired configuration. FIG. 55 illustrates one embodiment of the connection between rail 224a and control member 24a. Control member 24 can include guide members 234, 235 (referred to as “clamps” in another embodiment below) extending from the surface of the control member and mating with rail 224a. Generally the guide members have an aperture or recess corresponding to the outer surface of the rail. The connection between the control member and rail allows relative translation and/or rotation between the control member and rail. While two guide members 234, 235 per control member are illustrated, one skilled in the art will appreciate that the guide members can have a variety of alternative configurations, such as, for example a control member with a single guide member. While rails 224a, 224b are illustrated as having a generally circular cross-section shape, rail 224a and/or rail 224b could have a variety of alternative configurations. In addition, the cross-sectional shape of the rails can be chosen to control the movement of the control members relative to the rails. The rails can have a non-circular cross-sectional shape, such as, for example, a rectangular, oval, elliptical, triangular, and/or irregular shape that prevents relative rotation of the control member. In one aspect, the shape of the rails can prevent rotation of the control member relative to the rails. However, not all non-cylindrical rails prevent rotation of the control member with respect to the rails. In another aspect, the rails can have a groove or protrusion which corresponds to a groove or protrusion on the control members. FIG. 56 illustrate an exemplary configurations of rail 224a that allow translation of control members 24a, but inhibits rotation of the control member with respect to the rail. The groove/protrusion provides a “keyed” pathway that allows one degree of freedom while inhibiting another. In one aspect, the keyed pathway allows relative translational movement, but can prevent relative rotational movement of control member 24a with respect to rail 224a. If rotation of the tools is desired, the control members 24a, 24b could rotate independently of rails 224a, 224b (described in more detail below) and/or the rails could rotate together with the control members (also described below). In another aspect, the keyed pathway can limit the range of motion or travel of the control member with respect to the rail. In one embodiment, the rails can include stops to limit the travel of the control members relative to the rails. As illustrated in FIG. 55, stops 230, 232 limit longitudinal movement of guide members 234, 235. A portion of rail 224a having a larger size than the inner diameter of guide member 235 can limit distal movement. Conversely, proximal stop 230 can be formed separately from rails 224a and mated therewith. For example, stop 230 can be defined by an adjustable locking nut that a user can lock at a desired location. In another aspect, both stops 230, 232 are adjustable. In use, a clinician can position stops 230, 232 to adjust the amount of travel of the control member. In another aspect, at least one of the stops could be defined by a quick disconnect feature that allows rapid mating of control members 24a, 24b with rails 224a, 224b. If a user wishes to remove control member 24a from rail 224a, the quick disconnect stop can be manipulated to allow the control member to slide off of the rail. FIG. 57 illustrates one exemplary quick disconnect 230 defined by a spring loaded ball. FIGS. 58A and 58B illustrate a rail end stop that can move between a low profile configuration that (FIG. 58A) that permits passage of guide 234 and an off-center configuration (FIG. 58B) that prevents passage of guide 234. In the low profile configuration, the outer surface of stop 230 does not extend beyond the outer surface of the rail. In the off-center configuration, stop 230 pivots away from the rail and prevents passage of control member 24. In one aspect, only the proximal stop 230 is a “quick disconnect” stop, however, both proximal and distal stops 230, 232 can have a quick disconnect configuration. In another embodiment, the connection between control member 24a and rail 224 can be a quick disconnect. For example, guide member 234 can detachably mate with rail 224a. In one aspect, the movable connection between the control member and the rail and/or between the rail and the frame requires user input in order to move tool 40a, 40b. The amount of force required to move control member 24 can be chosen such that gravity alone does not cause the control member to move when a user removes their hand. In one aspect, the guide members 234, 235 can be configured to allow translation and/or rotation while providing some frictional resistance to movement. Thus, when a user removes a hand from the control member, the frictional resistance between the control member and rail will hold the control member in place relative to the rail, the guide tube, the frame, a patient, and/or a reference point. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the materials and/or inner dimensions of the guide members, rails, and/or frame can be chosen according to the desired frictional resistance. In another aspect, system 20 includes a damper to increase the force required to move the tools. For example, the damper can prevent movement of a tool where the force applied by the user is below a predetermined threshold and/or can limit the maximum velocity of the tool. In addition, or alternatively, the damper can smooth the resultant tool movement from a user's input forces. If the user's inputs are jerky or inconsistent, the damper can improve the consistency and/or predictability of tool movement. A variety of dampers can be used with system 20. FIG. 59A illustrates an adjustable constricting ring 601 that allows a user to control the frictional resistance to movement of tool 40. In another aspect, a hydraulic damper could be incorporated into system 20. For example, where two parts of the system move with respect to one another (e.g., the control member with respect to the rail and/or the rail with respect to the frame), a hydraulic damper can damp relative movement. In another aspect, the damper can damp one degree of freedom to increase the force required to move the tool in the one degree of freedom, but not damp another degree of freedom. In one example, the damper can increase the force required to move the tool longitudinally, but not the force required to rotate the tool and/or not the force required to manipulate the handle of the control member. Damping one degree of freedom without damping another can reduce the chance of unwanted or non-intuitive tool movements where two degrees of movement are controlled by similar user inputs. In addition, or in the alternative, system 20 can include a brake or lock for preventing movement of control members 24a, 24b relative to the rails, guide tube, frame, patient, and/or point of reference. In one aspect, when engaged, the lock can increase resistance to movement between the rail and control member and thereby inhibit movement of the tool. While a variety of locks can be used, in one aspect, system 20 includes a lock that can independently lock different degrees of freedom, such as, for example lockable roller bearings. In use, movement of the roller bearings in one direction is inhibited to lock one degree of freedom of the control member. In another embodiment, the lock can inhibit multiple degrees of freedom and include, for example, frictionally or magnetically driven brakes. A magnetic lock can include an electromagnet positioned on the rail and/or control member and a ferrous substance positioned on or defining a portion of the control members 24a, 24b and/or rails 224a, 224b. FIG. 59B illustrates another embodiment of a lock for inhibiting movement between the control member and rail. In one aspect, the a collar 760 extends at least partly around rail 224. When tightened, collar 760 can inhibit rotation and/or translation of control member 24 with respect to rail 224. Collar 760 can be used in addition to guide members 234, 235 or can be substituted for one or both the guide members. Thus, in one aspect, locking collar 760 can mate control member 24 and rail 224. In one aspect, collar 760 can be controlled via an actuator on control member 24 to permit on-the-fly locking. For example, pull wires can extend between the control member and collar 760 to permit locking of control member 24 without a user removing his or her hand from the control member. In another embodiment, the control member 24 can be locked using magnetic rheological fluid. A portion of control member, or a structure mated with the control member, can move through magnetic rheological fluid as the control member travels along the rail. To lock the control member, a magnetic field can be applied to the fluid, locking the control member in place with respect to the rail. FIG. 59C illustrates control member 24 and rail 224, with rail 224 extending into a chamber 785 containing magnetic Theological fluid. As rail 224 moves into chamber 785, the fluid flows through a constricted area 787 of chamber 785. In order to inhibit further movement of rail 224 and control member 24, a magnetic field is applied with magnet 789, causing the magnetic rheological fluid to stiffen. Chamber 785 can include a counter force defined by springs 791. After removing the magnetic field rail 224 can be moved backwards. Springs 791 can force the magnetic rheological fluid back through constricted area 787 as rail 224 withdraws from chamber 785. The rail and springs can therefore apply opposing forces to move the magnetic fluid back and forth as the rail moves back and forth. In one aspect, rail 224 and springs 791 can include a fluid seal 793 to prevent leaking of the fluid. In addition, the seals 793 can prevent the passage of air into passage 785 and inhibit separation of rail 224 from the magnetic rheological fluid. Thus, locking or stiffening the magnetic Theological fluid can additionally inhibit backward movement of control member 24 via suction. In other aspect, rail 224 and/or control member 24 can be locked and/or damped directly with magnets. For example, rail 224 can be ferrous. A magnet can be moved into position and/or activated to inhibit movement of the rail. In one aspect, a portion of system 20 adjacent to rail 224 can be magnetized to inhibit movement of the rail. As mentioned above, tools 40a, 40b can include proximal control members 24a, 24b and distal end effectors. In some cases, a user may wish to determine the distance traveled by the distal end of the tools, based on the location of the proximal control members. In one aspect, rails 224a, 224b can include visual and/or tactile feedback to assist with determining the location of and/or distance traveled by the distal end of the tools 40a, 40b. FIG. 60 illustrates one embodiment of a marking system 236 that can be positioned adjacent to rail 224 to assist the user with determining the location of and/or distance traveled by the tools. Indicia 236 on the rail, frame, tool, and/or surrounding environment can permit a user to determine tool location and/or measure tool movement. The indicia are positioned to allow measurement of the distance traveled by control member 24 relative to frame 22 and/or rail 224. In one aspect, translational movement of control member 24 relative to rail 224 and/or frame 22 can be measured with indicia. In another aspect, indicia allow measurement of rotational movement of control member 24 relative to rail 224 and/or frame 22 While system 20 is generally described with respect to one tool per rail, the use of more than one tool per rail is contemplated. For example, tools 40a, 40b can be positioned adjacent to each other on a single rail. In addition, or alternatively, system 20 can include more than two tools on two or more rails. FIG. 61 illustrates one example of two control member 24a, 24b positioned on a single rail 224. In another aspect, system 20 can include multiple rails with multiple tools. The control members 24a, 24b illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 44 rotate about an axis defined by the rails, which is offset from the entrance to guide member 26 and offset from the location of catheters 25a, 25b. As a result, when the control members 24a, 24b rotate about rails 224a, 224b, the rotational movement of the control members can cause not only rotational movement of the catheters, but can also cause longitudinal movement (push/pull movement) of the catheters. In other words, where a user inputs only rotational movement to the control members, the resulting movement of catheters can include both rotational and longitudinal movement. Because one degree of movement of the control members (rotation) influences two degrees of movement of the catheters (rotation and translation), a user may find that control of tools 40a, 40b via movement of control members 24a, 24b is not intuitive. Described herein are various embodiments of system 20 adapted to disconnect (or minimized the influence of) the rotational movement of the tools from (on) the longitudinal movement of the tools. Generally, these embodiments are referred to as “on-axis” systems. In one embodiment, system 20 can include catheter holders 242a, 242b. The catheter holders can align at least a portion of the catheters with the rotational axis of the control members. With respect to FIGS. 1 and 44, the catheter holders 242a, 242b can align the catheters 25a, 25b with an axis L-L defined by rails 224a, 224b (the axis of rail 224a is indicated by a dashed line L-L in FIG. 44). In use, catheters 25a, 25b can extend from the control members 24a, 24b; through an aperture in the catheter holders 242a, 242b, which is coaxial with rails 224a, 224b; and into guide tube 26. The catheter holders 242a, 242b can allow rotation and/or longitudinal movement of the catheters with respect to the catheter holders, while keeping a portion of the catheter aligned with the rotational axis of the control members 24a, 24b. In one embodiment, shown in FIG. 44, the catheter holders 242a, 242b can be defined by “U” shaped holders having an open upper surface. In use, the catheters can be quickly attached/detached from frame 22 by sliding the catheters 25a, 25b into/out of holders 242a, 242b. The catheter holders inhibit radial movement (i.e., movement in a radial direction away from the rotational axis of the control members), but allow axial and/or rotational movement of the catheters. While the illustrated catheter holders 242a, 242b extend from a portion of frame 22, the catheter holder can be mated or defined by a different part of system 20. For example, the catheter holders can be defined by or mate with guide tube 26, with rails 224a, 224b, and/or with another frame. In one aspect, catheter holder 224a, 224b additionally or alternatively mate with the working channels 44a, 44b. For example, the catheter holders can mate with a portion (e.g., the proximal end) of the working channel bodies. In one aspect, the catheter holders can detachably or fixedly mate with the working channel bodies. In another embodiment the catheter holders can be integral with or defined by the working channel bodies. Regardless, the catheters, in one aspect, can mate with the catheter holders by passing through the working channels while the working channels are mated with the catheter holders. The catheter holders can thereby inhibit radial (but not longitudinal and/or rotational) movement of the catheters with respect to the frame and/or working channels at the location where the catheters mate with (e.g., extend through) the catheter holders. In another embodiment, control member 24 can rotate independently of the rail. The axis of rotation of the control member can provide independent rotation and longitudinal movement of tool 40. In one aspect, the axis of rotation corresponds to a portion of the catheter. In one example, the tools can rotate around an axis that extends through a point proximate to the interface between the control member and the catheter. In another aspect, the control member can rotate about an axis defined by, or in close proximity, to an axis defined by a portion of the catheter. FIGS. 62A through 62C illustrate control member 24a configured to rotate about an axis co-linear with a portion of catheter 25. With respect to FIG. 62A, the control member can rotate about an axis C-C that is coaxial with a portion of catheter 25. In one aspect, axis C-C extends through catheter 25 adjacent to control member 24. In another aspect, axis C-C extends through the location at which catheter 25 mates with control member 24. As illustrated, control member 24 can rotate independently of rail 224 while rail 224 remains fixed in position. In one aspect, control member 24 includes first and second body member. The first body member can movably mate with the rail and movably mate with the second body member. The movable connection between the first body member and the rail can provide one degree of freedom, for example, longitudinal movement. The movable connection between the first body member and an the second body member can provide another degree of freedom to the control member (with respect to the frame, rail, and/or guide tube), such as, for example, rotation. In the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 62A through 62C, a first body member 233 is defined by guide member and a second body member 228 is defined by a portion of control member 24 that rotatably mates with the first body member. The first body member 233 can mate with rails in a variety of ways, including, for example, via a lumen which receives rail 224a. In one aspect, first body member 233 can translate relative to rail 224a, but cannot rotate relative to rail 224a. For example, as mentioned above, rail 224a can have a non-cylindrical configuration that mates with a non-cylindrical lumen of the guide member. The first body member can include a proximal arm and a distal arm that movably mate with second body member 228. FIGS. 62B and 62C illustrate exemplary mating features that allow one degree of freedom, rotation, of the second body member 228 of control member 24 relative to the first body member 233 and rail 224. In particular, the proximal arm of the guide member can define a shaft around which control member 24 rotates. Alternatively, the proximal arm can receive a portion of the control member configured for rotation within the proximal arm (FIG. 62C). The distal arm can have a configuration similar to the proximal arm. Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 65A, the distal arm can define a support cradle that allows rotation of the control member relative to rail 224a. Providing a control member that rotates around its own axis permits tool 40 to freely rotate. In particular, catheter 25 will not wrap around rail 224 as the control member 24 is rotated. In another “on-axis” embodiment, the rails can rotate around the catheter and/or around an axis defined by, or in close proximity, to an axis defined by a portion of the catheter. FIG. 63A illustrates rotatable rail 224 defined by a cradle 225 and including first and second elongate members. Control member 24 can move longitudinally relative to rail 224, but cannot pivot or rotate about the rail. However, cradle 225 is movable mated to system 20 such that that cradle and control member can rotate together. In one aspect, the rotational axis of cradle 225 is aligned with catheter 25 such that rail 224 and control member 24 rotate around an axis co-linear with a rotational axis of the catheter. In particular, the catheter 25 can pass through the axis of rotation of cradle 225. For example, the cradle can include an aperture at the axis of rotation. In another “on-axis” embodiment, at least a portion of the catheter is positioned within the rail. In addition, the rail can rotate about the catheter and/or the rail and catheter can rotate together. The axis of rotation can be defined by the rail and/or by the catheter within the rail. For example, rail 224 can rotate and/or move longitudinally with respect to the frame. In one such embodiment, illustrated in FIGS. 64A and 64B, instrument 40 fixed mates with rail 224, such that the control member 24 and rail 224 move together to provide one or more degrees of freedom to tool 40. The rail movably mates with the frame to allow rotation and/or longitudinal movement. When a user applies a rotation and/or translational pressure on control member 24, rail 224 can move relative to rail mount 239, frame 22, and/or guide tube 26. As shown in FIG. 64B, the catheter 25 of tool 40 can extend through a portion of rail 224. Having catheter 25 extend through rail 224 (and through rail mount 239) can permit co-axial rotation of the control member, rail, and catheter. In addition, tool 40 can freely rotate without the catheter entangling frame 22 or wrapping around rail 224. FIG. 64C illustrates another embodiment of rail 224 rotatably mated with frame 22. The rotatable connection between the rail and frame permits tool 40 to rotate relative the frame, guide tube (not illustrated), patient (not illustrated), and/or another point of reference. In order to provide longitudinal movement, rail 224 can move with respect to the frame and/or the control member can slide along rail. In one aspect, rail 224 is movably mates with the control member to allow the control member to translate with respect to the frame, guide tube, point of reference, etc. For example, a portion of the rail can be received within the control member and movably mated therewith. Regardless, unlike FIGS. 64A and 64B, the catheter need not be positioned within the rail. In one aspect, with respect to FIGS. 64A through 64C, movement of rail 224 is limited by collar(s) 227 (FIG. 64A) positioned on either end of the rail. Contact of collar 227 with rail mount 239 can act as a stop to limit longitudinal movement of tool 40. In yet another embodiment, a portion of catheter 25 can define the rail(not illustrated). For example, the catheter can include a generally rigid section that movably mates with a frame, such as, for example, rail mount 239. Control member 24 and catheter 25 can be moved together relative to the frame, guide tube, surrounding environment, and/or a patient to control movement of the instrument. While the distal ends of the rails are described as mated with system 20, the proximal ends of the rails can alternatively mate with the system. FIG. 65 illustrates frame body 201 connected to rails 224a, 224b at the proximal end of the rails. The catheter bodies 25a, 25b of tools 40a, 40b can extend distally to guide tube 26 (not illustrated). Proximal mating of rails 224a, 224b with the frame of system 20 permits rotation of control members 24a, 24b without catheters 25a, 25b of tools 40a, 40b wrapping around or tangling with frame 22. In addition, control members 24a, 24b can be rotate 360 degrees or more. In one aspect, the proximal ends (or a region proximate to the proximate ends) of the rails can mate with a crossbar 237 that extends from frame 22. For example, rails 224a, 224b can extend through an aperture or lumen in crossbar 237. Alternatively, each of the rails 224a, 224b can mate with separate with portions of the system or separate frames. Regardless, the connection between rails 224a, 224b and system 20 can include the various features of the control member/rail connection described above, including, for example, a locking feature to selectively inhibit movement between rails 224a, 224b and frame 22. The control members 24a, 24b can be fixedly mated with rails 224a, 224b. Moving the rails longitudinally and/or rotationally results in a corresponding movement of tools 40a, 40b. In one embodiment, instead of a user directly manipulating the control members 24a, 24b, a user can interface with the rails or with a handle attached to the rails. For example, in FIG. 65, rails 224a, 224b can include proximal knobs 238a, 238b that allow a user to control at least one degree of freedom, and in another aspect, each knob allows a user to control two degrees of freedom of tools 40a, 40b. For example, the user can control longitudinal and/or rotational movement of tools 40a, 40b with knobs 238a, 238b. In one aspect, a user can rotate the tool 360 degrees or more without releasing the knobs. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the knobs are exemplary of the various handles or controllers that can be used to manipulate tools 40a, 40b, via rails 224a, 224b. In another embodiment, knobs 238a, 238b can be configured to allow a user to control additional degrees of freedom. Knob 238a and/or knob 238b can include the features of handle 304 (described below) to actuate at least one degree of freedom of a distal end effector. In one example, knobs 238a, 238b can include a trigger for controlling actuation of a distal end effector. In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 65, control members 24a, 24b rotate around the axes of rails 224a, 224b. In one aspect, rails 224a, 224b could be co-axial with a portion of catheters 25a, 25b to permit rotation of tools 40a, 40b and/or knobs 238a, 238b around an axis corresponding the catheters. In still another embodiment of “on axis” rails used with the systems described herein, a rail can extend through a portion of control member 24 and/or catheter 25. FIGS. 66A and 66B illustrate control member 24 and catheter 25 with rail 224 extending through at least a portion of catheter 25. Tool 40 can rotate about rail 224 and/or move longitudinally on the rail. With rail 224 extending through a portion of catheter 25, the axis of rotation of control member 24 (or tool 40) can be co-linear or nearly co-linear with at least a portion of catheter 25. As illustrated in FIG. 66B, rail 224 can be slightly offset from the central axis of catheter 25 and still allow independent control of rotation and translation of tool 40 via control member 24. Rail 224, of FIGS. 66A and 66B, in one aspect, is formed of a rigid or semi-rigid material. In another aspect, the rails can have varying rigidity such as a bendable or flexible segment that permits rail 224 and catheter 25 to follow a non-linear pathway and/or to articulate. In one aspect, rail 224 mates with system 20 or the surrounding environment at a location proximal to the proximal end of the control member. Having rail 224 extend through at least a portion of the catheter can allow the rail to act as a guide wire. The rail 224 can first be directed to a target location and then used to position guide tube 26 and/or tool 40a. For example, the rail can be used in a fashion similar to a guide wire. In another aspect, rail 224 can be used to deliver electrosurgical energy. For example, the proximal end of rail 224 can be connected to an electrosurgical generator and can deliver energy to the distal end of tool 40, such as, for example to an end effector positioned at the end of tool 40. In another embodiment of system 20, at least a portion of the control member 24 can be positioned within rail 224. FIG. 67 illustrates a sleeve 267 in which a portion of control member 24 sits. The control members can have at least one degree of freedom with respect to sleeves. As shown in FIG. 67 the sleeves 267 can each include an elongate slot sized and shaped for the passage of the control member handle 304 to permit the control members to move longitudinally with respect to the rails. To rotate tool 40, the control members 24 and sleeves 267 can rotatably mate with the frame (not illustrated). Rotating the control members 24 and sleeve together can rotate tools 40 and provide a second degree of freedom to tool 40. In one aspect, rail 224 can house at least a portion of catheter 25 and sleeve 267 of FIG. 67 provides “on-axis” rotation of tool 40. In a further aspect, the axis of rotation of rail 224, as defined by sleeve 267, can be co-linear with a portion of the catheter. In yet a more specific aspect, the catheter can pass through the axis of rotation of sleeve 267. As a result, rotation of tool 40 is independent of translational movement of tool 40. As mentioned above, the rails described herein can be mated with or incorporated into other portions of system 20 besides frame 22. FIGS. 68A and 68B illustrate rails incorporated into guide tube housing 150. In one aspect, rails 224a, 224b are defined by sleeves 267 which are rotatably mated with housing 150. In another aspect, illustrated in FIGS. 69A and 69B, instead of the control members moving within sleeve 267, the control members include a sleeve 267′ that receives a portion of rails 224 (as defined by guide tube housing 150). Sleeve 267′ is configured to moveably mate with the rail and allow rotational and/or longitudinal movement of tools 40a, 40b. In addition, sleeve 267′ can provide “on-axis” rotation of tool 40. While a frame is not illustrated in FIGS. 68A through 69A, a frame could be used to support guide member 26 and/or sleeves 267. However, a separate frame device is not necessary to support the system of FIGS. 68A through 69B. For example, as shown in FIG. 69B, the guide tube housing 150 could mate with an operating table, patient, floor, ceiling, and/or other operating room structure. In another embodiment, instead of moving the control members 24a, 24b relative to the rails (or moving the rails relative to the frame) to achieve longitudinal movement, the sleeves could have a telescoping configuration. FIG. 70 illustrates telescoping rails 224 having multiple segments 1224a, 1224b movably mated with one another. Longitudinal movement can be achieved by moving one of the segments into another segment. For example, a first segment 1224a can have a size and shape corresponding to an open channel within a second segment 1224b. Thus, pulling the control members toward the user causes telescopic expansion of rail 224. Similarly, the control members can be moved toward housing 150 by collapsing sections of the telescoping rail. While two telescoping segments are illustrated, three or more than three segments could be used. In another aspect, the telescoping rail of FIG. 70 provides tool 40 with two degrees of freedom relative to the frame, guide tube, and/or a patient. For example, the segments 1224a, 1224b can rotate relative to one another to permit rotational movement of tool 40. Alternatively, the telescoping rail could provide only a single degree of freedom (moving longitudinally) and rotation of tool 40 could be provided by rotatably mating the telescoping rail with the control member and/or with the frame. In one aspect, catheter 25 extend through the multiple segments of the telescoping rail to provide on-axis rotation of tool 40. In another aspect, control member 24 and telescoping rail 224 can rotate about an axis co-linear with the catheter axis. The rails described can provide functionality in addition, or as alternative, to enabling tool articulation. In one embodiment, one or both of the rails 224a, 224b can control articulation of guide tube 26. As described above, guide tube 26 can include an articulation portion 56 that can move up/down and/or left/right. In one embodiment, the rails 224a, 224b can control at one degree of freedom of the guide tube 26, and in another embodiment, the rails can control two, or more than two degrees of freedom of guide tube 26. In one aspect, described above, the guide tube is controlled via strands 60 that extend from the distal articulation section of the guide tube to a proximal controller. As shown in FIGS. 71A and 7B, the strands can extend to rail 224 or to a location proximate to rail 224. In one aspect, rail 224 can movably mate with guide tube 26 to permit rotation of the rail with respect to the guide tube. Strands 60 can extend to rail 224 and mate therewith, such that rotating rail 224 pulls (and/or pushes) on strands 60. Thus, moving rail up and down with respect to the guide tube can control at least one degree of freedom of guide tube 26, and in particular, can control up and down movement of the articulation section of the guide tube. Similarly, rail 224 can be configured to pivot in a left/right configuration. When rail 224 is pivoted, strands 60 can be pulled (and/or pushed) to control at least one degree of freedom of the guide tube, and in particular, left/right movement of the articulation segment of the guide tube. Thus, movement of rails 224a, 224b relative to guide tube 26 can drive movement of the guide tube. Alternatively, the guide tube housing can include a first and second body member. Movement of the first body member relative to the second body member can articulate the guide tube. In one aspect, the first body member can be fixedly mated with a rail or rails such that movement of rails moves the first body member with respect to the second body member and articulates the guide tube. In one embodiment, the guide tube includes a joint 241, movement of which can drive a articulation of the guide tube. Joint 241 can mate with strands 60 such that pivoting joint 241 pulls (and/or pushes) on strands 60. Joint 241 can also be configured to allow locking of rail 224. For example, joint 241 can be comprised of an upper segment 243 and a lower segment 244. Upper segment 243, when unlocked, can pivot to control movement of strands 60, and conversely, when the upper and lower segments are locked to one another pivoting of the rail is inhibited. The upper and lower segments 243, 244 can include mating surfaces with corresponding surface features such that when the mating surfaces of the upper and lower segments are in contact with one another, the mating surfaces can engage one another and prevent movement of joint 241. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of mating features, such as corresponding protrusions and grooves, can inhibit movement of the upper and lower segments 243, 244 when the mating surfaces are in contact. To unlock joint 241, a controller, such as foot pedal 245 (FIG. 72), can be activated to lift the upper segment 243 away from lower segment 244 and allow relative movement between the upper and lower segments. The upper and lower segments of joint 241 can lock in a variety of alternative ways. For example, instead of mating protrusions/grooves, joint 241 can include a ball and detent system. FIG. 73 illustrates a spring loaded ball positioned on upper segment 243, that when activated, will engage detents on the lower segment 244. In one aspect, the ball and detent arrangement does not prevent articulation, but inhibits unwanted movement of the guide tube. After a user positions the guide tube in the desired configuration, the ball/detent lock can prevent unwanted movement of the rails. In another aspect, the force (i.e., spring) on the ball can be removed or reduced to allow movement of joint 241. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of other locking features can be used to prevent unwanted movement of the guide tube articulation segment. In one exemplary embodiment a friction lock or mechanical lock prevent articulation of guide tube 26. FIGS. 74 through 79 illustrate yet another embodiment of system 20 and rails 224a, 224b comprising a movable and detachable connection between rails 224a, 224b and frame 22. In one aspect, illustrated in FIG. 75, connection 602 comprises a first mating plate 604 and a second mating plate 606. When mated, the first and second mating plate include a passage 608 for catheter 25. In one aspect, passage 608 is co-linear or nearly co-linear with the axis of rotation of control member 24 to permit “on-axis” rotation of tool 40. FIGS. 76A and 76B illustrate front views two embodiments of first mating plate 604, 604′. First mating plate 604, 604′ can include an offset lip 610 having a curved perimeter which can interlock with a corresponding hook 612 or hooks 612 on second mating plate 606. FIG. 77 illustrates first and second mating plates 604, 606 mated with one another. In user, hooks 612 can slide around the perimeter of offset lip 610 to permit rotation of second mating plate 606 with respect to first mating plate 604. In one aspect, hooks 612 are disposed toward the upper surface of second mating plate 606 such that that second mating plate hangs on the first mating plate. The mating features (lip 610 and hooks 612) of the detachable connection 602 are sized and shaped to allow sliding therebetween. When a user torques tool 40, hooks 612 can slide over the top surface of lip 612 and permit rotation. In one aspect, rotation beyond a predetermined angle will result in detachment of the first and second mating plates. As hooks 612 slide around lip 610, the hooks can fall of the side of lip 610. The detachable connection 602 can further include a lock to prevent unwanted detachment of the first and second plates. In one aspect, second mating plate 606 includes a pivotable latch 680 (FIG. 77) that can interlock with a corresponding feature on first mating plate 604. When second mating plate 606 is rotated beyond a predetermined distance, a portion of latch 680 can contact the surface of the first mating plate 604. Contact of latch 680 with first mating plate 604 can prevent further rotation of the second mating plate with respect to the first mating plate. To detach first and second mating plates 604, 606, latch 680 can be can be pivoted into a non-locking configuration. One skilled in the art will appreciate that other locking mechanisms, including various mechanical interlocks and frictional engagements can be substituted for the latch locking mechanism. In another embodiment, a snap-ring can mate the first and second mating plates. FIGS. 78 and 79 illustrates detachable connection 602′ including a snap ring 682 that mates with second mating plate 606′ and corresponds to lip 610 of first mating plate 604, 604′. When the first and second plates are mated, snap ring 682 surrounds lip 610 to prevent accidental detachment of the first and second mating plates. As mentioned above, the first and second mating plates can include passageway 608 for receiving a portion of tool 40 and for allowing movement of at least a portion of the tool through the passageway. In one aspect, passageway 608 includes on open upper surface to allow a user to place tool 40 in passageway 608. For example, passageway 608 can have a “U” shape as illustrated in FIG. 75. In another embodiment passageway 608′ can be enclosed by the walls of the first and/or second mating plates 604, 606. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 78, a circular opening in the first and second plates allows passage of at least a portion of tool 40. While several of the rail configuration described with respect to system 20 constrain movement of the tools along a linear pathway or pathways, frames and/or rails with different constraints are also contemplated. In one aspect, a frame and/or rail can constrain a control member to movement within a plane. For example, the control member can be mated with a surface that allows side-to-side movement in addition to forward-back movement. In another aspect, the control member can mate with a frame with a frame that permits movement in three dimension with respect to the frame, guidet tube, patient, and/or point of reference. For example, the control member can be moved side-to-side, forward-back, and up-down. Alternatively, or additionally, the control member can be rotated. In one aspect, the up-down and/or side-to-side movement of the control member controls articulation and/or actuation of the catheter. For example, moving the control member up-down and/or side-to-side can control up-down and/or side-to-side movement of a distal portion of the catheter. Instruments Further disclosed herein are various tools for use with the systems described herein. In addition to one or more degrees of freedom provided by moving the tools relative the guide tube, frame, and/or rails, the tools themselves can enable additional degrees of freedom. For example, the tools can include a distal articulation section that can move up/down, left/right, and/or end effectors that actuate. As used herein, the term “articulation” refers to a degree of freedom provided by moving the body of the tool and does not require a particular tool structure. In other words, the articulation section is not necessarily comprised of linked segments that move relative to one another to provide tool movement. Instead, for example, a flexible shaft can be bent to provide articulation. Described below are exemplary embodiments of the controls members, catheters, and/or end effectors that can comprise tools 40a, 40b. As discussed above, control members 24a, 24b articulate catheters 25a, 25b, and/or end effectors. FIGS. 80A through 80E illustrate one such embodiment of a control member 24 including an actuator handle 304 that allows a user to control the orientation of a distal tip of tool 40 as will be explained below. The handle further includes a trigger 306 that allows a user to actuate an end effector. In one embodiment, control member 24, is coupled to the rail with one or more U-shaped clamps 300 and 302. As shown in FIG. 80B, Each of the U-shaped clamps includes a pair of spaced-apart arms 308 that are connected to a pair of side rails 310a, 310b that extend for the length of the control member and form a frame to which additional components of the control member can be secured. While control member 24 is described as including side rails 310a, 310b as supporting structure for the various elements of the control member, other control member configurations are contemplated. For example, the outer walls or shell of the control member can provide an anchor or frame to which various portion of the control member mechanisms can be mated. However, with respect to FIGS. 80A through 80E and the accompanying description below, rails 310a, 310b are illustrated and described. In one aspect, actuator handle 304 is rotatably coupled to the side rails 310a, 310b such that the handle is able to move forward and aft relative to the control member 24. In addition, the handle 304 can rotate about a longitudinal axis of a shaft 314. Movement of the handle back and forth causes the distal tip of the tool 40 to move in one plane while rotation of the actuator handle 304 about the longitudinal axis of the shaft 314 causes movement of the distal tip of the tool 40 in another plane. In one aspect, the amount of force required to move the control member relative to rail 224 can be chosen such that movement of handle 304 relative to the body of control member 24 does not accidentally cause articulation or actuation of the tool 40. In one aspect, the force required to translate or move control member 24 in a proximal and/or distal direction is greater than or equal to the force required to push handle 304 forward and/or pull handle 304 back (i.e., move handle 304 in a proximal/distal direction). The force required to move control member 24 can be adjusted by increasing the amount of friction between the contact surfaces of the control member and rail. In another aspect a damper can increase the force required to move control member 24. In yet another aspect, the amount of force required to move control member 24 is adjustable. Handle 304 can be secured to the pair of side rails 310a, 310b with a trunnion 316. Trunnion 316 includes a pair of outwardly extending posts 318a, 318b that fit in corresponding holes formed in the side rails 310a, 310b. A locking mechanism such as a snap ring or other fastener can secure the posts 318a, 318b into the side rails. Alternatively, or additionally, the post can be secured by sandwiching between the side rails. The handle 304 can be rotatably secured to the trunnion 316 with a shaft 320. Shaft 320 can mate with a collar 324 that provides a stop for a bowden cable as will be described in further detail below. Although the stop is illustrated on collar 324, in another aspect, the stop can be located inside handle 304. The trunnion 316 further includes a stop plate 326 that provides an anchor for the ends of the bowden cable housings. The stop plate 326 pivots back and forth with the posts 318a, 318b as the handle 304 is moved back and forth in the control. The trunnion 316 further includes a slot in the center of the trunnion in which a cable guide plate or disk 328 is located. In the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 80C, 80D, and 80E, the cable guide plate 328 is generally circular and includes a groove 330 therein in which an actuating cable 332 is fitted. The cable guide plate 328 includes a notch 334 that receives a corresponding cable stop 336 that is secured to the cable 332 (while a single notch/stop is illustrated, additional notches/stops are contemplated). The cable is wrapped around the cable guide plate 328 and includes a pair of legs (or wires) that are coupled directly and indirectly to the distal end of the tool. Movement of the cable guide plate causes corresponding tension or relaxing of the legs of the cable 336. The cable guide plate 328 is fitted into a slot within the trunnion such that it lies behind the stop plate 326. The shaft 320 fits through a corresponding hole in the cable guide plate 328 and a snap ring or other fastening mechanism secures the components together. Rotation of the handle 304 causes a corresponding rotation of the shaft 314 which in turn is coupled to the cable guide plate 328 to tension or release the legs of the actuating cable 332. Cable 332 is illustrated as wrapped around disk 328 more than 360 degrees. In another aspect, cable 336 can be wrapped around the disk more than about 180 degrees, and in another aspect more than about 270 degrees. In yet another aspect, cable 332 mates to disk 328 without wrapping around a portion of the disc. FIGS. 80D and 80E illustrate further detail of the trunnion 316 within the control member 24. The cable guide plate 328 is fitted within the slot of the trunnion 316 and rotates back and forth within the slot by rotation of the actuator handle 304. To limit the amount of forward and aft movement of the handle 304 in the control member, a ring 340 fitted over the posts of the trunnion 316 can have a notch 342 therein. A pin 344 secured in the side rail (not shown) limits how far the handle can travel by engaging the end of the notch 342. While the FIGS. illustrate a ring/pin configuration, one skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of alternative mechanisms can be used to limit motion of the cable guide plate. In addition, the illustrated configuration could be reversed such that the notch could be located on the side rail and the pin could be located on the trunnion. Also shown in FIGS. 80D and 80E is a cable 346 that is actuated by the trigger mechanism 306 on the handle. Depressing the trigger 306 causes a tensioning of the cable 346 to actuate the distal end of the tool. In the illustrated embodiment, the cable 346 is a bowden-type cable having an outer sheath 348 with one end secured to a cable stop 350 positioned on the collar 324 that is fitted over the shaft 314. The other end of the bowden cable housing extends through a cross bar 354 and joins a stop at the distal end of the catheter. The crossbar 354 also includes stops for the bowden cable housings that are driven by rotation of the handle as described above. As shown in FIGS. 80D and 80E, the trunnion also includes a shaft that extends in a direction perpendicular to the posts that are coupled to the side rails. The shaft includes a pair of cable receivers 356, 358 having a slot or other receptacle therein that secures an end of an articulation cable. One of the cable receivers 358 is below the pivot point of the trunnion 316, and the other is above the pivot point. Upon tilting the trunnion 316 in the control member, the cable receivers 356, 358 selectively tension or release control cables that move the distal tip of tool 40 in a plane. Further detail of one embodiment of a trigger mechanism 306 is shown in FIG. 81. In this embodiment, the trigger 306 is rotatably received within the handle 304 such that squeezing the trigger 306 causes it to rotate about a pivot point. The trigger 306 includes an arm 360 to which an end of the actuation cable 346 is secured. As the arm 360 is moved by pressing the trigger, tension on the control cable 346 is increased to actuate the tool at the end of the medical device. A roller or pulley 362 changes the direction of the control cable 346 from within the handle to a direction that extends along the shaft 320. FIGS. 82A and 82B illustrate another embodiment of trigger mechanism 370 that includes a button 366 for activating the distal end of tool 40. A bowden cable 368 can extend into handle 304 to trigger mechanism 370. The second end of the outer sheath 372 of the bowden cable extends in clearance through crossbar 354 and through the body of surgical tool where it terminates proximate to end effector. The outer sheath 372 of the bowden cable 368 can mate with a stop 374 in the trigger mechanism while the inner filament 376 extends into trigger mechanism 370. When button 366 is depressed, trigger mechanism 370 tensions inner filament 376. In one aspect, trigger mechanism 370 include a ratchet-type lock that prevents the release of inner filament 376 once tensioned. A button 378 can be depressed to release inner filament 376 and allow the distal end of tool 40 to return to its original configuration. While the various control cables or control wires in the control member 24 are illustrated as bowden-type cables, other cables, filaments, and wires can be substituted. In one exemplary embodiment, unsheathed pull wires are substituted for at least some of the bowden cables. As used herein, “control cables” can refer to any wire, filament, or cable that transmits actuating and/or articulating forces along the body to tool 40. In one embodiment, the control cables extending between the control member and the distal end of the tool include a detachable connection that permits detachment of catheter 25 from control member 24. FIGS. 83A and 83B illustrate one embodiment of a coupling mechanism that can be used to selectively couple one or more of the control cables of control member 24 to one or more control cables within catheter 25 of tool 40. The coupler 380 forms an end-wall that is positioned within the control member housing between the support rails 310a, 310b. Coupler 380 has a number of spring loaded pins 382a, 382b, 382c, etc., positioned therethrough. The proximal end of pins 382a, 382b, 382c, etc., is connected to a control cable that is manipulated by handle 304 or the trigger mechanisms as described above. In addition, each pin includes a distal cable receiving notch or slot 384 therein that receives a cable terminal or stop of a corresponding control cable 386a, 386b, 386c, etc. extending through catheter 25. Securing the cable terminals in the slots 384 of each pin mates cables 386a, 386b, 386c, etc. with corresponding control cables in control member 24. In the embodiment shown, each of the pins 382a, 382b, 382c, etc. includes a spring 388a, 388b, 388c that biases the pin in the locked position. Compressing the spring allows removal or insertion of the cable terminals into slots 384. In addition, or alternatively, springs 388 can tension the control cables within the body of the control member. When the control handle is released by a user, the springs can bias the control handle in a home position. In one aspect, the various cables within control member 24 can be adjustably tensioned. For example, in one embodiment spring loaded pins 382 can have a threaded connection with coupler 380. Rotating pins 382 can move pins laterally to control the tension on control wires mated to pins 382. For example, rotating the pins 382 can compress or relax springs 388 to adjust tension on the control wires. Coupler 380 can comprise a variety of different mechanical connections for detachably mating the control cables of control member 24 and catheter 25. In one aspect, instead of notch 384 and cable terminal, coupler 380 can include a threaded connection, snap fit, and/or other mechanical interlock. FIG. 83B illustrates an exemplary quick disconnect 422 for disconnecting the control cables of catheter 25 from the control member 24. The quick disconnect can directly mate the control cables of control member 24 with the control cables of catheter 25. In one aspect, the direct connection includes a wire terminal and corresponding terminal receivers defined by slot 384. The terminal receivers can be mounted in and housed by a support base 630 (illustrated in an exploded view). After mating the terminals with the terminal receivers, a ring 632 on catheter can mate with the support base. The support base 630 and ring 632 can enclose the mated control cables and prevent unwanted control cable disconnection by limiting the freedom of movement of the mated terminals/terminal receivers. In another embodiment of control mechanism 24, system 20 can include a orientation adjuster. In use, the orientation adjuster can allow a user to rotate the elongate catheter body and distal end of a tool relative to control mechanism 24. FIG. 84 illustrates a cross-section of the distal end of control mechanism 24 with adjuster 394. Adjuster 394, in one aspect, can include an inner member 390 having a passageway 392. The passageway 392 can receive the elongate catheter body of tool 40 (not illustrated). In one embodiment, the catheter body of tool 40 includes an outer sheath that fixedly mates to the inner surface of passageway 392. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of mating mechanisms, such as, for example an adhesive, mechanical interlock, and/or frictional engagement can be used. In addition, the inner member 390 can mate with the inner surface of adjuster 394. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 84, adjuster 394 includes an aperture 396 for a set screw for mating adjuster and inner member 390. In another aspect, adjuster and 394 and inner member 390 can be fixedly mate via, for example, an adhesive. In addition, the adjuster and the inner member can alternatively be formed as a single body. To change the rotational orientation of tool 40, adjuster 394 can be rotated within control member 24. In one aspect, a locking collar 395 can be tensioned to control the amount of friction between the control member and orientation adjuster 394. For example, the locking collar 395 can be set to inhibit, but not prevent rotation of the adjuster, or set to prevent rotation until adjustment is desired. Since adjuster 394 is mated to inner member 390, and inner member 390 is mated to the body of tool 40, rotating adjuster 394 causes catheter 25 to rotate relative to control member 24. In one aspect, tool 40 can include indicia to facilitate alignment of the catheter with the control member. For example, markings on the catheter proximate to the control member can correspond to the orientation of the distal end effector at the distal end of catheter 25. In use, a clinician can use the indicia to align the catheter and control member. In another aspect, the amount of rotation of the catheter with respect to the control member is limited with a stop. For example, a surface feature on the orientation adjuster (not illustrated) can contact a corresponding surface feature (not illustrated) on the control member body to inhibit rotation more than a predetermined distance. Because control wires extend from catheter 25 into control member 24, rotation greater than about 360 degrees can significantly increase the forces required to articulate catheter 25 and/or can cause tangling of the control wires. In one aspect, stops can prevent rotation more than about 360 degrees, and in another aspect, can prevent rotation more than about 180 degrees in either direction (clockwise/counterclockwise). As mention above, passageway 392 can receive catheter 25. In one aspect, passageway 392 can include a distal region sized and shaped to receive the outer surface of the catheter 25. In addition, passageway 392 can include a proximal region adapted to prevent proximal movement of the catheter. In one aspect, the proximal region of passageway 392 can have a cross-section that is smaller, in at least one dimension, than the outer surface of the catheter, but large enough to allow passage of control cables therethrough. The proximal region can thereby prevent proximal movement of the catheter beyond passageway 392 and into (or deeper into) control member 24. In one aspect, the proximal region acts as a counter force when the control cables are tensioned or pulled. The proximal region can hold the catheter body in place to allow the control cables to move relative to the elongate catheter body. In the exemplary control members described above, the control cables extending from trunnion 316, plate 318, and/or trigger 306 extend to and mate with a firewall or coupler 380. Different control cables then extend through catheter 25 and mate with a distal articulation section and/or distal end effector. In another embodiment, control cables can extend directly from the control mechanism (e.g., trunnion 316, disk 328, trigger 307) of control member 24 to the distal articulation section and/or distal end effector. FIG. 85 illustrates control cables 386a, 386b, 386c extending into catheter 25 without the user of a firewall, coupler, or detachable connection. A variety of alternative control members, which allow a distal end of tool 40 to be actuated in the up/down, right/left, forward/backward, and rotational directions, can be used with system 20. Such alternative control mechanisms are disclosed, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/165,593, entitled “Medical Device Control System” and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/474,114, entitled “Medical Device Control System,” both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. In addition, described below are a variety of alternative embodiments of control member 24 and alternative control mechanisms that can be substituted for the trunnion 316, disk 328, and trigger 307 described above. FIG. 86 illustrates a swash plate 400 that allows a user to control multiple degree of freedom with a single handle. One such exemplary control member is described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,605,725. The swash plate can work with a “joystick” type handle to control two degrees of freedom. FIG. 87 provides a transparent view of another embodiment of a swash plate control member. In one aspect, the shaft 320 of swash plate control member 24 can have a bend, such as, for example, a 90 degree bend that allows use of handle 304 instead of a joystick. In addition, handle 304 can provides an additional degree of freedom via trigger 307. For example, handle 304 can include a button or trigger for controlling actuation of the distal end effector. In yet another embodiment of a swash plate control member, illustrated in FIG. 88, rotation of tool 40 can be provided by rotating control member 24. For example, a handle can be rotatably fixed to a shaft that controls a swash plate. While the user interfaces with the handle, with the palm of his or her hand, the user can simultaneously interface a control knob with a digit (e.g., thumb or pointer) to achieve rotation of tool 40. FIG. 88 illustrates control member 24 mated with handle 304 via a rotatable connection such that handle 304 can rotate with respect to the control member. To rotate tool 40, a user can turn control member 24 and catheter 25 independently of handle 304. In addition, a user can move the control member relative to a rail, frame, guide tube, or other reference point by pushing/pulling on handle 304 to provide longitudinal motion. While handle 304 can rotate with respect to control member 24 and catheter 25, the rotatable connection between handle 304 and shaft 320 can allow a user to drive other degrees of freedom. When a user moves handle 304 up/down and/or side-to-side, user input forces can drive swash plate 400. Movement of swash plate 400 can drive various degrees of freedom of tool 40 including, for example, articulation of catheter 25. In addition, longitudinal user input forces, such as pushing/pulling along an axis parallel to tool 40, can also be delivered through shaft 320 to drive tool 40. In yet another aspect, control member 24 can permit independent rotation of the end effector with respect to catheter 25 and/or with respect to control member 24. FIGS. 89A and 89B illustrate one embodiment of a control mechanism that permits independent rotation of the end effector. Control cable 368 extends from control member 24, through catheter 25, to a distal end effector (not shown). Rotating control cable 368 independently of catheter 25 and control member 24 can drive rotation of the end effector with respect to catheter 25. In one embodiment the use of a first and second swash plate 400a, 400b can permit independent rotation of control cable 368. Second swash plate 400b can be mated with control cable 368 such that rotation of handle 304 cause control cable 368 to rotate. Conversely, control cable 368 can rotate independently of first swash plate 400a. In one aspect, control cable 368 extends through an aperture within first swash plate 400a that allows relative rotation between control cable 368 and first swash plate 400a. Control cable 368 can be a torquable, flexible filament, coil, cable, or wire that transmits torque to the distal end effector. In one aspect, control cable 368 can additionally drive actuation of the end effector as described herein. For example, where distal end effector actuation is desired, handle 304 can include a trigger or similar mechanism to actuate the distal end effector. Rotational movement of second swash plate 400b is disconnected from first swash plate 400a. In one aspect, cross bars 640a, 640b extend from second swash plate 400b and movably mate with first swash plate 400a via slots 642a, 642b. While two cross bars are illustrated, three, four, or more than four cross bars could extend between the first and second swash plates. As second swash plate 400b rotates, cross bars 640a, 640b move along slots 642a, 642b to allow independent rotation of second swash plate 400b with respect to first swash plate 400a. Additional degrees of freedom can be provided to drive catheter articulation via side-to-side and/or up-down movement of handle 304. As handle 304 is moved up/down or side-to-side, cross bars 640a, 640b can transmit forces from second swash plate 400b to first swash plate 400a. For example, cross bars 640a, 640b can transmit forces parallel to a longitudinal axis of the cross bars and/forces parallel to the rotational axis of control cable 368. Thus, tilting second swash plate 400b on an axis orthogonal to the rotational axis R-R can drive the first swash plate and transmit user inputs to control cables 368a, 368b, 368c, and/or 368d mated with first swash plate 400a. FIG. 89B illustrates swash plate 400b rotated about an axis R′-R′ that is orthogonal to the rotational axis of control cable 368 to drive articulation of catheter 25. Note that cross bars 640a, 640b transmit push/pull forces from the second swash plate to the first swash plate and cause first swash plate 400a to pivot in a fashion corresponding to second swash plate 400b. In one aspect, swash plates 400a, 400b remain parallel to one another as they pivot. FIG. 90 illustrates a pistol grip 402 handle that include controls knobs 404 on the grip of the handle. Knobs 404 (similar to the control knobs described above with respect to the guide tube controls 30) can substitute for a trigger control, or be used in addition to trigger control. FIG. 91 illustrates a control knob 406 positioned on the proximal end of the control member 24. In one aspect, moving control knob 406 can articulate an end effector. The proximal location of control knob 406 facilitates control of tool 40 as the tool rotates with respect to the frame, rails, guide tube, and/or point of reference. As control member 24 rotates 180 degrees or more, a user may have to switch hands or adjust their grip on a standard handle. Having knob 406 positioned on the proximal end of control member 24 can facilitate control of tool 40 while control member 24 rotates around rail 224. In one aspect, control knob 406 is rotatably mated with control member 46. A user can rotate control member 24 to control rotational movement of tool 40. In another aspect, knob cannot rotate with respect to control member 24 and rotation of knob 406 can drive tool rotation. FIG. 92 illustrates a control member including a flexible body 409 mated with pull wires. Moving the flexible body 409 results in actuation of the distal end of the tool. The control member of FIG. 92 can also include a sliding sleeve 410 for and/or a handle 304 for controlling additional degrees of freedom. FIG. 93 illustrates a control member including a knob or ball 412 for controlling a degree of freedom. In one aspect, rotating the knob 412 can drive rotation of catheter 25 with respect to the body of control member 24. For example, the catheter 25 can be configured to rotate independently of control member 24. Rotating knob 412 can drive gears or pulleys 413 (or other such mechanism) and rotate catheter 25. In another aspect, a lever or moment arm of tool 40 (not illustrated) can rotate the catheter. For example, a lever could be mated with a torque coil extending through catheter 25. Movement of the lever could drive the torque coil and rotate the catheter and/or distal end effector 502. FIG. 94 illustrates another embodiment of the control member 24 including handle 304 for controlling additional degrees of freedom. While similar to the control members discussed above having a control handle that drives two degrees of freedom, the control member of FIG. 94 includes a second rotational actuator (e.g., knob) driving an additional degree of freedom of catheter 25. In one aspect, rotational actuators 433a, 433b can rotate with respect to one another and with respect to the housing of control member 24. Rotational actuator 433b can drive a disk within control member 24 via a shaft extending from handle 304 into control member 24. Similarly, rotational actuator 433a can drive a second rotating disk. The additional degree of freedom controlled by the second rotational actuator 433a can include a second articulation section 622 in addition to first articulation section 623 driven by the first rotational actuator 433b. In one aspect, articulation section 622 can be placed proximally to the first articulation section 623, giving a “wrist” and an “elbow” to catheter 25. This additional degree of freedom can allow instruments to converge and/or diverge with another tool. Additionally, the control mechanism can include an trigger 744 to actuate end effector 502. The control handle of FIG. 94 can provide four degrees of freedom, which when used with the rails described above, can provide an instrument with six degrees of freedom. In one aspect, all six degrees of freedom can be controlled with a single hand. FIG. 95 illustrates a control member 24 having a “ball-type” handle 414. Moving the ball mechanically drives the distal end of the tool. In one aspect, ball handle 414 includes control wires wrapped around the curvature of the handle. Pivoting handle 414 with respect to shaft pulls (or pushes) on control wires and drives movement of tool 40. In yet another embodiment, FIG. 96 illustrates a control member having a trigger grip configuration that provides “on-axis” rotation. Articulation of the tool can be controlled by, for example, by movement about a pivot or swash plate. Rotation of tool 40 can be controlled by rotating a rotational actuator (knob) 460. In one aspect, rotational actuator 460 can control rotation of an end effector and/or catheter independently of the control member. The control member, in one aspect, can be supported by the guide tube 26 that acts as the frame. For example, a portion of guide tube 26, including ring 461 can support control member 24 and allow relative rotational and/or longitudinal movement of tool 40 (or catheter 25). Ring 461 can also act as a stop to limit distal movement of tool 40. In another aspect, ring 461 can be defined by a bite block or other apparatus mated with a patient. FIG. 97 illustrates a capstan 416 for driving or assisting with driving one or more degrees of freedom of tool 40. For example, when a user drives a handle, the control wires can tighten around capstan 416 and rotation of the capstan can augment force applied by the user. In particular, catheter actuation and/or articulation can be controlled with or facilitated by the capstan. A variety of other mechanical force or pull length multipliers could additionally or alternatively used, including, for example, pulleys, cams, and/or gears. FIGS. 98A through 98C illustrates a drive link 418 that can reduce stress on control cables or wires. In certain embodiments, when a first control wire is pulled, an opposing second control wire is compressed or pushed. Applying compressive forces on control wires can cause buckling and/or wire fatigue. FIG. 98A illustrates an exemplary drive mechanism within control member 24 where pivoting of shaft 320 around axis 321 in a first direction applies compressive forces on one of control cables 368a, 368b and a tensioning forces on the other of control cables 386a, 368b. Similarly, rotating shaft 320 in a second, opposite direction tensions and compresses the other of cables 368a, 368b. Drive link 418 allows control cables to engage only when pulled. Thus, the drive link can transmit force in one direction, but not in an opposite direction. In one aspect, the drive link mates with at least one control wire, and in another aspect mates with first and second control wires. At least one of the first and second control wires can movably mate with the drive link. In one exemplary aspect, the drive link includes a channel that receives a cable terminal 419. When a compressive force is applied on a control wire, the cable terminal can move within the channel. Conversely, then the first or second control wire is pulled, the cable terminal of the first or second control wire can engage the inner surface of the drive link and transmit forces to the second of the first and second control wire. In another aspect, the drive link can mate with a control wire at a first end and mate with another portion of the control system at the other end. For example, the drive link can connect a shaft of the control mechanism with a control wire. FIGS. 99 and 100 illustrate mechanisms for adjusting the mechanical advantage of control member 24. In one aspect, mechanical advantage is adjusted by changing the location wherein control cables mate with a control mechanism. Where control cables are driven via movement of a shaft or a disk (as described above) the location of where the control cables mate with the shaft or disk can be adjustable. Illustrated in FIG. 99, is a gear mechanism 420a which engages cable mounting points. Rotating an adjustment knob can move a control cable toward or away from a pivot point or an axis of rotation of a control mechanism. For example, as described above (e.g., FIG. 44C), rotating disk 328 drives control cables 368. The gear mechanism of FIG. 99 can be incorporated into the control member to move the location where control cables 368 mate with disk 328. In another aspect, the ratio of input to output motion can be adjusted by adjusting the position of the cables toward and away from the center line or pivot point of a drive shaft or swash plate. FIG. 100 illustrates a control member that has an adjustable mechanical advantage that can be changed by moving termination points of control cables 368 along a slot 648. FIG. 101 illustrates control member 24 with a control mechanism 422 for controlling multiple degrees of freedom via a single rod 650. The control mechanism consists of multiple, independently driven links 652a, 652b that are manipulated via rod 650. While two links 652a, 652b are illustrated, three, four, or more than four links can surround a distal portion of rod 650. In the illustrated embodiment, rotation of handle 304 can pull rod 650 toward handle 304 and to the side (in the direction of rotation). The transverse component of the rod's movement causes rod 650 to engage one of links 652a, 652b without engaging the other of links 652a, 652b. Movement of link 652a or 652b causes corresponding movement of a control cable connected with the link. In one aspect, control mechanism 422 is biased in the home position. When a user turns the control handle in the opposite direction or releases the control handle, springs 654 can pull engaged link 652a or 652b back towards its original position. Continued rotation of control handle 304 can engage opposing link 652b or 652a and drive a different control cable. Rod 650 can include a distal driver 656 having a proximal surface shaped and sized to engage a corresponding surface on links 652a, 652b. When rod 650 is pulled, the proximal surface of distal driver 656 can inhibit slipping of driver 656 with respect to link 652a or 652b. The distal surface of driver 656 can be configured to slip with respect to link 652a, 652b. For example, the distal surface of driver 656 can include a tapered or spherical shape that does not engage links 652a, 652b. In another aspect, more than two links 652 surround driver 656. Where more than two links 652a, 652b are provided, rod 650 can drive two adjacent links simultaneously to drive two degrees of freedom simultaneously. In another aspect, control mechanism 422 allows detachment of rod 650 from drive mechanism 422. In use, the springs 654 can hold the links in contact with ball 656 and prevent detachment of rod 650 from control mechanism 422. To detach rod 650, a user can pull the links away from one another (against the force of springs 654) and/or remove springs 654. Rod 650, including driver 656, can then be detached from links 652. In one aspect, detaching rod 650 allow detachment of catheter 25 from a portion of control member 24. FIG. 102 illustrates a control member where instrument cables are directly attached to a user. For example, a user can manipulate a tool via a glove 424. FIG. 103 illustrates a foot pedal 426 that can be used in addition to, or as an alternative to, a hand controlled control member. For example, the foot pedal can control an additional degree of freedom of tool 40. In some of the embodiments described herein, control member 24 is biased in a home position. For example, resilient members (e.g., springs) within the control member can bias handle 304 in a neutral position. When a user releases the handle, springs apply forces to move the handle toward a home or neutral position. In another embodiment, control member 24 can be configured to hold tool 40 in position after a user releases handle 304. For example, frictional resistance to movement or springs can prevent movement of handle 304 after a user moves and releases the handle. In another embodiment, tool 40 can be driven with mechanisms other than control cables. For example, system 20 can employ a hydraulic-based control system. Alternatively, system 20 can employ muscle wires where electric current controls actuation of the surgical instruments. FIG. 104 illustrates various locks for freezing or inhibiting movement of various degrees of freedom for system 20. In one aspect, (discussed above) rail 224 and control member 24 can be locked to one another to prevent relative movement. In another aspect, as shown in FIG. 104, grooves on rail 224 can inhibit relative movement. When seated in the grooves, longitudinal movement of control member 24 is inhibited with respect to rail 224. In one aspect, the control member can be lifted to allow relative movement. Alternatively, the grooves can have a small profile and/or a shape that inhibits movement until a user applies sufficient force. Regardless, surface features on rail 224 can inhibit one degree of freedom (longitudinal movement) while permitting another degree of movement (rotation). In another embodiment, control member 24 can include locks that prevent movement of catheter 25 and/or the distal end effector. As shown in FIG. 104, a ratchet mechanism 624 or ball and detent mechanism 626 can inhibit and/or prevent movement of at least one degree of freedom of the control member. In one aspect, the locking mechanisms can prevent movement of handle 304. In another aspect, the locking mechanisms can selectively lock at least one degree of freedom of catheter actuation. In yet another aspect, the locking mechanisms can lock one degree of freedom while allowing movement and control of other degrees of freedom via control member 24. FIG. 105 illustrates another embodiment of control member 24 with a locking mechanism 434 that can tension control wires to prevent unwanted movement of tool 40. In one aspect, locking mechanism 434 can prevent movement of control wires within the control member and thereby lock at least one degree of freedom. In another aspect, locking mechanism 434 can increase the force required to move at least one of the control wires for articulating and/or actuating tool 40. In another aspect, the control member can include a damping mechanism to reduce unwanted movement of tool 40 during manipulation of the control member. The damping can be passive and/or active on one or more degrees of freedom. In one aspect, a hydraulic damper or dash-pot can be mated with at least one control wire within the control member to damp movement of tool 40. In another embodiment, a position or force sensor can be incorporated into system 20 to assist a user with controlling surgical instruments. In one aspect, a force gauge can measure the amount of force applied by a user for at least one degree of freedom. Maximum or current force can be displayed for a user and/or tool movement can be restrained when a threshold force is reached. As discussed above, system 20 can be a direct drive system such that a user's inputs to, or applied forces on, control member 24 are transmitted to the distal end of tool 40. In one embodiment, system 20 also provides a user with actual force feedback. As tool 40 contacts a structure, such as an anatomical structure, the user can feel the tool making contact with the structure and receive force and/or tactile feedback. In one aspect, system 20 is adapted to maximize actual force feedback by minimizing unwanted damping. Exemplary structures for minimizing unwanted damping include friction reducing elements such as, for example, pulley bearings; low friction washers, bearings, brushings, liners, and coatings; minimizing bends in the working channels; increased stiffness in catheters; and gradual transitions between passages within the guide tube. A stable ergonomic platform or frame can also assist with force feedback by enabling deliberate movement/control of tools 40 and minimizing distractive losses of energy. As an example, energy required to support a tool can result in distractive losses. Thus, the use of a frame to support tool 40 can reduce distractive losses. As mentioned above, a gas or liquid can be delivered to a body cavity via guide tube 26. In one embodiment, the fluid is passed though a lumen within the control member and/or at least one of rails 224a, 224b. As shown in FIG. 106, a opening 438 (e.g., luer fitting) can be positioned on the control member to provide an ingress and/or egress for fluid or solids. The fluids or solids travel through a passageway 634 in control member 24 and into the guide tube and/or catheter 25 for egress proximate to the distal end of system 20. The luer fitting can also, or alternatively, be use to deliver a gas for insuffulation or deflation. In another aspect, this lumen can be used to pass instruments to a surgical site. Passageway 634 can extend through rail 224 in addition to, or as an alternative to control member 24. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 106, the passageway can extend through both control member 24 and rail 224. In another aspect, rail 224 is spaced from control member 24 and the rail includes a fitting for receiving ingress and/or egress of fluid. In another aspect, an electric current can be delivered to system 20 through control member 24, guide tube 26, and/or rail 224. FIG. 107 illustrates an electrified rail 440 for delivering power to a RF surgical device. The rail can comprise an electrified pathway defined by an electrically conductive portion of the rail and/or defined by a wire housed within a portion of the rail. In one aspect, energy can be transmitted from rail 244 to tool 40 via direct contact (electrified surface of rail in electrical communication with electrical contact on control member 24); via a wire extending between rail 224 and tool 40; and/or wirelessly (e.g., induction coil). As mentioned above, system 20 can include an optical device, such as, optical device 28, for viewing a surgical site. The optical device can include a distal lens, a flexible elongate body, and proximal controls for articulating the distal end of the elongate body. In one aspect, optical device 28 includes controls and an articulating section. Alternatively, guide tube 26 is articulated to move the optical device. Regardless, a variety of optical devices, such as an endoscope, pediatric endoscope, and/or fiber-optic based device, can be used with system 20. In addition, the optical device can comprise a variety of chips, such as, for example, CMOS and CCD based chips. In yet another aspect, optics can be incorporated into tools 40a and/or 40b. And in still another aspect, optics can be additionally, or alternatively, integrated into other system components, such as, for example, the guide tube. Catheter and End Effector As shown in FIG. 108, tool 40 generally includes a proximal control member 24, an elongate catheter body 25, and an end effector 502. FIG. 109 illustrate a cut-away view of the mid-portion of catheter 25 including an inner channel 520 for a bowden cable 522, which can include an outer sheath 524 and inner filament 526. In one aspect, more than one inner channel 520 and/or one or more than one bowden cable 522 can extend through catheter 25 for control of end effector(s) 502. In yet another embodiment, the bowden sheath is replaced with an insulated material (e.g., liner or insulated composite) and houses an electrically conductive wire for transmitting electrosurgical energy. Catheter 25 can further include tubular body 532 defining control wire lumens 528. Tubular body 532 can include the various features of working channel bodies 50 and/or inner and outer tubular bodies 46, 48, discussed above. In another aspect, tubular body 532 is a single, unitary body defining multiple control wire lumens 528. In one aspect, control wire lumens 528 can house control wires 530 for manipulating an articulation section of tool 40. The number of control wires 530 and control wire lumens 528 can be varied depending on the desired degrees of freedom of the tool 40 and the intended use of system 20. Elongate body 500 can further comprise a wire or mesh layer 534 positioned around tubular body 532. The properties of mesh layer 534 can be varied to adjust the stiffness and/or strength of elongate body 500. The elongate body 500 can also include an outer sheath 536 to prevent the ingress of biological materials into tool 40. Outer sheath 536, in one aspect, is formed of a fluid impervious elastomeric or polymeric material. In one aspect, tool 40 can be configured to provide at least one degree of freedom, and in another aspect, can provide two, or more than two, degrees of freedom. For example, at least a portion tool 40 can controllably move up/down, side-to-side, laterally along the axis of the guide tube, rotationally around the axis of the guide tube, and/or can actuate the end effector. In one aspect, control cables extending through catheter body 25 can move the end effector up/down, side-to-side, and can actuate end effector 502. The distal end of tool 40 can, for example, include an articulating section 540 which provides an up/down and/or side-to-side articulation. As illustrated in FIG. 110, articulation section 540 can include mesh layer 534 and/or outer sheath 536 as discussed above with respect to the mid-portion of elongate body 500. Within mesh layer 534, articulation section 540 can comprise an articulating body 542 formed of a series of tube segments or rings (not illustrated). Control wires 530 can be mated to articulating body 542 to control movement of the articulating body 542. In addition, tool 40 can include a variety of alternative end effectors, for example, a grasper, scissors, tissue cutter, clamp, forcep, dissector, and/or other surgical tool that can open and close. In another aspect, the end effector is not configured to actuate. In still another aspect, the end effector is defined by a portion of the catheter body and includes, for example, a blunt end or open lumen. FIG. 111A illustrates one exemplary embodiment of end effector 502. As shown, bowden cable 522 can be tensioned to close grasper 550. Similarly, FIG. 111B illustrates one exemplary embodiment of a needle driver 552 controlled by bowden cable 522. In yet another embodiment, a cautery device can be used in place of the end effector. For example, FIG. 111C illustrates a hook cautery device 554. An energy source can coupled to tool 40. For example, control member 24, frame 22, and/or rail 224, and can transmit energy to the distal hook cautery device 554. The variety of monpolar and bipolar cautery devices can be used with system 20. System 20 can include insulating materials to reduce the chance of stray electrical currents injuring the user and/or patient. In one aspect, an insulating sheath 556 is positioned around an energy delivery wire 558. Additional end effectors are also contemplated in addition to those illustrated in FIGS. 111A through 111C. For example, the end effector can include closure mechanisms such as clips, staples, loops and/or ligator suturing devices. In addition, retrieval means, such as, for example, snares, baskets, and/or loops can also be mated with system 20. In still another aspect, the end effector can be an exploration or tissue sampling device, such as, for example, optics, cytology brushes, forceps, coring devices, and/or fluid extraction and/or delivery devices. In yet another aspect, instruments that aid in the patency of a lumen or dilate an opening are contemplated. For example, the end effector can be a balloon, patency brush, stent, fan retractor, and/or wire structures. In yet another embodiment, tool 40 does not include an end effector. For example, the tool can include a blunt tip for exploration and/or for assisting another surgical instrument or end effector. In still another embodiment, tool 40 can include an open distal end for the delivery of a treatment fluid or solid and/or for collection of a bodily fluid or tissue sample. In one such aspect, catheter 25 can include an open lumen that extends to the distal opening for delivery and/or collection of a substance. Described below are several alternative embodiments of tool 40. FIG. 112 illustrates one aspect of an end effector 502 that includes a leaf spring 506 adapted to restrict motion of the end effector. In one aspect, leaf spring 506, when position in end effector 502, prevents at least one degree of freedom, such as, for example, motion in a direction parallel to a plane of the leaf spring. Leaf spring can be moved in and out of position via a pusher wire (not illustrated). While leaf spring 506 is discussed with respect to an end effector, a leaf spring or springs can be used throughout catheter 25 to inhibit movement of a degree of freedom. FIG. 113 illustrates a mating plate 508 positioned proximate to the interface of the catheter body 25 and end effector 502 of tool 40. As describe above with respect to plate 63, mating plate 508 can facilitated mating of control cables 510 with end effector 502. As mentioned above, tool 40 can include control cables. In one aspect, at least one of the cables is a bowden-type cable. For example, a bowden-type cable 512 can drive end effector 502, while the other degrees of freedom are manipulated by non-bowden-type wires. Alternatively, more than one degree of freedom could be controlled with bowden cables. In another embodiment, tool 40 can have a variable length articulation section. For example, as shown in FIG. 114, the length and/or position of control cables 510 can be adjusted to control the length of the articulation section of tool 40. In one aspect, cables 510 can be bowden-type cables and the length or position of the bowden cable sheath is adjusted to change the length of the articulation section. Cather body 25 can have a variety of alternative configurations. In one aspect, the catheter body includes different properties along its axial length. For example, elongate body 500 can have materials with different hardness along the length of the elongate body. In one example, catheter hardness varies along the length of the catheter. In another aspect, catheter hardness can vary in a transverse direction. FIG. 115 illustrates a softer durometer section 660 that extends parallel to a harder durometer section 662. Variations in hardness can be chosen to provide different bending characteristics. In another aspect, a user can vary the hardness of catheter 25. FIG. 116A illustrates catheter 25 having control wire lumens and stiffening lumens 431. The stiffness of catheter 25 can be adjusted by injecting or removing a material (e.g., a fluid) into the stiffening lumens 431. In one aspect, catheter 25 includes opposed stiffening lumens 431 that permit a user to adjust the bending characteristics of the catheter. For example, one side of the catheter can be increased in stiffness. In another aspect, different segment of the catheter along its length can have different stiffening lumens to allow stiffness variability along the length of the catheter. In one aspect, a user can inject a stiffening fluid. In another aspect, the stiffening lumens can receive a stiffening rod or rods. For example, catheter 25 can be provided with a set of stiffening rods having different stiffness. A user can select a stiffening rod of a desired stiffness and insert the selected rod to adjust catheter properties. The stiffening rods can also have different lengths or varying stiffness along their length to allow adjustment of stiffness along the length of the catheter. In another embodiment, a magnetic rheological fluid within catheter 25 can stiffen and/or lock the catheter. FIG. 116B illustrates a chamber 762 for receiving magnetic rheological fluid and a magnet 764 that can apply a magnetic field on the fluid within chamber 762 to stiffen the catheter. In one aspect, chamber 762 extends along a length of catheter 25. When a magnetic field is applied, the stiffened fluid can prevent side-to-side and/or up/down movement of the catheter. FIG. 117 illustrates catheter tips have a tip wider 432 than the body of catheter 25. The wide tip can provide greater bend strength by allowing increased separation of pull wires. In one aspect, catheter 25 of FIG. 117 is used with a guide tube having a working lumen with increased diameter in a distal portion thereof. The distal section of the working channel can be sized and shaped for receipt of the wide tip. In one aspect, the wide tip is larger than a proximal portion of the working lumen. The catheter can be placed within the working lumen prior to insertion of the guide tube into a patient. In still another embodiment, the elongate body 500 of tool 40 can have more than three degrees of freedom. FIG. 118 illustrates body 500 having multiple body segments and multiple degrees of freedom, including, for example additional rotation, longitudinal, pivotal, and bending degrees of freedom. In one aspect, tool 40 can include more than one articulating or bending section along its length. In another aspect a first catheter segment 500a can rotate with respect to a second catheter segment 500b. In another aspect, catheter body 500 can include telescoping segments. For example, catheter segments 500a, 500b, 500c can be telescoping. In another example of a catheter having additional degrees of freedom, catheter 25 can have two longitudinally separated articulation sections. Thus, the catheter can have a “wrist” and an “elbow.” The wrist and elbow can permit the tool to form a s-curve. To assist with determining the location of, or degree of movement of, the end effector 502, a portion of tool 40 can include markings. FIG. 119 illustrates tool 40 having markings 516 for determining the amount of relative movement between tool 40 and another portion of system 20. In one aspect, the indicia allow a user to determine the rotational and/or longitudinal position of the catheter with respect to the guide tube, frame, rails, patient, and/or another point of reference. A variety of catheter body structures can be used with system 20. FIGS. 120A and 120B illustrate one exemplary embodiment of tool 40 having a main body 700 and a distal articulating section 702. Main body 700 can be comprised of a semi-flexible extrusion 704 such as nylon, PTFE, or the equivalent. In one aspect, the main body can include at least one lumen for a bowden cable. For example, a bowden cable can extend through a central lumen within main body 700. Additional control cables, such as bowden cables or pull wires, can extend through the central lumen and/or be housed in separate lumens. In one aspect, multiple lumens, such as, for example, four lumens, are provided for multiple bowden cables, such as, for example, four bowden cables. Alternatively, or additionally, the catheter body can have a variety of different configurations depending on the intended use of tool 40. For example, instead of mating with an end effector, body 700 can have an open lumen for delivering a separate instrument or therapeutic substance. In another aspect, the body can be formed of an electrically insulative material and/or include an insulative liner to allow the transmission of electrosurgical energy to an end effector. The articulation section 702 can include a softer or lower durometer extrusion. The articulation-section extrusion can have a similar arrangement of lumens as the body extrusion. For example, the articulation section 702 can include a central longitudinal opening for receiving a bowden cable. Tool 40 can include a transition region where the catheter stiffness changes between harder and softer sections. As shown in FIG. 120A, a portion of main body 700 can extend into the articulation section. In particular, a extension member 710 of the main body can extend into a lumen of the articulation section. Extension member 710 can have a size and shape corresponding to the inner lumen of the articulation section. In use, the extension member can stiffen the proximal end of the articulation section to provide a gradual transition between the harder main body and softer articulation section. In one aspect, the extension portion has varying flexibility such that at its proximal end the extension portion has a stiffer configuration and less stiff configuration at its distal end. As shown in FIGS. 120A, 121A, and 121B, tool 40 can include a thrust plate 706 positioned between the main body and articulation section. In one aspect, the thrust plate can include holes or slots 708 for strands to extend through. The holes can be sized to allow the inner strand of a bowden cable to pass therethrough. Conversely, the outer casing of the bowden cables are prevented from extending distally beyond the thrust plate. For example, the outer casings can mate with the thrust plate and/or the thrust plate holes can be sized to prevent the passage of the bowden casings therethrough. In one aspect, as shown in FIG. 121B, the thrust plate can include recessed areas around the holes 708 to receive the bowden cable casings. In one aspect, the thrust plate can be formed by a single-piece thrust plate body. In another aspect, thrust plate 706 is defined by a multiple piece structure. For example, FIG. 120A illustrates a two-piece thrust plate. Together, the two-pieces define the desired shape of thrust plate 706. In another aspect, thrust plate 706 includes a central opening 711 sized and shaped to receive extension member 710 of main body 700. The extension member can pass through central opening 711 and into a corresponding lumen within articulation section 702. FIGS. 122A through 126 illustrate yet another embodiment of a tool for use with the systems described herein. Instead of an end effector mated with tool 40 as described above, in another embodiment tool 40 is composed of two independent bodies. As illustrated in FIG. 122A, tool 40 can include a first tool member 41a and a second tool member 41b. Together, tool members 41a and 41b can provide the same functionality as tool 40 described above. However, two-part tool 40 allows a user to removed and replace tool member 41b to change distal end effectors. In addition, the two-part tool can provide additional degrees of freedom. FIG. 123A and 123B illustrate catheter body 25′ defined by a first outer body 800 of tool member 41a and a second inner body 802 of tool member 41b. The outer body 800 can have an open inner lumen that extends from control member 24 to the distal end of the tool. Second inner body 802 can include an elongate member and end effector configured to pass through the outer body. In use, the inner body can be directed through the outer body so that the end effector of the inner body extends out of the distal end of the outer body. The inner and outer bodies can work together and act as a single-body tool. The outer body can control up to four degrees of freedom, while the inner body can have at least one degree of freedom. For example, the outer body can control left/right, up/down, longitudinal movement, and/or rotational movement as described above with respect to tools 40. The additional degree of freedom provided by the inner body can be actuation of the end effector. In one aspect, the inner and outer bodies 800, 802 can mate with each other with such that inner body 802 and end effector 502 move in unison with outer body 800. When the inner and outer bodies are mated with one another, bending or articulating outer body 800 can cause the inner body 802 to bend without end effector 502 of the inner body moving longitudinally with respect to the outer body. Additionally, or alternatively, when the inner and outer bodies are mated, rotational movement of the outer and/or inner body is transmitted to the other of the outer and inner body. For example, when the outer body rotates, the end effector 502 of inner body 802 can move in unison with the outer body. In one aspect, the distal ends of the inner and outer bodies can mate with an interference fit when the inner body is positioned within the outer body. In addition, or alternatively, the inner and outer bodies can mate with a threaded connection, twist lock, snap-fit, taper lock, or other mechanical or frictional engagement. In one aspect, the inner and outer bodies mate at the distal end of tool 40 proximate to end effector 502. In another aspect, the inner and outer body can mate a several locations along the length of tool 40. In one aspect, mating the inner and outer bodies 800, 802 prevents relative translational and/or rotational movement of the distal ends of the inner and outer bodies. In another embodiment, the inner and outer bodies can include mating features that allow one of rotational and translational movement while preventing the other of rotational and translational movement. For example, longitudinal grooves and corresponding recess on the inner and outer bodies can inhibit relative rotational movement while allowing relative longitudinal movement. In another aspect, the mating features of the inner and outer body can be adapted to allow rotation while preventing longitudinal movement. For example, a rotatable snap fit can inhibit relative longitudinal movement of the first and second bodies. The mating features of tool 40 can act as a stop so that when the inner and outer bodies are mated, distal movement to the inner body, with respect to the outer body, is prevented. The mating features can therefore control the distance which the inner body (and particularly the end effector) extends beyond the outer body. In one aspect, the distal end of inner body 802 includes a first diameter and a second, larger diameter. The outer body 800 can have stop defined by an inner diameter that allows passage of the first diameter by prevents passage of the second, larger diameter. In one aspect, the stop is positioned to such that further distal movement of the inner body is prevented after end effector 502 passes through a distal opening 503. In another aspect, illustrated in FIGS. 123C and 123D, a portion of inner body 802 comprising an articulation section 804, can extend beyond a distal end 810 of outer body 800. Articulation section 804 can provide one or more than one additional degree of freedom to tool 40 and allow, for example, left/right and/or up/down movement. Other additional, or alternative degrees of freedom for the inner body with respect to the outer body can include longitudinal movement and/or a pre-curved body. In another aspect, the end effector can rotate with respect to outer body 800 of tool 41a. For example, the inner body can be fixedly mated with the end effector and rotation of the end effector can be driven by rotating the inner body. Alternatively, the end effector can be rotated independently of the inner and outer bodies. In another aspect, rotation of the end effector can be controllably locked with respect to the outer body. For example, after rotating the end effector into a desired configuration via rotation of the inner body, the end effector can be locked with respect to the inner a With respect to FIG. 122A, the inner body 802 can extend to a proximal controller 714 for controlling end effector 502 and/or articulation section 804. In one aspect, inner body 802 passes through proximal controller 24 of tool member 41a. For example, control member 24 can include a proximal aperture for receiving inner body 802. Proximal controller 714 can, in one aspect, mate with a portion of control member 24. As illustrated in FIGS. 122A and 122B, controller 714 can be a pull or push ring for manipulating with a user's finger. The proximal controller 714 can mate with handle 304 of tool member 41a to allow a user to control both the inner and outer bodies 802, 800 with a single hand. In another embodiment, a user can articulate the inner body via manipulation of outer body control member 24. As illustrated in FIG. 124, the inner body, and particularly controller 714 of tool member 41b, can mate with control member 24 of tool member 41a. A user can drive controller 714 via manipulation of control member handle 304. In one exemplary aspect, the proximal end of the inner body 802 can mate with a spool mount 812 on control member 24 which is articulated via the trigger on the handle 304 of the control member. It should be appreciated that the spool and/or thumb ring can be driven via movement of handle 304 or trigger 306. In one embodiment, the outer body can work with a variety of different inner bodies to allow a clinician to quickly change the end effector associated with tool 40. When a new end effector is desired, a user can remove and replace the inner body with a different inner body having a different end effector. In another embodiment of a two-part tool, the outer body can include an end effector while the inner body drives articulation of the combined inner and outer bodies. FIGS. 125A through 125C illustrate exemplary aspects of this configuration. As illustrated in FIG. 125A, outer body 800 includes a lumen 770 sized and shaped to receive the inner body. In one aspect, lumen 770 has a closed distal end and outer body 800 includes end effector 502. Inner body 802 can have a size and shape corresponding to at least a portion of lumen 770. In addition, inner body 802 can have an articulation section 772 for driving articulation of tool 40. For example, pull wires 774 can extend to articulation section 772 for driving the inner body. When positioned within the outer body, articulation of the inner body drives the outer body. In one aspect, illustrated in FIG. 125A, the inner body can include a control wire 776 for driving the end effector of the outer body. Control wire 776 can mate with an end effector control wire 778 when the inner and outer bodies are mated. When force is applied on control wire 776, the force can be transmitted to control wire 778 for actuating end effector 502. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of mechanical interlocks and/or frictional engagements can be used to mate control wires 776, 778. In one aspect, the distal end of control wire 776 can include a mating feature for receipt within a control wire 778. Control wire 776 is first advanced into control wire 778. The proximal end of control wire 778 can then be squeezed or compressed to prevent withdrawal of control wire 776 from control wire 778. In one aspect, moving control wire 778 of outer body 800 into inner body 802 can compress control wire 778 and lock control wire 778 with inner body 802. In another aspect, instead of control wires for end effector 502 extending through inner body 802, a control wire or wires can extending through or along the outer body 800. As illustrated in FIG. 125B, control wires 778a, 778b extend through lumen 770. Alternatively, a lumen within the wall of outer body member 800 can house control wires 778a, 778b. In one aspect, two control wires 778a, 778b are provided for actuating end effector 502. In use, wires 778a, 778b are pulled in unison to avoid unwanted articulation of tool 40. In one aspect, control wires 778a, 778b mate with a shaft 782. User input forces can be delivered through control wires 778a, 778b to shaft 782 such that pulling on control wires 778a, 778b actuates end effector 502. Outer body member 800 can include a chamber 784 that permits movement of shaft 782 therein. While articulation of tool 40 is illustrated a articulated via control wires, other articulating mechanisms are also contemplated. In one aspect, illustrated in FIG. 125C, the inner body 802 can include a pre-shaped body. When the inner and outer body members exit a guide tube 26, and are not longer constrained by the guide tube, the pre-shaped inner body 802 can bend tool 40. In one aspect, the inner body 802 can be rotated within the outer body to allow tool 40 to bend in different directions. The inner and outer bodies 802, 800 illustrated in FIGS. 125A through 125C can mate or dock with one another when inner body 802 is positioned within lumen 770 within the outer body. In one aspect, illustrated in FIG. 125B, the inner and outer bodies can mate with a snap-fit. When the inner body is mated the snap fit can provide a user with tactile feedback and indicate proper docking of the inner and outer bodies. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a variety of additional or alternative mating mechanisms can permit docking of the inner and outer bodies. The various embodiments and the various components of system 20 described herein can be disposable or resusable. In one embodiment, at least some of the components of system 20 designed for contact with tissue can be disposable. For example, guide tube 26 and/or tools 40a, 40b can be disposable. In another aspect, a portion of tools 40a, 40b, such as catheter 25a, 25b and/or end effectors 502 can be disposable. In yet another embodiment, for example, where rails 224a, 224b are fixedly mated with control members 24a, 24b, the rails can also be disposable. Conversely, components such as frame 22 and/or rails 224a, 224b can be reusable. Where sterile system components are necessary or desired, the system can include seals, shrouds, drapes, and/or bags to protect sterility. For example, where the working and/or main lumen of the guide tube is maintained is a sterile condition, a shroud, drape, and/or seal could be placed at the distal and/or proximal entrances to the guide tube passageways. FIG. 126 illustrates a bag or sheath 715 placed over the distal portion of tool 40 to maintain sterility. As described above, a portion of the tool, such as catheter 25, can be detachably mated with tool 40. In use, the sterile catheter can be attached to the reusable or non-sterile control member 24. Similarly, as illustrated in FIG. 127, a bag or sheath can be mated with the distal portion of guide tube 26. The non-sterile and sterile portions of the guide tube can be mated prior to use. FIG. 128 illustrates a shroud 660 at the entrance 38 to working lumen 44 to help protect the sterility of guide tube 26. FIG. 129 illustrates a reusable control member and catheter with a detachable, end effector. FIG. 130 illustrates tool 40 with a disposable inner body and a reusable outer body. Further described herein are methods of using system 20. In one embodiment, guide tube 26 is delivered through a natural body orifice to a surgical site. At least one optical device, such as a pediatric endoscope, is then delivered through working channel 42. In addition, at least one tool 40 is delivered through one of the working channels. The proximal end of tool 40, e.g., control member 24, can be attached to frame 22. In one aspect, control member 24 is mated with rail 224 such that the tool 40 can be moved longitudinally on rail 224 and/or rotated about rail 224. In one aspect, system 20 provides at least two degrees of freedom to the distal end of tool 40 which is controlled by moving control member 24 on rail 224. For example, a end effector can be rotated and moved longitudinally by manipulating control member 24. In another aspect, additional degrees of freedom are provided by an articulation section of guide tube 26. For example, guide tube 26 can by moved up/down and/or side-to-side via controls 30. Thus, system 20 can provide three or more than three degrees of freedom to the end effector. In another aspect additional degrees of freedom are provided by tool 40. For example, control member 24 can move the distal end of tool 40 up/down and/or side-to-side by manipulating handle 304. In addition, handle 304 can control actuation of end effector to grasp and/or cut tissue. Further degrees of freedom can be added to the tool and/or guide tube with the use of additional articulation sections and/or pre-curved segments. In one embodiment, the various degrees of freedom provided by control member 24, rails 224, and/or guide tube 26 allow a surgeon to move tissue, grasp tissue, cut tissue, suture tissue, and/or explore an anatomical structure. In another embodiment, system 20 includes two tools 40 each having multiple degrees of freedom. In particular, system 20 can provide sufficient freedom of movement to allow tools 40 to work together while viewed by a surgeon. Thus, unlike conventional systems, the system described herein allows surgeons to perform procedures that require at least partially independent control of two tools and sufficient freedom of movement to allow the tools to work together. In one embodiment, the degrees of freedom system 20 provides to the end effectors and the ability to simultaneously control those degrees of freedom, allows a clinician to tie knots and/or suture at a distance. Further described herein is a method of knot tying at a distance. In one aspect, knot tying is performed via a system including a flexible guide tube and/or flexible tools. Such a system can allow knot tying at a distance where system 20 is inserted through a natural orifice. A system 20 having any or all of the various features described above can be provided. In one aspect, as illustrated in FIG. 131A, a first and second tool 40a, 40b a placed proximate to a target site, such as, for example, a surgical site. In one aspect, knot tying is part of a suturing or tissue apposition procedure. A suture, wire, or filament 900 is grasped with a first tool. A variety of end effectors can be mated with tool 40a, 40b for grasping and/or manipulating the suture. In one aspect, at least one of the end effectors is a forceps. With the suture held with a first end effector 502a, the first and second tools are manipulated, via first and second proximal controllers, to wrap the suture around the second tool 40b (i.e., around a second distal end effector 502b). In one aspect, first distal end effector 502a remains stationary and the second distal end effector 502b is moved around the suture to form a loop. For example, as shown in FIG. 131B, the tip of second distal end effector 502b is maneuvered around the suture. Alternatively, the second distal end effector can remain stationary and the suture can be wrapped around the second distal end effector by movement of the first distal end effector. In yet another aspect, the user can move by the first and second distal end effector relative to one another to form a loop around the second distal end effector. Once a loop is formed about second distal end effector 502b, a user can move the second tool 40b into position to grasp the suture with the second distal end effector 502b. As shown in FIG. 131C, second distal end effector 502b can be translated to move forward and actuated to open the forceps. With the suture grasped by the first and second end effectors, the user can translate (pull on) the second tool to move the second distal end effector through the loop and form a single flat knot as shown in FIG. 131D. With the first flat knot in place, a second knot can be formed to complete a square knot. As illustrated in FIGS. 131E through 131J, the procedure describe above can be repeated with the first and second distal end effectors taking opposite roles and the loop of suture being wrapped in the opposite direction. As part of the knot tying procedure, tools 40a, 40b allow a user to independently control movement or hold the position of the first and second distal end effectors. In one aspect, the first and second tools, via first and second proximal control members, are translated (moved forward/back), rotated (torqued), articulated (moved up/down and/or left/right), and actuated (forceps are opened closed). Each of these movements can be performed independently for the first and second tools. In addition, a user can control two or more of these movements simultaneously. Provided below are exemplary classes of procedures and specific procedures which the system described herein can perform. Cardiovascular Revascularization Drilling Bypass Shunts Valves(replacement & repair) Left Atrial Appendage (closure, occlusion or removal for stroke prevention) Left Ventricular Reduction Atrial and Septal Defects Aneurysm Repair Vascular Grafting Endarterectomy Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA) Percutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty (PTA) Vascular Stenting Primary Placement Restenosis Therapy Vessel Harvest Saphenous Vein Graft Internal Mammary Artery Cardiac Assist Devices Electrophysiology (mapping & ablation) Intraluminal Extraluminal Radiology Non-Vascular Radiology Pulmonary/ENT Lung Volume Reduction Lung Cancer Therapy Esphagectomy Larynx Surgery Tonsils Apnea Nasal/Sinuses Otolaryngology Neurology Tumor Therapy Hydrocephalus Orthopedics Gynecology Hysteroscopy Hysterectomy Fertility Improvement Sterilization Myomectomy Endometriosis General Surgery Cholecystectomy Hernia Abdominal Diaphragm Adhesions Gastrointestinal Bleeding Tissue Resection GERD Barret's Esophagus Obesity Colon Surgery Urology Kidney Stones Bladder Cancer Incontinence Ureteral Reimplantation Prostate Provided below is an exemplary list of access points for the systems described herein Trans-oral Trans-anal Trans-vaginal Percutaneous Laparoscopic Thorascopic To the circulatory system Trans-nasal Trans-uretheral
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A
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| 17A61B
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17
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00
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10561878
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US20070244484A1-20071018
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Prosthetic Devie for Cartilage Repair
|
ACCEPTED
|
20071003
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20071018
|
[]
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A61B1758
|
["A61B1758"]
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8163033
|
20070207
|
20120424
|
623
|
023720
|
68677.0
|
HOBAN
|
MELISSA
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Luginbuehl", "inventor_name_first": "Reto", "inventor_city": "Bettlach", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "CH"}]
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A prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissue is described. The prosthetic device comprises at least one layer of highly oriented fibers, a base component and a stabilization area provided in between. Said fibers are aligned to more than 50% in a direction perpendicular to the base component.
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1. A prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage like-tissue (1) comprising: at least one layer comprising at least partially oriented fibers (2), a base component (4) to anchor said at least one layer of fibers (2) in subchondral environment and a stabilization area (3) provided between said at least one layer comprising fibers (2) and said base component (4), wherein said fibers (2) are aligned essentially in parallel to the insertion axis of the prosthetic device and form a brush-like structure. 2. The device according to claim 1, wherein said fibers (2) are aligned to more than 50, preferably more than 90%. 3. The device according to claim 1, wherein the fiber material (2) includes a mineral material, synthetic polymers or molecules, natural polymers or molecules, biotechnologically derived polymers or molecules, biomacromolecules, or any combination thereof. 4. The device according to claim 3, wherein the fiber diameter is in a range of 50 nm to 1 mm. 5. The device according to claim 4, wherein said fiber diameter is in a range of 1 μm to 250 μm. 6. The device according to 3, wherein the fibers (2) have a liquid absorbing capacity in a range of 0.1 to 99.9%. 7. The device according to claim 6, wherein said liquid absorbing capacity is in a range of 20.0 to 99.0%. 8. The device according to claim 6, wherein the liquid is an aqueous solution and/or body fluids. 9. The device according to claim 1, wherein the base component (4) comprises a material used as a bone substitute. 10. The device according to claim 9, wherein said bone substitute is a mineral material, synthetic polymers or molecules, natural polymers or molecules, biotechnologically derived polymers or molecules, biomacromolecules, or any combination thereof. 11. The device according to claim 9, wherein said material is a synthetic ceramic containing at least one of the following components: calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate, or any mixture thereof. 12. The device according to claim 11, wherein said calciumphosphate containing at least one of the following components: di-calciumphosphatedihydrate (CaHP04×2H20), dicalciumphosphate (CaHP04), alpha-tricalciumphosphate (alpha-Ca3(P04)2), beta-tricalciumphosphate (betaCa3(P04)2), calcium deficient hydroxylapatite (Ca9(P04)5(HP04)OH), hydroxylapatite (Ca10(P04)6OH2), carbonated apatite (Ca10(P04)3(C03)3) (OH)2) fluorapatite (Ca10(P04)6(F,OH)2), chlorapatite (Ca10(P04)6(Cl,OH)2), whitlockite ((Ca,Mg)3(P04)2), tetracalciumphosphate (Ca4(P04)20), oxyapatite (Ca10(P04)60), beta-calciumpyrophosphate (beta-Ca2(P207), alpha-calciumpyrophosphate, gamma-calcium-pyrophosphate, octacalciumphosphate (Ca8H2 (P04)6×5H20). 13. The device according to claim 9, wherein said material is a synthetic ceramic containing metallic, semimetallic ions, and/or non-metallic ions, preferably magnesium, silicon, sodium, potassium, and/or lithium. 14. The device according to claims 9, wherein the material is a composite material comprising at least a polymer component and a mineral phase. 15. The device according to claim 9, wherein the bone substitute material is highly porous with interconnecting pores. 16. The device according to claim 9, wherein the shape of the base component (4) is round, cylindrical, or conical. 17. The device according to claim 16, wherein the diameter of the base component (4) ranges between 2 and 30 mm, with a height being 1 to 30 mm. 18. The device according to claim 16, wherein the diameter of the base component (4) ranges between 4 and 20 mm, with a preferred height being between 1 to 6 mm. 19. The device according to claim 1, wherein said stabilization area (3) is a zone comprising at least one layer. 20. The device according to claim 19, wherein said zone has a thickness of 1 nm to 1 mm. 21. The device according to claim 19, wherein said zone is porous. 22. The device according to claim 19, wherein the layer system is composed of a chemical substance. 23. The device according to claim 1, further comprising at least one externally added component. 24. The device according to claim 23, wherein said components are cells of different origin. 25. The device according to claim 24, wherein said cells are autologous cells, allogenous cells, xenogenous cells, transfected cells and/or genetically engineered cells. 26. The device according to claim 23, wherein chondrocytes, chondral progenitor cells, pluripotent cells, tutipotent cells or combinations thereof are present throughout the fiber layer(s) (2). 27. The device according to claim 23, wherein osteoplasts, osteo progenitor cells, pluripotent cells, tutipotent cells or combinations thereof are present throughout the base component (4). 28. The device according to claim 23, wherein blood or any fraction thereof is present throughout the base component (4). 29. The device according to claim 23, wherein pharmaceutical compounds are contained. 30. A prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage like-tissue (1) comprising: at least one layer comprising at least partially oriented fibers (2), a base component (4) to anchor said at least one layer of fibers (2) in subchondral environment and a stabilization area (3) provided between said at least one layer comprising fibers (2) and said base component (4), wherein said fibers (2) are aligned essentially perpendicularly to a top surface of the base component facing the fibers. 31. A prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage like-tissue (1) comprising: at least one layer comprising fibers (2), a base component (4) to anchor said at least one layer of fibers (2) in subchondral environment and a cell barrier layer provided between said at least one layer comprising fibers (2) and said base component (4). 32. The device of claim 31, wherein the prosthetic device is adapted to be implanted in articulating joints in humans and animals. 33. The device of claim 32 wherein the prosthetic device regenerates articulator cartilagenous tissue.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention is directed to a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissues. Said prosthetic devices are useful as articular cartilage substitution material and as scaffold for regeneration of articular cartilagenous tissues. 2. Description of the Related Art Articular cartilage tissue covers the ends of all bones that form diarthrodial joints. The resilient tissues provide the important characteristic of friction, lubrication, and wear in a joint. Furthermore, it acts as a shock absorber, distributing the load to the bones below. Without articular cartilage, stress and friction would occur to the extent that the joint would not permit motion. Articular cartilage has only a very limited capacity of regeneration. If this tissue is damaged or lost by traumatic events, or by chronic and progressive degeneration, it usually leads to painful arthrosis and decreased range of joint motion. Several methods have been established in the last decades for the treatment of injured and degenerated articular cartilage. Osteochondroal transplatation, microfracturing, heat treatment for sealing the surface, shaving, autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT), or total joint replacement are among the common techniques applied in today's orthopedic surgery. Joint replacement techniques where metal, ceramic and/or plastic components are used to substitute partially or totally the damaged or degenerated joint have already a long and quite successful tradition. The use of allograft material has been successful to some extent for small transplants, however, good quality allografts are hardly available. Osteochondroal transplantation (i.e. mosaicplasty) or autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) are applied whenever total joint replacement is not yet indicated. These methods can be used to treat small and partial defects in a joint. In mosaicplasty defects are filled with osteochondral plugs harvested in non-load bearing areas. In ACT, chondrocytes are harvested by biopsy and grown in-vitro before a highly concentrated cell suspension is injected below an membrane (artificial or autologous) covering the defect area. Commonly, the replacement of cartilage tissue with solid permanent artificial inserts has been unsatisfactorily because the opposing articular joint surface is damaged by unevenness or by the hardness of the inserts. Therefore, the transplantation technology had to take a step forward in the research of alternative cartilage materials such as biocompatible materials and structures for articular cartilage replacement. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,463 describes a prosthetic articular cartilage device comprising a dry, porous volume matrix of biocompatible and at least bioresorbable fibers and a base component. Said matrix establishes a bioresorbable scaffold adapted for the ingrowth of articular chondrocytes and for supporting natural articulating joint forces. Useful fibers include collagen, reticulin, elastin, cellulose, alginic acid, chitosan or synthetic and biosynthetic analogs thereof. Fibers are ordered in substantially circumferentially extending or substantially radially extending orientations. The base component is provided as a support on which the fiber matrix is applied. It is configured to fit in a complementary aperture in defective bone to secure the position of such a device in the bone. The base component is a composite material comprising a dispersion of collagen and composition consisting of tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite. It has been shown, however, that the function of the above construction has not been always satisfactory. The reason is that said known prosthetic articular cartilage device is frequently unstable due to its structure and thus had to be replaced in the joint area by another surgical operation in to again repair cartilage joints such as knee and hip. In view of this situation, in the field of articular cartilage replacement materials, there is a need for a structure suitable as a prosthetic articular cartilage which is made of natural resorbable materials or analogs thereof and having an improved structure stability and an accurate positioning in the bone. At the same time, the prosthetic device should be biomechanically able to withstand normal joint forces and to promote repair and replacement of cartilage tissue or cartilage-like tissue.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>These objects are solved by the prosthetic device according to the present invention. The present invention relates to a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissue which comprises at least one layer comprising oriented fibers, a base component to anchor said fibers in subchondral environment and a stabilization area provided between said at least one layer of fibers and said base component, wherein said fibers are aligned essentially parallel to an insertion axis of the base component, i.e. perpendicularly to the plane of the articulating surface. According to a further aspect of the invention a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissue is proposed which comprises at least one layer comprising fibers, a base component to anchor said fibers in subchondral environment and a stabilization area provided between fibers and said base component, wherein between the base component and the fibers a cell barrier layer is provided. The preferred embodiments of the prosthetic device of the present invention are also provided. It has been surprisingly found that the stability of a prosthetic articular cartilage device can be essentially improved by providing a stabilization area between said at least one layer of fibers and said base component and by a specific alignment of said fibers e.g. to more than 50% in parallel to the insertion axis of the base component, usually in a direction perpendicular to a top surface of the base component facing the fibers. The stabilization area allows to hold together the base component and the fibers by acting as a “adhesive component”. The specific alignment of the fibers in the layer perfectly mimics the cartilage and cartilage-like tissues providing an excellent mechanical stability. At the same time a basis for the ingrowth of articular chondrocytes is provided resulting in a rapid cartilage growth, thus assuring a long term cartilage replacement. The invention itself may be more fully understood from the following description when read together with the accompanying drawing in which the only FIGURE shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the prosthetic device of the invention.
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CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is claiming priority of European Patent Application No. 03 014 191.5, filed on Jun. 24, 2003 and PCT International Application No. PCT/EP2004/006530, filed on Jun. 17, 2004 the content of which is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention is directed to a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissues. Said prosthetic devices are useful as articular cartilage substitution material and as scaffold for regeneration of articular cartilagenous tissues. 2. Description of the Related Art Articular cartilage tissue covers the ends of all bones that form diarthrodial joints. The resilient tissues provide the important characteristic of friction, lubrication, and wear in a joint. Furthermore, it acts as a shock absorber, distributing the load to the bones below. Without articular cartilage, stress and friction would occur to the extent that the joint would not permit motion. Articular cartilage has only a very limited capacity of regeneration. If this tissue is damaged or lost by traumatic events, or by chronic and progressive degeneration, it usually leads to painful arthrosis and decreased range of joint motion. Several methods have been established in the last decades for the treatment of injured and degenerated articular cartilage. Osteochondroal transplatation, microfracturing, heat treatment for sealing the surface, shaving, autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT), or total joint replacement are among the common techniques applied in today's orthopedic surgery. Joint replacement techniques where metal, ceramic and/or plastic components are used to substitute partially or totally the damaged or degenerated joint have already a long and quite successful tradition. The use of allograft material has been successful to some extent for small transplants, however, good quality allografts are hardly available. Osteochondroal transplantation (i.e. mosaicplasty) or autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) are applied whenever total joint replacement is not yet indicated. These methods can be used to treat small and partial defects in a joint. In mosaicplasty defects are filled with osteochondral plugs harvested in non-load bearing areas. In ACT, chondrocytes are harvested by biopsy and grown in-vitro before a highly concentrated cell suspension is injected below an membrane (artificial or autologous) covering the defect area. Commonly, the replacement of cartilage tissue with solid permanent artificial inserts has been unsatisfactorily because the opposing articular joint surface is damaged by unevenness or by the hardness of the inserts. Therefore, the transplantation technology had to take a step forward in the research of alternative cartilage materials such as biocompatible materials and structures for articular cartilage replacement. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,463 describes a prosthetic articular cartilage device comprising a dry, porous volume matrix of biocompatible and at least bioresorbable fibers and a base component. Said matrix establishes a bioresorbable scaffold adapted for the ingrowth of articular chondrocytes and for supporting natural articulating joint forces. Useful fibers include collagen, reticulin, elastin, cellulose, alginic acid, chitosan or synthetic and biosynthetic analogs thereof. Fibers are ordered in substantially circumferentially extending or substantially radially extending orientations. The base component is provided as a support on which the fiber matrix is applied. It is configured to fit in a complementary aperture in defective bone to secure the position of such a device in the bone. The base component is a composite material comprising a dispersion of collagen and composition consisting of tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite. It has been shown, however, that the function of the above construction has not been always satisfactory. The reason is that said known prosthetic articular cartilage device is frequently unstable due to its structure and thus had to be replaced in the joint area by another surgical operation in to again repair cartilage joints such as knee and hip. In view of this situation, in the field of articular cartilage replacement materials, there is a need for a structure suitable as a prosthetic articular cartilage which is made of natural resorbable materials or analogs thereof and having an improved structure stability and an accurate positioning in the bone. At the same time, the prosthetic device should be biomechanically able to withstand normal joint forces and to promote repair and replacement of cartilage tissue or cartilage-like tissue. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION These objects are solved by the prosthetic device according to the present invention. The present invention relates to a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissue which comprises at least one layer comprising oriented fibers, a base component to anchor said fibers in subchondral environment and a stabilization area provided between said at least one layer of fibers and said base component, wherein said fibers are aligned essentially parallel to an insertion axis of the base component, i.e. perpendicularly to the plane of the articulating surface. According to a further aspect of the invention a prosthetic device for repairing or replacing cartilage or cartilage-like tissue is proposed which comprises at least one layer comprising fibers, a base component to anchor said fibers in subchondral environment and a stabilization area provided between fibers and said base component, wherein between the base component and the fibers a cell barrier layer is provided. The preferred embodiments of the prosthetic device of the present invention are also provided. It has been surprisingly found that the stability of a prosthetic articular cartilage device can be essentially improved by providing a stabilization area between said at least one layer of fibers and said base component and by a specific alignment of said fibers e.g. to more than 50% in parallel to the insertion axis of the base component, usually in a direction perpendicular to a top surface of the base component facing the fibers. The stabilization area allows to hold together the base component and the fibers by acting as a “adhesive component”. The specific alignment of the fibers in the layer perfectly mimics the cartilage and cartilage-like tissues providing an excellent mechanical stability. At the same time a basis for the ingrowth of articular chondrocytes is provided resulting in a rapid cartilage growth, thus assuring a long term cartilage replacement. The invention itself may be more fully understood from the following description when read together with the accompanying drawing in which the only FIGURE shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the prosthetic device of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the only FIGURE a preferred form of a prosthetic device (1) embodying the invention is shown. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The device (1) includes at least one layer comprising oriented fibers of the biocompatible and/or at least partially resorbable material (2), a stabilization area 3, and a base component of a bone substitute material (4). As can be seen from the FIGURE, the fibers (2) are essentially aligned in a direction perpendicular to a top surface of the base component (4), which top surface faces the fibers. The fibers thus form a brush-like structure in a direction perpendicular to the base component (4). The fibers (2) can be aligned to more than 50% in a direction perpendicular to the top surface of the base component (4). An alignment of more than 90% in a direction perpendicular to the base component (4) is preferred. The fibers (2) may change alignment direction and self-organize at the uppermost end of the brush like structure. This might occur under pressure after implantation. In principle, any material can be used for the fibers (2) as long as they are biocompatible. Preferably the material is also biodegradable. In order to enhance the stability of the structure (2) a portion of material of the fibers may be cross-linked. In one preferred embodiment of the invention the fibers (2) include a mineral material, synthetic polymers or molecules, natural polymers or molecules, biotechnologically derived polymers or molecules, biomacromolecules, or any combination thereof. The fibers (2) themselves are not limited to any structure. They may be straight, twisted, curled, or of any tertiary structure It is also possible to use a combination thereof. Additionally, the fibers (2) themselves can be linear, branched or grafted. According to the invention, the shape and character of the fibers (2) can be homogeneous or comprise a combination of various fibers the previously mentioned different forms, including chemical, physical composition, and origin. The fiber-to-fiber anchoring distance can be varied within a broad range, i.e. between 1 nm to 1 mm, with a preferred fiber-to fiber anchoring distance of 1 μm to 100 μm. The distances themselves can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Examples of heterogeneous distances are gradient-like distributions, or random distributions, or specific pattern alignment, or any combination thereof. The fibers (2) of the device of the present invention can be provided as mono-filament or multi-filament fibers of any length. Fiber arrangement in a woven, non-woven twisted, knitted, or any combination thereof is possible. If desired, the lateral cross-section of the fibers (2) can be solid or hollow. According to the invention, the fiber diameter may be varied in a broad range. Advantageously, a range of 50 nm to 1 mm is proposed. Preferably, the fiber diameter is in range of 1 μm to 250 μm. According to the invention, the fibers (2) may have a flexible structure or a rigid structure depending on the final use of the device (1). In case of adapting to the articulation of a joint or opposing tissue, the fibers (2) should form a flexible structure. In case of using mineral fibers for the layer of highly oriented fibers (2), a selection may be made from synthetic or natural materials with a glass-like structure, crystalline structure, or any combination thereof. The fiber material is usually homogeneous. Depending on the final use of the device of the invention (1), the fiber material can also be heterogeneous, i.e., selected from various materials or it can comprise an engineered combination of the materials as mentioned above. In some instances, however, the fibers (2) can be coated or grafted with one or more of the previously mentioned 10 materials. In various forms of the invention, the fiber material(s) can have a liquid absorbing capacity by interactions with a solvent. Preferably, the liquid absorbing capacity is in a range of 0.1 to 99.9%, a range of 20.0 to 99.0% being particularly preferred. Usually, the liquid to be absorbed by the fibers (2) is water and/or body fluid available at the position where the device (1) is implanted. When absorbing water and/or body fluids, the fibers (2) advantageously form a gel or transform to a gel-like state. Upon uptake of water and/or body fluids the fibers (2) can swell and, therefore, an internal pressure within the fiber component is built up. That pressure helps stabilizing the structure. Furthermore, externally added components including cells are entrapped under the pressure within the fiber structure as in a natural cartilage. It has been shown that one layer of fibers (2) already brings about good results. However, in some instances, it can be advisable to provide a couple of layers of fibers which is/of course/dependent on the final use of the device of the invention (1). The assembly of multiple layer structures can be a head-head, head-tail, or tail-tail, and any combination thereof. It can also be an intercalated assembly wherein the clear interface border is lost between the different layers and gets continuous. The device of the present invention (1) comprises/as a further essential structural component/a base component (4). The function of the base component (4) is to anchor the fibers (2) in subchondral environment. This subchondral anchor function helps to keep the device (1) in place when implanted. The base component (4) can be of variable size and shape. Preferably, the shape of the base component (4) is round cylindrical or conical. The diameter of the base component (4) can vary in stepwise manner or in a continuous transition zone of any size. In practice/the diameter is related to the defect size and ranges between 2 and 30 mm, with a total height being 1 to 30 mm. The top surface of the base component (4) is usually either flat or it mimics the shape of the subchondral plate or the cartilage surface to be replaced. The material of the base component (4) of the device of the invention (1) can be a material, which is normally used as a bone substitute. Examples of the material are those as listed above in connection with the material of the fibers (2). If desired, the material for the base component (4) is a synthetic ceramic. The ceramic can be selected out of one or several of the following groups: calcium phosphates, calcium sulfates, calcium carbonates, or any mixture thereof. If the base component (4) of the device (1) is a calciumphosphate, one of the following compositions groups is preferred: di-calciumphosphatedihydrate (CaHP04×2H20), dicalciumphosphate (CaHP04), alpha-tricalciumphosphate (alpha-Ca3(P04)2), beta-tricalciumphosphate (betaCa3(P04)2), calcium deficient hydroxylapatite (Ca9(P04)5(HP04)OH), hydroxylapatite (Ca10(P04)6OH2), carbonated apatite (Ca10(P04)3(C03)3) (OH)2), fluorapatite (Ca10(P04)6(F,OH)2)′ chlorapatite (Ca10(P04)6(Cl,OH)2), whitlockite ((Ca,Mg)3(P04)2), tetracalciumphosphate (Ca4(P04)20), oxyapatite (Ca10(P04)60), beta-calciumpyrophosphate (beta-Ca2(P207), alpha-calciumpyrophosphate, gamma-calcium-pyrophosphate, octacalciumphosphate (Ca8H2(P04)6×5H20). It is also possible to have the above mentioned mineral materials doped or mixed with metallic, semimetallic, and/or non-metallic ions, preferably magnesium, silicon, sodium, potassium, strontium and/or lithium. In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the material of the base component (4) is a composite material comprising a mineral, inorganic, organic, biological, and/or biotechnological derived non-crystalline component and a mineral crystalline component. The non-crystalline components are often of polymeric nature. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the structure of the materials of the base component (4) is highly porous with interconnecting pores. This would allow any substances and cell in the subchondral environment to diffuse or migrate, respectively, into the base component (4). The third component of the device of the invention (1) is the stabilization area (3) which is provided between said at least one layer of fibers (2) and said base component (4). This stabilization area (3) provides a mechanical, physical or chemical link between the two other essential elements of the device of the invention (1). Another function of the stabilization area (3) is to stabilize and hold in-place the fibers (2) in the specific brush-like arrangement as mentioned above. This can be accomplished by e.g. knitting, weaving, grafting, gluing, embedding, or another mechanical, physical or chemical method. The interaction between the fibers (2) and the stabilization area (3) can be of physical/mechanical, electrostatic or covalent chemical nature, or a combination thereof. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the stabilization area (3) is comprised of an additional material, a chemical substance, the base component (4) material itself, or the fibers themselves or any combination thereof. Depending on the final use of the device of the invention (1), the stabilization system (3) is located at one end, at both ends or somewhere in between the two ends of the fibers (2). Another function of the stabilization area (3) is to act as a barrier for cells and blood preventing to diffuse from the base component (4) into the brush-like fiber structure (2). It is, however, also possible to provide a stabilization area (3) that is porous and/or has specific pores to allow selective or non-selective cells to pass through. In a further embodiment of the present invention, the stabilization area (3) of the device (1) is provided as a zone comprising at least one layer. The thickness of the zone is not specifically limited and can vary between broad ranges, e.g. between 1 nm and 1 mm. In another preferred embodiment of the device of the invention (1), externally added components are included in either the at least one layer of highly oriented fibers (2) or the base component (4) or in both of them. Usually said components are dispersed throughout the fibrous layer(s) (2) and/or the base component (4). Said components can be cells of different origin. The function is to support the generation of cartilage material and to enhance to improve healing, integration and mechanical properties of the device (1). The cells are preferably autologous cells, allogenous cells, xenogenous cells, transfected cells and/or genetically engineered cells. Particularly preferred cells which can be present throughout the fiber layer(s) (2) are chondrocytes, chondral progenitor cells, pluripotent cells, tutipotent cells or combinations thereof. Examples for cells included in the base component (4) are osteoblasts, osteo-progenitor cells, pluripotent cells tutipotent cells and combinations thereof. In some instances it can be desired to include blood or any fraction thereof in the base component (4). An example for another internally added components are pharmaceutical compounds including growth factors, engineered peptide-sequences, or antibiotics. An example for another internally added components are gelating compounds including proteins, glycoaminoglycanes, carbohydrates, or polyethyleneoxides. These components can be added as free components, or they can be immobilized within the device of claim 1 by chemical, physical, or entrapment methods to prevent the washingout. The device of the present invention can be directly implanted in a defect, diseased, or deceased cartilaginous area such as articulating joints in humans and animals. Examples of these articulating joints are the cartilage areas in hip, elbow, and knee joints. Usually, implanting the device into a joint is made by surgical procedures. For example the insertion procedure can be as following: In a first step, the defect area is cleaned and an osteochondral plug is removed with a chisel. Special equipment allows for exacting bottom and walls with regard to depths and widths. The prosthetic device as described in claim 1 is carefully pressed into position in such a manner that the upper edge of the base component (4) is on the same level with the calcified zone dividing the cartilage and the bone. The top surface of the fiber layer (2) should equal the height of the surrounding cartilage. Height differences may be exacted. The operation might be either carried out in an open or in an arthroscopic manner. As already mentioned above, the device (1) can be seeded with cells or added with additional substances or cells. Normally, seeding of the cells occurs after in-vitro cultivation according to methods established in the art. It is, however, also possible to harvest cells during the operational procedure from the patient, and seed the scaffold after the cells have been purified. For special applications, it will be also possible to assemble the device of claim 1 intra operatively. I.e. the base component (4) is implanted first, and subsequently the fiber layer (2) is immobilized on to of the base component (4) under formation of the stabilization layer (3). The height of the fiber layer (2) is adjusted to the contour of the joint after the immobilization procedure e.g. by shaving or heat treatment. The present invention is illustrated by means of the following examples. EXAMPLE 1 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical beta-tri-calcium-phosphate body sizing 5 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height, as subchondral anchor, and a 4 mm layer of oriented poly-hydroxy-ethyl-methacrylate (pHEMA) fibers with a diameter of 25 micrometer, as oriented fiber layer grafted to the anchor by a cement reaction. The vertical arrangement of the pHEMA fibers is random, but closely packed. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Subsequently, the anchor of the graft is soaked in a saline solution before the prosthetic device is inserted through the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit and the swelling of the fiber layer. Finally, the surface of the prosthetic device is resurfaced—if necessary—to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. EXAMPLE 2 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical hydroxyapatite body sizing 8 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height, as subchondral anchor, and a 4 mm layer of oriented and chemically derivatized methylcellulose fibers with diameters ranging between 1 and 50 micrometers, as oriented fiber layer. The fiber layer is obtained by embroidery and chemically grafted to the anchor by embedding. The vertical arrangement of the methylcelluose is a well-defined 2-D pattern. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Subsequently, harvested bone marrow stromal cells are added to the ceramic anchor. Next, the prosthetic device is inserted through the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit and the swelling of the fiber layer. Finally, the surface of the prosthetic device is resurfaced—if necessary—to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. EXAMPLE 3 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical beta-tri-calcium-phosphate and calcium sulfate composite body sizing 12 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height, as subchondral anchor, and a 5 mm mixed layer of highly oriented polypropylene and polyetheretherketone fibers with a diameters ranging 0.5 to 30 micrometer, as oriented fiber layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is random, but closely packed. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Bone marrow stromal cells and platelet rich plasma is added to the anchor, and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit. If necessary, the surface of the prosthetic device is finally resurfaced to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. EXAMPLE 4 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical beta-tri-calcium-phosphate body sizing 30 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height with a convex surface curvature, as subchondral anchor, and a 6 mm layer of highly oriented Pluronic fibers with a diameters about 10 micrometer, as oriented fiber layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is random and 5 to 80% of the fibers are crosslinked to its nearest neighbors. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Platelet rich plasma is added to the anchor, and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit and the swelling behavior of the fiber layer. The surface of the prosthetic device is finally resurfaced to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. EXAMPLE 5 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical beta-tri-calcium-phosphate body sizing 8 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height, as subchrondral anchor, and a 3 mm layer of highly oriented alginate fibers with diameters ranging between 1 and 30 micrometer, as oriented fibers layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is random and 50 to 95% of the fibers are crosslinked to its nearest neighbors. The fibers of the layer are embedded in a ceramic layer that acts as a barrier between the fiber layer and the anchor. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Bone marrow stromal cells are added to the anchor and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit. If necessary, the surface of the prosthetic device is finally resurfaced to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. Finally, chondrocytes as cell suspension are added to the layer. EXAMPLE 6 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical calcium deficient hydroxy apatite (CDHA) body sizing 4 mm in diameter and 5 mm in height, as subchondral anchor and a 3 mm layer of highly oriented chitosan fibers with a diameters ranging between 0.5 and 50 micrometer, as oriented fiber layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is random. The fibers of the layer are embedded in a ceramic layer that acts as a selective barrier between the fiber layer and the anchor. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Bone marrow stromal cells are added to the anchor, and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit. If necessary, the surface of the prosthetic device is finally resurfaced to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. EXAMPLE 7 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical beta-tri-calcium-phosphate body sizing 10 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height, as subchondral anchor and a 3 mm layer of highly oriented polyethyleneglycol (PEG) fibers with a diameters ranging up to SO micrometer, as oriented fiber layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is according to a pre-defined pattern. About SO % of the fibers are crosslinked to its nearest neighbors. The fibers of the layer are embedded in a ceramic layer that acts as a barrier between the fiber layer and the anchor. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. A properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. In a first step in the implantation, the chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Bone marrow stromal cells are added to the anchor, and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the universal guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit. If necessary, the surface of the prosthetic device is finally resurfaced to match the exact curvature of the joint surface and the height of the surrounding articular surface. Finally, chondrocytes as cell suspension are added to the fiber layer. EXAMPLE 8 A prosthetic device is engineered from a porous interconnected cylindrical calcium deficient hydroxy apatite body sizing 4 mm in diameter and 5 mm in height, as subchondral anchor, and a 3 mm layer of highly oriented hyaluronic acid fibers mixed with collagen fibers with diameters for both materials ranging between 0.1 and 25 micrometer, as oriented fiber layer. The vertical arrangement of the fibers is random and about 70 to 100% of the fibers are crosslinked. The fibers of the layer are embedded in a ceramic layer that acts as a selective barrier between the fiber layer and the anchor. The resulting prosthetic device is an ideal implant for cartilage repair. Autologous chondrocytes are added to layer and the device is are pre-cultivated in-vitro. For implantation, a properly sized tubular chisel is introduced perpendicular to the defect site in the joint. The chisel is tapped into cartilage and the osseous base of the defect site. The defect size is exacted regarding depth and diameter to the specific dimensions of the prosthetic device. Platelet Rich Plasma is added to the anchor, and the prosthetic device is inserted subsequently by the special guide tool. No additional fixation of the prosthetic device is necessary due to the exact fit.
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A
| 7A61
| 17A61B
|
17
|
58
|
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11926892
|
US20080132897A1-20080605
|
SURGICAL INSTRUMENT SYSTEM WITH BALL AND SOCKET SUPPORT
|
ACCEPTED
|
20080522
|
20080605
|
[]
|
A61B1758
|
["A61B1758", "A61B1732"]
|
8187279
|
20071029
|
20120529
|
606
|
088000
|
73074.0
|
BATES
|
DAVID
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Livorsi", "inventor_name_first": "Carl F.", "inventor_city": "Lakeville", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Wyss", "inventor_name_first": "Joseph G.", "inventor_city": "Fort Wayne", "inventor_state": "IN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Brisebois", "inventor_name_first": "Normand T.", "inventor_city": "Westport", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Capobianco", "inventor_name_first": "Mark A.", "inventor_city": "Westport", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Fortin", "inventor_name_first": "Michael J.", "inventor_city": "Acushnet", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Hayes", "inventor_name_first": "Kenneth R.", "inventor_city": "Fall River", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kennedy", "inventor_name_first": "James M.", "inventor_city": "Berkley", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "McMorrow", "inventor_name_first": "John J.", "inventor_city": "Franklin", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Monteiro", "inventor_name_first": "Paul J.", "inventor_city": "Somerset", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Nuss", "inventor_name_first": "Jean-Pierce", "inventor_city": "North Dartmouth", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Withee", "inventor_name_first": "Phillip G.", "inventor_city": "Fall River", "inventor_state": "MA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A surgical instrument support system has a support frame supported by three arms. Each arm has a plurality of ball and socket members strung in series along a cable. The arms are also connected to bases mountable to the patient's limb on the proximal and distal sides of the joint. Actuators are provided for each arm to change the tension in the cables to change the stiffness of each arm. The support system can be part of a surgical instrument system that includes a plurality of resection guides mountable to the support frame.
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1. A surgical instrument support system comprising: a support frame; a first arm and a first actuator, the first arm having first and second ends, the first end of the first arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm being connected to the first actuator, the first arm including a tension member a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness; a second arm and a second actuator, the second arm having first and second ends, the first end of the second arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm being connected to the second actuator, the second arm including a tension member and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness; and a third arm and a third actuator, the third arm having first and second ends, the first end of the third arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm being connected to the third actuator, the third arm including a tension member having a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness; wherein: activation of the first actuator changes the stiffness of the first arm; activation of the second actuator changes the stiffness of the second arm; and activation of the third actuator changes the stiffness of the third arm. 2. The surgical instrument support system of claim 1 further comprising a surgical implement mountable to the support frame. 3. The surgical instrument support system of claim 2 wherein the surgical implement comprises a resection guide. 4. The surgical instrument support system of claim 1 further comprising a base and wherein at least one of the first, second and third actuators is connected to the base. 5. The surgical instrument support system of claim 4 wherein at least two of the first, second and third actuators is connected to the base. 6. A surgical instrument system for resecting a portion of a bone at a joint of a patient's limb, the system comprising: a proximal base sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the proximal side of the joint; a distal base sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the distal side of the joint; a support frame; a resection guide selectively mountable to the support frame; a first arm having first and second ends, the first end of the first arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm being connected to the proximal base, the first arm including a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages; a second arm having first and second ends, the first end of the second arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm being connected to one of the bases, the second arm including a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages; a third arm having first and second ends, the first end of the third arm being connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm being connected to the distal base, the third arm including a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages; and a tensioning mechanism for increasing the tension in each tension member. 7. The system of claim 6 further comprising a second resection guide mountable to the support frame. 8. The system of claim 6 further comprising an actuator for simultaneously increasing the tension in the tension member of each arm. 9. The system of claim 6 wherein the support frame comprises spaced opposing portions and a connecting portion extending between the spaced opposing portions. 10. The system of claim 9 wherein the support frame comprises an annular member defining an open port. 11. The system of claim 10 wherein the support frame is sized so that the resection guide fits within the open port. 12. The system of claim 11 wherein the resection guide includes a cylindrical portion sized and shaped to be complementary to the size and shape of the annular member and to fit within the open port of the support frame. 13. The system of claim 6 wherein the resection guide includes a cutting guide slot. 14. The system of claim 6 wherein the resection guide includes a guide track including a non-linear portion. 15. The surgical instrument system of claim 6 wherein the resection guide comprises a tibial cutting block. 16. The system of claim 6 further comprising a plurality of computer navigation trackers. 17. The system of claim 16 wherein the resection guide comprises a cutting guide slot and at least one of the computer navigation trackers includes a plate sized and shaped to be received in the cutting guide slot of the cutting guide. 18. The system of claim 17 wherein at least one of the computer navigation trackers comprises an electromagnetic sensor. 19. The system of claim 6 further comprising a cutting instrument selected from the group consisting of a saw, a milling device, a burr and a drill. 20. The system of claim 6 further comprising an inflatable cuff sized and shaped to be placed around a proximal portion of the patient's limb. 21. The system of claim 6 further comprising an inflatable cuff sized and shaped to be placed around a distal portion of the patient's limb. 22. The system of claim 6 wherein the proximal base comprises an elongate strap sized and shaped to be wrapped around a portion of the proximal portion of the patient's limb. 23. The system of claim 20 wherein the proximal base comprises an elongate strap sized and shaped to be wrapped around the inflatable cuff. 24. The system of claim 6 wherein the distal base comprises an elongate strap sized and shaped to be wrapped around a portion of the distal portion of the patient's limb. 25. The system of claim 21 wherein the distal base comprises an elongate strap sized and shaped to be wrapped around the inflatable cuff.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to surgical instruments used to prepare a bone to receive a prosthetic implant, and more particularly, to such an instrument system. When a skeletal joint is damaged, whether as a result of an accident or illness, a prosthetic replacement of the damaged joint may be necessary to relieve pain and to restore normal use to the joint. Typically the entire joint is replaced by means of a surgical procedure that involves removal of the ends of the corresponding damaged bones and replacement of these ends with prosthetic implants. This replacement of a native joint with a prosthetic joint is referred to as a primary total-joint arthroplasty. The surgical preparation of the bones during primary total-joint arthroplasty is a complex procedure. A number of bone cuts are made to effect the appropriate placement and orientation of the prosthetic components on the bones. In total knee arthroplasty, the joint gaps in extension and flexion must also be appropriate. In the case of total knee arthroplasty, cutting guide blocks are used in creating the bone cuts on the proximal tibia and distal femur. The position, alignment and orientation of the cutting blocks are important in ensuring that the bone cuts will result in optimal performance of the prosthetic implant components. Generally, a tibial cutting block is positioned, aligned and oriented so that the cutting guide surface is in the optimal proximal-distal position, posterior slope, and varus-valgus orientation. Depending on the type of prosthetic implant system to be used, one or more cutting blocks are also positioned, aligned and oriented on the distal femur to ensure appropriate positioning of the distal femoral implant component and appropriate joint gaps. A variety of alignment guides and cutting blocks have been provided in the prior art for use in preparing bone surfaces in primary total-knee arthroplasty, including alignment guides and cutting blocks used in preparing the proximal tibia and distal femur. Prior art instrument sets with alignment guides include the Specialist® 2 instruments (DePuy Orthopaedics, Inc., Warsaw, Ind.) for use with DePuy Orthopaedics' P.F.C.® Sigma Knee System. The extramedullary tibial alignment guide for this instrument system includes an ankle clamp, a pair of telescoping alignment rods and a cutting block. The ankle clamp is affixed about the patient's ankle, without extending through the patient's soft tissue. Parts of this system are manually adjustable: the proximal-distal position of the cutting block is adjusted by sliding the telescoping rods and then locking the rods in the desired position; posterior slope is set at the ankle by sliding the distal end of the alignment rod in an anterior-posterior direction to thereby pivot the cutting block into the desired orientation; varus-valgus slope is set by pivoting the cutting block so that the alignment guide pivots about a rod at the ankle clamp.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a surgical instrument system that can be used to efficiently and accurately set the position, alignment and orientation of resection guides and can that can be used to support other surgical instruments. In one aspect, the present invention meets these objectives by providing a surgical instrument system comprising a support frame, a first arm, a first actuator, a second arm, a second actuator, a third arm and a third actuator. The first arm has first and second ends. The first end of the first arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the first actuator. The first arm includes a tension member and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. The second arm also has first and second ends. The first end of the second arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the second actuator. The second arm includes a tension member and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. The third arm has first and second ends. The first end of the third arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm is connected to the third actuator. The third arm includes a tension member having a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. Activation of the first actuator changes the stiffness of the first arm, activation of the second actuator changes the stiffness of the second arm, and activation of the third actuator changes the stiffness of the third arm. In another aspect, the present invention provides a surgical instrument system for resecting a portion of a bone at a joint of a patient's limb. The system comprises a proximal base, a distal base, a support frame, a resection guide, three arms and a tensioning mechanism. The proximal base is sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the proximal side of the joint. The distal base is sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the distal side of the joint. The resection guide is selectively mountable to the support frame. The first arm has first and second ends; the first end of the first arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the proximal base. The first arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The second arm has first and second ends; the first end of the second arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to one of the bases. The second arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The third arm has first and second ends; the first end of the third arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm is connected to the distal base. The third arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The tensioning mechanism is provided for increasing the tension in each tension member.
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CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Prov. App. No. 60/863,694 filed Oct. 31, 2006, entitled “LIMB STABILIZING SYSTEM FOR ARTHROPLASTY,” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety and to U.S. Prov. App. No. 60/863,711 filed Oct. 31, 2006, entitled “SURGICAL INSTRUMENT SYSTEM WITH BALL AND SOCKET SUPPORT,” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to surgical instruments used to prepare a bone to receive a prosthetic implant, and more particularly, to such an instrument system. When a skeletal joint is damaged, whether as a result of an accident or illness, a prosthetic replacement of the damaged joint may be necessary to relieve pain and to restore normal use to the joint. Typically the entire joint is replaced by means of a surgical procedure that involves removal of the ends of the corresponding damaged bones and replacement of these ends with prosthetic implants. This replacement of a native joint with a prosthetic joint is referred to as a primary total-joint arthroplasty. The surgical preparation of the bones during primary total-joint arthroplasty is a complex procedure. A number of bone cuts are made to effect the appropriate placement and orientation of the prosthetic components on the bones. In total knee arthroplasty, the joint gaps in extension and flexion must also be appropriate. In the case of total knee arthroplasty, cutting guide blocks are used in creating the bone cuts on the proximal tibia and distal femur. The position, alignment and orientation of the cutting blocks are important in ensuring that the bone cuts will result in optimal performance of the prosthetic implant components. Generally, a tibial cutting block is positioned, aligned and oriented so that the cutting guide surface is in the optimal proximal-distal position, posterior slope, and varus-valgus orientation. Depending on the type of prosthetic implant system to be used, one or more cutting blocks are also positioned, aligned and oriented on the distal femur to ensure appropriate positioning of the distal femoral implant component and appropriate joint gaps. A variety of alignment guides and cutting blocks have been provided in the prior art for use in preparing bone surfaces in primary total-knee arthroplasty, including alignment guides and cutting blocks used in preparing the proximal tibia and distal femur. Prior art instrument sets with alignment guides include the Specialist® 2 instruments (DePuy Orthopaedics, Inc., Warsaw, Ind.) for use with DePuy Orthopaedics' P.F.C.® Sigma Knee System. The extramedullary tibial alignment guide for this instrument system includes an ankle clamp, a pair of telescoping alignment rods and a cutting block. The ankle clamp is affixed about the patient's ankle, without extending through the patient's soft tissue. Parts of this system are manually adjustable: the proximal-distal position of the cutting block is adjusted by sliding the telescoping rods and then locking the rods in the desired position; posterior slope is set at the ankle by sliding the distal end of the alignment rod in an anterior-posterior direction to thereby pivot the cutting block into the desired orientation; varus-valgus slope is set by pivoting the cutting block so that the alignment guide pivots about a rod at the ankle clamp. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a surgical instrument system that can be used to efficiently and accurately set the position, alignment and orientation of resection guides and can that can be used to support other surgical instruments. In one aspect, the present invention meets these objectives by providing a surgical instrument system comprising a support frame, a first arm, a first actuator, a second arm, a second actuator, a third arm and a third actuator. The first arm has first and second ends. The first end of the first arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the first actuator. The first arm includes a tension member and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. The second arm also has first and second ends. The first end of the second arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the second actuator. The second arm includes a tension member and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. The third arm has first and second ends. The first end of the third arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm is connected to the third actuator. The third arm includes a tension member having a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member in series to form a plurality of articulatable linkages having a stiffness. Activation of the first actuator changes the stiffness of the first arm, activation of the second actuator changes the stiffness of the second arm, and activation of the third actuator changes the stiffness of the third arm. In another aspect, the present invention provides a surgical instrument system for resecting a portion of a bone at a joint of a patient's limb. The system comprises a proximal base, a distal base, a support frame, a resection guide, three arms and a tensioning mechanism. The proximal base is sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the proximal side of the joint. The distal base is sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's limb on the distal side of the joint. The resection guide is selectively mountable to the support frame. The first arm has first and second ends; the first end of the first arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to the proximal base. The first arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The second arm has first and second ends; the first end of the second arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the first arm is connected to one of the bases. The second arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The third arm has first and second ends; the first end of the third arm is connected to the support frame and the second end of the third arm is connected to the distal base. The third arm includes a tension member having first and second ends and a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along the tension member to form a plurality of articulatable linkages. The tensioning mechanism is provided for increasing the tension in each tension member. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be better understood by reference to the figures of the drawings wherein like numbers denote like parts throughout and wherein: FIG. 1 is an anterior view of a patient's leg, showing a part of a first embodiment of the surgical instrument support system of the present invention mounted on the patient's leg with the leg in extension, with other parts of the surgical instrument system shown adjacent to the patient's leg and with optional accessories for computer assisted surgery shown mounted to the patient's leg and adjacent to the patient's leg; FIG. 2 is a view similar to FIG. 1, showing a second embodiment of a surgical instrument system according to the present invention, with other parts of the surgical instrument system shown adjacent to the patient's leg and with optional accessories for computer assisted surgery shown mounted to the patient's leg and adjacent to the patient's leg; FIG. 3 is an elevation, from the lateral side of the patient's leg showing the patient's leg in flexion with the surgical instrument support system of FIG. 1 mounted on the patient's leg, the surgical instrument support system being shown with an alternative set of actuators and with a system for fixing and stabilizing the position of the patient's leg; FIG. 4 is an elevation, from the lateral side of the patient's leg showing the patient's leg in flexion with the surgical instrument support system of FIG. 1 mounted on the patient's leg, the system being shown with an alternative set of actuators and with a system for fixing and stabilizing the position of the patient's leg; FIG. 5 is a top plan view of a proximal cuff used in the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 6 is a top plan view of the surgical instrument support system of FIG. 1 before mounting on the patient's leg and with the proximal and distal bases shown in an unwrapped state; FIG. 7 is a top plan view of a distal cuff used in the system of FIG. 1; FIG. 8 is a longitudinal cross-section of an exemplary ball and socket structure that may be used for any or all of the three arms of the systems shown in FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 9 is a longitudinal cross-section of an alternative ball and socket structure that may be used for any or all of the three arms of the systems shown in FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 10 is a cross-section of an exemplary pneumatic actuator that may be used with the arms of the systems of either FIG. 1 or FIG. 2, shown with the actuator in a unactivated position associated with a more flexible state of the arms of the system; FIG. 11 is a cross-section similar to FIG. 10, shown with the actuator in an activated position associated with a more rigid state of the arms of the system; FIG. 12 is a cross-section of a second exemplary pneumatic actuator with a manual override option, shown with both the pneumatic and manual options of the actuator in unactivated positions associated with a more flexible state of the arms of the system; FIG. 13 is a cross-section taken along line 13-13 of FIG. 12, showing the articulating linkage within the actuator; FIG. 14 is a cross-section similar to FIGS. 12 and 13, showing the actuator with the manual lever activated to increase the rigidity of the arm while the pneumatic piston is unactivated; FIG. 15 is a cross-section similar to FIG. 12, showing the actuator with the pneumatic piston activated to increase the rigidity of the arm while the manual lever is unactivated; FIG. 16 is a top plan view of an exemplary support frame that may be used with the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 17 is a bottom plan view of the support frame of FIG. 16; FIG. 18 is a side elevation of the support frame of FIGS. 16-17; FIG. 19 is a top plan view of an exemplary resection guide that may be used with the support frame of FIGS. 16-18; FIG. 20 is a bottom plan view of the resection guide of FIG. 19; FIG. 21 is a side elevation of the resection guide of FIGS. 19-20; FIG. 22 is a top plan view of an alternative example of a support frame that may be used with the systems of FIGS. 1-2; FIG. 23 is a side elevation of the support frame of FIG. 22; FIG. 24 is a side elevation of an exemplary mounting bar that may be used with the support frame of FIGS. 22-23; FIG. 25 is a bottom plan view of the mounting bar of FIG. 24; FIG. 26 is a top plan view of an exemplary resection guide that may be used with the mounting bar of FIGS. 23-25; FIG. 27 is a top plan view of the resection guide of FIG. 26 assembled with the mounting bar of FIGS. 24-25 and mounted on the support frame of FIGS. 22-23 so that the resection guide is positioned in the operating window provided by the support frame; FIG. 28 is a top plan view of another alternative support frame that may be used in the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 29 is a side elevation of the support frame of FIG. 28; FIG. 30 is a side elevation of a mounting clamp of that may be used to mount a surgical implement such as the resection guide of FIG. 26 to the support frame of FIGS. 28-29; FIG. 31 is a top plan view of an alternative resection guide that may be used with the support frame of FIGS. 28-29; FIG. 32 is a top plan view of another alternative support frame that may be used in the systems of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 33 is a side elevation of the support frame of FIG. 32; FIG. 34 is a cross-section of the support frame of FIGS. 32-33, taken along line 34-34 of FIG. 33; FIG. 35 is a top plan view of the support frame of FIGS. 32-34 shown assembled with a mounting clamp and resection guide so that the resection guide is supported in the operating window defined by the support frame; FIG. 36 is a cross-section similar to FIG. 34, showing an alternative set of actuators within the interior of support frame; and FIG. 37 is a view similar to FIG. 1, showing an alternative embodiment of a system with a different set of support structures for the arms and support frame. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS A first embodiment of a system illustrating the principles of the present invention is illustrated at 10 in FIGS. 1 and 3. A second embodiment of a system illustrating the principles of the present invention is illustrated at 10A in FIGS. 2 and 4. Several components of the two systems 10, 10A are the same; in the following description and in FIGS. 1-4 the same reference numbers are used for the components of the systems that are the same. Both of the first and second illustrated systems 10, 10A are illustrated for use in knee arthroplasty surgical procedures. In FIGS. 1-4, the systems 10, 10A are illustrated in use with a patient's leg 12. The patient's leg 12 has a knee joint 14, a proximal thigh portion 16 on the proximal side of the knee joint 14 and a distal portion 18 on the distal side of the knee joint 14. The patient's ankle 20 is on the distal side of the knee joint 14. It should be understood that although the illustrated embodiments are shown and described with respect to the knee joint and knee arthroplasty, the principles of the present invention may be applied to other joints and other types of arthroplasty as well. The invention is not limited to a knee joint stabilization and support system unless expressly called for in the claims. The first and second illustrated surgical instrument support systems 10, 10A comprise the following main parts: a proximal base 22, a distal base 24, 24A, a support frame 26, a first arm 30, a second arm 32, a third arm 34, and a tensioning mechanism associated with each arm. The surgical instrument support systems 10, 10A may be comprise parts of surgical instrument systems that include surgical instruments such as resection guides 28 and accessories such as computer navigation trackers 400, 402, 404. In the first and second illustrated embodiments, the proximal base 22 is sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's leg 12 on the proximal portion 16 on the proximal side of the knee joint 14 and the distal bases 24, 24A are both sized and shaped to be mountable on the exterior of the patient's leg 12 on the distal portion 18 on the distal side of the knee joint 14. In the illustrated embodiments, the resection guide 28 is selectively mountable to the support frame 26. As discussed in more detail below, either of the illustrated systems 10, 10A may be used with a plurality of resection guides. The first and second illustrated systems 10, 10A also include an inflatable proximal cuff 23 and a source of compressed air 25. The first illustrated system 10 includes an inflatable distal cuff 27 while the second illustrated system 10A includes an ankle clamp 29. As described in more detail below, the tensioning mechanism associated with the arms 30, 32, 34 may comprise a plurality of actuators 41, 46, 52. The actuators 41, 46, 52 may be pneumatic, mechanical, electrical (for example, a solenoid transducer) or magnetic. The inflatable cuffs 23, 27 and actuators 41, 46, 52 may be connected to the source of compressed air 25 through switches 31, 33 operable by the surgeon so that the cuffs 23, 27 may be inflated simultaneously and so that the actuators 41, 46, 52 may be operated simultaneously to simultaneously increase the tension in the three tensioning mechanisms. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, an additional resection guide 36 may be included with either system 10, 10A. Thus, the support portion (that is the portion that supports the resection guide) of either system 10, 10A can advantageously be used to support a plurality of different resection guides, so that the system can be used to prepare a bone for a variety of sizes of implant components, and can also be used to support resection guides that are to be used in resecting different bones: the support system of either system 10, 10A can be repositioned intraoperatively so that the same support system can be used to perform resections of the proximal tibia, the distal femur and the patella during knee arthroplasty. The first support arm 30 of each of the illustrated systems 10, 10A has a first end 38 and a second end 40. The first end 38 is connected to the support frame 26 and the second end 40 of the first and second illustrated embodiments is connected to the proximal base 22 through a first actuator 41. The second support arm 32 of each of the illustrated systems 10, 10A also has a first end 42 and a second end 44. The first end 42 is connected to the support frame 26 at a position spaced from the connection of the first end 38 of the first support arm 30 to the support frame. The second end 44 of the second support arm 32 in the first and second illustrated embodiments is connected to the proximal base 22 through a second actuator 46. The third support arm 34 also has a first end 48 and a second end 50. The first end 48 of the third support arm 34 is connected to the support frame 26 at a position spaced from both the connection of the first end 38 of the first support arm 30 and the second end 44 of the second support arm 32 to the support frame 26. In the first and second illustrated embodiments, the connections of the first ends 38, 42, 48 of the support arms 30, 32, 34 to the support frame 26 are evenly spaced about the support frame 26 (about 120° apart for the circular support frame illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2). The second end 50 of the third support arm 34 of the first and second illustrated embodiments is connected to the distal base 24 (or 24A) through a third actuator 52. To allow for use of the system with a variety of patient anatomies, each arm 30, 32, 34 may have a length of 30-45 cm. or about 12-18 inches. It should be understood that it may be desirable for the distal arm 34 to have a greater length than the proximal arms 30, 32. It should also be understood that these dimensions are provided for illustrative purposes only; the invention is not limited to any particular dimension unless expressly called for in the claims. All three support arms 30, 32, 34 comprise similar parts described below with respect to FIGS. 8 and 9. Although described with respect to the first arm 30, it should be understood that the following description applies to all three support arms 30, 32, 34. Each support arm 30, 32, 34 comprises a series of articulatable linkages defined by a plurality of ball and socket members slidably strung along a tension member 57 (shown in FIG. 8 and at 57A in FIG. 9). In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the arm 30 comprises a series of discrete ball members 54 and socket members 56. Each socket member 56 in the embodiment of FIG. 8 comprises a generally cylindrical member with generally conical openings 58, 60 defined by tapered surfaces 62, 64 at each end. The conical openings 58, 60 are connected by a cylindrical through-bore 66. Portions of one ball member 54 are received within each conical opening. The outer surface 68 of the portion of the ball member 54 received in each conical opening 58, 60 frictionally engages the tapered surfaces 62, 64 of the socket member 56. Each ball member 54 has a through-bore 70 and may have tapered lead-in surfaces. The arm 30 illustrated in FIG. 8 comprises a plurality of alternating ball members 54 and socket members 56. The tensioning member 57 comprises a cable that extends through the bores 70 of the ball members 54, through portions of the conical end openings 58, 60 and through-bore 66 of the socket members 56 so that the alternating ball and socket members 54, 56 are slidably strung along the cable 57 to form the articulating linkages. Tension in the cable 57 maintains frictional engagement between the adjacent ball and socket members 54, 56. In the arm illustrated in FIG. 9, designated 30A, the ball and socket members comprise a series of unitary structures 74, each having a substantially hemispherical-shaped end 76 with a curved outer surface 77 and a generally frusto-conical-shaped opening 78 defined by tapered walls 80 at the opposite end. A through-bore 82 extends longitudinally through each unitary structure 74. A cable 57A extends through the through-bore 82 and plurality of unitary ball and socket structures 74 are slidably strung along the cable 57A in series. The cable 57A is in tension to maintain frictional engagement between the adjacent unitary ball and socket structures 74. In the arms 30, 30A illustrated in both FIGS. 8 and 9, the tension maintained in the cable 57, 57A defines the stiffness of the articulating joints defined by the ball and socket members 54, 56, 74. Increasing the tension by shortening the cable 57, 57A of each arm 30, 30A brings the adjacent ball and socket members 54, 56, 74 into closer contact, increases the friction between the adjacent elements 54, 56, 74, and thereby increases the stiffness of the articulating joints of the arm 30, 30A. Thus, by adjusting the tension in the cable 57, 57A (or the length of cable 57, 57A extending through the adjacent ball and socket members 54, 56, 74), the relative stiffness or rigidity of the supporting arm 30, 30A can be varied. To control the relative stiffness or rigidity of each of the supporting arms 30, 32, 34, one end of each cable 57 is fixed at the support frame 26 and the other end of each cable 57 extends into the actuator 41, 46, 52 associated with that arm 30, 32, 34. By activation of the actuators 41, 46, 52, short lengths of cable 57 can be pulled into each actuator 41, 46, 52 to shorten and increase the tension in the cable 57, thereby stiffening the arms 30, 32, 34. Releasing the actuators 41, 46, 52 deceases the tension in the cables 57 and loosens the arms 30, 32, 34. Thus, when the three arms 30, 32, 34 are in the relaxed or more flexible state (that is, when the actuators 41, 46, 52 are in the released position), the surgeon can move the support frame 26 into a desired position, alignment and orientation and then activate the actuators 41, 46, 52 to stiffen the arms 30, 32, 34 to substantially lock the support frame 26 in that desired position, alignment and orientation. It will be appreciated that each ball and socket joint in each support arm can pivot about multiple axes so that the three support arms 30, 32, 34 allow for movement of the support frame 26 in more than three degrees of freedom when the actuators 41, 46, 52 are in the released position. Since, as described below, the support frame 26 carries and supports the resection guide 28, 36, the system of the present invention allows the surgeon to set the position, alignment and orientation of the resection guide 28, 36 in more than three degrees of freedom and to substantially lock the resection guide 28, 36 in the desired position, alignment and orientation. And since, as described below, the support frame 26 is capable of supporting different resection guides 28, 36, the system of the present invention can be used to set the position, alignment and orientation of multiple resection guides 28, 36 to make multiple resections accurately, simply and efficiently. All or substantially all of the needed resections for total knee arthroplasty can be accomplished using multiple resection guides 28, 36 and the support system of the present invention. It will be appreciated that the stiffness of each arm 30, 32, 34 will depend upon factors such as the sizes of the ball and socket members 54, 56, 74, the angles of the tapered surfaces 62, 64, 80 defining the conical and frusto-conical openings 58, 60, 78, the surface finishes of contacting surfaces 62, 64, 68, 80 of adjacent elements 54, 56, 74 and the materials used to make the ball and socket members 54, 56, 74. For the embodiment of FIG. 8, the ball structures 54 can be made of a different material than the socket structures 56; for example, the ball structures 54 can be made of a resilient material, such as polyethylene for example, and the socket structures 56 can be made of a non-resilient material, such as stainless steel or aluminum for example. With such resilient and non-resilient materials used, increasing cable tension should cause the resilient balls 54 to deform against the non-resilient sockets to increase the surface area in contact between the adjacent components 54, 56. It is expected that various metals, polymers, copolymers and composites may be used for the ball and socket members. It may be desirable to make the ball and socket members out of radiolucent materials. A heat resistant thermoplastic such as RADEL® polyarylethersulfone (PAES) may be used since it is understood to be sterilizable in a steam autoclave. RADELL® PAES is understood to be available from Amoco Polymers, Inc. of Alpharetta, Ga., and from suppliers such as Piedmont Plastics, Inc. of Charlotte, N.C. At least some commercially available acetal copolymers are expected to be usable, such as DELRIN® material available from E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co. of Wilmington, Del. and CELCON® polyoxymethylene available from Celanese Corporation through Ticona-US of Summit, N.J. The cable 57, 57A can comprise, for example, a braided stainless steel or polymer (e.g. nylon) cable. Generally, any material suitable for use for surgical instruments and having characteristics suitable for the application can be used for the ball and socket members 54, 56, 74 and cable 57, 57A; the invention is not limited to any particular material unless expressly called for in the claims. Two examples of suitable actuators 41, 46, 52 are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. For simplicity, one actuator 41 of the three actuators provided in the system will be described below; it should be understood that the following description applied to all three actuators 41, 46, 52 that are provided in each system. A first example of a suitable actuator 41, shown in cross-section in FIGS. 10-11, is a pneumatic actuator with an internal piston 90 connected to an extension member 92 that is connected to an end 94 of the cable 57 within a housing 95. The position of the piston 90 and cable end 94 when the actuator is in the released state is shown in FIG. 10. When compressed air enters chamber 96 through hose 97, the piston 90 moves, pulling the cable 57 into the actuator housing 95 to increase the tension in the cable 57, as shown in FIG. 11. As shown in FIG. 1, a single source 25 of compressed air may be connected to supply all three actuators 41, 46, 52 through the switch mechanism 33 so that all three pistons will be moved simultaneously to simultaneously increase the stiffness of all three support arms 30, 32, 34 to thereby stabilize and substantially lock the position, alignment and orientation of the support frame 26. A second example of a suitable actuator 41A is illustrated in FIGS. 12-15. In the second example, each actuator 41A is operable pneumatically as in the first embodiment, but also includes a manual override in case of failure of the pneumatic system. Thus, the second example includes an internal piston 90A connected to an extension member 92A within a housing 95A. A source of compressed air may be connected through a suitable hose 97A and switch mechanism 33 to supply air to inner chamber 96A for selectively moving the piston 90A. The second example also includes an internal linkage mechanism comprising a pair of link members 100 fixed to the interior of the housing 95A. This pair of fixed link members 100 is pivotally connected through a pin 102 to a second link member 104. The second link member 104 is pivotally connected through a pin 106 to a pair of third link members 108. The pair of third link members 108 is pivotally connected through a pin 110 to the piston extension member 92A. As shown in FIG. 13, the cable 57 extends over one side of the pin 102 and then over the opposite side of the pin 106. The cable 57 then connects eccentrically to a manually-operable lever 112 (see FIGS. 12 and 14-15). The manually-operable lever 112 is pivotally connected to the actuator housing 95A through a pin 113. FIG. 12 illustrates the actuator 41A in a released state. FIG. 14 illustrates manual operation of the actuator 41A: the exposed end of the lever 112 is pivoted from the position shown in FIG. 12 to the position shown in FIG. 14, thereby pulling the cable 57 into the housing 95A to stiffen the arm 30. The actuator 41A may include a locking mechanism (not shown) for temporarily locking the lever 112 in the position shown in FIG. 14. When the lever 112 is moved back to the position shown in FIG. 12, a length of the cable 57 is released to increase the flexibility of the arm 30. FIG. 15 illustrates pneumatic operation of the actuator 41A: when the switch 33 (shown in FIG. 1) is actuated, compressed air flows through the line 97A into the chamber 96A of the actuator 41A, pushing the piston 90A and the extension member 92A to the right, thereby forcing pin 106 connecting the link members 104, 108 to the right to pull the cable 57 into the housing 95A to stiffen the arm 30. When the pneumatic pressure in chamber 96A is released, the piston 90A, extension member 92A, link members 104, 108 and pin 106 return to the position shown in FIG. 12, thereby releasing a length of the cable 57. It will be appreciated that the pneumatic actuators may include suitable valves (not shown) for operation as described above. It will also be appreciated that other types of actuators could be used. For example, a solenoid or magnetic transducer or a solenoid or magnetic transducer with a mechanical override option could be used for the actuators 41, 41A, 46, 52. In addition, as described in more detail below, the actuators could be positioned and connected to act upon the end of the cable 57 at the first ends 38, 42, 48 of the arms 30, 32, 34 instead of upon the seconds ends 40, 44, 50. It is anticipated that commercially available pneumatic piston devices, mechanical switches and solenoid or magnetic transducers can be used for the actuators, or that such commercially available devices can be readily modified to meet the needs of the present application. In addition, the mechanical override option could be achieved by providing two cables extending through the balls and sockets of each arm; one cable of one arm could be connected to one type of actuator and the other cable of that arm could be connected to another type of actuator. FIGS. 12 and 14-15 also illustrate one means of connecting the actuator 41A to the proximal base 22. As there illustrated, a screw 114 extends through a hole in the base 22 and into a mating threaded hole 116 in the housing 95A. It should be appreciated that there are several ways in which the actuators 41, 41A, 46, 52 could be connected to the bases 22, 24. In addition to mechanical connection through screws, the actuators could be connected to the bases 22, 24 through mechanical clamps, bolts, snaps, snap fits or interference fits, through provision of complementary mounting structures or through adhesives, for example. An example of a proximal base 22 is illustrated in FIG. 6. The illustrated proximal base 22 comprises an elongate belt or strap of flexible, inelastic material. The belt or strap of material is sized so that it can be wrapped transversely around the proximal portion 16 of the patient's limb, and preferably is sized so that it can be wrapped around the inflatable proximal cuff 23. A belt or strap having a length of 75-90 cm (about 30-36) inches and a width of about 10-15 cm (about 4-6 inches) should be acceptable for this purpose. The illustrated proximal base 22 includes hook and loop strips 120, 122 (such as Velcro™ brand fasteners) so that the base 22 can be fixed about the patient's limb. Although other mechanisms (such as buckles or snaps) could be used. The connections between the base 22 and the two actuators 41, 46 are spaced apart so that when the base is wrapped around the patient's limb, the actuators 41, 46 will be spaced apart and the second ends 40, 44 of the arms 30, 32 will be spaced apart (preferably diametrically opposed on the patient's proximal limb). The distal base 24 of the embodiment of FIG. 1 is also illustrated in FIG. 6, and also comprises an elongate belt or strap of flexible material. The belt or strap of material is sized so that it can be wrapped transversely around the distal portion 18 of the patient's limb, and preferably is sized so that it can be wrapped around the inflatable distal cuff 27. A belt or strap having a length of about 30-40 cm. (or about 12-15 inches) and a width of about 10-15 cm. (or about 4-6 inches) should be acceptable. The illustrated distal base 24 includes hook and loop strips 124, 126 (such as Velcro™ brand fasteners) so that the elongate base 24 can be fixed about the patient's limb, although other mechanisms (such as buckles and snaps) could be used. In the embodiment of FIG. 6, the second ends 40, 44 of the first and second arms 30, 32 are both connected to the first and second actuators 41A, 44 which are connected to the base 22 in the manner illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 14-15; the second end of the third arm 34 is connected to the third actuator 52 which is connected to the base 24 in the manner illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 14-15. In the embodiment of FIG. 6, all of the actuators 41A, 46, 52 are of the type illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 14-15. The third actuator 52 can be connected to the base 24 of FIGS. 1 and 6 with screws, as described above with respect to FIGS. 12 and 14-15. The straps or belts comprising both bases 22, 24 of the embodiment of FIG. 1 and the proximal base 22 of FIG. 2 can be made of any suitable material for surgical applications. Suitable materials should be sterilizable, flexible enough to wrap around the patient's limb, substantially inelastic, and sturdy enough to support the actuators 41, 46, 52 and second ends 40, 44, 50 of the arms 30, 32, 34. For example, webs of nylon, polypropylene, polyester or other polymers may be suitable. The material may be reinforced, for example, with fibers or with stays (extending, for example, across with width or shorter dimension of the belt) and the strap or belt may have multiple plies for strength. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the straps or belts comprising the bases 22, 24 overlie and surround the inflatable proximal cuff 23 and the inflatable distal cuff 27. Both inflatable cuffs 23, 27 can comprise standard air-tight bladders connected to air-supply hoses, such as those shown at 130 and 132 in FIGS. 5 and 7. For example, both cuffs 23, 27 can be made of materials and constructed similar to standard inflatable blood pressure cuffs. In the illustrated embodiments, both cuffs 23, 27 include hook and loop strips 134, 136, 138, 140 (such as Velcro™ brand fasteners) so that the cuffs 23, 27 can be fixed about the patient's limb, although other mechanisms (such as buckles or snaps) could be used. The proximal cuff 23 may be sized to extend transversely around the proximal portion 16 of the patient's limb 12 and the distal cuff may be sized to extend transversely around the distal portion 18 of the patient's limb 12. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the proximal cuff 23 has a width slightly greater than the width of the proximal base strap or belt 22 and the distal cuff 27 has a width slightly greater than the width of the distal base strap or belt 24. For example, the proximal cuff could be about 75-90 cm (about 30-36) inches by about 10-15 cm (about 4-6 inches). In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the air hoses 130, 132 leading to the cuffs 23, 27 are connected through the switch 31 to the source of compressed air 25. When the switch 31 is actuated, air is introduced to the hoses 130, 132 simultaneously, inflating the cuffs 23, 27 against the patient's limb and against the two base straps 22, 24. As the cuffs 23, 27 inflate, the positions of the two base straps 22, 24, actuators 41, 46, 52 and second ends 40, 44, 50 of the arms 30, 32, 34 are stabilized with respect to the patient's limb. In the embodiment of FIG. 2, only a proximal cuff 23 is included, and inflation of the cuff 23 stabilizes the positions of the proximal base strap 22, actuators 41, 46 and second ends 40, 44 of two of the arms 30, 32. It will be appreciated that suitable valves (not shown) may be used for operation of the bladders as described above. Although the straps or belts defining the bases 22, 24 and the expandable cuffs 23, 27 may comprise discrete elements, it should be understood that each belt and cuff could comprise a unitary structure. It should also be understood that each cuff or combination base/cuff component could comprise other types of structures. One example of a suitable alternative structure is a vacuum immobilizer. A suitable vacuum immobilizer support base or combination cuff/base could comprise an elongate air-tight bag or casing of flexible material filled with elastically deformable spherulic beads made of a material such as expanded polystyrene. The bag or casing could include evacuation ports or valves through which air may be evacuated to form vacuums therein. Air would be evacuated after the bag or casing was wrapped around the patient's ankle or thigh; evacuation of air would cause the beads to compact together to form fit the patient's ankle or thigh and to become rigid in this shape. Examples of devices utilizing such structures include U.S. Pat. No. 6,308,353, U.S. Pat. No. 6,066,107 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,762,404, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. It should be understood that the materials and dimensions described above for the bases and cuffs are provided for illustrative purposes only. The invention is not limited to any particular material or dimension unless called for in the claims. In both the first and second embodiments, a variety of structures can be used for the support frame 26 connected to the first ends 38, 42, 48 of the three arms 30, 32, 34. In a first embodiment of the support frame 26, illustrated in FIGS. 16-18. As there shown, the support frame 26 includes a hollow cylindrical body 150 and an annular top plate 152. In this embodiment, the first ends 38, 42, 48 of the arms 30, 32, 34 are connected to the cylindrical body 150 in any suitable manner. Preferably, the positions of the ends of the cables 57 at the first ends 38, 42, 48 are fixed with respect to the cylindrical body 150. The first ends 38, 42, 48 may be connected to the body 150 in any suitable manner, such as by adhesive, welding, by screws, bolts or any other standard method. The hollow cylindrical body 150 and annular top plate 152 define an opening 154 comprising a surgical window. The diameter of the opening or window 154 is large enough so that at least one surgical implement, such as a resection guide, can be placed in the window for use by the surgeon. For example, the diameter may be 3-4 inches or about 7.5-10 cm. It should be understood that this dimension is provided for illustrative purposes only; the invention is not limited to any particular dimension unless expressly called for in the claims. An example of a resection guide that could be used with the first illustrated support frame 26 is illustrated in FIGS. 19-21. The first illustrated resection guide 26 comprises a solid cylindrical body 160 and a top plate 162. The solid cylindrical body 160 is sized and shaped to be received within and mate with the hollow cylindrical body 150 of the support frame. The top instrument plate 162 is sized and shaped to be supported by the annular top plate 152 of the support frame 26, and to extend substantially across the opening or window 154. The top instrument plate 162 and body 160 include one or more structures serving as resection guides. These structures can be parallel walls defining through-slots 166 to receive a saw blade (not shown). Alternatively, these structures can be walls defining a path for a surgical burr, as is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 at 167 for the instrument 36. In either case, the slot 166 or path 167 extend through the top plate 162 and the entire cylindrical body 160 so that the cutting tool can reach the patient's bone surface. Pin-receiving holes 169 may be provided so that the cutting guide may be fixed to the patient's bone through the use of standard pins (not shown). It should be understood that the use of such pin-receiving holes and pins is optional; with the present invention, the resection guide may be supported by the instrument support system throughout the resection of the bones without fixing the resection guide to the patient's bone. The cylindrical bodies 150, 160 of the support frame 26 and resection guide 26 (or resection guide 36) may have transverse holes 168, 170 to receive a set screw (not shown) to prevent relative rotation between the support frame 26 and the resection guide 28. The resection guides 28, 36 of the types illustrated in FIGS. 1-2 and 19-21 may be unitary and made of standard instrument materials or may be assemblies of multiple standard instrument materials. For example, the entire resection guide 28, 36 could be made of standard metals such as stainless steel or a significant portion of the resection guides 28, 36 could be made of a lighter weight material, such as a polymer, with metal inserts defining the cutting guide slot 166 or path 167. It may be desirable to make at least a part of the resection guides out of radiotranslucent material as described above. A second example of a support frame is illustrated in FIGS. 22-23 and 27 at 26A. In this embodiment, the support frame 26A comprises an annular body with a plurality of spaced longitudinal through-holes 180 that are square in cross-section. The annular body defines an operating window 154A much like the operating window 154 of the embodiment of FIGS. 16-17. Arms 30, 32, 34 may be connected to the support frame 26A as in the first and second illustrated embodiments. An instrument system utilizing this support frame 26A could include a mounting bar 182 such as that shown in FIGS. 24 and 25, with a base 183 that is sized and shaped to be received in a complementary manner in the through-holes 180 of the support frame 26A and an arm 184 extending perpendicularly from the base 183. When the mounting bar 182 is mounted on the support frame, the arm 184 extends into the space above the operating window 154A. The base 183 and arm 184 of the illustrated mounting bar 182 are both square in cross-section. A resection guide may be provided, such as that shown at 28A with through-slots 186 sized, shaped and positioned to receive a cutting implement, such as a saw blade. The resection guide 28A may include a mounting bore such as that shown at 188 that is square in cross-section and sized to receive the arm 184 of the mounting bar 182 in a complementary manner. The resection guide 28A may also include pin-receiving holes 187 to receive standard pins (not shown) to mount the resection guide to the patient's bone. FIG. 27 illustrates the resection guide 28A assembled with the mounting bar 182 and the support frame 26A. Another alternative support frame is illustrated in FIG. 28 at 26B. In this embodiment, the support frame 26B comprises a U-shaped body 190 defining a rectangular operating window 154B. Arms 30, 32, 34 may be connected to portions of the body 190 of the support frame 26B as in the first and second illustrated embodiments. A fourth arm 192 is provided in this embodiment. The fourth arm 192 is connected to a portion of the body 190 of the support frame 26B in the same manner as the first three arms, and has the same construction as that described above for the first three arms. The fourth arm 192 may be connected at its opposite end to the distal base 24 so that two arms 30, 32 are connected to the proximal base 22 and two arms 34, 192 are connected to the distal base 24. An instrument system utilizing this support frame 26B could include a mounting clamp 194 such as that shown in FIG. 30. Such a clamp could be clamped to the upper plate 196 of the body 190 of the support frame 26B. The illustrated mounting clamp 194 includes an arm 198 extending outward. When the clamp 194 is mounted on the support frame 26B, the arm 198 may extend over the operating window 154B. The arm 198 can be used to mount a resection block to the clamp, such as the resection block shown in FIG. 26 at 28A. When the resection guide 28A is so mounted, it will be positioned over the operating window 154B. Alternatively or additionally, a resection guide could be provided with a rectangular body shaped to be complementary with the shape of the three sides of the support frame 26B. Such a resection guide is shown at 200 in FIG. 31; the resection guide may have a rim to rest upon and be supported by the support frame 26B and one or more set screws may be provided to lock the resection guide 200 to the frame 26B. The resection guide 200 may have through-slots 202 sized, shaped and positioned to receive a cutting implement, such as a saw blade and may also or alternatively have through-openings defining a track 204 to receive a cutting instrument such as a burr. As in the case of the resection guide 28 of FIGS. 19-21, the resection guide 200 may be made of standard materials and may comprise a unitary structure or an assembly of components made of the same or different materials. It may also include pin-receiving holes 205 for mounting the resection guide to the patient's bone. A fourth example of a support frame 26C, illustrated in FIGS. 32-35, comprises a hollow annular body 210. Arms 30, 32, 34 may be connected to the body 210 of the support frame 26C as in the first and second illustrated embodiments, although as described in more detail below, the cables 57 would extend into the hollow interior of the body 210 of the support frame 26C. Clamps and resection guides could be used with such a support frame, as shown in FIG. 35 at 212 and 214 so that the resection guide 214 overlies the operating window 154C. Such a resection guide 214 may have a cutting guide slot 215 and pin-receiving holes 217. Alternatively, cylindrical resection guides with a top plate, as illustrated in FIGS. 1-2 and 19-21 at 28 and in FIGS. 1-2 at 36, could be used with such a support frame 26C. The support frame 26C of FIGS. 32-25 includes a lever arm 216 pivotally mounted to the body 210 of the support frame 26C, with a portion 218 extending outward beyond the outer cylindrical periphery of the support frame 26C and a portion 220 within the hollow annular body 210 of the support frame 26C. In this embodiment, ends of all three of the cables 57 of the three arms 30, 32, 34 extend into the hollow interior of the body 210, wind around an inner cylindrical core 221 and connect to the lever arm 216. In this embodiment, the lever arm 216 is usually biased by a spring 217 in a direction to maximize the tension on the cables 57 so that the arms 30, 32, 34 are usually in their most rigid state. To relax the arms 30, 32, 34 for movement of the support frame 26C, the lever arm 216 is pivoted in the direction shown by arrow 222, thereby loosening all three cables 57 with movement of the single lever arm 216. When the lever arm 216 is released, it pivots back to its original position, returning the arms 30, 32, 34 to their most rigid state. With the support frame 26C of this embodiment, the system need not utilize actuators at the second ends 40, 44, 50 of the arms 30, 32, 34, since the lever arm 216 operates as a single mechanical actuator for all three arms 30, 32, 34. Advantageously, the surgeon can grasp the body 210 and squeeze the exposed portion 218 of the lever arm 216 to relax the arms 30, 32, 34, move the support frame 26C into the desired position, alignment and orientation, and then release the body and lever arm 216, leaving the support frame 26C in the desired position, alignment and orientation. It will be appreciated that modifications can be made to the support frame 26C illustrated in FIGS. 32-25. For example, either a single or multiple pneumatic actuators of the type illustrated in FIGS. 10-11 (shown at 41D in FIG. 36) could be provided on the exterior or the interior of the hollow support frame body 410, as shown in FIG. 36. For interior mounted actuators, air hoses 97D (or electrical leads if a solenoid is used instead of a pneumatic actuator) could be fed through a port 411 in the support frame body 410. All of the illustrated support frames 26, 26A, 26B, 26C may be made of standard materials for surgical instruments, such as metal (for example, stainless steel or aluminum). For a more lightweight design, it may be desirable to use non-metallic materials such as standard polymers and composites used in making surgical instruments. Polyarylethersulfone, acetal copolymer and polyoxymethylene may be appropriate radiotranslucent materials for the support frames. Although illustrated as unitary elements, the support frames could also comprise assemblies of the same or different materials. In addition, all of the illustrated support frames 26, 26A, 26B, 26C may include features to allow other surgical implements to be supported by the support frame. For example, it may be desirable to allow for use of one or more components of the Codman® Greenberg Retractor and Handrest System or the Bookwalter Retractor kit (Codman & Shurtleff, Inc. of Rayhham, Mass.). Although the above-described embodiments of the system of the present invention are advantageous in that the bases and second ends of the arms 30, 32, 34 can be fixed in position without driving any support structures into the patient's bones, principles of these embodiments can be applied to other types of support structures as well. FIG. 37 illustrates such a system. In the embodiment of FIG. 37, the instrument support system 10B includes an anchoring structure 300 that is mountable to a patient's bone to serve as the proximal base. The illustrated anchoring structure 300 comprises an assembly of a plurality of pins 318, 320, an anchoring bar 322, and a pair of anchoring clamp assemblies 324, 326 for fixing the anchoring bar 322 to the pins 318, 320. The pins 318, 320 may comprise standard surgical pins or wires used in orthopaedic surgery. The pins 318, 320 may be made of any standard surgical grade material such as stainless steel, and should have sufficient size and strength to support the weight of the arms 30, 32, 34 of the instrument system. For example, it is anticipated that stainless steel pins having a diameter of 5 mm. and an overall length of 20 cm. and with pointed ends should be usable. It should be understood that these materials and dimensions are provided as examples only; the present invention is not limited to any particular material or dimension unless expressly set forth in the claims. The anchoring bar 322 of the anchoring structure 300 of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 36 comprises a rod of any suitable surgical grade material, such as stainless steel. The bar 322 may be made of a material that can be sterilized by commercially available sterilization techniques without losing its strength. It may be desirable to make the anchoring bar out of a material that is radiolucent or radiotransparent so that radiographs may be taken intraoperatively without interference from the components of the anchoring structure 300. To decrease the overall weight of the system, it may be desirable to make the anchoring bar 322 out of a hollow tubular material such as stainless steel or out of a lightweight plastic material. For use in knee arthroplasty, the anchoring bar 322 may have a length of about 30 cm. and a diameter of about 18 mm., for example. The illustrated anchoring bar 322 is cylindrical in shape. It should be understood that these materials, dimensions and shape are provided as examples only; the present invention is not limited to any particular material, shape or dimension unless expressly set forth in the claims. The anchoring bar 322 of the anchoring structure 300 of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 37 is connected to the two pins 318, 320 through the two anchoring clamp assemblies 324, 326. The illustrated anchoring structure 300 also includes a pair of moveable clamp assemblies 328, 330. Each of the movable clamp assemblies 328, 330 are the same and each of the illustrated anchoring clamp assemblies 324, 326 are the same; these clamp assemblies 324, 326, 328, 330 are described in detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/260,454 filed on Oct. 27, 2005 by Joseph G. Wyss and Mara C. Holm and entitled “SUPPORT FOR LOCATING INSTRUMENT GUIDES,” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Use of the system described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/259,987 filed on Oct. 27, 2005 by Joseph G. Wyss and Mara C. Holm and entitled “METHOD OF RESECTING BONE,” which is also incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In the embodiment of FIG. 37, two of the arms 30, 32 are mounted on or connected to the two movable clamp assemblies 328, 330 through actuators 41, 46. The actuators 41, 46 may be mounted on or connected to the movable clamp assemblies 328, 330 by any suitable means, such as by screws, bolts, clamps, complementary mounting structures, adhesives or the like; alternatively, the actuators may be made as part of the movable clamp assemblies. The movable clamp assemblies 328, 330 are movable along the longitudinal axis of the anchoring bar 322 to a desired longitudinal position and then clamped to the bar 322 to fix the positions of the clamps 328, 330, and to thereby fix the positions of the second ends 40, 44 of the arms 30, 32. Like the embodiment of FIG. 2, the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 37 uses an ankle clamp 29 to which the second end 50 of the third arm 34 is connected through an actuator 52. The illustrated ankle clamps are from the commercially available Specialist® 2 instruments (DePuy Orthopaedics, Inc., Warsaw, Ind.) for use with DePuy Orthopaedics' P.F.C.® Sigma Knee System. It should be understood that this ankle clamp is identified and illustrated for illustrative purposes only; the present invention could be used with other ankle clamps serving as the distal base 24. The actuator 52 can be fixed to the ankle claim 29 in any suitable manner, such as by screws, bolts, clamps, complementary mounting structures, adhesives or the like. Advantageously, the instrument system of the present invention can be used in computer-assisted surgery. For such use, the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2 and 37 include a plurality of computer navigation trackers 400, 402, 404. The illustrated computer navigation trackers 400, 402, 404 comprise emitters or reflector arrays. In FIGS. 1 and 2, two of the computer navigation trackers 400, 402 are attached directly to the patient's bones on both sides of the joint; in FIG. 37, one of the computer navigation trackers 402 is attached to the patient's tibia distal to the knee joint and the other computer navigation tracker 400 is attached to one of the movable clamps 328 on the proximal side of the knee joint. The instrument system may also include a computer navigation tracker, for example a third emitter or reflector array, such as that shown at 404 in FIGS. 1-2 and 37, for mounting to some part of the resection guide or cutting block 28: for example, the array 404 could be attached to or integral with a plate 406 that is sized and shaped to be received in a cutting guide slot 166 of the resection guide 28. It should be understood that other structures could be employed to attach an array to any of the illustrated resection guides 28, 36. The trackers 400, 402, 404 give the surgeon an image of the position, alignment and orientation of some known part of the instrument system, such as the guide slot 166 of the resection guide 28, with respect to the position, alignment and orientation of other landmarks, such as some part of the anchoring structure 200 or bone that is also displayed on a computer screen. The computer images can be used by the surgeon to guide the resection guide 26, 36 into a desired position, alignment and orientation while the arms 30, 32, 34 are in a less rigid state, and relatively easily movable; the surgeon can activate the actuators 41, 41A, 46, 52 with the resection guide 28, 36 in the desired position, alignment and orientation and to rigidify the arms 30, 32, 34 with the resection guide 28, 36 in this desired position, alignment and orientation. The surgeon may then perform the bone resections so that the bone may receive the prosthetic implant. An example of an emitter or reflector system potentially usable with the present invention is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,551,325, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The system of the present invention is expected to be particularly useful with the Ci™ computer assisted surgical system available from DePuy Orthopaedics, Inc. of Warsaw, Ind. However, any computer assisted surgery system, with appropriate emitters or sensors and computer with appropriate circuitry and programming could be used with the present invention. The illustrated instrument systems could be used with alternative forms of computer navigation trackers for computer-assisted surgery. For example, instead of an array of emitters or reflectors that is attached to reference points, one or more computer navigation trackers could be embedded in the resection guide and patient's bone, as well as in the cutting instrument. For example, the computer navigation trackers could comprise electromagnetic sensors, such as one or more coils, transducers and transmitters appropriately housed and sealed, and the instrument system could include electromagnetic field generator coils, receiving antenna and computer with appropriate signal receiver and demodulation circuitry. Such systems are commonly referred to as “emat” (electromagnetic acoustic transducer) systems. Although the present invention provides advantages in computer-assisted surgery, its use is not limited to computer-assisted surgery. Standard surgical instruments may be used to determine the appropriate position, alignment and orientation of the resection guide, such as a stylus or an extramedullary or intramedullary alignment rod. It may be advantageous to provide some additional fine tuning of the position, alignment and orientation of the resection guide 28, 36 supported by the support frame 26. A finely adjustable resection guide is disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/410,404 filed on Apr. 25, 2006 by Diane L. Bihary and Troy D. Martin entitled “FINELY ADJUSTABLE RESECTION ASSEMBLY,” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The resection assembly disclosed in that patent application may be mounted to one of the illustrated support frames 26 to allow for fine adjustment of the position, alignment and orientation of the resection guide with respect to the support frame. The resection assembly disclosed in that patent application may also be modified to facilitate mounting to one of the illustrated support frames through use of structures such as those shown in FIGS. 24-25 and 30. Moreover, the principles of the invention disclosed in that patent application may be applied to the design of resection guide of the type shown in FIGS. 19-21 and 31 so that these resection guides comprise assemblies of components that are finely adjustable with respect to the support frame. The principles of the present invention could also be applied to other forms of resection guides for resection of other bones. For example, the system could be applied in setting the position and orientation of an ankle cutting block, an elbow cutting block, or a proximal femoral cutting block. It will be appreciated that the system of the present invention is advantageous in that the same instrument support system 10, 10A, 10B can be used to position, alignment and orient cutting blocks for use in all bones of a joint. The surgeon need only change the resection guide and reposition the support frame 26 without moving either base. The system of the present invention can be used advantageously with other surgical systems. FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate the system of the present invention used in conjunction with the limb stabilizing system described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ filed concurrently herewith by Carl F. Livorsi and entitled “LIMB STABILIZING SYSTEM FOR ARTHROPLASTY,” the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the illustrated stabilizing system includes a platform 512 clamped or otherwise temporarily fixed to the operating table 513, an outrigger 514 pivotally mounted to the platform 512 and a foot brace 518 slidably mounted to the platform 512. The foot brace 518 is placed on the patient's foot and the leg is flexed to the desired position by sliding the brace in a track (not shown) in the platform 512. When the patient's leg is at the desired degree of flexion, the outrigger 514 is pivoted up from the platform until it is alongside the proximal support base 22 on the patient's thigh. The outrigger 514 is then temporarily fixed to the proximal support base through a fixing mechanism, such as a hook and loop strip secured to the base 22 (such as Velcro™ brand fasteners). Locking mechanisms are then activated to temporarily fix the longitudinal position of the foot brace and the angular orientation of the outrigger 514, thereby stabilizing the position and angular orientation of the leg at a desired degree of flexion for performing resection of the patient's bones. To use the system of the present invention, the patient is placed supine on the operating table and given a satisfactory anesthetic. The leg or other limb is prepped and draped in the usual fashion. For the system 10 of FIG. 1, the cuffs 23, 27 are placed around the thigh 16 and near the ankle 20. The bases 22, 24 are then wrapped around the cuffs 23, 27. The surgeon may then activate the switch 31 (which may comprise, for example, a floor pedal) to inflate the cuffs 23, 27. When the cuffs inflate, the positions of the bases 22, 24 are firmly secured on the patient's leg. For the system 10A of FIG. 2, the cuff 23 is placed around the thigh and the ankle clamp 29 is placed around the patient's ankle and the base 22 is wrapped around the proximal cuff 23 and then the cuff is inflated to firmly secure the proximal base to the patient's thigh. Once the bases are firmly secured, the surgeon may then manually manipulate the support frame 26 while the arms 30, 32, 34 are in the more flexible state. The support frame 26 may be positioned as desired over the general area and then more finely positioned, aligned and oriented using conventional methods. As the support frame is moved, the shapes of the arms change accordingly. For example, in setting the tibial resection guide, since the support frame has more than three degrees of freedom of movement, the proximal-distal position, varus-valgus orientation and anterior-posterior slope of the resection guide may all be set simultaneously by moving the support frame to the location where the cutting guide slots provide the proper proximal-distal position, varus-valgus orientation and anterior-posterior slope. If the procedure includes the use of a computer to position, align and orient the resection guide 28, computer navigation tracker 404 can be mounted to the resection guide 28 by sliding the plate 406 into the cutting guide slot (such as slot 166) of the guide structure 28; alternatively, a computer navigation tracker could be embedded within the guide structure 28. Other computer navigation trackers 400, 402 may be affixed to anatomical landmarks (or embedded within the patient's bone) or to one of the bases 22, 24 to serve as references or benchmarks for determining the relative position, alignment and orientation of the guide structure 28. With or without computer guidance, the surgeon can then move the guide structure 28 into a desired position, alignment and orientation and then actuate switch 33 (which may, for example, comprise a foot pedal) to simultaneously actuate the three arm actuators 41 (or 41A), 46, 52 to tighten the cable 57 of each arm 30, 32, 34 simultaneously to rigidify the three arms 30, 32, 34 in the shape they have assumed. If a finely adjustable guide structure is used, the surgeon may make any necessary adjustments after the arms 30, 32, 34 have been stiffened. If the surgeon is satisfied with the final fixed position, alignment and orientation and of the guide structure 28, the surgeon can place pins through the receiving holes 169, 187, 205, 217 in the guide structure and into the underlying bone (if the guide structure comprises a resection guide). Optionally, the surgeon may disengage the resection guide from the support frame after setting the pins. Throughout this process, the surgeon can monitor the position, alignment and orientation of the guide structure 28 on a monitoring device such as a computer screen. The computer navigation tracker 404 can be removed from the guide structure 28 once the surgeon is satisfied with its location. It will be appreciated that at any time prior to setting pins through the guide structure, if the surgeon is dissatisfied with the location of the guide structure 28, switch 33 can be deactivated to release the actuators so that the arms 30, 32, 34 are once again more flexible. The support frame and resection guide can then be repositioned and the actuators activated again to rigidify the arms 30, 32, 34. As set forth earlier, the surgeon need not affix the resection guide to the patient's bone. The resections can optionally be performed with the resection guide supported by the instrument support without inserting pins through the resection guide into the bone and without removing the resection guide from the support frame. The surgeon can then perform bone resections using a cutting instrument such as a bone saw (not shown) for example. Other cutting instruments, such as a rotating burr could also be used. Once the resections of this first bone are complete, the surgeon can select another guide structure (such as a distal femoral resection guide) designed for resection of the other bone of the joint and mount this guide structure on the support frame. The surgeon may then release the actuators through operation of the switch 33 so that the arms 30, 32, 34 are again more flexible, and then position the support frame and second resection guide in the optimal position, alignment and orientation for the next bone resection. Setting of the position, alignment and orientation of the support frame with the second resection guide can be computer guided as well. Once the support frame and second resection guide are set in the optimal position, alignment and orientation for the next resection, the switch may again activated again to stiffen the arms 30, 32, 34. This process may be continued until all bone resections are complete. For a knee implant, the system may be used for all tibial, femoral and patellar resections. All of the steps involving the resection guides for the tibial, femoral and patellar resections can be performed without moving the moving the bases 22, 24. If the leg stabilizing system of FIGS. 3 and 4 is used, the patient's leg can be fixed in flexion during part of the surgical procedure. When desired, the system can be released so that the surgeon can evaluate the patient with the leg in extension as well. It should be appreciated that although the surgical technique described above relates particularly to knee arthroplasty, the same general steps can be followed for performing other resections at other joints. It will also be appreciated that instead of using computer navigation trackers, the surgical technique could employ standard mechanical alignment devices (such as alignment rods). While only specific embodiments of the invention have been described and shown, it is apparent that various alternatives and modifications can be made thereto. Those skilled in the art will also recognize that certain additions can be made to the illustrative embodiment. It is, therefore, the intention in the appended claims to cover all such alternatives, modifications and additions as may fall within the true scope of the invention.
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A
| 7A61
| 17A61B
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17
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58
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10591486
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US20080038203A1-20080214
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Compositions and Methods for Topical Diagnostic and Therapeutic Transport
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ACCEPTED
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20080130
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20080214
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[]
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A61B5055
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["A61B5055", "A61K3800", "A61P3500"]
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8974774
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20070618
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20150310
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424
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078200
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98372.0
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TSAY
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MARSHA
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Dake", "inventor_name_first": "Michael D.", "inventor_city": "Stanford", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Waugh", "inventor_name_first": "Jacob M.", "inventor_city": "Mountain View", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Compositions and therapeutic methods are provided that are useful agent for the delivery, including transdermal delivery, of biologically active agents, such as non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutics and protein-based therapeutics excluding insulin, botulinum toxins, antibody fragments, and VEGE The compositions and methods are particularly useful for topical delivery of antifungal agents and antigenic agents suitable for immunization. Alternately, the compositions can be prepared with components useful for targeting the delivery of the compositions as well as imaging components.
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1. A composition comprising a biologically active protein and a carrier which comprises polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. 2. A composition according to claim 1 in which the therapeutic protein excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, and antibody fragments. 3. A composition according to claim 2 in which the therapeutic protein does not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels. 4. A composition according to claim 2 in which the therapeutic protein excludes botulinum toxins. 5. A composition according to claim 2 in which the therapeutic protein excludes VEGF. 6. A composition according to claim 2 in which the therapeutic protein excludes antibody fragments. 7. A composition according to claim 1 wherein the composition provides greater transdermal delivery of the biologically active protein relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. 8. A composition according to claim 7 in which the biologically active protein has therapeutic activity. 9. A composition according to claim 8 in which the therapeutic protein has a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. 10. A composition according to claim 1 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide. 11. A composition according to claim 10 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 12. A composition according to claim 10 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 13. A composition according to claim 10 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 14. A composition according to claim 10 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine. 15. A composition according to claim 14 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 16. A composition according to claim 14 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 17. A composition according to claim 14 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 18. A composition according to claim 1 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 19. A composition according to claim 18 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer backbone comprises a positively charged polyalkyleneimine. 20. A composition according to claim 19 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 21. A composition according to claim 20 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 2,500,000. 22. A composition according to claim 20 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,800,000. 23. A composition according to claim 20 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 500,000 to about 1,400,000. 24. A composition according to claim 1 in which the carrier comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD and fragments thereof, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. 25. A composition according to claim 24 in which the positively charged branching groups are selected from groups having the formula -(gly)n1-(arg)n2. 26. A composition according to claim 25 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 1 to about 8. 27. A composition according to claim 25 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 2 to about 5. 28. A composition according to claim 25 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 17. 29. A composition according to claim 25 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 13. 30. A composition according to claim 24 in which the branching groups are selected from HIV-TAT and fragments thereof. 31. A composition according to claim 30 in which the attached positively-charged branching groups are HIV-TAT fragments that have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20. 32. A composition according to claim 24 in which the branching groups are Antennapedia PTD groups or fragments thereof. 33. A composition comprising a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent and a carrier which comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is non-covalent. 34. A composition according to claim 33 wherein the composition provides greater transdermal delivery of the biologically active agent relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. 35. A composition according to claim 34 in which the biologically active agent has a therapeutic activity. 36. A composition according to claim 33 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide. 37. A composition according to claim 36 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 38. A composition according to claim 36 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 39. A composition according to claim 36 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 40. A composition according to claim 36 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine. 41. A composition according to claim 40 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 42. A composition according to claim 40 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 43. A composition according to claim 40 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 44. A composition according to claim 33 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 45. A composition according to claim 44 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer backbone comprises a positively charged polyalkyleneimine. 46. A composition according to claim 45 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 47. A composition according to claim 46 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 2,500,000. 48. A composition according to claim 46 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,800,000. 49. A composition according to claim 46 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 500,000 to about 1,400,000. 50. A composition according to claim 33 in which the carrier comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD and fragments thereof, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. 51. A composition according to claim 50 in which the positively charged branching groups are selected from groups having the formula -(gly)n1-(arg)n2. 52. A composition according to claim 51 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 1 to about 8. 53. A composition according to claim 51 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 2 to about 5. 54. A composition according to claim 51 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 17. 55. A composition according to claim 51 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 13. 56. A composition according to claim 50 in which the branching groups are selected from HIV-TAT and fragments thereof. 57. A composition according to claim 56 in which the attached positively-charged branching groups are HIV-TAT fragments that have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20. 58. A composition according to claim 50 in which the branching groups are Antennapedia PTD groups or fragments thereof. 59. A composition according to claim 33 containing from about 1×10−20 to about 25 weight % of the biologically active agent and from about 1×10−19 to about 30 weight % of the carrier. 60. A controlled release composition according to claim 33. 61. A kit for administration of a composition according to claim 1 to a subject comprising a device for delivering the biologically active agent and a carrier which comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. 62. A kit according to claim 60 wherein the biologically active agent excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, and antibody fragments. 63. A kit according to claim 62 in which the composition is contained in a device for administering the biologically active protein to a subject via the skin or epithelium. 64. A kit according to claim 63 in which the device is a skin patch. 65. A kit for administration of a biologically active protein to a subject comprising a device for delivering the biologically active protein to the skin or epithelium and a composition comprising a polymeric carrier having attached positively charged branching groups selected from (gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD and fragments thereof, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. 66. A kit according to claim 65 in which the device is a skin patch. 67. A method of administering a biologically active protein to a subject comprising topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the protein in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier comprising a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. 68. A method according to claim 66 wherein the composition provides greater transdermal delivery of the biologically active protein relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. 69. A method according to claim 68 in which the biologically active protein has therapeutic activity. 70. A method according to claim 69 in which the therapeutic protein excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, and antibody fragments. 71. A method according to claim 69 in which the therapeutic protein does not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels. 72. A method according to claim 69 in which the therapeutic protein excludes a botulinum toxin. 73. A method according to claim 69 in which the therapeutic protein excludes antibody fragments. 74. A method according to claim 69 in which the therapeutic protein excludes VEGF. 75. A method of administering a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent to a subject comprising topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the biologically active agent in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier comprising a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is non-covalent. 76. A method according to claim 75 wherein the composition provides greater transdermal delivery of the biologically active agent relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. 77. A method according to claim 76 in which the biologically active agent has a therapeutic activity. 78. A method according to claim 75 in which the biologically active protein and carrier are administered to the subject in a composition containing both components. 79. A method according to claim 75 in which the biologically active protein and carrier are administered separately to the subject. 80. A method according to claim 77 in which the biologically active protein and carrier are administered to the subject in a composition containing both components. 81. A method according to claim 77 in which the biologically active agent and carrier are administered separately to the subject. 82. A method according to claim 75 in which the composition is a controlled release composition. 83. A method according to claim 77 in which the composition is a controlled release composition. 84. A method according to claim 75 in which the non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent is antifingal agent. 85. A composition according to claim 33 in which a biologically active agent is an antifungal agent. 86. A composition according to claim 85 containing from about 1×10 e-10 to about 49.9 weight % of the biologically active agent and from about 1×10 e-9 to about 50 weight % of the carrier. 87. A controlled release composition according to claim 85. 88. A composition according to claim 85 in which the antifungal agent is selected from amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseo fulvin, miconazole, nystatin, ciclopirox and the like. 89. A kit for administration of a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent to a subject comprising a device for delivering the agent to the skin or epithelium of the subject and a composition according to claim 33. 90. A kit according to claim 89 further comprising a custom applicator. 91. A kit according to claim 89 in which the agent is an antifungal agent and the composition is contained in a device for administering an antifungal agent to a subject via the nail plate or adjacent anatomic structures. 92. A kit according to claim 89 in which the device is a prosthetic nail plate or lacquer. 93. A method according to claim 75 in which the biologically active agent is an agent for treating or preventing symptoms of psoriasis. 94. A method according to claim 84 in which an antifungal agent and carrier are administered to the subject in a composition containing both components. 95. A method according to claim 84 in which the antifungal agent and carrier are administered separately to the subject. 96. A method according to claim 84 in which the composition is a controlled release composition. 97. A method according to claim 84 in which the antifungal agent is selective from amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseofulvin, miconazole, nystatin, ciclopirox and the like. 98. A method according to claim 84 in which the antifungal agent is administered to treat the symptoms and signs of a fungal infection. 99. A method according to claim 84 in which the antifingal agent is administered to alter symptoms or signs of fungal infection of the nail plate or nail bed. 100. A composition comprising an antigen suitable for immunization and a carrier which comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery, wherein the association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. 101. A composition according to claim 100 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide. 102. A composition according to claim 101 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 103. A composition according to claim 101 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 104. A composition according to claim 101 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 105. A composition according to claim 101 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine. 106. A composition according to claim 105 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 107. A composition according to claim 105 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 108. A composition according to claim 105 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 109. A composition according to claim 100 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 110. A composition according to claim 109 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer backbone comprises a positively charged polyalkyleneimine. 111. A composition according to claim 110 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 112. A composition according to claim 111 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 2,500,000. 113. A composition according to claim 111 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,800,000. 114. A composition according to claim 111 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 500,000 to about 1,400,000. 115. A composition according to claim 100 in which the carrier comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. 116. A composition according to claim 115 in which the positively charged branching groups are selected from groups having the formula -(gly)n1-(arg)n2. 117. A composition according to claim 116 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 1 to about 8. 118. A composition according to claim 116 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 2 to about 5. 119. A composition according to claim 116 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 17. 120. A composition according to claim 116 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 13. 121. A composition according to claim 115 in which the branching groups are selected from HIV-TAT and fragments thereof. 122. A composition according to claim 121 in which the attached positively-charged branching groups are HIV-TAT fragments that have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20. 123. A composition according to claim 115 in which the branching groups are Antennapedia PTD groups. 124. A composition according to claim 115 in which the positively charged polymer comprises a polypeptide. 125. A composition according to claim 124 in which the polypeptide is selected from polylysines, polyarginines, polyornithines, and polyhomoarginines. 126. A composition according to claim 125 in which the polypeptide is a polylysine. 127. A composition according to claim 115 in which the polymer comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 128. A composition according to claim 127 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer comprises a positively charged polyalkyeneimine. 129. A composition according to claim 128 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 130. A composition according to claim 100 containing from about 1×10 e-10 to about 49.9 weight % of the antigen and from about 1×10 e-9 to about 50 weight % of the carrier. 131. A controlled release composition according to claim 100. 132. A composition according to claim 100 in which the antigen excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, and antibody fragments. 133. A composition according to claim 100 in which the antigen is suitable for childhood immunizations. 134. A kit for administration of an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject comprising a device for delivering the antigen suitable for immunization to the skin or epithelium and a composition comprising a carrier consisting of a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25, wherein the association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. 135. A kit for administration of an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject comprising a device for delivering the antigen to the skin or epithelium and a composition according to claim 100. 136. A kit according to claim 134 further comprising a custom applicator. 137. A kit according to claim 134 in which the composition is contained in a device for administering an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject via the skin or epithelium. 138. A kit according to claim 134 in which the device is applied topically. 139. A kit according to claim 134 in which the device is a skin patch. 140. A method of administering an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject comprising topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the antigen suitable for immunization in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier comprising a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups, wherein the association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. 141. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization and carrier are administered to the subject in a composition containing both components. 142. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization and carrier are administered separately to the subject. 143. A method according to claim 140 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide. 144. A method according to claim 143 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 145. A method according to claim 143 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 146. A method according to claim 143 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polypeptide having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 147. A method according to claim 143 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine. 148. A method according to claim 147 in which-the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000. 149. A method according to claim 147 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000. 150. A method according to claim 147 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged polylysine having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. 151. A method according to claim 140 in which the backbone comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 152. A method according to claim 151 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer backbone comprises a positively charged polyalkyeneimine. 153. A method according to claim 152 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 154. A method according to claim 153 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 2,500,000. 155. A method according to claim 153 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 1,800,000. 156. A method according to claim 153 in which the polyethyleneimine has a molecular weight of from about 500,000 to about 1,400,000. 157. A method according to claim 140 in which the carrier comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HWV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. 158. A method according to claim 157 in which the positively charged branching groups are selected from groups having the formula -(gly)n1-(arg)n2. 159. A method according to claim 158 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 1 to about 8. 160. A method according to claim 158 in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from about 2 to about 5. 161. A method according to claim 158 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 17. 162. A method according to claim 158 in which the subscript n2 is an odd number of from about 7 to about 13. 163. A method according to claim 157 in which the branching groups are selected from HIV-TAT and fragments thereof. 164. A method according to claim 163 in which the attached positively-charged branching groups are HIV-TAT fragments that have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20. 165. A method according to claim 157 in which the branching groups are Antennapedia PTD groups. 166. A method according to claim 157 in which the positively charged polymer comprises a polypeptide. 167. A method according to claim 166 in which the polypeptide is selected from polylysines, polyarginines, polyornithines, and polyhomoarginines. 168. A method according to claim 167 in which the polypeptide is a polylysine. 169. A method according to claim 157 in which the polymer comprises a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer. 170. A method according to claim 169 in which the nonpeptidyl polymer comprises a positively charged polyalkyeneimine. 171. A method according to claim 170 in which the polyalkyleneimine is a polyethyleneimine. 172. A method according to claim 140 in which the composition is a controlled release composition. 173. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, and antibody fragments. 174. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen is suitable for childhood immunizations. 175. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization is administered to provide resistance to an environmental antigen. 176. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization is administered to provide resistance to a potential pathogen 177. A method according to claim 140 in which the antigen suitable for immunization is administered to provide resistance to a potential biohazard. 178. A composition comprising an imaging moiety and a targeting agent and a carrier which comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery, wherein the association between the carrier and the imaging moiety or targeting agent is non-covalent. 179. A composition according to claim 178 in which the imaging agent is an optical imaging agent. 180. A composition according to claim 179 in which the imaging agent is selected from Cy3, Cy3.5, Cy5, Cy5.5, Cy7, Cy7.5, Oregon green 488, Oregon green 500, Oregon, green 514, Green fluorescent protein, 6-FAM, Texas Red, Hex, TET, and HAMRA. 181. A composition according to claim 178 in which the imaging agent is suitable for magnetic resonance imaging. 182. A composition according to claim 178 in which the targeting agent recognizes melanoma. 183. A kit for administration of a composition according to claim 178 to a subject comprising a device for delivering the imaging and targeting moieties and a carrier which comprises a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and which is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. 184. A method of administering an imaging moiety and a targeting agent to a subject comprising topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the imaging moiety and targeting agent in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier comprising a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups, wherein the association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. 185. A method according to claim 184 in which the imaging agent is an optical imaging agent. 186. A method according to claim 185 in which the imaging agent is selected from Cy3, Cy3.5, Cy5, Cy5.5, Cy7, Cy7.5, Oregon green 488, Oregon green 500, Oregon, green 514, Green fluorescent protein, 6-FAM, Texas Red, Hex, TET, and HAMRA. 187. A method according to claim 184 in which the imaging agent is suitable for magnetic resonance imaging. 188. A method according to claim 184 in which the targeting agent recognizes melanoma. 189. A method according to claim 184 in which the composition is applied for screening of patients at risk for melanoma. 190. A method according to claim 184 in which the composition is applied to aid surgical excision of melanoma. 191. A method according to claim 184 in which the composition is applied in conjunction with photographic techniques or image analysis techniques.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Skin protects the body's organs from external environmental threats and acts as a thermostat to maintain body temperature. It consists of several different layers, each with specialized functions. The major layers include the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis. The epidermis is a stratifying layer of epithelial cells that overlies the dermis, which consists of connective tissue. Both the epidermis and the dermis are further supported by the hypodermis, an internal layer of adipose tissue. The epidermis, the topmost layer of skin, is only 0.1 to 1.5 millimeters thick (Inlander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). It consists of keratinocytes and is divided into several layers based on their state of differentiation. The epidermis can be further classified into the stratum corneum and the viable epidermis, which consists of the granular melphigian and basal cells. The stratum corneum is hygroscopic and requires at least 10% moisture by weight to maintain its flexibility and softness. The hygroscopicity is attributable in part to the water-holding capacity of keratin. When the horny layer loses its softness and flexibility it becomes rough and brittle, resulting in dry skin. The dermis, which lies just beneath the epidermis, is 1.5 to 4 millimeters thick. It is the thickest of the three layers of the skin. In addition, the dennis is also home to most of the skin's structures, including sweat and oil glands (which secrete substances through openings in the skin called pores, or comedos), hair follicles, nerve endings, and blood and lymph vessels (blander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). However, the main components of the dermis are collagen and elastin. The hypodermis is the deepest layer of the skin. It acts both as an insulator for body heat conservation and as a shock absorber for organ protection (Inlander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). In addition, the hypodermis also stores fat for energy reserves. The pH of skin is normally between 5 and 6. This acidity is due to the presence of amphoteric amino acids, lactic acid, and fatty acids from the secretions of the sebaceous glands. The term “acid mantle” refers to the presence of the water-soluble substances on most regions of the skin. The buffering capacity of the skin is due in part to these secretions stored in the skin's horny layer. Wrinkles, one of the telltale signs of aging, can be caused by biochemical, histological, and physiologic changes that accumulate from environmental damage (Benedetto, International Journal of Dermatology, 38:641-655 (1999)). In addition, there are other secondary factors that can cause characteristic folds, furrows, and creases of facial wrinkles (Stegman et al., The Skin of the Aging Face Cosmetic Dermatological Surgery, 2 nd ed., St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Year Book: 5-15 (1990)). These secondary factors include the constant pull of gravity, frequent and constant positional pressure on the skin (i.e., during sleep), and repeated facial movements caused by the contraction of facial muscles (Stegman et al., The Skin of the Aging Face Cosmetic Dermatological Surgery, 2 nd ed., St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Year Book: 5-15 (1990)). Different techniques have been utilized in order potentially to mollify some of the signs of aging. These techniques range from facial moisturizers containing alpha hydroxy acids and retinol to surgical procedures and injections of neurotoxins. One of the principal functions of skin is to provide a barrier to the transportation of water and substances potentially harmful to normal homeostasis. The body would rapidly dehydrate without a tough, semi-permeable skin. The skin helps to prevent the entry of harmful substances into the body. Although most substances cannot penetrate the barrier, a number of strategies have been developed to selectively increase the permeability of skin with variable success. Since non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as antifungals cannot penetrate the skin efficiently, in order to provide the therapeutic effects antifungal agents, it must currently be injected into the skin or administered systemically. The Federal Food and Drug Administration has approved such a procedure, for treatment of fungal infection. In such treatments, the antifungal agent is administered by monitored injection or dosage. However, such treatment can be cause adverse side effects. Topical application of antifungal agents provides a local delivery for a safer and more desirable treatment alternative due to painless nature of application, reduced training to apply the antifungal therapeutic, smaller doses necessary to affect and to reach a therapeutic clinical result and limiting side effects typically associated with systemic delivery. Since antigenic agents suitable for immunization cannot penetrate the skin efficiently, in order to provide the therapeutic effects of antigenic agents suitable for immunization the toxin must currently be injected into the skin. The Federal Food and Drug Administration has approved such a procedure, for treatment of for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. In such treatments, the antigenic agent for immunization is administered by monitored injection. However, such treatment can be uncomfortable and more typically involves some pain. Topical application of antigenic agent for immunization provides for a safer and more desirable treatment alternative due to painless nature of application, the larger treatment surface area that can be covered, reduced training to apply the therapeutic, smaller doses necessary to affect and to reach a therapeutic clinical result. Transdermal administration of other therapeutics is also an area of great interest due, for instance, to the potential for decreased patient discomfort, direct administration of therapeutic agents into the bloodstream, and the opportunities for monitored delivery via the use of specially constructed devices and/or of controlled release formulations and techniques.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides new methods and compositions that are broadly applicable to compositions of diverse therapeutic or cosmeceutical agents that can be targeted or imaged to maximize delivery to a particular site. This invention further relates to formulations for transdernal delivery of proteins other than insulin, botulinum toxin, antibody fragments, and VEGF—preferably those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. Such protein-based agents can include for example an antigen suitable for immunization. In another aspect the present invention relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as for example certain antifungals. The invention specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. This invention further relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as antifungals. Suitable antifingal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseofulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. This invention further relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of antigenic agents suitable for immunization can be protein-based antigens, non-protein non-nucleotide agents or hybrids thereof. Suitable antigens include, for example, those for environmental agents, pathogens or biohazards. Suitable agents preferably include, for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Agents which do not readily cross skin but are substantially smaller than for example insulin—most preferably agents less than 20,000 kD—or have different physiochemical properties can be delivered through still another aspect of this invention. Specifically, antigens desirable for immunizations can be transported across skin without injection through the present invention. The result affords an injection-free alternative to childhood immunizations or potentially important biohazards or environmental hazards. Further, non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutic such as certain of the antifungal agents, for example, have been characterized by poor topical penetration particularly for fungal infections such as oncomychosis or infection of the fingernails and nail plates. This invention accordingly further relates to topical formulations for transdermal delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic substances, including proteins particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD or other biologically active agent such as, for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as certain antifungals or alternately an agent for immunization. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Suitable antifungal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseo fulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. Suitable agents preferably include, for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. This invention provides a composition having a biologically active protein and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. Another object of this invention is to provide a composition containing a non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent is non-covalent. Yet another object of this invention is to provide a kit for administration of a biologically active protein to a subject. The kit includes a device for delivering the biologically active protein to the skin or epithelium of the subject and a composition having a polymeric carrier with attached positively charged branching groups. The positively charged branching groups may be selected from -(gly) n1 -(arg) n2 , HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD and fragments thereof, where the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. This invention also provides a method of administering a biologically active protein to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the protein in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. Additionally, the invention provides a method of administering a non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the biologically active agent in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier may include a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is non-covalent. One object of this invention is to provide a composition containing an antigen suitable for immunization and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. Another object of this invention is to provide a kit for administration of an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject. The kit includes a device for delivering the antigen suitable for immunization to the skin or epithelium and a composition with a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD, where the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. Yet another object of this invention is to provide a method of administering an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the antigen suitable for immunization in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier contains a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. This invention also provides a composition containing an imaging moiety and/or a targeting agent and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the imaging moiety or targeting agent is non-covalent. In one aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising a non-covalent complex of: a) a positively-charged backbone; and b) at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxin, antibody fragments, or VEGF. wherein the complex carries a net positive charge. The biological agents, in this aspect of the invention, can be either a therapeutic agent or a cosmeceutical agent. The invention specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Alternatively, candidate agents can be used to determine in vivo efficacy in these non-covalent complexes. In another aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising a non-covalent complex of a positively-charged backbone having at least one attached efficiency group and an agent for molecular imaging, for example an optical imaging agent. Most preferably, in this application, the agent will be targeted to a particular agent for diagnostic and/or therapeutic effect. For example, an optical imaging agent can be associated with a positively-charged backbone and a component to target melanoma for targeted topical diagnosis of melanoma. In another aspect, the present invention provides-a method for delivery of a biological agent to a cell surface in a subject, said method comprising administering to said subject a composition as described above. In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method for preparing a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical composition, the method comprising combining a positively charged backbone component and at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments with a pharmaceutically or cosmeceutically acceptable carrier to form a non-covalent complex having a net positive charge. In still another aspect, the present invention provides a kit for formulating a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical delivery composition, the kit comprising a positively charged backbone component and at least one component selected from groups i) through iv) above, along with instructions for preparing the delivery composition. In yet another aspect, this invention relates to a composition comprising a biologically active agent such as protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD and other biologically active agents such as, for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as certain antifungals or alternately an agent for immunization, and a carrier comprising a positively charged carrier having a backbone with attached positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups, all as described herein. The biologically active agent may be protein-based (e.g., a protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD), a non-protein, non nucleotide therapeutic agent (e.g., certain antifingal agents), or an antigen for immunization. Suitable antifungal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucyto sine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseofulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. As employed herein, the antigenic agents suitable for immunization can be protein-based antigens which do not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels, non-protein non-nucleotide agents or hybrids thereof. Thus, the agents included are themselves antigens suitable for immunization. Suitable antigens include, for example, those for environmental agents, pathogens or biohazards. Other examples of suitable antigens include those that may be used for immunizations against malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or those related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. Most preferably, the positively charged carrier is a long-chain positively charged polypeptide or a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer, for example, a polyalkyleneimine. Proteins and non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutics that are not normally capable of crossing the skin or epithelium appreciably [relative to the complex of the same agent and the carriers of the present invention] and that do not have a therapeutic effect on lowering blood glucose have widely differing surface and physiochemical properties that normally would make it uncertain whether a technique that afforded transdermal delivery of, for example, insulin would be applicable to the protein and non-protein therapeutics. However, carriers of this invention that have a positively charged backbone with positively charged branching groups, as described herein, are quite surprisingly capable of providing transdermal delivery of protein and non-protein therapeutics. Particular carriers suited for transdermal delivery of particular proteins can easily be identified using tests such as those described in the Examples. Such a protein may, for example be a small protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. As used herein, the word “therapeutic” in the context of blood glucose refers to a decline in blood glucose levels sufficient to alleviate acute symptoms or signs of hyperglycemia, for example in diabetic patients. This invention also provides a method for preparing a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical composition that comprises combining a carrier comprising a positively charged polypeptide or a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer such as a long-chain polyalkyleneimine (where the polypeptide or nonpeptidyl polymer has positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups as defined herein) with a biologically active agent such as, for example, protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. Alteratively, the carrier may be combined with other biologically active agents such as, for example, a non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutic agent (e.g., certain antifungals) or alternatively an agent for immunization. The present invention also provides a kit for preparing or formulating a composition that comprises the carrier and a therapeutic substance, as well as such additional items that are needed to produce a usable formulation, or a premix that may in turn be used to produce such a formulation. Such a kit may consist of an applicator or other device for applications of the compositions or components thereof according to the methods of the present invention. As used herein, “device” can refer, for example, to an instrument or applicator suitable for delivering, mixing or otherwise preparing the compositions according to the methods of the present invention. This invention also provides devices for transdermal transmission of a biologically active agent that is contained within a composition that includes a carrier comprising a positively charged polypeptide of preferably short chain to intermediate chain length or another long-chain nonpeptidyl polymeric carrier that has positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups as defined herein. Such devices may be as simple in construction as a skin patch, or may be more complicated devices that may include means for dispensing and monitoring the dispensing of the composition, and optionally means for monitoring the condition of the subject in one or more aspects, including monitoring the reaction of the subject to the substances being dispensed. In another aspect of the invention, the device may contain only a therapeutic biologically active agent and a carrier that may be applied separately to the skin. Accordingly, the invention also comprises a kit that includes both a device for dispensing via the skin and a material that contains a positively charged carrier or backbone, and that is suitable for applying to the skin or epithelium of a subject. In general, the invention also comprises a method for administering a biologically active agent that includes topically administering an effective amount of the biologically active agent in conjunction with a positively charged polypeptide or non-polypeptidyl polymer such as a polyalkyleneimine having positively charged branching groups, as described herein. By “in conjunction with” is meant that the two components are administered in a combination procedure, which may involve either combining them in a composition, which is then administered to the subject, or administering them separately, but in a manner such that they act together to provide the requisite delivery of an effective amount of the biologically active agent For example, a composition containing the positively charged carrier may first be applied to the skin of the subject, followed by applying a skin patch or other device containing the biologically active agent The invention also relates to methods of applying a biologically active agent to epithelial cells, including those other than epithelial skin cells, for example, epithelia ophthalmic cells or cells of the gastrointestinal system.
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CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/550,014, filed Mar. 3, 2004, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Not applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Skin protects the body's organs from external environmental threats and acts as a thermostat to maintain body temperature. It consists of several different layers, each with specialized functions. The major layers include the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis. The epidermis is a stratifying layer of epithelial cells that overlies the dermis, which consists of connective tissue. Both the epidermis and the dermis are further supported by the hypodermis, an internal layer of adipose tissue. The epidermis, the topmost layer of skin, is only 0.1 to 1.5 millimeters thick (Inlander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). It consists of keratinocytes and is divided into several layers based on their state of differentiation. The epidermis can be further classified into the stratum corneum and the viable epidermis, which consists of the granular melphigian and basal cells. The stratum corneum is hygroscopic and requires at least 10% moisture by weight to maintain its flexibility and softness. The hygroscopicity is attributable in part to the water-holding capacity of keratin. When the horny layer loses its softness and flexibility it becomes rough and brittle, resulting in dry skin. The dermis, which lies just beneath the epidermis, is 1.5 to 4 millimeters thick. It is the thickest of the three layers of the skin. In addition, the dennis is also home to most of the skin's structures, including sweat and oil glands (which secrete substances through openings in the skin called pores, or comedos), hair follicles, nerve endings, and blood and lymph vessels (blander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). However, the main components of the dermis are collagen and elastin. The hypodermis is the deepest layer of the skin. It acts both as an insulator for body heat conservation and as a shock absorber for organ protection (Inlander, Skin, New York, N.Y.: People's Medical Society, 1-7 (1998)). In addition, the hypodermis also stores fat for energy reserves. The pH of skin is normally between 5 and 6. This acidity is due to the presence of amphoteric amino acids, lactic acid, and fatty acids from the secretions of the sebaceous glands. The term “acid mantle” refers to the presence of the water-soluble substances on most regions of the skin. The buffering capacity of the skin is due in part to these secretions stored in the skin's horny layer. Wrinkles, one of the telltale signs of aging, can be caused by biochemical, histological, and physiologic changes that accumulate from environmental damage (Benedetto, International Journal of Dermatology, 38:641-655 (1999)). In addition, there are other secondary factors that can cause characteristic folds, furrows, and creases of facial wrinkles (Stegman et al., The Skin of the Aging Face Cosmetic Dermatological Surgery, 2nd ed., St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Year Book: 5-15 (1990)). These secondary factors include the constant pull of gravity, frequent and constant positional pressure on the skin (i.e., during sleep), and repeated facial movements caused by the contraction of facial muscles (Stegman et al., The Skin of the Aging Face Cosmetic Dermatological Surgery, 2nd ed., St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Year Book: 5-15 (1990)). Different techniques have been utilized in order potentially to mollify some of the signs of aging. These techniques range from facial moisturizers containing alpha hydroxy acids and retinol to surgical procedures and injections of neurotoxins. One of the principal functions of skin is to provide a barrier to the transportation of water and substances potentially harmful to normal homeostasis. The body would rapidly dehydrate without a tough, semi-permeable skin. The skin helps to prevent the entry of harmful substances into the body. Although most substances cannot penetrate the barrier, a number of strategies have been developed to selectively increase the permeability of skin with variable success. Since non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as antifungals cannot penetrate the skin efficiently, in order to provide the therapeutic effects antifungal agents, it must currently be injected into the skin or administered systemically. The Federal Food and Drug Administration has approved such a procedure, for treatment of fungal infection. In such treatments, the antifungal agent is administered by monitored injection or dosage. However, such treatment can be cause adverse side effects. Topical application of antifungal agents provides a local delivery for a safer and more desirable treatment alternative due to painless nature of application, reduced training to apply the antifungal therapeutic, smaller doses necessary to affect and to reach a therapeutic clinical result and limiting side effects typically associated with systemic delivery. Since antigenic agents suitable for immunization cannot penetrate the skin efficiently, in order to provide the therapeutic effects of antigenic agents suitable for immunization the toxin must currently be injected into the skin. The Federal Food and Drug Administration has approved such a procedure, for treatment of for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. In such treatments, the antigenic agent for immunization is administered by monitored injection. However, such treatment can be uncomfortable and more typically involves some pain. Topical application of antigenic agent for immunization provides for a safer and more desirable treatment alternative due to painless nature of application, the larger treatment surface area that can be covered, reduced training to apply the therapeutic, smaller doses necessary to affect and to reach a therapeutic clinical result. Transdermal administration of other therapeutics is also an area of great interest due, for instance, to the potential for decreased patient discomfort, direct administration of therapeutic agents into the bloodstream, and the opportunities for monitored delivery via the use of specially constructed devices and/or of controlled release formulations and techniques. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides new methods and compositions that are broadly applicable to compositions of diverse therapeutic or cosmeceutical agents that can be targeted or imaged to maximize delivery to a particular site. This invention further relates to formulations for transdernal delivery of proteins other than insulin, botulinum toxin, antibody fragments, and VEGF—preferably those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. Such protein-based agents can include for example an antigen suitable for immunization. In another aspect the present invention relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as for example certain antifungals. The invention specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. This invention further relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as antifungals. Suitable antifingal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseofulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. This invention further relates to formulations for transdermal delivery of antigenic agents suitable for immunization can be protein-based antigens, non-protein non-nucleotide agents or hybrids thereof. Suitable antigens include, for example, those for environmental agents, pathogens or biohazards. Suitable agents preferably include, for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Agents which do not readily cross skin but are substantially smaller than for example insulin—most preferably agents less than 20,000 kD—or have different physiochemical properties can be delivered through still another aspect of this invention. Specifically, antigens desirable for immunizations can be transported across skin without injection through the present invention. The result affords an injection-free alternative to childhood immunizations or potentially important biohazards or environmental hazards. Further, non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutic such as certain of the antifungal agents, for example, have been characterized by poor topical penetration particularly for fungal infections such as oncomychosis or infection of the fingernails and nail plates. This invention accordingly further relates to topical formulations for transdermal delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic substances, including proteins particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD or other biologically active agent such as, for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as certain antifungals or alternately an agent for immunization. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Suitable antifungal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseo fulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. Suitable agents preferably include, for example, malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. This invention provides a composition having a biologically active protein and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. Another object of this invention is to provide a composition containing a non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent is non-covalent. Yet another object of this invention is to provide a kit for administration of a biologically active protein to a subject. The kit includes a device for delivering the biologically active protein to the skin or epithelium of the subject and a composition having a polymeric carrier with attached positively charged branching groups. The positively charged branching groups may be selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD and fragments thereof, where the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. This invention also provides a method of administering a biologically active protein to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the protein in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the biologically active protein is non-covalent. Additionally, the invention provides a method of administering a non-protein, non-nucleotide biologically active agent to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the biologically active agent in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier may include a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is non-covalent. One object of this invention is to provide a composition containing an antigen suitable for immunization and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. Another object of this invention is to provide a kit for administration of an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject. The kit includes a device for delivering the antigen suitable for immunization to the skin or epithelium and a composition with a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups selected from -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT and fragments thereof, and Antennapedia PTD, where the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to about 20, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. Yet another object of this invention is to provide a method of administering an antigen suitable for immunization to a subject. The method includes topically applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject the antigen suitable for immunization in conjunction with an effective amount of a carrier. The carrier contains a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups. The association between the carrier and the antigen is non-covalent. This invention also provides a composition containing an imaging moiety and/or a targeting agent and a carrier. The carrier includes a polymeric backbone having attached positively charged branching groups and is present in an effective amount for transdermal delivery. The association between the carrier and the imaging moiety or targeting agent is non-covalent. In one aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising a non-covalent complex of: a) a positively-charged backbone; and b) at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxin, antibody fragments, or VEGF. wherein the complex carries a net positive charge. The biological agents, in this aspect of the invention, can be either a therapeutic agent or a cosmeceutical agent. The invention specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. Alternatively, candidate agents can be used to determine in vivo efficacy in these non-covalent complexes. In another aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising a non-covalent complex of a positively-charged backbone having at least one attached efficiency group and an agent for molecular imaging, for example an optical imaging agent. Most preferably, in this application, the agent will be targeted to a particular agent for diagnostic and/or therapeutic effect. For example, an optical imaging agent can be associated with a positively-charged backbone and a component to target melanoma for targeted topical diagnosis of melanoma. In another aspect, the present invention provides-a method for delivery of a biological agent to a cell surface in a subject, said method comprising administering to said subject a composition as described above. In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method for preparing a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical composition, the method comprising combining a positively charged backbone component and at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments with a pharmaceutically or cosmeceutically acceptable carrier to form a non-covalent complex having a net positive charge. In still another aspect, the present invention provides a kit for formulating a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical delivery composition, the kit comprising a positively charged backbone component and at least one component selected from groups i) through iv) above, along with instructions for preparing the delivery composition. In yet another aspect, this invention relates to a composition comprising a biologically active agent such as protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD and other biologically active agents such as, for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as certain antifungals or alternately an agent for immunization, and a carrier comprising a positively charged carrier having a backbone with attached positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups, all as described herein. The biologically active agent may be protein-based (e.g., a protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD), a non-protein, non nucleotide therapeutic agent (e.g., certain antifingal agents), or an antigen for immunization. Suitable antifungal agents include, for example, amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucyto sine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole, econozole, griseofulvin, miconazole, nystatin or ciclopirox and the like. As employed herein, the antigenic agents suitable for immunization can be protein-based antigens which do not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels, non-protein non-nucleotide agents or hybrids thereof. Thus, the agents included are themselves antigens suitable for immunization. Suitable antigens include, for example, those for environmental agents, pathogens or biohazards. Other examples of suitable antigens include those that may be used for immunizations against malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or those related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. Most preferably, the positively charged carrier is a long-chain positively charged polypeptide or a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer, for example, a polyalkyleneimine. Proteins and non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutics that are not normally capable of crossing the skin or epithelium appreciably [relative to the complex of the same agent and the carriers of the present invention] and that do not have a therapeutic effect on lowering blood glucose have widely differing surface and physiochemical properties that normally would make it uncertain whether a technique that afforded transdermal delivery of, for example, insulin would be applicable to the protein and non-protein therapeutics. However, carriers of this invention that have a positively charged backbone with positively charged branching groups, as described herein, are quite surprisingly capable of providing transdermal delivery of protein and non-protein therapeutics. Particular carriers suited for transdermal delivery of particular proteins can easily be identified using tests such as those described in the Examples. Such a protein may, for example be a small protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. As used herein, the word “therapeutic” in the context of blood glucose refers to a decline in blood glucose levels sufficient to alleviate acute symptoms or signs of hyperglycemia, for example in diabetic patients. This invention also provides a method for preparing a pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical composition that comprises combining a carrier comprising a positively charged polypeptide or a positively charged nonpeptidyl polymer such as a long-chain polyalkyleneimine (where the polypeptide or nonpeptidyl polymer has positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups as defined herein) with a biologically active agent such as, for example, protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. Alteratively, the carrier may be combined with other biologically active agents such as, for example, a non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutic agent (e.g., certain antifungals) or alternatively an agent for immunization. The present invention also provides a kit for preparing or formulating a composition that comprises the carrier and a therapeutic substance, as well as such additional items that are needed to produce a usable formulation, or a premix that may in turn be used to produce such a formulation. Such a kit may consist of an applicator or other device for applications of the compositions or components thereof according to the methods of the present invention. As used herein, “device” can refer, for example, to an instrument or applicator suitable for delivering, mixing or otherwise preparing the compositions according to the methods of the present invention. This invention also provides devices for transdermal transmission of a biologically active agent that is contained within a composition that includes a carrier comprising a positively charged polypeptide of preferably short chain to intermediate chain length or another long-chain nonpeptidyl polymeric carrier that has positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups as defined herein. Such devices may be as simple in construction as a skin patch, or may be more complicated devices that may include means for dispensing and monitoring the dispensing of the composition, and optionally means for monitoring the condition of the subject in one or more aspects, including monitoring the reaction of the subject to the substances being dispensed. In another aspect of the invention, the device may contain only a therapeutic biologically active agent and a carrier that may be applied separately to the skin. Accordingly, the invention also comprises a kit that includes both a device for dispensing via the skin and a material that contains a positively charged carrier or backbone, and that is suitable for applying to the skin or epithelium of a subject. In general, the invention also comprises a method for administering a biologically active agent that includes topically administering an effective amount of the biologically active agent in conjunction with a positively charged polypeptide or non-polypeptidyl polymer such as a polyalkyleneimine having positively charged branching groups, as described herein. By “in conjunction with” is meant that the two components are administered in a combination procedure, which may involve either combining them in a composition, which is then administered to the subject, or administering them separately, but in a manner such that they act together to provide the requisite delivery of an effective amount of the biologically active agent For example, a composition containing the positively charged carrier may first be applied to the skin of the subject, followed by applying a skin patch or other device containing the biologically active agent The invention also relates to methods of applying a biologically active agent to epithelial cells, including those other than epithelial skin cells, for example, epithelia ophthalmic cells or cells of the gastrointestinal system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 provides a schematic representation the components used in the invention. FIG. 2 provides a schematic representation of several embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 3-4 represent the results of transdermal delivery of a plasmid containing the transgene for E. coli beta-galactosidase as described in Example 2. FIG. 5 represents the results of transdermal delivery of a plasmid containing the transgene for E. coli beta-galactosidase as described in Example 3. FIG. 6 represents the results of transdermal delivery of a plasmid containing the transgene for E. coli beta-galactosidase as described in Example 4. FIG. 7 represents the results of transdermal delivery of a botulinum toxin as described in Example 5. FIG. 8 is a photographic depiction of the results of transdermal delivery of a botulinum toxin as described in Example 6. FIG. 9 is a photographic depiction that the imaging complexes of Example 9 follow the brightfield distribution (panels a and c) for melanoma pigmented cells with fluorescent optical imaging agents (panels b and d) for two different fields and different magnifications (panels a and b at 10× versus panels c and d at 40× magnifications). FIG. 10 is a photograph depiction showing positive NeutrAvidin staining as described in Example 10 at two different magnifications. Parts (a) and (b) of FIG. 10a are at 10× magnification and parts (c) and (d) are at 20× magnification. Parts (e) and (f) of FIG. 10(b) are at 20× magnification for repeated staining. FIG. 11 represents the results for relative toxicity for carrier backbones as described in Example 11. FIG. 12 represents the results of transdermal gene delivery efficiency as described in Example 11. FIG. 13 is a photographic depiction of selective delivery of optical imaging probe to CEA-positive cells showing a brightfield image of colon carcinoma and fibroblasts co-culture (panel a) and fluorescence image of colon carcinoma (panel b) as described in Example 11. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a component-based system for selective, persistent delivery of imaging agents or other therapeutic agents. Individual features for the compositions can be selected by designating desired components in bedside formulations. Additionally, in one aspect, imaging and specific targeting moieties are provided to form a non-covalent (preferably ionic) complex with a positive backbone. By placing these components non-covalently in the complex, the invention obviates the need for attaching components in precise locations on a positive backbone, in contrast to other strategies which increase complexity and expense and decrease efficiency to a level that no successful combination has yet been reported due to steric limitations. In another aspect of the invention, certain substances can be transdermally delivered by use of certain positively charged carriers alone, without requiring the inclusion of a negative backbone. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient functionalities to associate with the carriers of the present invention non-covalently, preferably jonically. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined, for example, by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. Further understanding of the invention is provided with reference to FIG. 1. In this figure, the components are shown as (1) a solid backbone having attached positively charged groups (also referred to as efficiency groups shown as darkened circles attached to a darkened bar), for example (Gly)n1-(Arg)n2 (wherein the subscript n1 is an integer of from 3 to about 5, and the subscript n2 is an odd integer of from about 7 to about 17) or TAT domains; (2) imaging moieties (open triangles attached to a light bar); (3) targeting agents and/or (4) biologically active agents (open circles attached to a light bar) such as non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agents or protein-based therapeutics other than insulin, botulinum. toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments; FIG. 2 illustrates various examples of multicomponent compositions wherein the groups are depicted as set out in FIG. 1. For example, in FIG. 2, a first multi-component composition is illustrated in which a positively charged backbone has associated an imaging component, a targeting component, a therapeutic. A second multi-component composition is illustrated which is designed for diagnostic/prognostic imaging. In this composition the positively charged backbone is complexed with both optical imaging components and targeting components for example recognizing melanoma to create a topical melanoma detection platform. The present invention, described more fully below, provides a number of additional compositions useful in therapeutic and diagnostic programs. Compositions The term “biologically active agent” as used herein refers to a therapeutic agent that cures a disease or alleviates a health-related problem (including health-related problems that are subjectively assessed and/or cosmetic). For example, the biologically active agent may be a therapeutic protein, and in certain embodiments, is preferably a protein with a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD. Note, however, that the invention specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. In other embodiments of the invention, the biologically active agent may be a non-protein, non-nucleotide agent, (e.g., certain antifungal agents). Other non-limiting examples of suitable biologically active agents are provided as discussed herein. In all aspects of the present invention, the association between carriers as described herein and the biologically active agent is by non-covalent interaction, which can include, for example, ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides a composition comprising a non-covalent complex of: a) a positively-charged backbone; and b) at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments, wherein the complex carries a net positive charge. In one group of embodiments, the composition comprises at least two members selected from groups i) through iv). In another group of embodiments, the composition comprises at least one member from each of groups i) and ii), and one selected from either iii) or iv). Preferably, the positively-charged backbone has a length of from about 1 to 4 times the combined lengths of the members from group b). Alternatively, the positively charged backbone has a charge ratio of from about 1 to 4 times the combined charge of the members from group b). In some embodiments, the charge density is uniform and the length and charge ratios are approximately the same. Size to size (length) ratios can be determined based on molecular studies of the components or can be determined from the masses of the components By “positively charged”, it is meant that the carrier has a positive charge under at least some solution-phase conditions, more preferably at least under some physiologically compatible conditions. More specifically, “positively charged” as used herein, means that the group in question contains functionalities that are charged under all pH conditions, such as a quaternary amine, or containing a functionality which can acquire positive charge under certain solution-phase conditions, such as pH changes in the case of primary amines. More preferably, “positively charged” as used herein refers to those functionalities that have the behavior of associating with anions over physiologically compatible conditions. Polymers with a multiplicity of positively-charged moieties need not be homopolymers, as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. Other examples of positively charged moieties are well known in the prior art and can be employed readily, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The positively charged carriers described in this invention which themselves do not have a therapeutic activity represent novel compounds which have utility, for example, in compositions and methods as described herein. Thus, in another aspect of the present invention, we detail these novel compounds which include any carrier which comprises a positively charged backbone having attached positively charged branching groups as described herein and which does not itself have a therapeutic biologic activity. The invention specifically excludes antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising a biologically active agent and a carrier comprising a positively charged backbone. The biologically active agent may be, for example, a protein (particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD), a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent (such as certain antifungals) or an agent for immunization. The carrier may be, for instance, a positively charged polypeptide or nonpeptidyl polymer, which may be either a hetero- or homopolymer such as a polyalkyleneimine. The polypeptide or nonpeptidyl polymer may have positively charged branching or “efficiency” groups as defined herein. Each protein-based therapeutic and non-nucleotide non-protein therapeutic has distinct physiochemical properties which alter the characteristics of the total complex. Such positively charged carriers are among the materials described below as positively charged backbones. The invention also provides a method for administering a therapeutically effective amount of a biologically active agent-comprising applying to the skin or epithelium of the subject (which may be a human or other mammal) the biologically active agent and an amount of the positively charged backbone having branching groups that is effective to provide transdermal delivery of the protein to the subject. In this method, the protein and the positively charged carrier may be applied as a pre-mixed composition, or may be applied separately to the skin or epithelium. For instance, the protein may be in a skin patch or other device and the carrier may be contained in a liquid or other type of composition that is applied to the skin before application of the skin patch. Positively Charged Backbone The positively-charged backbone (also referred to as a positively charged “carrier”) is typically a linear chain of atoms, either with groups in the chain carrying a positive charge at physiological pH, or with groups carrying a positive charge attached to side chains extending from the backbone. Preferably, the positively charged backbone itself will not have a defined enzymatic or therapeutic biologic activity. The linear backbone is a hydrocarbon backbone which is, in some embodiments, interrupted by heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. The majority of backbone chain atoms are usually carbon. Additionally, the backbone will often be a polymer of repeating units (e.g., amino acids, poly(ethyleneoxy), poly(propyleneamine), polyalkyleneimine, and the like) but can be a heteropolymer. In one group of embodiments, the positively charged backbone is a polypropyleneamine wherein a number of the amine nitrogen atoms are present as ammonium groups (tetra-substituted) carrying a positive charge. In another embodiment, the positively charged backbone is a nonpeptidyl polymer, which may be a hetero- or homo-polymer such as a polyalkyleneimine, for example a polyethyleneimine or polypropyleneimine, having a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 2,500,000, preferably from about 100,000 to about 1,800,000, and most preferably from about 500,000 to about 1,400,000. In another group of embodiments, the backbone has attached a plurality of side-chain moieties that include positively charged groups (e.g., ammonium groups, pyridinium groups, phosphonium groups, sulfonium groups, guanidinium groups, or amidinium groups). The sidechain moieties in this group of embodiments can be placed at spacings along the backbone that are consistent in separations or variable. Additionally, the length of the sidechains can be similar or dissimilar. For example, in one group of embodiments, the sidechains can be linear or branched hydrocarbon chains having from one to twenty carbon atoms and terminating at the distal end (away from the backbone) in one of the above-noted positively charged groups. In all aspects of the present invention, the association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is by non-covalent interaction, non-limiting examples of which include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, or combinations thereof. In one group of embodiments, the positively charged backbone is a polypeptide having multiple positively charged sidechain groups (e.g., lysine, arginine, ornithine, homoarginine, and the like). Preferably, the polypeptide has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000, more preferably from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000, most preferably from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. One of skill in the art will appreciate that when amino acids are used in this portion of the invention, the sidechains can have either the D- or L-form (R or S configuration) at the center of attachment. Alternatively, the backbone can be an analog of a polypeptide such as a peptoid. See, for example, Kessler, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 32:543 (1993); Zuckermann et al. Chemtracts-Macromol. Chem. 4:80 (1992); and Simon et al. Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 89:9367 (1992)). Briefly, a peptoid is a polyglycine in which the sidechain is attached to the backbone nitrogen atoms rather than the α-carbon atoms. As above, a portion of the sidechains will typically terminate in a positively charged group to provide a positively charged backbone component. Synthesis of peptoids is described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,278. As the term is used herein, positively charged backbones that have a peptoid backbone construction are considered “non-peptide” as they are not composed of amino acids having naturally occurring sidechains at the (X-carbon locations. A variety of other backbones can be used employing, for example, steric or electronic mimics of polypeptides wherein the amide linkages of the peptide are replaced with surrogates such as ester linkages, thioamides (—CSNH—), reversed thioamide (—NHCS—), aminomethylene (—NHCH2—) or the reversed methyleneamino (—CH2NH—) groups, keto-methylene (—COCH2—) groups, phosphinate (—PO2RCH2—), phosphonamidate and phosphonamidate ester (—PO2RNH—), reverse peptide (—NHCO—), trans-alkene (—CR═CH—), fluoroalkene (—CF═CH—), dimethylene (—CH2CH2—), thioether (—CH2S—), hydroxyethylene (—CH(OH)CH2—), methyleneoxy (—CH2O—), tetrazole (CN4), sulfonamido (—SO2NH—), methylenesulfonamido (—CHRSO2NH—), reversed sulfonamide (—NHSO2—), and backbones with malonate and/or gem-diamino-alkyl subunits, for example, as reviewed by Fletcher et al. ((1998) Chem. Rev. 98:763) and detailed by references cited therein. Many of the foregoing substitutions result in approximately isosteric polymer backbones relative to backbones formed from α-amino acids. In each of the backbones provided above, sidechain groups can be appended that carry a positively charged group. For example, the sulfonamide-linked backbones (—SO2NH— and —NHSO2—) can have sidechain groups attached to the nitrogen atoms. Similarly, the hydroxyethylene (—CH(OH)CH2—) linkage can bear a sidechain group attached to the hydroxy substituent. One of skill in the art can readily adapt the other linkage chemistries to provide positively charged sidechain groups using standard synthetic methods. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the positively charged backbone is a polypeptide having branching groups (also referred to as efficiency groups) comprising -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, HIV-TAT or fragments thereof, or the protein transduction domain of Antennapedia, or a fragment thereof, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to 20, more preferably 0 to 8, still more preferably 2 to 5, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25, more preferably about 7 to about 17, most preferably about 7 to about 13. Still further preferred are those embodiments in which the HIV-TAT fragment has the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20 and the fragment is attached to the backbone via either the C-terminus or the N-terminus of the fragment. Preferred HIV-TAT fragments are those in which the subscripts p and q are each independently integers of from 0 to 8, more preferably 2 to 5. In another preferred embodiment the positively charged side chain or branching group is the Antennapedia (Antp) protein transduction domain (PTD), or a fragment thereof that retains activity. Preferably the positively charged carrier includes side-chain positively charged branching groups in an amount of at least about 0.05%, as a percentage of the total carrier weight, preferably from about 0.05 to about 45 weight %, and most preferably from about 0.1 to about 30 weight %. For positively charged branching groups having the formula—(gly)n1-(arg)n2, the most preferred amount is from about 0.1 to about 25%. In another particularly preferred embodiment, the backbone portion is a polylysine and positively charged branching groups are attached to the lysine sidechain amino groups. The polylysine used in this particularly preferred embodiment has a molecular weight of from about 10,000 to about 1,500,000, preferably from about 25,000 to about 1,200,000, and most preferably from about 100,000 to about 1,000,000. It can be any of the commercially available (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo., USA) polylysines such as, for example, polylysine having MW>70,000, polylysine having MW of 70,000 to 150,000, polylysine having MW 150,000 to 300,000 and polylysine having MW>300,000. The selection of an appropriate polylysine will depend on the remaining components of the composition and will be sufficient to provide an overall net positive charge to the composition and provide a length that is preferably from one to four times the combined length of the negatively charged components. Preferred positively charged branching groups or efficiency groups include, for example, -gly-gly-gly-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg (-Gly3Arg7) or HIV-TAT. In another preferred embodiment the positively charged backbone is a long chain polyalkyreneimine such as a polyethyleneimine, for example, one having a molecular weight of about 1,000,000. The positively charged backbones or carrier molecules comprising polypeptides or polyalkyleneimines, having the branching groups described above, are novel compounds and form an aspect of this invention. In one embodiment of the invention, only a positively charged carrier that has positively charged branching groups is necessary for transdermal delivery of the active substance (e.g, a biologically active agent, or imaging/targeting agent). In one embodiment of this case the positively charged carrier is a polypeptide (e.g., lysine, arginine, omithine, homoarginine, and the like) having multiple positively charged side-chain groups, as described above. Preferably, the polypeptide has a molecular weight of at least about 10,000. In another embodiment, the positively charged carrier is a nonpeptidyl polymer such as a polyalkyleneimine having multiple positively charged side-chain groups having a molecular weight of at least about 100,000. Such polyalkyleneimines include polyethylene- and polypropyleneimines. In either instance, for use as the sole necessary agent for transdermal delivery the positively charged carrier molecule includes positively charged branching or efficiency groups, comprising -(gly)n1-(arg)n2, in which the subscript n1 is an integer of from 0 to 20 more preferably 0 to 8, still more preferably 2 to 5, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 5 to about 25, more preferably from about 7 to about 17, and most preferably from about 7 to about 13, HIV-TAT or fragments thereof, or Antennapedia PTD or a fragment thereof. Preferably the side-chain or branching groups have the general formula -(gly)n1-(arg)n2 as described above. Other preferred embodiments are those in which the branching or efficiency groups are HIV-TAT fragments that have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20 and the fragment is attached to the carrier molecule via either the C-terminus or the N-terminus of the fragment. The side branching groups can have either the D- or L-form (R or S configuration) at the center of attachment. Preferred HIV-TAT fragments are those in which the subscripts p and q are each independently integers of from 0 to 8, more preferably 2 to 5. Other preferred embodiments are those in which the branching groups are Antennapedia PTD groups or fragments thereof that retain the group's activity. These are known in the art, for instance, from Console et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:35109 (2003). In a particularly preferred embodiment, the carrier is a polylysine with positively charged branching groups attached to the lysine side-chain amino groups. The polylysine used in this particularly preferred embodiment can be any of the commercially available (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo., USA, e.g.) polylysines such as, for example, polylysine having MW>70,000, polylysine having MW of 70,000 to 150,000, polylysine having MW 150,000 to 300,000 and polylysine having MW>300,000. However, preferably the polylysine has MW of at least about 10,000. Preferred positively charged branching groups or efficiency groups include, for example, -gly-gly-gly-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg-arg (-Gly3Arg7), HIV-TAT or fragments of it, and Antennapedia PTD or fragments thereof. Other Components In addition to the positively charged backbone component, the multicomponent compositions of the present invention comprise at least one component from the following: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments. In a related aspect, as described herein, in some embodiments or compositions of this invention, the positively charged backbone or carrier may be used alone to provide transdermal delivery of certain types of substances. Combinations of biologically active agents as described herein such as, for example, combinations of non-nucleotide non-protein therapeutics such as antifungal agents or proteins other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments (particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD), and antigenic agents suitable for immunization can also be employed in these compositions. In a related aspect of the invention, some embodiments or compositions will include an imaging agent such as an agent suitable for magnetic resonance imaging or optical imaging. These embodiments or compositions may, for example, afford topical delivery of an optical imaging agent for melanoma. The negatively-charged backbones, when used to carry the imaging moieties, targeting moieties and therapeutic agents, can be a variety of backbones (similar to those described above) having multiple groups carrying a negative charge at physiological pH. Alternatively, the imaging moieties, targeting moieties and therapeutic agents with sufficient surface negatively charged moieties will not require attachment of an additional backbone for ionic complexation with the positively-charged backbones as will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. “Sufficient” in this context implies that a suitable density of negatively-charged groups is present on the surface of the imaging moieties, targeting moieties or therapeutic agents to afford an ionic attraction with the positively-charged backbones described above. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. Alternatively, other uncharged moieties can be employed to at sufficient density to afford non-ionic, non-covalent association with the carrier backbones of the present invention, as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. The term “sufficient” in the context of ionic or non-ionic non-covalent interactions can be determined for example by a change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. Suitable negatively-charged groups are carboxylic acids, phosphinic, phosphonic or phosphoric acids, sulfinic or sulfonic acids, and the like. In other embodiments, the negatively-charged backbone is an oligosaccharide (e.g., dextran). In still other embodiments, the negatively-charged backbone is a polypeptide (e.g., poly glutamic acid, poly aspartic acid, or a polypeptide in which glutamic acid or aspartic acid residues are interrupted by uncharged amino acids). The moieties described in more detail below (imaging moieties, targeting agents, and therapeutic agents) can be attached to a backbone having these pendent groups, typically via ester linkages. Alternatively, amino acids which interrupt negatively-charged amino acids or are appended to the terminus of the negatively-charged backbone, can be used to attach imaging moieties and targeting moieties via, for example, disulfide linkages (through a cysteine residue), amide linkages, ether linkages (through serine or threonine hydroxyl groups) and the like. The imaging moieties and targeting moieties can themselves be small anions in the absence of a negatively charged polymer. The imaging moieties, targeting moieties and therapeutic agents can also be themselves covalently modified to afford sufficient surface negatively charged moieties for-ionic complexation with the positively-charged backbones as will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. In both of these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined for example by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components a Imaging Moieties A variety of diagnostic or imaging moieties are useful in the present invention and are present in an effective amount that will depend on the condition being diagnosed or imaged, the route of administration, the sensitivity of the agent, device used for detection of the agent, and the like. Examples of suitable imaging or diagnostic agents include radiopaque contrast agents, paramagnetic contrast agents, superparamagnetic contrast agents, optical imaging moieties, CT contrast agents and other contrast agents. For example, radiopaque contrast agents (for X-ray imaging) will include inorganic and organic iodine compounds (e.g., diatrizoate), radiopaque metals and their salts (e.g., silver, gold, platinum and the like) and other radiopaque compounds (e.g., calcium salts, barium salts such as barium sulfate, tantalum and tantalum oxide). Suitable paramagnetic contrast agents (for MR imaging) include gadolinium diethylene triaminepentaacetic acid (Gd-DTPA) and its derivatives, and other gadolinium, manganese, iron, dysprosium, copper, europium, erbium, chromium, nickel and cobalt complexes, including complexes with 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N′,N″,N′″-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N′,N″-triacetic acid (DO3A), 1,4,7-triazacyclononane-N,N′,N″-triacetic acid (NOTA), 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-N,N′,N″,N′″-tetraacetic acid (TETA), hydroxybenzylethylene-diamine diacetic acid (HBED) and the like. Suitable superparamagnetic contrast agents (for MR imaging) include magnetites, superparamagnetic iron oxides, monocrystalline iron oxides, particularly complexed forms of each of these agents that can be attached to a negatively charged backbone. Still other suitable imaging agents are the CT contrast agents including iodinated and noniodinated and ionic and nonionic CT contrast agents, as well as contrast agents such as spin-labels or other diagnostically effective agents. Suitable optical imaging agents include, for example, Cy3, Cy3.5, Cy5, Cy5.5, Cy7, Cy7.5, Oregon green 488, Oregon green 500, Oregon, green 514, Green fluorescent protein, 6-FAM, Texas Red, Hex, TET, and HAMRA. Other examples of diagnostic agents include markers. A wide variety of markers or labels may be employed, such as radionuclides, fluors, enzymes, enzyme substrates, enzyme cofactors, enzyme inhibitors, ligands (particularly haptens), and the like. Still other useful substances are those labeled with radioactive species or components, such as 99mTc glucoheptonate. The election to attach an imaging moiety to a negatively charged backbone will depend on a variety of conditions. Certain imaging agents are neutral at physiological pH and will preferably be attached to a negatively-charged backbone or covalently modified to include sufficient negatively-charged moieties to form a complex with the positively-charged carrier. Other imaging agents carry sufficient negative charge to form a complex with the positively-charged carrier, even in the absence of a negatively-charged backbone. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined, for example, by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. An example of a negatively-charged imaging moiety is phosphate ion, which is useful for magnetic resonance imaging. Targeting Agents A variety of targeting agents are useful in the compositions described herein. Typically, the targeting agents are attached to a negatively-charged backbone as described for the imaging moieties above. The targeting agents can be any element that makes it possible to direct a therapeutic agent or another component of the composition to a particular site or to alter the tropism of the complex relative to that of the complex without the targeting agent. The targeting agent can be an extracellular targeting agent. Such an agent can also be an intracellular targeting agent, allowing a therapeutic agent to be directed towards particular cell compartments (e.g, mitochondria, nucleus, and the like). The agent most simply can be a small anion which, by virtue of changing the net charge distribution, alters the tropism of the complex from more highly negative cell surfaces and extracellular matrix components to a wider variety of cells or even specifically away from the most highly negative surfaces. The targeting agent or agents are preferably linked, covalently or non-covalently, to a negatively-charged backbone according to the invention. According to a preferred mode of the invention, the targeting agent is covalently attached to polyaspartate, sulfated or phosphorylated dextran, and the like that serves as a negatively-charged backbone component, preferably via a linking group. In one group of embodiments, the targeting agent is a fusogenic peptide for promoting cellular transfection (i.e., for favoring the passage of the composition or its various elements across membranes, or for helping in the egress from endosomes or for crossing the nuclear membrane). The targeting agent can also be a cell receptor ligand for a receptor that is present at the surface of the cell type, such as, for example, a sugar, transferrin, or asialo-orosomucoid protein. Other useful targeting agents include sugars, peptides, hormones, vitamins, cytokines, small anions, lipids or sequences or fractions derived from these elements and which allow specific binding with their corresponding receptors. Preferably, the targeting agents are sugars and/or peptides cell receptor ligands or fragments thereof, receptors or receptor fragments, and the like. More preferably, the targeting agents are ligands of growth factor receptors, of cytokine receptors, or of cell lectin receptors or of adhesion protein receptors. The targeting agent can also be a sugar which makes it possible to target lectins such as the asialoglycoprotein receptors. In still other embodiments, a targeting agent is used in the absence of a negatively-charged backbone. In this group of embodiments, the targeting agent carries sufficient negatively charged moieties to form an ionic complex with the positively-charged carrier described above. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined for example by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. Suitable negatively-charged targeting agents for this group of embodiments are protein-based targeting agents having a net negative charge at physiological pH, as well as targeting agents that can facilitate adhesion to a particular cell surface, such as small polyanions (e.g., phosphate, aspartate and citrate) which may change targeting based upon net surface charge of the cell to be targeted. Biologically Active Agents A variety of biologically active agents, including both therapeutic and cosmeceutical agents, are useful in the present invention and are present in an effective amount that will depend on the condition being treated, prophylactically or otherwise, the route of administration, the efficacy of the agent and patient's size and susceptibility to the treatment regimen. As noted previously, the invention specifically excludes botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Moreover, the invention specifically excludes therapeutic proteins capable of achieving therapeutic alterations of blood glucose levels (e.g, to treat hyperglycemia), such as insulin. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities (such as mounting an immune response), these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. The antigenic agents suitable for immunization can be protein-based antigens which do not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels, non-protein non-nucleotide agents or hybrids thereof. Nucleotides encoding antigens are specifically not suitable for the compositions of the present invention, however. Thus, the agents included are themselves antigens suitable for immunization. Suitable antigens include, for example, those for environmental agents, pathogens or biohazards. Suitable antigenic agents preferably include, for example, antigens related treatments for malaria, rabies, anthrax, tuberculosis, or related to childhood immunizations such as hepatitis B, diptheria, pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilus influenza type b, inactivated poliovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, pneumococcus, hepatitis A, and influenza. Suitable therapeutic agents that can be attached to a negatively charged backbone can be found in essentially any class of agents, including, for example, analgesic agents, anti-asthmatic agents, antibiotics, antidepressant agents, anti-diabetic agents, antifungal agents, antiemetics, antihypertensives, anti-imnpotence agents, anti-inflanunatory agents, antineoplastic agents, anti-HIV agents, antiviral agents, anxiolytic agents, contraception agents, fertility agents, antithrombotic agents, prothrombotic agents, hormones, vaccines, immunosuppressive agents, vitamins and the like. Alternatively, sufficient negatively charged groups can be introduced into the therapeutic agent to afford ionic complexation with the positively charged backbones described above. Many suitable methods such as phosphorylation or sulfation exist as will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. Further, certain agents themselves possess adequate negatively-charged moieties to associate with the positively charged carrier described above and do not require attachment to a negatively charged backbone. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined for example by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. Suitable cosmeceutic agents include, for example, epidermal growth factor (EGF), as well as human growth hormone, and antioxidants. More particularly, therapeutic agents useful in the present invention include such analgesics as lidocaine, novocaine, bupivacaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, cocaine, mepivacaine, etidocaine, proparacaine ropivacaine, prilocaine and the like; anti-asthmatic agents such as azelastine, ketotifen, traxanox, corticosteroids, cromolyn, nedocrornil, albuterol, bitolterol mesylate, pirbuterol, sahneterol, terbutyline, theophylline and the like; antibiotic agents such as neomycin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, sulfamethyloxazole, the β-lactam antibiotics, tetracycline, and the like; antidepressant agents such as nefopam, oxypertine, imipramine, trazadone and the like; anti-diabetic agents such as biguanidines, sulfonylureas, and the like; antiemetics and antipsychotics such as chloropromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, promethazine, thiethylperazine, triflupromazine, haloperidol, scopolamine, diphenidol, trimethobenzamide, and the like; neuromuscular agents such as atracurium mivacurium, rocuronium, succinylcholine, doxacurium, tubocurarine; antifungal agents such as amphotericin B, nystatin, candicidin, itraconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, clotrimazole, fluconazole, ciclopirox, econazole, naftifine, terbinafine, griseofulvin, ciclopirox and the-like; antihypertensive agents such as propanolol, propafenone, oxyprenolol, nifedipine, reserpine and the like; anti-impotence agents such as nitric oxide donors and the like; anti-inflammatory agents including steroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as cortisone, hydrocortisone, dexamethasone, prednisolone, prednisone, fluazacort, and the like, as well as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as indomethacin, ibuprofen, ramifenizone, prioxicam and the like; antineoplastic agents such as adriamycin, cyclophosphamide, actinomycin, bleomycin, duanorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, mitomycin, rapamycin, methotrexate, fluorouracil, carboplatin, carmustine (BCNU), cisplatin, etoposide, interferons, phenesterine, taxol (including analogs and derivatives), camptothecin and derivatives thereof, vinblastine, vincristine and the like; anti-HIV agents (e.g., antiproteolytics); antiviral agents such as amantadine, methisazone, idoxuridine, cytarabine, acyclovir, famciclovir, ganciclovir, foscamet, sorivudine, trifluridine, valaeclovir, cidofovir, didanosine, stavudine, zalcitabine, zidovudine, ribavirin, rimantatine and the like; anxiolytic agents such as dantrolene, diazepam and the like; COX-2 inhibitors; contraception agents such as progestogen and the like; anti-thrombotic agents such as GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors, tissue plasminogen activators, streptokinase, urokinase, heparin and the like; prothrombotic agents such as thrombin, factors V, VII, VIII and the like; hormones such as growth hormone, prolactin, EGF (epidermal growth factor) and the like; immunosuppressive agents such as cyclosporine, azathioprine, mizorobine, FK506, prednisone and the like; vitamins such as A, D, E, K and the like; and other therapeutically or medicinally active agents. See, for example, GOODMAN & GILMAN'S THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS, Ninth Ed. Hardman, et al., eds. McGraw-Hill, (1996). In the most preferred embodiments, the biological agent is selected from protein having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD and other biologically active agents such as, for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent such as certain antifungals, and antigenic agents for immunization. As in all aspects of the present invention, suitable examples specifically excludes insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF and antibody fragments. As noted above for the targeting agents and imaging agents, certain biological or cosmeceutical agents can be used in the absence of a negatively-charged backbone. Such biological or cosmeceutical agents are those that generally carry a net negative charge at physiological pH to form a complex with the positively-charged carrier. Examples include antigens for immunization which typically include proteins or glycoproteins, and many antifungal agents, as well as agents for targeted imaging of melanoma with or without an inherent therapeutic potential. In these cases, the substance or a derivative thereof has sufficient negative charge to associate with the positively charged carriers of the present invention non-covalently. The term “sufficient” in this context refers to an association that can be determined for example by change in particle sizing or functional spectrophotometry versus the components alone. Negatively-Charged Backbones Having Attached Imaging Moieties, Targeting Agents or Therapeutic Agents For three of the above groups of components, including imaging moieties, targeting agents and therapeutic agents, the individual compounds are attached to a negatively charged backbone, covalently modified tosintroduce negatively-charged moieties, or employed directly if the compound contains sufficient negatively-charged moieties to confer ionic complexation to the positively charged backbone described above. When necessary, typically, the attachment is via a linking group used to covalently attach the particular agent to the backbone through functional groups present on the agent as well as the backbone. A variety of linking groups are useful in this aspect of the invention. See, for example, Hermanson, Bioconjugate Techniques, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1996); Wong, S. S., Ed., Chemistry of Protein Conjugation and Cross-Linking, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla. (1991); Senter, et al., J. Org Chem. 55:2975-78 (1990); and Koneko, et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 2:133-141 (1991). In some embodiments, the therapeutic, diagnostic or targeting agents will not have an available functional group for attaching to a linking group, and can be first modified to incorporate, for example, a hydroxy, amino, or thiol substituent. Preferably, the substituent is provided in a non-interfering portion of the agent, and can be used to attach a linking group, and will not adversely affect the function of the agent. In yet another aspect, the present invention provides compositions comprising a non-covalent complex of a positively-charged backbone having at least one attached efficiency group and In this aspect of the invention, the positively-charged backbone can be essentially any of the positively-charged backbones described above, and will also comprise (as with selected backbones above) at least one attached efficiency group. Suitable efficiency groups include, for example, (Gly)n1-(Arg)n2 wherein the subscript n1 is an integer of from 3 to about 5, and the subscript n2 is independently an odd integer of from about 7 to about 17; or TAT domains. For example, the TAT domains may have the formula (gly)p-RGRDDRRQRRR-(gly)q, (gly)p-YGRKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, or (gly)p-RKKRRQRRR-(gly)q, wherein the subscripts p and q are each independently an integer of from 0 to 20 and the fragment is attached to the carrier molecule via either the C-terminus or the N-terminus of the fragment. The side branching groups can have either the D- or L form (R or S configuration) at the center of attachment. Preferred HIV-TAT fragments are those in which the subscripts p and q are each independently integers of from 0 to 8, more preferably 2 to 5. Transdermal Delivery of Certain Other Molecules It has been found that the positively charged carriers as discussed above can be used for transdermal delivery of proteins and other biologically active agents (e.g., proteins having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD, non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agents such as certain antifungal agents, or antigenic agents for immunization). The use of the positively charged carrier enables transmission of the protein or marker gene both into and out of skin cells, and delivery of it in an effective amount and active form to an underlying tissue. Local delivery in this manner could afford dosage reductions, reduce toxicity and allow more precise dosage optimization for desired effects relative to injectable or implantable materials, particularly in the case of antifungal agents, antigenic agents suitable for immunization, or agents for molecular imaging of skin disorders such as melanoma for example. This embodiment may include a quantity of a small preferably polyvalent anions, (e.g, phosphate, aspartate, or citrate), or may be carried out in the substantial absence of such a polyamon. Similarly, the term “protein” includes protein extracted from natural sources, as well as protein that may be obtained synthetically, via chemical or recombinant means. The protein also may be in a modified form or in the form of, e.g. a recombinant peptide, a fusion protein, or a hybrid molecule. The protein in in some cases may be a portion of a larger protein molecule that possesses the necessary activity. Preferable proteins are those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD [e.g., those that may be used in transdermal compositions and methods, such as antigens for immunization], which can vary widely in physiochemical properties. Likewise non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agents, including antifungal agents, may be obtained from natural sources or may be synthesized. Compositions of this invention are preferably in the form of products to be applied to the skin or epithelium of subjects or patients (i.e. humans or other mammals in need of the particular treatment). The term “in need” is meant to include both pharmaceutical and health-related needs as well as needs that tend to be more cosmetic, aesthetic, or subjective. The compositions may also be used, for example, for altering or improving the appearance of facial tissue. In general, the compositions are prepared by mixing proteins particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD or other biologically active agent such as for example, a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent or alternately an agent for immunization to be administered with the positively charged carrier, and usually with one or more additional pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients. In their simplest form they may contain a simple aqueous pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent, such as saline, which may be buffered. However, the compositions may contain other ingredients typical in topical pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical compositions, including a dermnatologically or pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, vehicle or medium (i.e. a carrier, vehicle or medium that is compatible with the tissues to which they will be applied). The term “dermatologically or pharmaceutically acceptable,” as used herein, means that the compositions or components thereof are suitable for use in contact with these tissues or for use in patients in general without undue toxicity, incompatibility, instability, allergic response, and the like. As appropriate, compositions of the invention may comprise any ingredient conventionally used in the fields under consideration, and particularly in cosmetics and dermatology. In all aspects of the present invention, the association between the carrier and the biologically active agent is by non-covalent interaction, which can include, for example, ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, or combinations thereof. The compositions may be pre-formulated or may be prepared at the time of administration, for example, by providing a kit for assembly at or prior to the time of administration. Alternatively, as mentioned above, the therapeutic proteins and the positively charged backbone may be administered in separate form to the patient, for example by providing a kit that contains a skin patch or other dispensing device containing the therapeutic protein and a liquid, gel, cream or the like that contains the positively charged carrier (and optionally other ingredients). In that particular embodiment the combination is administered by applying the liquid or other composition containing the carrier to the skin, followed by application of the skin patch or other device. The compositions of the invention are applied so as to administer an effective amount of a therapeutic proteins or other beneficial substance, such as an imaging or targeting agent. For transdermal delivery the term “effective amount” refers to any composition or method that provides greater transdermal delivery of the biologically active agent relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. For antigens, “effective amount” refers to an amount sufficient to allow a subject to mount an immune response to the antigen after application or a series of applications of the antigen. For antifungal agents, “effective amount” refers to an amount sufficient to reduce symptoms or signs of fungal infection. For other biologically active agents which do not therapeutically alter blood glucose levels, “effective amount” refers to an amount sufficient to exert the defined biologic or therapeutic effect characterized for that agent in, for example, the Physicians' Desk Reference or the like without inducing significant toxicity. The invention specifically excludes antibody fragments when the term “therapeutic” or “biologically active protein” is employed. Since antigens suitable for immunization have other biological activities such as mounting an immune response, these remain included in the appropriate aspects of this invention, however. The compositions may contain an appropriate effective amount of a therapeutic protein or other biologically active agent for application as a single-dose treatment, or may be more concentrated, either for dilution at the place of administration or for use in multiple applications. In general, compositions containing proteins (particularly those having a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD) or other biologically active agents will contain from about 1×10−20 to about 25 weight % of the biologically active agent and from about 1×10−19 to about 30 weight % of the positively charged carrier. In general, compositions containing a non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutic agent or alternately an agent for immunization will contain from about 1×10−10 to about 49.9 weight % of the antigen and from about 1×10−9 to about 50 weight % of the positively charged carrier. The amount of carrier molecule or the ratio of it to the biologically active agent will depend on which carrier is chosen for use in the composition in question. The appropriate amount or ratio of carrier molecule in a given case can readily be determined, for example, by conducting one or more experiments such as those described below. Compositions of this invention may include solutions, emulsions (including microemulsions), suspensions, creams, lotions, gels, powders, or other typical solid or liquid compositions used for application to skin and other tissues where the compositions may be used. Such compositions may contain, in addition to biologically active agents and the carrier molecule, other ingredients typically used in such products, such as antimicrobials, moisturizers and hydration agents, penetration agents, preservatives, emulsifiers, natural or synthetic oils, solvents, surfactants, detergents, gelling agents, emollients, antioxidants, fragrances, fillers, thickeners, waxes, odor absorbers, dyestuffs, coloring agents, powders, viscosity-controlling agents and water, and optionally including anesthetics, anti-itch additives, botanical extracts, conditioning agents, darkening or lightening agents, glitter, humectants, mica, minerals, polyphenols, silicones or derivatives thereof, sunblocks, vitamins, and phytomedicinals. Compositions according to this invention may be in the form of controlled-release or sustained-release compositions, wherein the proteins substance to be delivered and the carrier are encapsulated or otherwise contained within a material such that they are released onto the skin in a controlled manner over time. The substance to be delivered and the carrier may be contained within matrixes, liposomes, vesicles, microcapsules, microspheres and the like, or within a solid particulate material, all of which are selected and/or constructed to provide release of the substance or substances over time. The therapeutic substance and the carrier may be encapsulated together (e.g., in the same capsule) or separately (in separate capsules). Administration of the compositions of this invention to a subject is, of course, another aspect of the invention. Administration by skin patches and the like, with controlled release and/or monitoring is likely to be a common method, so the composition of this invention often will be provided as contained in a skin patch or other device. In the case of antigens suitable for immunizations, most preferably the compositions are administered by or under the direction of a physician or other health professional. They may be administered in a single treatment or in a series of periodic treatments over time. For transdermal delivery of antigens suitable for immunizations for the purposes mentioned above, a composition as described above is applied topically to the skin or to a nail plate and surrounding skin. Similarly, in the case of non-protein non-nucleotide therapeutics such as antifingal agents, preferably the compositions are administered under the direction of a physician or other health professional. They may be administered in a single treatment or in a series of periodic treatments over time. For transdermal delivery of therapeutic proteins a composition as described above is applied topically to the skin. Kits for administering the compositions of the inventions, either under direction of a health care professional or by the patient or subject, may also include a custom applicator suitable for that purpose. In the case of an applicator to the finger nail or toe nail plate or surrounding anatomic structures, such a custom applicator can include for example a prosthetic nail plate, a lacquer, a nail polish with a color agent, a gel, or a combination of any or all of these. In another aspect, the invention relates to methods for the topical administration of the combination of the positively charged carrier described above with an effective amount of a biologically active agent (e.g, a proteins with a molecular weight of less than 20,000 kD, antigens suitable for immunization, antifungal agents or a non-protein, non-nucleotide therapeutic agent). As described above, the administration can be effected by the use of a composition according to the invention that contains appropriate types and amounts of these two substances specifically carrier and biologically active agent. However, the invention also includes the administration of these two substances in combination, though not necessarily in the same composition. For example, the therapeutic substance may be incorporated in dry form in a skin patch or other dispensing device and the positively charged carrier may be applied to the skin surface before application of the patch so that the two act together, resulting in the desired transdermal delivery. In that sense, the two substances (carrier and biologically active agent) act in combination or perhaps interact to form a composition or combination in situ. Methods of Preparing the Compositions In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for preparing a pharmaceutical composition, the method comprising combining a positively charged backbone component and at least one member selected from: i) a first negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached imaging moieties, or a plurality of negatively-charged imaging moieties; ii) a second negatively-charged backbone having a plurality of attached targeting agents, or a plurality of negatively-charged targeting moieties; iii) a non-protein non-nucleotide biologically active agent iv) a therapeutic protein other than insulin, botulinum toxins, VEGF, or antibody fragments with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to form a non-covalent complex having a net positive charge. In some embodiments of this invention, the positively charged backbone or carrier may be used alone to provide transdennal delivery of certain types of substances. Here, preferred are compositions and methods comprising about 1×10−20 to about 25 weight % of the biologically active agent and from about 1×10−19 to about 30 weight % of the positively charged carrier. Also preferred are compositions and methods containing a non-nucleotide, non-protein therapeutic such as an antifungal agent, selective imaging agents for diagnosis of skin disorders such as melanoma, or an antigenic agent suitable for immunization, where the compositions and methods contain from 1×10−10 to about 49.9 weight % of the antigen and from about 1×10−9 to about 50 weight % of the positively charged carrier. The broad applicability of the present invention is illustrated by the ease with which a variety of pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated. Typically, the compositions are prepared by mixing the positively charged backbone component with the desired components of interest (e.g., targeting, imaging or therapeutic components) in ratios and a sequence to obtain compositions having a variable net positive charge. In many embodiments, the compositions can be prepared, for example, at bedside using pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and diluents for administration of the composition. Alternatively, the compositions can be prepared by suitable mixing of the components and then lyophilized and stored (typically at room temperature or below) until used or formulated into a suitable delivery vehicle. The compositions can be formulated to provide mixtures suitable for various modes of administration, non-limiting examples of which include topical, cutaneous, oral, rectal, vaginal, parenteral, intranasal, intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraocular, and transdermal. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention preferably contain a vehicle which is pharmaceutically acceptable for an injectable formulation, in particular for direct injection into the desired organ, or for topical administration (to skin and/or mucous membrane). The pharmaceutical compositions may in particular be sterile, isotonic solutions or dry compositions (e.g, freeze-dried compositions), which may be reconstituted by the addition of sterilized water or physiological saline, to prepare injectable solutions. Alternatively, when the compositions are to be applied topically (e.g., when transdermal delivery is desired) the component or components of interest can be applied in dry form to the skin (e.g., via by using a skin patch), where the skin is separately treated with the positively charged backbone or carrier. In this manner the overall composition is essentially formed in situ and administered to the patient or subject. Methods of Using the Compositions Delivery Methods The compositions of the present invention can be delivered to a subject, cell or target site, either in vivo or ex vivo using a variety of methods. In fact, any of the routes normally used for introducing a composition into ultimate contact with the tissue to be treated can be used. Preferably, the compositions will be administered with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Suitable methods of administering such compounds are available and well known to those of skill in the art. Although more than one route can be used to administer a particular composition, a particular route can often provide a more immediate and more effective reaction than another route. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are determined in part by the particular composition being administered, as well as by the particular method used to administer the composition. Accordingly, there is a wide variety of suitable formulations of pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention (see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th ed. 1985). Administration can be, for example, intravenous, topical, intraperitoneal, subdermal, subcutaneous, transcutaneous, intramuscular, oral, intra-joint, parenteral, intranasal, or by inhalation. Suitable sites of administration thus include, but are not limited to, the skin, bronchium, gastrointestinal tract, eye and ear. The compositions typically include a conventional pharmaceutical carrier or excipient and can additionally include other medicinal agents, carriers, adjuvants, and the like. Preferably, the formulation will be about 5% to 75% by weight of a composition of the invention, with the remainder consisting of suitable pharmaceutical excipients. Appropriate excipients can be tailored to the particular composition and route of administration by methods well known in the art (see, e.g., REMINGTON'S PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, 18TH ED., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. (1990)). The formulations can take the form of solid, semi-solid, lyophilized powder, or liquid dosage forms, such as, for example, tablets, pills, capsules, powders, solutions, suspensions, emulsions, suppositories, retention enemas, creams, ointments, lotions, aerosols or the like. In embodiments where the pharmaceutical composition takes the form of a pill, tablet or capsule, the formulation can contain, along with the biologically active composition, any of the following: a diluent such as lactose, sucrose, dicalcium phosphate, and the like; a distintegrant such as starch or derivatives thereof; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate and the like; and a binder such as starch, gum acacia, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gelatin, cellulose and derivatives thereof. Compositions can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, such as ampoules or vials. Doses administered to a patient should be sufficient to achieve a beneficial therapeutic response in the patient over time. In some embodiments, a sustained-release formulation can be administered to an organism or to cells in culture and can carry the desired compositions. The sustained-release composition can be administered to the tissue of an organism, for example, by injection. By “sustained-release”, it is meant that the composition is made available for uptake by surrounding tissue or cells in culture for a period of time longer than would be achieved by administration of the composition in a less viscous medium, for example, a saline solution. The compositions, alone or in combination with other suitable components, can be made into aerosol formulations (i.e., they can be “nebulized”) to be administered via inhalation. Aerosol formulations can be placed into pressurized acceptable propellants, such as dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, nitrogen, and the like. For delivery by inhalation, the compositions can also be delivered as dry powder (e.g., Nektar). Formulations suitable for parenteral administration, such as, for example, by intravenous, intramuscular, intradermal, and subcutaneous routes, include aqueous and non-aqueous, isotonic sterile injection solutions, which can contain antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the formulation isotonic and compatible with the blood of the intended recipient, and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions that can include suspending agents, solubilizers, thickening agents, stabilizers, and preservatives. Other methods of administration include, but are not limited to, administration using angioplastic balloons, catheters, and gel formations. Methods for angioplastic balloon, catheter and gel formation delivery are well known in the art. Imaging Methods One of skill in the art will understand that the compositions of the present invention can by tailored for a variety of imaging uses. In one embodiment, virtual colonoscopy can be performed using the component-based system for imaging. At present, virtual colonoscopy involves essentially infusing contrast into a colon and visualizing the images on CT, then reconstructing a 3-D image. Similar techniques could be employed for MR. However, feces, mucous, and air all serve as contrast barriers and can give an artificial surface to the colon wall reconstruction. Addition of a cellular-targeting contrast would help overcome these barriers to provide a true wall reconstruction and help avoid both false-positives and false-negatives. There are several ways that the component-based system could be applied here. Most simply, the cationic efficiency backbone could be applied with a single contrast agent, for example a CT, MR, or optical contrast agent. Thus, the cellular surface layer could be visualized and any irregularities or obstructions detailed in the image reconstruction. However, the component based system offers the additional option of adding a specific second agent. This agent could consist of a cationic efficiency backbone, a different imaging moiety, and targeting components, for example targeting two antigens characteristic of colon cancer. The imaging moieties from the simple to the diagnostic could be selected so that one was CT contrast and the other MR contrast, or so that both were MR contrast with one being a T2 agent and the other a T1 agent. In this manner, the surface could be reconstructed as before, and any regions specific for a tumor antigen could be visualized and overlaid on the original reconstruction. Additionally, therapeutic agents could be incorporated into the targeted diagnostic system as well. Similar strategies could be applied to regional enteritis and ulcerative colitis (and again combined with therapy). Alternately, optical imaging moieties and detection methods could be employed, for example, in the case of melanoma diagnosis or management, preferably in conjunction with a fluorescent imaging moiety. In these embodiments, detection can be visual, image-aided or entirely image-based for example by darkfield image analysis. EXAMPLES Example 1 This example illustrates transdermal delivery of a very large complex, namely a plasmid containing the blue fluorescent protein (BFP) transgene, using a positively charged backbone or carrier of the invention. Backbone Selection: The positively charged backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine MW 150,000 via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine sidechains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR2” to denote a second size of the peptidyl carrier. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K2”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. An additional control polycation, Superfect® (Qiagen) which is an activated dendrimer-based agent, was selected as a reference for high in vitro transfection rates (i.e. simultaneous positive control and reference for state-of-the art efficiency versus toxicity in vitro). Therapeutic Agent Selection: An 8 kilobase plasmid (pSport-based template, Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.) containing the entire transgene for blue fluorescent protein (BFP) and partial flanking sequences driven by a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter was employed. BFP serves as an identifiable marker for cells that have been transfected, then transcribe and translate the gene and can be directly visualized (i.e. without additional staining) under fluorescence microscopy. Thus, only cells in which the complex has crossed both the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane before payload delivery can have transgene expression. This particular plasmid has a molecular weight of approximately 2.64 million, and was thus selected to evaluate the delivery of very large therapeutics via these complexes. Preparation of Samples: In each case, an excess of polycation was employed to assemble a final complex that has an excess of positive charge. Although increasing charge density increases size (i.e. more backbones present per complex), increase in efficiency factor density per complex can offset these changes. Thus, an optimal may occur at low ratios (i.e. size-based) or at high ratios (i.e. density of efficiency-factor based) and both are evaluated here for KNR2. Optimal ratios for K2 efficiency and Superfect efficiency were selected based on manufacturers recommendation and prior reports on maximal efficiency. Nucleotide-therapeutic dose was standardized across all groups as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be evaluated in cell culture. The following mixtures were prepared: 1) K2 at a 4:1 charge ratio to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. 2) KNR2 at a ratio of 15:1 to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. 3) KNR2 at a ratio of 10:1 to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. 4) KNR2 at a ratio of 4:1 to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. 5) KNR2 at a ratio of 1.25:1 to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. 6) Superfect according to the manufacturer's recommendation at a 5:1 charge ratio to a 0.5 mg/mL solution of a plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein driven by a CMV promoter. Cell Culture Protocols: All cell culture experiments were performed by observers blinded to the identity of treatment groups. On a 6-well plate, 1.0 mL of each solution was added to 70% confluent HA-VSMC primary human aortic smooth muscle cells (passage 21; ATCC, Rockville, Md.) and grown in M-199 with 10% serum for 48 hours at 37 degrees Celsius and 10% CO2. Untreated control wells were evaluated as well and each group was evaluated at n=5 wells per group. Analysis of Efficiency: Low magnification photographs (10× total) of intact cell plates were obtained by blinded observers at 60 degrees, 180 degrees and 200 degrees from the top of each well using a Nikon E600 epi-fluorescence microscope with a BFP filter and plan apochromat lenses. Image Pro Plus 3.0 image analysis suite (Media Cybernetics, Silver Spring, Md.) was employed to determine the percent of total cell area that was positive. This result was normalized to total cell area for each, and reported as efficiency of gene delivery (% of total cells expressing transgene at detectable levels). Analysis of Toxicity: Wells were subsequently evaluated by blinded observers in a dye exclusion assay (viable cells exclude dye, while nonviable ones cannot), followed by solubilization in 0.4% SDS in phosphate buffered saline. Samples were evaluated in a Spectronic Genesys 5 UV/VIS spectrophotometer at 595 nm wavelength (blue) to quantitatively evaluate nonviable cells as a direct measure of transfection agent toxicity. Samples were standardized to identical cell numbers by adjusting concentrations to matching OD280 values prior to the OD595 measurements. Data Handling and Statistical Analysis: Total positive staining was determined by blinded observer via batch image analysis using Image Pro Plus software (Media Cybernetics, Silver Spring, Md.) and was normalized to total cross-sectional area to determine percent positive staining for each. Mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Efficiencies: Results for efficiencies are as follows (mean±Standard Error): 1) 0.163 ± 0.106% 2) 10.642 ± 2.195% 3) 8.797 ± 3.839% 4) 15.035 ± 1.098% 5) 17.574 ± 6.807% 6) 1.199 ± 0.573% Runs #4 and #5 exhibit statistically significant (P<0.05 by one factor ANOVA repeated measures with Fisher PLSD and TUKEY-A posthoc testing) enhancement of gene delivery efficiency relative to both polylysine alone and Superfect. Toxicities: Mean toxicity data are as follows (reported in AU at OD595; low values, such as present with saline alone correlate with low toxicity, while higher values, such as present in condition 1 indicate a high cellular toxicity): Saline - 0.057 A; 1) 3.460 A; 2) 0.251 A; 3) 0.291 A; 4) 0.243 A; 5) 0.297 A; 6) 0.337 A. Conclusions: A less toxic, more efficient gene delivery can be accomplished with a ratio of 1.25 to 4.0 of KNR2 to DNA than controls, even those of the current gold standard Superfect. This experiment confirms the capability to deliver quite large therapeutic complexes across membranes using this carrier. Example 2 This example illustrates the transport of a large nucleotide across skin by a carrier of the invention after a single administration. Backbone Selection: The positively charged backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine (MW 150,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine sidechains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR2” as before. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K2”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. An additional control polycation, Superfect (Qiagen) which is an activated dendrimer-based agent, was selected as a reference for high transfection rates (i.e. simultaneous positive control and reference for state-of-the art efficiency versus toxicity in vitro). Therapeutic Agent Selection: For the present experiment, an 8.5 kilobase plasmid (pSport-based template, Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.) containing the entire transgene for E. Coli beta-galactosidase (βgal) and partial flanking sequences driven by a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter was employed. Here βgal serves as an identifiable marker for cells which have been transfected, then transcribe and translate the gene and can be directly visualized after specific staining for the foreign enzyme. Thus, only cells in which the complex has crossed skin then reached the target cell and translocated across both the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane before payload delivery can have transgene expression. This particular plasmid has a molecular weight of approximately 2,805,000. Preparation of Samples: In each case, an excess of polycation is employed to assemble a final complex that has an excess of positive charge. Optimal ratios for K2 efficiency, KNR2 efficiency and Superfect efficiency were selected based on manufacturer's recommendation and prior in vitro experiments to determine maximal efficiency. Nucleotide-therapeutic dose was standardized across all groups as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be applied topically. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled AK1: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 80 micrograms total) and peptidyl carrier KNR2 at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 1.8 ml of Cetaphil moisturizer and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Group labeled AL1: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 80 micrograms total) and K2 at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 1.8 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Group labeled AM1: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 80 micrograms total) and Superfect at a charge ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 1.8 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Animal Experiments to Determine Transdermal Delivery Efficiencies after Single Treatment with Peptidyl Carriers and Nucleotide Therapeutics: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=4 per group) had metered 200 microliter doses of the appropriate treatment applied to the cranial portion of dorsal back skin (selected because the mouse cannot reach this region with mouth or limbs). Animals did not undergo depilatory treatment. Animals were recovered in a controlled heat environment to prevent hypothernia and once responsive were provided food and water ad libitum overnight. Twenty-four hours post-treatment, mice were euthanized via inhalation of CO2, and treated skin segments were harvested at full thickness by blinded observers. Treated segments were divided into three equal portions the cranial portion was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 12-16 hours then stored in 70% ethanol until paraffin embedding. The central portion was snap-frozen and employed directly for beta-galactosidase staining at 37 degrees Celsius on sections as previously described (Waugh, J. M., M. Kattash, J. Li, E. Yuksel, M. D. Kuo, M. Lussier, A. B. Weinfeld, R. Saxena, E. D. Rabinovsky, S. Thung, S. L. C. Woo, and S. M. Shenaq. Local Overexpression of Tissue Plasminogen Activator to Prevent Arterial Thrombosis in an in vivo Rabbit Model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 96(3): 1065-1070. Also: Elkins C J, Waugh J M, Amabile P G, Minamiguchi H, Uy M, Sugimoto K, Do Y S, Ganaha F, Razavi M K, Dake M D. Development of a platform to evaluate and limit in-stent restenosis. Tissue Engineering 2002. June; 8(3): 395-407). The treated caudal segment was snap frozen for solubilization studies. Toxicity: Toxicity was evaluated by dye exclusion on paired sections to those analyzed for efficiency above. Sections only underwent staining for either efficiency or for toxicity since the methods are not reliably co-employed. For toxicity analyses, the sections were immersed in exclusion dye for 5 minutes, then incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes at 10% CO2. Any cells that did not exclude the dye in this period of time were considered non-viable. Data Handling and Statistical Analyses: Data collection and image analysis were performed by blinded observers. Sections stained as above were photographed in their entirety on a Nikon E600 microscope with plan-apochromat lenses. Resulting images underwent batch image analysis processing using Image Pro Plus software as before with manual confirmation to determine number positive for beta-galactosidase enzyme activity (blue with the substrate method employed here) or cellular toxicity. These results were normalized to total cross-sectional number of cells by nuclear fast red staining for each and tabulated as percent cross-sectional positive staining. Subsequently, mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Results are summarized in the table below and illustrated in FIG. 3. The positively charged peptidyl transdermal delivery carrier achieved statistically significant increases in delivery efficiency and transgene expression versus both K2 (negative control essentially) and the benchmark standard for efficiency, Superfect. While Superfect did achieve statistically significant improvements over K2, KNR2 had greater than an order of magnitude improvement in delivery efficiency versus Superfect in this model system TABLE 1 Mean and standard error for beta-galactosidase positive cells as percent of total number by treatment group. Group Mean Std. Error. AK1 15.00 0.75 AL1 0.03 0.01 AM1 1.24 0.05 P = 0.0001 (Significant at 99%) Results for toxicity are presented in FIG. 4, which depicts the percent of total area that remained nonviable 24 hours post treatment. Here, K2 exhibits statistically significant cellular toxicity relative to KNR2 or Superfect, even at a dose where K2 has low efficiency of transfer as described previously (Amabile, P. G., J. M. Waugh, T. Lewis, C. J. Elkins, T. Janus, M. D. Kuo, and M. D. Dake. Intravascular Ultrasound Enhances in vivo Vascular Gene Delivery. J. Am. Col. Cardiol. 2001 June; 37(7): 1975-80). Conclusions: The peptidyl transdermal carrier can transport large complexes across skin with high efficiencies, particularly given the constraints of transgene expression and total complex size discussed previously. Positive area here, rather than positive number was employed for analyses since (1) the method is greatly simplified and has greater accuracy in image analysis, (2) point demonstrations of efficiencies had already been afforded in II.B conclusively, (3) area measurements provide a broader scope for understanding in vivo results since noncellular components occupy a substantial portion of the cross section, and (4) comparison to still larger nonpeptidyl carrier complexes was facilitated Example 3 This example illustrates the transdennal delivery of a large nucleotide-based therapeutic across skin using a positively charged peptidyl carrier of the invention in seven sequential daily applications. Backbone Selection: The positively charged peptidyl backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine (MW 150,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine sidechains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR2”. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K2”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. Therapeutic Agent Selection: For the present experiment, an 8.5 kilobase plasmid (pSport-based template, Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.) containing the entire transgene for E. Coli beta-galactosidase (βgal) and partial flanking sequences driven by a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter was employed. This particular plasmid has a molecular weight of approximately 2,805,000 and was thus selected to evaluate delivery of very large therapeutics across skin via the peptidyl carriers. Preparation of Samples: In each case, an excess of polycation was employed to assemble a final complex that has an excess of positive charge. Experimental ratios were selected to parallel the single dose experiments presented in the previous experiment. Nucleotide-therapeutic dose was standardized across all groups as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be applied topically. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled AK1: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 240 micrograms total) and peptidyl carrier KNR2 at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Group labeled AL1: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 240 micrograms total) and K2 at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Animal Experiments to Determine Cumulative Transdermal Delivery Efficiencies after 7 Once-Daily Treatments with Peptidyl Carriers and Nucleotide Therapeutics: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=4 per group) had metered 200 microliter doses of the appropriate treatment applied to the cranial portion of dorsal back skin (selected because the mouse cannot reach this region with mouth or limbs). Animals did not undergo depilatory treatment. Animals were recovered in a controlled heat environment to prevent hypothermia and once responsive were provided food and water ad libitum overnight. This procedure was repeated once daily at the same approximate time of day for 7 days. After 7 days treatment, mice were euthanized via inhalation of CO2, and treated skin segments were harvested at full thickness by blinded observers. Treated segments were divided into three equal portions the cranial portion was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 12-16 hours then stored in 70% ethanol until paraffin embedding. The central portion was snap-frozen and employed directly for beta-galactosidase staining at 37 degrees Celsius on sections as previously described. The treated caudal segment was snap frozen for solubilization studies. Data Handling and Statistical Analyses: Data collection and image analysis were performed by blinded observers. Sections stained as above were photographed in their entirety on a Nikon E600 microscope with plan-apochromat lenses. Resulting images underwent batch image analysis processing using Image Pro Plus software as before with manual confirmation to determine area positive for beta-galactosidase enzyme activity. These results were normalized to total cross-sectional area for each and tabulated as percent cross-sectional positive staining. Subsequently, mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Results are summarized in the table below and illustrated in FIG. 5. The peptidyl transdermal delivery carrier achieved statistically significant increases in delivery efficiency and transgene expression versus K2. TABLE 2 Mean and standard error for cumulative transgene expression of beta-galactosidase as percent of total area after 7 once-daily applications for each treatment group. Group Mean Std. Error. AK 5.004 2.120 AL 0.250 0.060 P = 0.0012 (Significant at 99%) Example 4 (Non-Peptidyl Carrier). This example illustrates the transdermal delivery of a large nucleotide-based therapeutic across skin, using a positively charged non-peptidyl carrier of the invention in seven sequential daily applications. Backbone Selection: The positively charged backbone was assembled by covalently attaching—Gly3Arg7 to polyethyleneimine (PEI, MW 1,000,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the PEI sidechains at a degree of saturation of 30% (i.e., 30 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “PEIR” to denote the large nonpeptidyl carrier. The control polycation was unmodified PEI (designated “PEI”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. Therapeutic Agent Selection: For the present experiment, an 8.5 kilobase plasmid (pSport-based template, Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.) containing the entire transgene for E. Coli beta-galactosidase (βgal) and partial flanking sequences driven by a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter was employed. This particular plasmid has a molecular weight of approximately 2,805,000. Preparation of Samples: In each case, an excess of polycation was employed to assemble a final complex that has an excess of positive charge. Nucleotide-therapeutic dose was standardized across all groups as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be applied topically. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled AS: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 240 micrograms total) and control PEI at a charge ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with Tris-EDTA buffer. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Group labeled AT: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 240 micrograms total) and composite nonpeptidyl carrier PIER (“PEIR”) at a charge ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with Tris-EDTA buffer. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Group labeled AU: 8 micrograms of βgal plasmid (p/CMV-sport-βgal) per final aliquot (i.e. 240 micrograms total) and highly purified Essential nonpeptidyl carrier PEIR (“pure PEIR”) at a charge ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with Tris-EDTA buffer. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions for in vivo experiments. Animal Experiments to Determine Cumulative Transdermal Delivery Efficiencies after 7 Once-Daily Treatments with Nonpeptidyl Carriers and Nucleotide Therapeutics: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=3 per group) had metered 200 microliter doses of the appropriate treatment applied to the cranial portion of dorsal back skin (selected because the mouse cannot reach this region with mouth or limbs). Animals did not undergo depilatory treatment. Animals were recovered in a controlled heat environment to prevent hypothermia and once responsive were provided food and water ad libitum overnight. This procedure was repeated once daily at the same approximate time of day for 7 days. After 7 days treatment, mice were euthanized via inhalation of CO2, and treated skin segments were harvested at full thickness by blinded observers. Treated segments were divided into three equal portions the cranial portion was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 12-16 hours then stored in 70% ethanol until paraffin embedding. The central portion was snap-frozen and employed directly for beta-galactosidase staining at 37 degrees Celsius on sections as previously described. The treated caudal segment was snap frozen for solubilization studies. Data Handling and Statistical Analyses: Data collection and image analysis were performed by blinded observers. Sections stained as above were photographed in their entirety on a Nikon E600 microscope with plan-apochromat lenses. Resulting images underwent batch image analysis processing using Image Pro Plus software with manual confirmation to determine area positive for beta-galactosidase enzyme activity. These results were normalized to total cross-sectional area for each and tabulated as percent cross-sectional positive staining. Subsequently, mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Results are summarized in the table below and illustrated in FIG. 6. The nonpeptidyl transdermal delivery carrier—in both a composite form and in an ultrapure form—achieved statistically significant increases in delivery efficiency and transgene expression versus PEI. The ultrapure form of PEIR exhibited trending toward higher efficiencies than standard PEIR consistent with the higher calculated specific activity of the reagent. TABLE 3 Mean and standard error for cumulative transgene expression of beta-galactosidase as percent of total area after 7 once daily applications for each treatment group. Group Mean Std. Error. AS 0.250 0.164 AT 2.875 0.718 AU 3.500 0.598 P = 0.0058 (Significant at 99%) Conclusions: The nonpeptidyl transdermal carrier can transport large complexes across skin with high efficiencies, particularly given the constraints of transgene expression and total complex size discussed previously. While the efficiencies are not as great as those obtained with the smaller complexes of the peptidyl carriers), significant gains were accomplished. Of note, the distribution of transgene expression using the large nonpeptidyl complexes was almost exclusively hair follicle-based, while the results for the peptidyl carriers were diffuse throughout the cross-sections. Thus, size and backbone tropism can be employed for a nano-mechanical targeting of delivery. Example 5 This experiment demonstrates the use of a peptidyl carrier to transport a large complex containing an intact labeled protein botulinum toxin across intact skin after a single time administration relative to controls. Botulinum toxin was chosen here as a model system for large proteins, such as agents for immunleation, for example. Backbone Selection: The positively charged backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine (MW 112,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine side chains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR”. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. Therapeutic Agent: Botox® brand of botulinum toxin A (Allergan) was selected for this experiment. It has a molecular weight of approximately 150,000. Preparation of Samples: The botulinum toxin was reconstituted according to the manufacturer's instructions. An aliquot of the protein was biotinylated with a calculated 12-fold molar excess of sulfo-NHS-LC biotin (Pierce Chemical). The labeled product was designated “Btox-b”. In each case, an excess of polycation was employed to assemble a final complex that has an excess of positive charge as in delivery of highly negative large nucleotide complexes. A net neutral or positive charge prevents repulsion of the protein complex from highly negative cell surface proteoglycans and extracellular matrix. Btox-b dose was standardized across all groups, as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be applied topically. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled “JMW-7”: 2.0 units of Btox-b per aliquot (i.e. 20 U total) and peptidyl carrier KNR at a calculated MW ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 1.8 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Group labeled “JMW-8”: 2.0 units of Btox-b per aliquot (i.e. 20 U total) and K at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 1.8 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Animal Experiments to Determine Transdermal Delivery Efficiencies after Single Time Treatment with Peptidyl Carriers and Labeled Botulinum Toxin: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=4 per group) underwent topical application of metered 200 microliter dose of the appropriate treatment applied to the cranial portion of dorsal back skin (selected because the mouse cannot reach this region with mouth or limbs). Animals did not undergo depilation. At 30 minutes after the initial treatment, mice were euthanized via inhalation of CO2, and treated skin segments were harvested at full thickness by blinded observers. Treated segments were divided into three equal portions; the cranial portion was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 12-16 hours then stored in 70% ethanol until paraffin embedding. The central portion was snap-frozen and employed directly for biotin visualization by blinded observers as summarized below. The treated caudal segment was snap frozen for solubilization studies. Biotin visualization was conducted as follows. Briefly, each section was immersed for 1 hour in NeutrAvidin® buffer solution. To visualize alkaline phosphatase activity, cross sections were washed in saline four times then immersed in NBT/BCIP (Pierce Scientific) for 1 hour. Sections were then rinsed in saline and photographed in entirety on a Nikon E600 microscope with plan-apochromat lenses. Data Handling and Statistical Analysis: Total positive staining was determined by blinded observer via batch image analysis using Image Pro Plus software (Media Cybernetics, Silver Spring, Md.) and was normalized to total cross-sectional area to determine percent positive staining for each. Mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: The mean cross-sectional area positive for biotinylated botulinum toxin was reported as percent of total area after single-time topical administration of Btox-b with either KNR (“EB-Btox”) or K (“n1”). The results are presented in the following table and are illustrated in FIG. 7. In FIG. 7, the area positive for label was determined as percent of total area after three days of once daily treatment with “EB-Btox” which contained Btox-b and the peptidyl carrier KNR and “n1”, which contained Btoxb with polycation K as a control. Mean and standard error are depicted for each group. TABLE 4 Mean and standard error for labeled botulinum toxin area as percent of total cross-section after single time topical administration of Btox-b with KNR (JMW-7) or K (JMW-8) for 30 minutes. Group Mean Std. Error JMW-7 33.000 5.334 JMW-8 8.667 0.334 P = 0.0001 (Significant at 99%) Example 6 Example 5 demonstrated that the peptidyl transdermal carrier allowed efficient transfer of botulinum toxin after topical administration in a murine model of intact skin. However, this experiment did not indicate whether the complex protein botulinum toxin was released in a functional form after translocation across skin. The following experiment was thus constructed to evaluate whether botulinum toxin can be therapeutically delivered across intact skin as a topical agent using this peptidyl carrier (again, without covalent modification of the protein). The positively charged backbone was again assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine MW 112,000 via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine side chains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR”. Control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. The same botulinum toxin therapeutic agent was used as in Example 5, and was prepared in the same manner. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled “JMW-9”: 2.0 units of botulinum toxin per aliquot (i.e. 60 U total) and peptidyl carrier KNR at a calculated MW ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Group labeled “JMW-10”: 2.0 units of botulinum toxin per aliquot (i.e. 60 U total) and K at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Group labeled “JMW-11”: 2.0 units of botulinum toxin per aliquot (i.e. 60 U total) without polycation was diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Animal Experiments to Determine Therapeutic Efficacy after Single Time Treatment with Peptidyl Carriers and Botulinum Toxin: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=4 per group) underwent topical application of metered 400 microliter dose of the appropriate treatment applied uniformly from the toes to the mid-thigh. Both limbs were treated, and treatments were randomized to either side. Animals did not undergo depilation. At 30 minutes after the initial treatment, mice were evaluated for digital abduction capability according to published digital abduction scores for foot mobility after botulinum toxin administration (Aoki, K R. A comparison of the safety margins of botulinum neurotoxin serotypes A, B, and F in mice. Toxicon. 2001 December; 39(12): 1815-20). Mouse mobility was also subjectively assessed. Data Handling and Statistical Analysis: Digital abduction scores were tabulated independently by two blinded observers. Mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Mean digital abduction scores after single-time topical administration of botulinum toxin with KNR (“JMW-9”), K (“SMW-10”) or diluent without polycation (“JMW-11”), are presented in the table below and illustrated in the representative photomicrograph of FIG. 8. The peptidyl carrier KNR afforded statistically significant functional delivery of the botulinum toxin across skin relative to both controls, which were comparable to one another. Additional independent repetitions (total of three independent experiments all with identical conclusions in statistically significant paralysis from topical botulinum toxin with KNR but not controls) of the present experiment confirmed the present findings and revealed no significant differences between topical botulinum toxin with or without K (i.e. both controls). Interestingly, the mice consistently ambulated toward a paralyzed limb (which occurred in 100% of treated animals and 0% of controls from either control group). As shown in FIG. 8, a limb treated with botulinum toxin plus the control polycation polylysine or with botulinum toxin without polycation (“Btox alone”) can mobilize digits (as a defense mechanism when picked up), but the limbs treated with botulinum toxin plus the peptidyl carrier KNR (“Essential Btox lotion”) could not be moved. TABLE 5 Digital abduction scores 30 minutes after single-time topical application of botulinum toxin with the peptidyl carrier KNR (“JMW-9”), with a control polycation K (“JMW-10”), or alone (“JMW-11”). Group Mean Std. Error JMW-9 3.333 0.333 JMW-10 0.333 0.333 JMW-11 0.793 0.300 P = 0.0351 (Significant at 95%) Conclusions: This experiment serves to demonstrate that the peptidyl transdermal carrier can transport a therapeutically effective amount of botulinum therapeutic across skin without covalent modification of the therapeutic. The experiment also confirms that botulinum toxin does not function when applied topically in controls. Example 7 This experiment demonstrates the performance of a non-peptidyl carrier in the invention. Backbone Selection: The positively charged backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polyethyleneimine (PEI) MW 1,000,000 via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the PEI side chains at a degree of saturation of 30% (i.e., 30 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “PEIR” to denote the large nonpeptidyl carrier. Control polycation was unmodified PEI (designated “PEI”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. The same botulinum toxin therapeutic agent was used as in example 5. Botulinum toxin was reconstituted from the BOTOX® product according to the manufacturer's instructions. In each case, an excess of polycation was employed to assemble a final complex that had an excess of positive charge as in delivery of highly negative large nucleotide complexes. A net neutral or positive charge prevents repulsion of the protein complex from highly negative cell surface proteoglycans and extracellular matrix. The botulinum toxin dose was standardized across all groups as was total volume and final pH of the composition to be applied topically. Samples were prepared as follows: Group labeled “AZ”: 2.0 units of botulinum toxin per aliquot (i.e. 60 U total) and the nonpeptidyl carrier PEIR in ultrapure form at a calculated MW ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Group labeled “BA”: 2.0 units of botulinum toxin per aliquot (i.e. 60 U total) and PEI at a charge ratio of 5:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 600 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. The resulting composition was mixed to homogeneity with 5.4 ml of Cetaphil and aliquoted in 200 microliter portions. Animal Experiments to Determine Therapeutic Efficacy after Single Time Treatment: Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurane during application of treatments. After being anesthetized, C57 black 6 mice (n=3 per group) underwent topical application of metered 400 microliter dose of the appropriate treatment applied uniformly from the toes to the mid-thigh. Both limbs were treated, and treatments were randomized to either side. Animals did not undergo depilation. At 30 minutes after the initial treatment, mice were evaluated for digital abduction capability according to published digital abduction scores for foot mobility after botulinum toxin administration (Aoki, K R. A comparison of the safety margins of botulinum neurotoxin serotypes A, B, and F in mice. Toxicon. 2001 December; 39(12): 1815-20). Mouse mobility was also subjectively assessed. Data Handling and Statistical Analysis: Digital abduction scores were tabulated independently by two blinded observers. Mean and standard error were subsequently determined for each group with analysis of significance at 95% confidence in one way ANOVA repeated measures using Statview software (Abacus, Berkeley, Calif.). Results: Mean digital abduction scores after single-time topical administration of botulinum toxin with ultrapure PEIR (“AZ”), or control polycation PEI (“BA”), and repetition (single independent repetition for this experiment), are presented in the tables below. The nonpeptidyl carrier PEIR afforded statistically significant functional delivery of botulinum toxin across skin relative to controls. As before, animals were observed to walk in circles toward the paralyzed limbs. TABLE 6 Repetition 1. Digital abduction scores 30 minutes after single-time topical administration of Botulinum toxin with ultrapure PEIR (“AZ”), or control polycation PEI (“BA”). Mean and standard error are presented. Group Mean Std. Error BA 0.833 0.307 AZ 3.917 0.083 P = 0.0002 (Significant at 99%) TABLE 7 Repetition 2. Digital abduction scores 30 minutes after single-time topical administration of Botulinum toxin with ultrapure PEIR (“AZ1”), or control polycation PEI (“BA1”). Mean and standard error are presented. Group Mean Std. Error BA1 0.333 0.211 AZ1 3.833 0.167 P = 0.0001 (Significant at 99%) Conclusions: This experiment demonstrated that the nonpeptidyl transdermal carrier can transport therapeutic doses of botulinum toxin across skin without prior covalent modification of the botulinum toxin. These findings complement those with peptidyl transfer agents. The option of using a nonpeptidyl or a peptidyl carrier to achieve the therapeutic effect will allow tailoring to specific circumstances, environments, and methods of application and add to the breadth of the transdermal delivery platform of this invention. In these examples botulinum toxin penetration with either peptidyl or nonpeptidyl carriers versus topical botulinum toxin without the carrier further establishes utility for transdermal penetration of antigens for immunization, particularly for immunization with antigens that cross skin poorly otherwise such as botulinum. Delivery of a functional botulinum toxin ensures that at least four distinct epitopes have been delivered transdermally in an intact state; the fact that functional botulinum toxin was not delivered in the absence of the carrier in either example confirms that the carrier affords significant immunization potential relative to the agent in the absence of the carrier. Since immunization requires that the antigens cross skin in a sufficient quantity to mount an immune response, this approach allows transdermal delivery of an antigen for immunization. Since this approach does not require covalent modification of the antigen and need not involve viral gene transfer, a number of advantages arise in terms of safety stability, and efficiency. Example 8 This experiment details production of peptidyl and nonpeptidyl carriers with TAT efficiency factors, as well as assembly of these carriers with botulinum toxins. Coupling of Polyethylene Amine (PEI) to TAT Fragment GGGRKKRRQRRR: The TAT fragment GGGRKKRRQRRR (6 mg, 0.004 mmol, Sigma Genosys, Houston, Tex.), lacking all sidechain protecting groups, was dissolved in 1 ml of 0.1M MES buffer. To this was added EDC (3 mg, 0.016 mmol) followed by PEI 400k molecular weight 50% solution (w:v) in water, (˜0.02 ml, ˜2.5×10−5 mmol) The pH was determined to be 7.5 by test paper. Another 1 ml portion of 0.1M MES was added and the pH was adjusted to 5 by addition of HCl. Another portion of EDC (5 mg, 0.026 mmol) was added and the reaction, pH˜5 was stirred overnight. The next morning, the reaction mixture was frozen and lyophilized. A column (1 cm diameter×14 cm height) of Sephadex G-25 (Amersham Biosciences Corp., Piscataway, N.J.) was slurried in sterile 1× PBS. The column was standardized by elution of FITC dextrans (Sigma, St Louis, Mo.) having 19 kD molecular weight. The standard initially eluted at 5 ml PBS, had mid peak at 6 ml and tailed at 7 ml. The lyophilized reaction mixture from above was dissolved in a small volume PBS and applied to the column. It was eluted by successive applications of 1 ml PBS. Fractions were collected with the first one consisting of the first 3 ml eluted, including the reaction volume. Subsequent fractions were 1 ml. The fractions eluted were assayed for UV absorbance at 280 nm. Fractions 3, 4 and 5 corresponding to 5-7 ml defined a modest absorbance peak. All fractions were lyophilized and IR spectra were taken. The characteristic guanidine triple peak (2800-3000 cm−1) of the TAT fragment was seen in fractions 4-6. These fractions also showed an amide stretch at 1700 cm−1 thus confirming the conjugate of the TAT fragment and PEI. Another iteration was run using the TAT fragment GGGRKKRRQRRR (11.6 mg, 0.007 mmol). This amount was calculated such that one in 30 of the PEI amines would be expected to be reacted with TAT fragment. This approximates the composition of the original polylysine-oligoarginine (KNR) efficiency factor described above. Successful covalent attachment of the TAT fragment to the PEI animes was confirmed by IR as above. Coupling of Polylysine to TAT Fragment: To a solution of polylysine (10 mg 1.1×10−4 mmol; Sigma) in 1 ml of 0.1M MES, pH˜4.5 was added TAT fragment (4 mg, 0.003 mmol) then EDC (3.5 mg, 0.0183 mmol). The resulting reaction mixture (pH˜4.5) was stirred at room temperature. The reaction was frozen at −78° C. overnight. The next day the reaction mixture was thawed to room temperature and the pH was adjusted to ˜8 by the addition of saturated sodium bicarbonate. The reaction mixture was applied directly to a Sephadex G-25 column constituted and standardized as described above. It was eluted in seven 1 ml fractions starting after 5 ml. UV 280 absorbance was taken, revealing a relative peak in fraction 2, 3 and 4. IR of the lyophilized fractions revealed the characteristic guanidine peak (2800-3000 cm−1) in fractions 1-7. Fraction 1 had a strong peak at 1730 cm−1 and nothing at 1600 cm−1, but for fractions 2-6 the opposite was true. Thus, successful covalent attachment of the TAT fragment to a peptidyl carrier, polylysine, was confirmed. The covalently attached TAT fragment and PEI (PEIT) and the covalently attached TAT fragment and polylysine (KNT) were subsequently mixed with botulinum toxin to form a noncovalent complex as below: Group labeled “JL-1”: 2.0 units of Btox-b per aliquot (i.e. 20 U total) and PEIT at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. Group labeled “JL-2”: 2.0 units of Btox-b per aliquot (i.e. 20 U total) and KNT at a charge ratio of 4:1 were mixed to homogeneity and diluted to 200 microliters with phosphate buffered saline. After noncovalent complex formation, particles were centrifuged at 12,000×g in a rotary microcentrifuge for 5 minutes, then resuspended in 20 microliters of deionized water and evaporated on a Germanium attenuated total reflectance cell for IR. Presence of Btox-b in the complexes was thus confirmed. Overall, this experiment confirmed that synthetic schemes could be applied to other efficiency factors and the resulting carriers can be complexed with a biologically active agent—in this case botulinum toxin—as in prior examples using carriers with oligoarginine positively charged branching or efficiency groups. Example 9 This experiment demonstrates the performance of a peptidyl carrier for imaging of a specific antigen. In this example, complexes of one of the Essential peptidyl carriers, KNR2, with optical imaging moieties and modified antibodies targeting melanoma are suitable for topical detection of melanoma. Backbone Selection: The positively charged peptidyl backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Gly3Arg7 to polylysine (MW 150,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine sidechains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Gly3Arg7). The modified backbone was designated “KNR2”. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K2”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. A murine monoclonal antibody to a conserved human melanoma domain, ganglioside 2, (IgG3, US Biologicals, Swampscott, Mass.) was covalently attached to a short polyaspartate anion chain (MW 3,000) via EDC coupling as above to generate a derivatized antibody designated “Gang2Asp”. Additionally, an anionic imaging agent was designed using an oligonucleotide as a polyanion wherein the sequence was ATGC-J (designated “ATGC-J” henceforth) with “J” representing a covalently attached Texas Red fluorophore, (Sigma Genosys, Woodlands, Tex.). For this experiment, 6.35 micrograms of Gang2Asp was combined with 0.1712 micrograms of ATGC-J and then complexed with 17.5 micrograms of KNR2 in a total volume of 200 microliters of deionized water to attain a final ratio of 5:1:1::KNR2:ATGC-J:Gang2Asp. The mixture was vortexed for 2 minutes. The resulting complexes were applied to hydrated CellTek Human Melanoma slides and control CellTek Cytokeratin Slides (SDL, Des Plaines, Ill.) and incubated for 5 minutes before photographic evaluation of fluorescence distribution versus brightfield distribution of melanoma pigment in the same field. Additional controls without ATGC-J or without Gang2Asp were also employed. Results: The non-covalent complexes afforded a distribution of the optical imaging agent that followed the tropism of the antibody derivative rather than the distribution of the complexes in the absence of the antibody. More noteworthy, the complexes followed a distribution that matched that of the pigmented melanoma cells, as depicted in FIG. 9. Conclusions: This experiment demonstrates the production of a viable complex for transport across skin and visualization of melanoma through optical techniques using a carrier suitable for topical delivery. Such an approach could be employed for example in conjunction with surgical margin-setting or-could be employed in routine melanoma surveillance. Similar strategies could readily be employed for topical diagnosis of other skin-related disorders as well, as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. Given the very high sensitivity of optical imaging moieties, significant promise in improved detection of these disorders could be afforded through these non-covalent complexes. Example 10 This experiment demonstrates the efficiency and depth of penetration of a peptidyl carrier in transdermal delivery of a mixture of proteins of different size and structure. Methods: Revitix proteins [Organogenesis, Canton, Mass.] were biotinylated and stored at 40 Celsius. The concentration of biotinylated Revitix proteins used was 10-15 ng/μl. The test article and comparative controls in this study are shown in the Table 1. This study had two controls, one with deionized water pH matched to the Revitix and the other with Revitix by itself. The test article for the treatment group was the Revitix with peptidyl carrier. TABLE 8 Description of test article and comparative controls. Test article and Study time- Groups comparative controls points A Water, pH 7.0 2 days B Revitix only 2 days C Revitix + carrier 2 days D Water, pH 7.0 9 days E Revitix only 9 days F Revitix + carrier 9 days Animal Experiments to Determine Cumulative Transdermal Delivery Efficiency after 2 and 9 Once-Daily Treatments with Peptidyl Carriers and Revitix Proteins: C57 black 6 female mice (n=5 per group)were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurance and then injected with 0.05 ml rodent anesthetic cocktail (3.75 ml of 100 mg/ml Ketamine, 3.00 ml of 20 mg/ml Xylazine, and 23.25 ml of saline) intraperitoneally. After each mouse was anesthetized a 2.0 cm×2.0 cm dose site on the dorsum of each mouse was carefully shaved with a hair clipper (Oster) two days before the first day of treatment application. Animals did not undergo further depilatory treatment. Animals were anesthetized via inhalation of isoflurance only during the application of treatments in Cetaphil moisturizing cream (Galderma, Fort Worth, Tex.) and had metered 200 microliter doses of the appropriate treatment applied to the cranial portion of dorsal back skin (selected because the mouse cannot reach this region with mouth or limbs). Animals remained under anesthesia for 2-5 minutes while the appropriate treatment was rubbed into the skin with finger covers. Animals were recovered in a controlled heat environment to prevent hypothermia and once responsive were provided food and water ad libitum overnight. This procedure was repeated once daily at the same approximate time of day for 2 and 9 days. After 2 and 9 days treatment, mice were euthanized via inhalation of CO2, and treated skin segments were harvested at full thickness by blinded observers at 8 hours post application of the last treatment. Treated segments were divided into three equal portions the cranial portion was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 12-16 hours then stored in 70% ethanol until paraffin embedding. The central portion was employed for NeutrAvidin, Hematoxylin & Eosin, and Chloroesterase-specific staining. The treated caudal segment was snap frozen for solubilization studies. Data Handling and Statistical Analysis: Data collection and image analysis were performed by blinded observers. Stained sections were photographed with a Retiga 1300B camera (Qlmaging, Burnaby, BC, Canada) on a Nikon E600 microscope with plan-apochromat lenses. Positive staining was determined by a blinded observer using Image-Pro Plus analysis software (Media Cybernetics, Silver Springs, Md.) with green channel extraction and thresholding, and expressed as positive pixels. Statistical analysis was subsequently determined for each group using Statview® software (Abacus Concepts, Berkeley, Calif.) and expressed as mean and standard error. Statistical significance for all comparison was determined using one-factor ANOVA repeated measures and Fisher PLSD post-hoc testing at 95% confidence Results: The Revitix proteins were labeled with biotin and good labeling on variety of proteins was shown. NeutrAvidin staining was used to determine transdermal delivery of Revitix protein. The photographs of control group (panel a and c and e) vs. treatment group (b and d and f) at two different magnifications are shown in FIG. 10, where a and b are at 10× magnification and c through f are at 20× magnification. The mean for positive NeutrAvidin staining was used for comparison. The mean positive staining for Revitix plus backbone was significantly higher than water at 3 day (50.297±6.394 vs. 16.676±2.749) and Revitix alone (50.297±6.394 vs. 18.379±6.394; P=0.0041). TABLE 9 Positive NeutraAvidin staining. Mean and standard error are presented. Group Mean Std. Error A 16.676 2.749 B 18.379 6.394 C 50.297 6.394 P = 0.0041 (Significant at 95%) Conclusion: Gel analysis of biotin-labeled proteins allowed confirmation of label in vitro. The 2-day time-point was used to determine flux. This experiment confirmed a statistically significant increase in transdermal delivery of labeled proteins versus both control groups. Both depth and amount of signal increased markedly in the carrier group versus the controls. Interestingly, a diverse population of proteins was transported across skin with these pre-assembled particles as verified by gel electrophoresis and spatial assessments of tropisms. Example 11 These experiments demonstrate a novel molecular imaging platform capable of targeted transepithelial delivery of fluorescent probes by use of peptidyl carrier and tumor antigen antibodies. Backbone: The positively charged peptidyl backbone was assembled by covalently attaching -Arg9 to polylysine (MW 150,000) via the carboxyl of the terminal glycine to free amines of the lysine sidechains at a degree of saturation of 18% (i.e., 18 out of each 100 lysine residues is covalently attached to a -Arg9). The modified backbone was designated “KNR”. The control polycation was unmodified polylysine (designated “K”, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) of the same size and from the same lot. Methods: Probe Design: The probe is a multi-component system that self-assembles based on electrostatic interactions. Such a system allows for easy substitution of functional moieties. The central component is a carrier backbone that has an excess of positive charges and multiple CPPs attached. All cargos are negatively charged. The final complex has a net positive charge to maintain transport activity. In Vitro Carrier Toxicity: The following carrier backbone were tested for toxicity: 1. KNR 2. Poly-L-lysine without R9 side chains (K) 3. Superfect (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.), a commercial transfection agent HeLa cells (ATCC, Manassas, Va.) grown at 70% confluency were incubated with 0.4 mg of carriers (n=6 wells/group) in serum free media for 2 hours and then washed with PBS. Toxicity was assessed using a standard dye exclusion assay where viable cells exclude dye while nonviable cells do not. Dye uptake was measured using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic Genesys 5 UV/VIS) at 595 nm wavelength. Samples were standardized to cell number by adjusting concentrations to matching OD280 values prior to OD595 measurements. In Vivo Transdermal Reporter Gene Delivery: To determine whether the KNR carrier can deliver large molecular weight cargo in the form of bioluminescence reporter genes across a tissue barrier (skin), the following probes were tested with varying carrier backbones: 1. Backbones: KNR; Controls-K, Superfect, no carrier 2. Cargo and imaging moiety: Plasmid expressing blue fluorescent protein (BFP, 8 kb, 2.6 million MW) Backbone-plasmid (8 μg plasmid) complexes were formed via ionic interactions (cationic backbone-anionic DNA) and then applied to the dorsal skin of C57 black 6 mice (n=4 per group) daily for 7 days. Treated skin segments were then harvested and BFP expression was assessed by fluorescence microscopy. Transdernal gene delivery efficiency was determined by % BFP positive cells/total cells in the dermis only. Targeted Deliver of Imaging Probe to Tumor Cells: To determine whether the KNR system can afford targeted delivery of optical imaging probes to colon cancer antigens, the following probes were tested with varying targeting components: 1. Backbone: KNR 2. Imaging moiety: 4-base oligonucleotide (Sigma-Genosys) labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC, Molecular Probes) 3. Targeting moieties: a) Monoclonal antibody to carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA; clone CD66e, US Biological) covalently conjugated to anionic polyaspartate (3K MW) via EDC coupling; b) Control-Monoclonal antibody to actin (clone 3G1, US Biological) conjugated to polyaspartate Following formation of KNR-imaging-targeting complexes, co-cultured (n=6 wells/group) human colon carcinoma cells (LS174T, ATCC) that overexpress CEA and control mouse fibroblasts (3T3, ATCC) were incubated with complexes in serum free media for 2 hours. Cells were subsequently washed 3×'s with PBS. Targeted delivery was assessed by quantifying percent of LS174T cells and 3T3 cells labeled with FITC. 3T3 cells and LS174T cells were identified by morphology. Results: KNR achieved 20× greater efficiency in transdermal delivery and transgene expression of BFP versus control (5%±2.12% vs. 0.25%±0.06%, P<0.01), validating the feasibility of topical delivery of complexes large enough for molecular imaging. In assessing targeted delivery, fluorescein and TR signals, even though each was a distinct component of the complex, co-localized in 40.2% of pixels of the colon carcinoma cells (phi correlation 0.74, P<0.001). Control fibroblast cells were minimally labeled with fluorescein or TR while 87.6%±8.3% of colon carcinoma cells were positive for fluorescein signal. Relative toxicity for carrier backbones results are shown in FIG. 11 and transdermal gene delivery efficiency results are shown in FIG. 12. Brightfield image of colon carcinoma (C) and fibroblasts (F, spindle-shaped) co-culture following application of CEA-specific imaging probe (panel a) and fluorescence image showing fluorescein labeling of colon carcinoma but not fibroblasts (panel b) are depicted in FIG. 13. TABLE 10 Transdermal delivery and transgene expression of imaging probe. Mean and standard error in percentage are presented. Group Mean Std. Error BFP 5% 2.12% Control 0.25% 0.06% P < 0.01 (Significant at 99%) CONCLUSION Transdermal delivery of a large complex (BFP gene) after topical application and targeted delivery of an optical probe with parallels to antigen distribution were demonstrated using KNR. These studies confirm the feasibility of using this system for topical surveillance of melanoma or submucosal detection of colon cancer. As will be apparent to one skilled in the art, this platform can be used for targeted delivery of therapeutics, diagnostics, or combinations of both. Further, this platform can be used for real-time imaging via colonoscopy or dematoscopy (or direct visualization) as well as imaging methods such as virtual colonoscopy. It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.
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11775645
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US20080047342A1-20080228
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FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM FOR MUSCLE AND MUSCLE STRENGTH REFLEX TEST AND EXAMINATION METHOD USING THE SAME
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ACCEPTED
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20080214
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20080228
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[]
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A61B522
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["A61B522"]
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7506544
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20070710
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20090324
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073
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379010
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65439.0
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DOWTIN
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JEWEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Takano", "inventor_name_first": "Kihachirou", "inventor_city": "Chiba-Ken", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test is provided to enable a chiropractic practitioner or the like to easily diagnose an unknown disease and the cause of the disease. The functional diagram comprises an image portion identifying a prescribed examination item and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of the examination item. Furthermore, an examination method for examining a patient with the use of a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test is provided. The examination method comprises the steps of having a patient touch a portion of the functional diagram representing a portion or symptom of his body with one of his fingers of one of his hands and having a patient undergo the muscle and muscle strength reflex test to examine the portion or symptom of his body represented by the portion of the functional diagram touched by the patient.
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1. A functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test comprising: an image portion identifying a prescribed examination item; and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of the examination item. 2. The functional diagram for the muscle and muscle strength reflex test according to claim 1, wherein the scale has a plurality of discrete numbers lined up therewith. 3. The functional diagram for the muscle and muscle strength reflex test according to claim 1, wherein a patient touches a portion of the scale to undergo a first muscle and muscle strength reflex test, and then, the patient touches a different portion of the scale depending on a result of the first muscle and muscle strength reflex test to undergo a second muscle and muscle strength reflex test. 4. The functional diagram for the muscle and muscle strength reflex test according to claim 1, wherein the image portion and the scale portion are printed on a printed matter or are displayed on a monitor display of an electronic device. 5. An examination method for examining a patient with the use of a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test, the examination method comprising the steps of: having a patient touch a portion of the functional diagram representing a portion or symptom of his body with one of his fingers of one of his hands; and having a patient undergo the muscle and muscle strength reflex test to examine the portion or symptom of his body represented by the portion of the functional diagram touched by the patient. 6. The examination method according to claim 5, wherein the functional diagram comprising: an image portion representing the portion or symptom of his body; and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of a damage of the portion or symptom. 7. The examination method according to claim 5, wherein the muscle and muscle strength reflex test comprising the steps of: having the patient form an O-Ring shape with the other of his hands by placing the fingertips of his thumb and one of his remaining fingers together; and attempting to pull apart the O-Ring shape to measure a muscle strength of the fingers. 8. The examination method according to claim 5, wherein the patient touches a plurality of portions of the functional diagram, one by one, and the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed to determine a muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions, so that the muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions can be compared with each other.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a functional diagram suitably used for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test conducted in treatments such as chiropractic and the like and an examination method using the functional diagram, and more particularly, a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test that enables locating a damaged portion of a patient with high accuracy and an examination method using the functional diagram. 2. Description of Related Art In conventional treatments such as chiropractic and the like, a muscle and muscle strength reflex test may be performed to locate a damaged portion of a patient or diagnose the severity of the damage. This reflex test uses a response of a muscle or muscle strength of the patient caused by an external stimulation affecting the body or mentality of the patient. “Bi-digital O-ring test” (U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,107) is well known as the reflex test. In the Bi-digital O-ring test, a practitioner such as chiropractic practitioner and the like attempts to force apart an O-ring shape formed by a patient who places the fingertips of his thumb and index, middle, ring, or little finger together, and the practitioner examines an instantaneous loosening of the muscle of the fingers being forced apart at the time when a certain external stimulation is affecting the patient. When performing such tests, the practitioner sometimes explains a distortion and unleveling of the body during an examination. However, in fact, a patient cannot quite realize the distortion and unleveling. A body distortion check sheet, as described in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2005-261881 (hereinafter referred to as “Iwashige”), is known as a means to solve such a problem. To use this body distortion check sheet, a patient steps on a footprint of the check sheet, takes repeated high steps thereon with his eyes blindfolded, driving his thighs high and swinging his arms much, for approximately sixty times, and then removes his blindfold and sees which direction the toes of his feet are pointing to and which direction and how much he has moved, thus determining the degree of the distortion and unleveling of his body. The Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2003-310576 (hereinafter referred to as “Kayo”) discloses a method of examining the distortion of a patient's body. In this method, the patient moves each of the joints of his body within its movable range, and the movement of the joint is assessed to find a direction in which the joint can be easily moved and a direction in which it is difficult to move the joint, so that the distortion of the patient's body is discovered. Kayo further discloses a recording method including the steps of preparing a schematic diagram of human body describing each of the joints of the entire body when lying on the back and lying on the face, writing and recording the movement and movable direction of the joints at each of the joints on the schematic diagram using numerals, symbols, and figures, and writing and recording a physique in a static condition on the schematic diagram. However, the check sheet of Iwashige does not improve the accuracy with which the chiropractor locates a damaged portion, but it merely has the patient himself understand the distortion of his body. On the other hand, the schematic diagram disclosed by Kayo requires to examine and record the movement of all of the joints of the patient and his physique in a static condition, and therefore, the schematic diagram cannot be immediately applied for a particular examination such as the muscle reflex test and the muscle strength reflex test.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the invention to provide a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test that enables a practitioner to locate a damaged portion of a patient with high accuracy when the practitioner performs the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, a muscle and muscle strength reflex test includes an image portion identifying a prescribed examination item and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of the examination item. Furthermore, the scale may have a plurality of discrete numbers lined up therewith. Furthermore, a patient may touch a portion of the scale to undergo a first muscle and muscle strength reflex test, and then, the patient may touch a different portion of the scale depending on a result of the first muscle and muscle strength reflex test to undergo a second muscle and muscle strength reflex test. Furthermore, the image portion and the scale portion may be printed on a printed matter or may be displayed on a monitor display of an electronic device. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, an examination method for examining a patient with the use of a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test includes the steps of having a patient touch a portion of the functional diagram representing a portion or symptom of his body with one of his fingers of one of his hands and having a patient undergo the muscle and muscle strength reflex test to examine the portion or symptom of his body represented by the portion of the functional diagram touched by the patient. Furthermore, the functional diagram may have an image portion representing the portion or symptom of his body and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of a damage of the portion or symptom. Furthermore, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test may include the steps of having the patient form an O-Ring shape with the other of his hands by placing the fingertips of his thumb and one of his remaining fingers together and attempting to pull apart the O-Ring shape to measure a muscle strength of the fingers. Furthermore, the patient may touch a plurality of portions of the functional diagram, one by one, and the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed to determine a muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions, so that the muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions can be compared with each other.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a functional diagram suitably used for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test conducted in treatments such as chiropractic and the like and an examination method using the functional diagram, and more particularly, a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test that enables locating a damaged portion of a patient with high accuracy and an examination method using the functional diagram. 2. Description of Related Art In conventional treatments such as chiropractic and the like, a muscle and muscle strength reflex test may be performed to locate a damaged portion of a patient or diagnose the severity of the damage. This reflex test uses a response of a muscle or muscle strength of the patient caused by an external stimulation affecting the body or mentality of the patient. “Bi-digital O-ring test” (U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,107) is well known as the reflex test. In the Bi-digital O-ring test, a practitioner such as chiropractic practitioner and the like attempts to force apart an O-ring shape formed by a patient who places the fingertips of his thumb and index, middle, ring, or little finger together, and the practitioner examines an instantaneous loosening of the muscle of the fingers being forced apart at the time when a certain external stimulation is affecting the patient. When performing such tests, the practitioner sometimes explains a distortion and unleveling of the body during an examination. However, in fact, a patient cannot quite realize the distortion and unleveling. A body distortion check sheet, as described in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2005-261881 (hereinafter referred to as “Iwashige”), is known as a means to solve such a problem. To use this body distortion check sheet, a patient steps on a footprint of the check sheet, takes repeated high steps thereon with his eyes blindfolded, driving his thighs high and swinging his arms much, for approximately sixty times, and then removes his blindfold and sees which direction the toes of his feet are pointing to and which direction and how much he has moved, thus determining the degree of the distortion and unleveling of his body. The Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2003-310576 (hereinafter referred to as “Kayo”) discloses a method of examining the distortion of a patient's body. In this method, the patient moves each of the joints of his body within its movable range, and the movement of the joint is assessed to find a direction in which the joint can be easily moved and a direction in which it is difficult to move the joint, so that the distortion of the patient's body is discovered. Kayo further discloses a recording method including the steps of preparing a schematic diagram of human body describing each of the joints of the entire body when lying on the back and lying on the face, writing and recording the movement and movable direction of the joints at each of the joints on the schematic diagram using numerals, symbols, and figures, and writing and recording a physique in a static condition on the schematic diagram. However, the check sheet of Iwashige does not improve the accuracy with which the chiropractor locates a damaged portion, but it merely has the patient himself understand the distortion of his body. On the other hand, the schematic diagram disclosed by Kayo requires to examine and record the movement of all of the joints of the patient and his physique in a static condition, and therefore, the schematic diagram cannot be immediately applied for a particular examination such as the muscle reflex test and the muscle strength reflex test. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to provide a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test that enables a practitioner to locate a damaged portion of a patient with high accuracy when the practitioner performs the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, a muscle and muscle strength reflex test includes an image portion identifying a prescribed examination item and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of the examination item. Furthermore, the scale may have a plurality of discrete numbers lined up therewith. Furthermore, a patient may touch a portion of the scale to undergo a first muscle and muscle strength reflex test, and then, the patient may touch a different portion of the scale depending on a result of the first muscle and muscle strength reflex test to undergo a second muscle and muscle strength reflex test. Furthermore, the image portion and the scale portion may be printed on a printed matter or may be displayed on a monitor display of an electronic device. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, an examination method for examining a patient with the use of a functional diagram for a muscle and muscle strength reflex test includes the steps of having a patient touch a portion of the functional diagram representing a portion or symptom of his body with one of his fingers of one of his hands and having a patient undergo the muscle and muscle strength reflex test to examine the portion or symptom of his body represented by the portion of the functional diagram touched by the patient. Furthermore, the functional diagram may have an image portion representing the portion or symptom of his body and a scale portion arranged adjacent to the image portion and having a scale representing a degree of a damage of the portion or symptom. Furthermore, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test may include the steps of having the patient form an O-Ring shape with the other of his hands by placing the fingertips of his thumb and one of his remaining fingers together and attempting to pull apart the O-Ring shape to measure a muscle strength of the fingers. Furthermore, the patient may touch a plurality of portions of the functional diagram, one by one, and the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed to determine a muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions, so that the muscle strength at each of the plurality of the portions can be compared with each other. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects and features of the invention are apparent to those skilled in the art from the following preferred embodiments thereof when considered in conjunction with the accompanied drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of leg length; FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of ankle fatigue; FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of pelvic unleveling and functional decline rate; FIG. 4 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of sciatic nerve and femoral nerve; FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of major psoas muscle; FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of gluteus maximus muscle; FIG. 7 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of lumbar spine and sacral spine; FIG. 8 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of cervical vertebra; FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of cerebellar hypofunction; FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of vertebral artery and C1 to C3; FIG. 11 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of vertebral artery; FIG. 12 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of brainstem (cranial nerve); FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of brodmann's area; FIG. 14 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of hemoglobin; FIG. 15 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of amino acid sequence of alpha chain; FIG. 16 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of amino acid sequence of beta chain; FIG. 17 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of six points of cerebrum; FIG. 18 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of conjugate gaze motion of eyes; FIG. 19 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of erythrocyte and leukocyte; FIG. 20 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of cold and pollinosis examination; FIG. 21 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of infertility; FIG. 22 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of brachial plexus; FIG. 23 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram for simple cancer checkup; FIG. 24 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram for simple health checkup; FIG. 25 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of the fatigue display device; FIG. 26 to FIG. 29 are perspective views showing functional diagrams of muscles 1 to 4; FIG. 30 to FIG. 31 are perspective views showing functional diagrams for cellular phone 1 and 2; FIG. 32 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of days of menstrual cycle; FIG. 33 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of shoulder muscles; FIG. 34 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of vertebral artery at the base of brain; FIG. 35 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of hand paralysis; FIG. 36 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of brachial plexus; FIG. 37 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of travel of pyramidal tract; FIG. 38 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of pyramidal tract; FIG. 39 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of virus; FIG. 40 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of semitendinosus and semimembranosus; FIG. 41 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of liver; FIG. 42 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of heart valve; FIG. 43 is a perspective view showing a blank functional diagram for a simple examination; and FIG. 44 is a perspective view showing a functional diagram of coronary artery of heart. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention, and is a functional diagram of leg length. The functional diagram of the leg length is used to determine which leg is shorter in a case where there is a difference of length between the right and left legs. In FIG. 1, an image portion is an illustration showing a right leg 11 and a left leg 12, and scale portions 16 and 17 respectively have graduation portions 18 and 19. The functional diagram is used to diagnose a patient during treatments. A patient is asked to form an O shape by placing the fingertips of his thumb and index finger together, and the practitioner detects the muscle strength of the fingers forming the O shape. Subsequently, the patient forms O shapes by placing the fingertips of his thumb and middle, ring, and little fingers, one by one, and the practitioner detects the muscle strength of the respective O shapes formed by the patient. The practitioner detects the muscle strength by applying force in a direction to spread apart the O shapes formed by the fingers of the patient. While the practitioner detects the muscle strength as described above, the patient touches a portion of the functional diagram and touches different portions thereof as needed. Where the patient touches an image portion of the functional diagram representing a portion of his body that is damaged and abnormal, the muscle strength is detected to be weaker. Where the patient touches an image portion of the functional diagram representing a portion of his body that is healthy and normal, the muscle strength is detected to be stronger. Where the patient touches a scale portion of the functional diagram representing an incorrect degree, the muscle strength is detected to be weaker. Where the patient touches a scale portion of the functional diagram representing a correct degree, the muscle strength is detected to be stronger. These steps are repeated to determine a damaged portion of the patient and the degree of the damage. The functional diagram can also be used with other detection methods such as knee-lowering muscle test, arm-pull-down muscle test, and upper body inclining muscle test. In the knee-lowering muscle test, the patient sits down, touches a portion of the functional diagram of the present invention with, for example, his left index finger, and slightly lifts his right knee, and the practitioner applies downward force with his hand to the lifted knee of the patient to examine the muscle strength of the patient. In the arm-pull-down muscle test, the patient touches a portion of the functional diagram of the present invention and extends his arm horizontally, and the practitioner applies force to the horizontally-extended arm of the patient to examine the muscle strength. In the upper body inclining muscle test, the patient touches a portion of the functional diagram and inclines his upper body toward the practitioner, and the practitioner pushes back the patient to examine the muscle strength of the patient. Each of the above muscle and muscle strength reflex tests is suitably used with all of the functional diagrams as described below. FIG. 2 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of ankle fatigue. The functional diagram of this example indicates the degree of fatigue of each of the right and left ankles by percentage, and is used to examine whether the damaged portion is on the inner or outer side and what percentage of the functionality of the right or left leg is declined. The functional diagram has image portions 21 and 22 and scale portions 26 and 27 arranged adjacent to the image portions 21 and 22. This functional diagram is used for the above-described muscle and muscle strength reflex tests and improves the accuracy of the examination. FIG. 3 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of pelvic unleveling and functional decline rate. The functional diagram for pelvic unleveling and functional decline rate is used to examine how the pelvis is deformed, whether the right rear or left rear is inclined downward, whether the deformation is inward or outward, and what percentage of the functionality is declined. An image portion 31 describing a pelvis is formed at a substantial center of the diagram, and an image portion 32 arranged below the image portion 31 has six illustrations of pelvises each showing a point of the pelvis. Scale portions 36 and 37 are arranged on either side of the image portion 31, and each scale in the scale portions 36 and 37 corresponds to a respective point of the pelvis. FIG. 4 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of sciatic nerve and femoral nerve. The functional diagram of sciatic nerve and femoral nerve is used to examine which side of the sciatic nerve, the tibial nerve, and the common peroneal nerve are damaged, what percentage is the degree of the damages, what percentage is the degree of a damage of the femur, which of the right or left side is damaged, and what percentage of the functionality is declined. An image portion 41 in a shape of an arrow is formed at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 46 for femoral nerve, a scale portion 49 for sciatic nerve, a scale portion 48 for tibial nerve, and a scale portion 47 for common peroneal nerve are formed around the image portion 41. FIG. 5 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of major psoas muscle. The functional diagram of major psoas muscle is used to examine whether the major psoas muscle and the major psoas muscle nerves are damaged, which of the right or left side is damaged, what percentage of the functionality is declined, and the like. An image portion 51 of the major psoas muscle is formed at the upper right in the functional diagram, and a scale portion 56 of the major psoas muscle is formed lateral to the image portion 51. An image portion 52 of the major psoas muscle nerves is formed at the lower left of the diagram, and a scale portion 57 of the major psoas muscle nerves is formed lateral to the image portion 52. FIG. 6 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of gluteus maximus muscle. The functional diagram of gluteus maximus muscle is used to examine whether the gluteus maximus muscle is damaged, which of the right or left side is damaged, to what degree the functionality is declined, and whether the functionality of the exiting portion of the nerves controlling the gluteus maximus muscle is declined. In the same manner as the diagram of FIG. 5, an image portion 61 of the gluteus maximus muscle is formed at the upper left, and a scale portion 66 is formed lateral to the image portion. An image portion 62 of the gluteus maximus muscle nerves is formed at the lower right, and a scale portion 67 of the gluteus maximus muscle nerves is formed lateral to the image potion 62. FIG. 7 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of lumbar spine and sacral spine. The functional diagram of lumbar spine and sacral spine detects whether the lumbar spine is damaged, which vertebra is damaged, whether the damage is on the right or left side, what percentage of the functionality is declined, and subsequently, whether the sacral spine is damaged, which vertebra is damaged, what percentage of the functionality is declined. An image portion 71 of lumbar spine and sacral spine is arranged at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 76 of lumbar spine and a scale portion 77 of sacral spine are arranged in the diagram. FIG. 8 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of cervical vertebra. The functional diagram of cervical vertebra is used to examine whether the cervical vertebrae are damaged and whether the damage is on the right or left side. Subsequently, the damage and the decline rate of functionality are examined from the first cervical vertebra to the first thoracic vertebra. An image portion 81 in a shape of a cervical vertebrae is formed at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 86 and a scale portion 87 are arranged on either side of the image portion 81. FIG. 9 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a check diagram of cerebellar hypofunction. The check diagram of cerebellar hypofunction is used to examine the damage of the cerebellum and whether the damage is on the left or right side. Subsequently, the decline rate of the functionality of the cerebellum is examined. An image portion 91 in a shape of a cerebellum is described at an approximate center of the diagram, and a scale portion 96 and a scale portion 97 for examining whether the damage is at the left or right side are arranged on either side of the image portion 91. A scale portion 98 for examining the decline rate of the functionality of the cerebrum is also arranged in the diagram. FIG. 10 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of vertebral artery and C1 to C3. It is generally not easy to confirm compression stenosis of the vertebral artery, but the compression stenosis can be identified by a shift of the cervical vertebrae. Whether the damage is on the right or left side is determined by a rotation of the first cervical vertebra. Subsequently, the decline rate of the functionality, namely, the degree of the compression, is examined. An image portion 101 is arranged to describe the arterial system from basilar artery to vertebral artery and aorta, and a scale portion 106 is arranged at the left of the image portion 101 to correspond to each point of the artery. FIG. 11 an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is another functional diagram of vertebral artery. FIG. 11 is the same as FIG. 10 in that the diagram of FIG. 11 is also used to examine functions related to the vertebral artery, but a picture taken by MR (Magneto Resonance) is used in an image portion 111 and an image portion 112 in FIG. 11. A scale portion 116 and a scale portion 117 are arranged on either side of the image portion 111 and the image portion 112. FIG. 12 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of brainstem (cranial nerve). This functional diagram of brainstem (cranial nerve) is used to examine functions of cranial nerves originating from a brainstem, and more specifically, ten nerves originating from the brainstem among twelve cranial nerves, namely, third cranial nerve (oculomotor nerve), fourth cranial nerve (trochlear nerve), fifth cranial nerve (trigeminal nerve), sixth cranial nerve (abuducent nerve), seventh cranial nerve (facial nerve), eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve), ninth cranial nerve (glossopharyngeal nerve), tenth cranial nerve (vagus nerve), eleventh cranial nerve (accessory nerve), and twelfth cranial nerve (hypoglossal nerve). In addition, the first cervical vertebra and the second cervical vertebra can be examined. An image portion 121 In a shape of a brainstem is described at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 126 and a scale portion 127 for examining whether the damage is on the left or right side are arranged on either side of the image portion 121. FIG. 13 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of brodmann's area. The functional diagram of brodmann's area is used to examine the degree of functional decline of the cortex on the surface of the cerebrum, and the examination is performed using the diagram having reference signs each corresponding to the major portions. Motor area (4, 6, and 8), frontal area (9, 10, and 11), visual area (17, 18, and 19), speech area (22, 44, and 45), and the like are examined to determine a damaged portion and measure a decline rate of the functionality. A image portion 131 is described in a shape of a brain is described in a substantial center, and scale portions 136 to 139 for examining whether the damage is in the motor area, frontal area, visual area, or the speech area are arranged around the image portion 131. FIG. 14 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of hemoglobin. The functional diagram of hemoglobin is used to examine the degree of coupling of oxygen and the decline ratio of the functionality of alpha and beta polypeptide chains. Symptoms of anemia can be known from the result of this examination. An image portion 141 in a shape of hemoglobin is arranged at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 146 and a scale portion 147 are arranged around the image portion 141 and are used to examine whether the alpha and beta polypeptide chains are damaged. FIG. 15 and FIG. 16 are examples of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and are functional diagrams of amino acid sequence of alpha chain and beta chain, respectively. The functional diagrams of amino acid sequence of alpha chain and beta chain are used to help the practitioner detect amino acids hindering the coupling of oxygen. An image portion 151 and an image portion 161 respectively representing amino acid sequences of alpha chain and beta chain are arranged in a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 156 and a scale portion 166 are described at the upper right corner. FIG. 17 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of six points of cerebrum. The functional diagram of six points of cerebrum is used to determine which portion in the motor area of the cerebrum should be give a stimulation to redress the balance of functionality, and is used to treat the determined portion. To use the functional diagram, the muscle reflex test is performed at points 1 to 6 to determine a point where the functionality has declined, and then, the point is treated by stimulations. Subsequently, the muscle reflex test is performed again to find whether powers of resistance have been obtained. An image portion 171 describing frontal and lateral view of a human head is arranged at a upper center of the diagram, and a scale portion 176 is arranged at a lower portion of the diagram. FIG. 18 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of conjugate gaze motion of eyes. It is known that cranial nerve disorder decreases the ability of the movement of eyes, and this functional diagram is used to perform examinations based on such empirical rule. This functional diagram enables the practitioner to determine a damaged portion and the decline rate of the conjugate gaze motion through examination. An image portion 181 describing the movement of an eye is arranged at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 186 for examining whether the eye is damaged is arranged around the image portion 181. FIG. 19 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of erythrocyte and leukocyte. The status of erythrocyte and the condition of health of the body have correlation with each other, and the viscosity of the erythrocyte is preferred to be lower for a healthy body. An autonomic disorder may disrupt the balance of leukocyte, and thus, it is important to examine the functional decline of not only erythrocyte but also granular leukocyte and lymphocyte as leukocyte for the maintenance of good health. FIG. 19 has an image portion 191 including a macro photograph of blood and further has a scale portion 196 of erythrocyte, a scale portion 197 of granular leukocyte, and a scale portion 198 of lymphocyte around the image portion 191. FIG. 20 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of cold and pollinosis examination. FIG. 20 has an image portion 204 for examining the functional decline of granular leukocyte and lymphocyte as leukocyte just as FIG. 19 for immunological test, and the image portion 204 is used to obtain a reference value in conjunction with the examination. FIG. 20 further has an image portion 201 including pictures of various plants causing the pollinosis, and has a scale portion 206 for cold and a scale portion 207 for the pollinosis. FIG. 21 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of infertility. The functional diagram of infertility is an examination diagram to be used to identify the infertility caused by autonomic disorder and to examine parasympathetic nerves controlling smooth muscles of endometrium. FIG. 21 has image portions 211 and 212 on an upper left and a lower left of the diagram, and further has scale portions 216 to 219 corresponding to each point. FIG. 22 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of brachial plexus. The functional diagram of brachial plexus is a correlation diagram of nerves controlling the arm, and enables identifying a damaged portion. An image portion 221 describing nerves related to the arm and the correlation of nerves is arranged at a substantial center of the diagram, and a scale portion 226 is arranged around the image portion 221. FIG. 23 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram for simple cancer checkup. The functional diagram for simple cancer checkup is used to roughly examine which portion has been affected by cancer. An image portion 231 describing various cancers with indications of portions is arranged at the right of the diagram, and a scale portion 236 is arranged at the left of the diagram. FIG. 24 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram for simple health checkup. The functional diagram for simple health checkup is a diagram to be used to easily examine the fitness, the fatigue degree, and the degree of lack of oxygen. The functional diagram for simple health checkup has image portions 241 to 243 indicating items of the examinations and scale portions 246 to 248 respectively corresponding to the image portions 241 to 243. FIG. 25 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a fatigue display device. A fatigue display device 250 displays following three statuses depending on the degree of the absorbing of oxygen into brain cells, and one of either “OK”, “NAP 15”, or “DANGER” is switched and displayed on a display unit 251 serving as an image portion. The display may be switched manually by the practitioner, and the display 251 itself may be a device such as a liquid crystal display. The fatigue display device 250 has three indication portions 256, 257, and 258. A case (a) in FIG. 25 shows a normal case where the degree of fatigue is 50% or less, and the degree of fatigue is determined by the muscle reflex test while the patient points at the indication portion 256. A case (b) in FIG. 25 shows a case where the degree of fatigue is 51% to 85%, and the patient need to take a nap for 15 minutes or more. In this case, the muscle reflex test is performed while the patient points at the indication portion 257 to detect the degree of fatigue. A case (c) in FIG. 25 shows a case where the degree of fatigue is 86% or more and substantial sleep is required. In this case, the muscle reflex test is performed while the patient points at the indication portion 258 to detect the degree of fatigue. FIG. 26 to FIG. 29 are examples of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and are functional diagrams 1 to 4 of muscles. Image portions 261, 271, 281, and 291 are arranged in each of the diagram, and scale portions 266 and 267, 276 and 277, 286 and 287, and 296 and 297 are respectively arranged on either side of the image portions 261, 271, 281, and 291. The use of the functional diagrams 1 to 4 of muscles effectively contributes to the practitioner in that a damaged portion of the patient is identified with high accuracy where the practitioner performs the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. FIG. 30 to FIG. 31 are examples of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and are functional diagrams 1 and 2 for cellular phone. Each of display units 300 represents a display of cellular phone. Examinations using a display of cellular phone can be performed. For example, in a case of FIG. 30, the diabetes can be examined using a combination of an item portion 301 of the diabetes and a scale portion 302 adjacent to the item portion 301, and in a case of FIG. 31, the degree of health can be examined using a combination of an item portion 311 of the degree of health and a scale portion 312 adjacent to the item portion 311. FIG. 32 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of days of menstrual cycle. The functional diagram of days of menstrual cycle is used in the muscle and muscle strength reflex test to accurately grasp the days of menstrual cycle. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with her left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the patient's muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm that is easy to measure. For example, an examination is performed as follows. First, a patient places her left index finger on the first day of the diagram to identify the menstrual day using the functional diagram of days of menstrual cycle. Then, the patient forms a ring shape with her thumb and ring finger, and the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. Subsequently, the patient places her left index finger on the second day, third day, fourth day, and so on, and the above muscle and muscle strength reflex test is repeated. The day where the muscle strength of the patient is the most strong is identified as the menstrual day. If there are two or three days where the muscle strength is strong, the patient then places her left finger on a number of the percentage scale, so that the day where the muscle strength is the most strong is identified. FIG. 33 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of shoulder muscles. The functional diagram of shoulder muscles is used to examine the function of major muscles of the shoulder. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on scale portions 1 to 6, one by one, representing muscles. The function of each of the muscles is examined with the muscle reflex test. The muscle whose functionality is recognized to have declined is further examined as to which of the left or right is damaged with the use of numerals 7 and 9. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 8 and 10 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined muscle whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated muscle has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 34 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of vertebral artery at the base of brain. The functional diagram of vertebral artery at the base of brain is used to grasp the condition of the function of vertebral artery and basilar artery. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on numerals 1 to 5, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the brain to be examined. The function of each of the portions is examined with the muscle reflex test. The portion whose functionality is recognized to have declined is further examined as to which of the left or right is damaged with the use of numerals 1 and 3. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 2 and 4 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 35 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of hand paralysis. The functional diagram of hand paralysis is used to grasp the condition of hand paralysis. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on alphabets A to D, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the hand to be examined. The function of each of the portions is examined with the muscle reflex test. The portion whose functionality is recognized to have declined is further examined as to which of the left or right is damaged with the use of numerals 1 to 4. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 5 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 36 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of brachial plexus. The functional diagram of brachial plexus is used to grasp the condition of the function of shoulder and arm. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 17 of the diagram, one by one, each representing a never of the shoulder and arm to be examined. The function of each of the nerves is examined with the muscle reflex test. The nerve whose functionality is recognized to have declined is further examined as to which of the left or right is damaged with the use of numerals 18 to 19. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 25 and 26 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of numerals 20 to 24 to examine which level causes a functional decline. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 37 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of travel of pyramidal tract. The functional diagram of pyramidal tract is used to grasp the condition of the function of each portion from peripheral nerves to the precentral gyrus. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 15 of the diagram, one by one. The function of each of the nerves is examined with the muscle reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 1 and 15 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again with the use portions 1 to 15 in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of numerals 1 to 15 to examine which level causes the functional decline. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. A detailed examination is not required. It is sufficient to merely know which level is recognized to be abnormal. FIG. 38 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of travel of pyramidal tract. The functional diagram of travel of pyramidal tract displays the transmission from perception receptors at the end and is used to identify a damaged portion in levels 1, 2, and 3. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 3, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of pyramidal tract to be examined. The function of each of the nerves is examined with the muscle reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 1 and 3 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of numerals 1 to 3 to examine which level causes the functional decline. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. A detailed examination is not required. It is sufficient to merely know which level is recognized to be abnormal. The importance of the upper cervical vertebrae is understood from this functional diagram of the motor nervous system and the perception nervous system. FIG. 39 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of virus. The functional diagram of virus is used to easily examine the virus infection of the patient. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10, one by one, of the diagram each representing a virus to be examined. The infection to each of the viruses is examined with the muscle reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 3, 6, 9, and 10 to detect the percentage of functional decline with respect to the virus possibly infecting the patient. If the functional decline is determined to be more than −30%, the patient should be presumed to be infected with the virus and treated carefully, and the examiner should ask the patient to undergo examination at a medical institution. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of numerals 4, 5, 7, and 8 to examine which level causes the functional decline, and The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of numerals 6, 9, and 10 to examine whether the immune strength is recovered. If the granulocyte and lymphocyte are found to be less than −50% at the numeral 10, the examiner should be cautious and ask the patient to undergo examination at a medical institution. After the treatment, an examination should be performed with the numerals 6 and 9. If the muscle reflex test determines that the muscle strength is less than −30%, it should be considered that the patient is infected with virus, and the examiner should introduce the patient to a medical institution. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. A detailed examination is not required. FIG. 40 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of semitendinosus and semimembranosus. The functional diagram of semitendinosus and semimembranosus is used to examine the functional decline of semitendinosus and semimembranosus. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 and 2, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the patient's body to be examined. The function of each portion is examined with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 3 and 4 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 41 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of liver. The functional diagram of liver is used to examine the functional decline of liver. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 8, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the patient's body to be examined. The function of each portion is examined with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portions 9, 10, 11, and 12 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 42 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of heart valve. The functional diagram of heart valve is used to examine the functional decline of heart valve. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 13, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the patient's body to be examined. The function of each portion is examined with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of scale portion 7 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. FIG. 43 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a blank functional diagram for a simple examination. Examination items are written to this blank functional diagram for a simple examination so that a new functional diagram is created. Names of symptoms, medicines, and muscles are written to the title of examination of the cards 1 and 2 so that a new functional diagram is created. FIG. 44 is an example of the functional diagram for muscle and muscle strength reflex test of the present invention and is a functional diagram of coronary artery of heart. The functional diagram of coronary artery of heart is used to examine the functional decline of coronary artery of heart. The patient points at the functional diagram (specimen) with his left index finger (pointing finger), and at the same time, the examiner measures the muscle strength of any one of the right hand, fingers, and arm of the patient that is easy to measure. For example, an examination using the functional diagram is performed as follows. First, a patient forms a ring shape with his thumb and ring finger with his right hand. Then, the examiner tries to force apart the patient's fingers formed in a ring shape, whereas the patient resists the force applied by the examiner, so that the examiner examines the resisting muscle strength of the patient with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. While the examiner examines the patient's muscle strength, the patient places his left index finger on portions 1 to 6, one by one, of the diagram each representing a portion of the patient's body to be examined. The function of each portion is examined with the muscle and muscle strength reflex test. The muscle and muscle strength reflex test is also performed with the use of a scale portion 7 to detect the percentage of functional decline of the examined portion whose functionality has been determined to have declined. After the treatment, the muscle and muscle strength reflex test is performed again in a similar manner to confirm whether the treated portion has been properly adjusted. Finally, the condition of examination and treatment is recorded. The functional diagram of the present invention can be applied to portions of the entire body and enables identify a damaged portion with the use of pictures, illustrations, letters, anatomical charts, and the like. The functional diagram enables the practitioner to easily grasp unknown diseases and the reason of the disease based on assumption. Furthermore, a new functional diagram can be created for an expected portion or disease. The above-described functional diagrams of the present invention shows examples where discrete numbers are arranged on the graduation of the scale. However, the graduation can also have other expressions such as heavy, light, normal, abnormal, alphabets, and the like indicating some other orders. Furthermore, the graduation of the scale is straight in the above-described examples, but the scale can also be a curved, wave, staggered, and matrix shape. The foregoing description of a preferred embodiment of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description, and is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. The description was selected to best explain the principles of the invention and their practical application to enable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention in various embodiments and various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of the invention not be limited by the specification, but be defined by the claims set forth below.
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A
| 7A61
| 17A61B
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5
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22
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11984279
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US20080234560A1-20080925
|
Optical measurement instrument for living body semiconductor laser installation for living body light measuring device
|
ACCEPTED
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20080911
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20080925
|
[]
|
A61B500
|
["A61B500", "H01S310", "H01S530"]
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8369913
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20071115
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20130205
|
600
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310000
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58255.0
|
LIU
|
CHU CHUAN
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Nomoto", "inventor_name_first": "Etsuko", "inventor_city": "Sagamihara", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Ohtoshi", "inventor_name_first": "Tsukuru", "inventor_city": "Hanno", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Kiguchi", "inventor_name_first": "Masashi", "inventor_city": "Kawagoe", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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A living body measuring instrument having a sub-mount on which plural light-emitting devices oscillating at different wavelengths are mounted in proximity, one optical output monitoring device that detects the optical outputs of these light-emitting devices and a light source mounted on the same heat sink which are housed in one can-package, a light-receiving device that detects a signal from a living body, and a circuit that separates the optical output signals from the light-emitting devices, wherein at least one light-emitting device has a light-emitting layer including a In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer and a barrier layer on a GaAs substrate, the strain E satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.45, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm.
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1. An optical measurement instrument for a living body, the instrument comprising: a light source that emits a plurality of optical signals to the surface of a living body, a light-receiving device that detects the plurality of optical signals emitted from the surface of the living body after they have passed through the interior of the living body, and a signal separation circuit that separates the plurality of optical signals for each wavelength, wherein the light source includes a plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices having mutually different wavelengths from the visible to the infrared mounted on a sub-mount, a driving circuit that controls the optical signal output connected to the plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices, and one optical output power monitoring device that detects the optical signal outputs emitted from the plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices, these elements being housed in one package, a monitored signal circuit that separates the plurality of optical signals detected by the optical output power monitoring device for each wavelength, and the optical signal output of the plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices is controlled by feeding the optical signals having different wavelengths separated via the monitored signal separation circuit back to the driving circuit connected to the semiconductor light-emitting devices that emit the wavelengths. 2. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein the optical signals emitted from the plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices contain two wavelengths selected so that the difference between the absorption coefficient for each wavelength of the optical signals emitted from the plurality of semiconductor light-emitting devices to a plurality of biological materials forming the living body is greater than a predetermined value, and at least one wavelength intermediate between these two wavelengths. 3. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein the shortest wavelength among the wavelengths of the plurality of optical signals is 705±5 nm. 4. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of optical signals have wavelengths including 755±5 nm. 5. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein the light source and light-receiving device are disposed at a distance at which the temperature of the living body can be detected. 6. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 5, having a device to cause the light emitted from the semiconductor light-emitting devices to diverge. 7. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 5, wherein the wavelength fluctuation of the semiconductor light-emitting devices in the usage environment is within ±5 nm for each semiconductor light-emitting device. 8. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 5, wherein the reflectance of a light-emitting facet at the wavelength of the light emitted from the light-emitting facet, is 50% or more. 9. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 5, wherein the semiconductor light-emitting devices perform self-pulsation. 10. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the semiconductor light-emitting devices has an emission layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and a barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the emission layer is such that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.45, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm. 11. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the semiconductor light-emitting devices has an emission layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and a barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the emission layer is such that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.2%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.25, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 730 nm. 12. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the semiconductor light-emitting devices has an emission layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and a barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein: the emission layer is such that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦0.9%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.20, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 720 nm. 13. The optical measurement instrument for a living body according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the semiconductor light-emitting devices has an emission layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and a barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the emission layer is such that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.6%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.20≦y≦50.35, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 725 nm to 760 nm. 14. A semiconductor laser installation, wherein a plurality of laser devices respectively emitting two wavelengths such that the difference between the absorption coefficient for each wavelength of the measurement light of a plurality of biological materials forming the living body to be measured is greater than a predetermined value, and at least one wavelength intermediate between these two wavelengths, are mounted in one package. 15. The semiconductor laser installation according to claim 14, wherein the shortest wavelength among the plurality of wavelengths of the laser installation is 705±5 nm. 16. The semiconductor laser installation according to claim 14, wherein the plurality of wavelengths includes the wavelength of 755±5 nm. 17. The semiconductor laser installation according to claim 14, having a device that causes a laser beam emitted from the laser devices to diverge. 18. The semiconductor laser installation according to claim 14, wherein the wavelength fluctuation according to the usage environment of each device forming the laser installation is within ±5 nm. 19. The semiconductor laser installation according to claim 14, wherein at least one of the devices forming the laser installation has an emission layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant awin the surface and a barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the emission layer is such that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.45, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an optical measurement instrument using a semiconductor light-emitting device, and in particular to a living body measuring instrument using light and a light source operating in a wavelength range from the visible to the infrared used in this device. 2. Description of the Related Arts Spectroscopy using a light source in a wavelength range from the visible to the infrared is a widely practiced technique, and wavelengths suitable for measuring information pertaining to the living body have been indicated. For example, according to Patent Document 1 (JP-A Hei 2-290534), it is widely known that specific light wavelengths ranging from the visible to the infrared are absorbed by metabolic substrates, and the use of wavelengths of 700 nm to 1300 nm is preferred since their scattering in biological tissues is small and their absorption by water is small. In Patent Document 1, the light source used to measure deoxy-hemoglobin concentration of blood uses two wavelengths, 760 nm which is a unique absorption wavelength of this substance, and a wavelength near this wavelength (e.g., 800 nm), or three wavelengths including these two wavelengths at which there is a large difference in the absorption coefficient of the substance and an intermediate wavelength. To measure the concentration of oxy-hemoglobin at the same time as that of deoxy-hemoglobin, a total of four wavelengths, i.e., a unique absorption wavelength at which there is a difference between the two hemoglobins, e.g., 650 nm, a wavelength near this wavelength, an absorption wavelength at which the absorption of the two hemoglobins is the same, e.g., 805 nm, and a wavelength near this wavelength, are used. Patent Document 1 discloses that prior to performing living body light measurement, the shape of the living body must be determined by x-ray CT (computed tomography) or NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance). Patent Document 2 (JP-A Hei 8-103434) discloses that, in an instrument that measures information in a living body using only light, an information processing method is performed wherein a light source is intensity-modulated at an arbitrary frequency, and a signal from the living body is processed by a lock-in-amplifier or the like and displayed as time series data. It is mentioned that a semiconductor laser diode may also be used as the light source, but no detailed description is given except as regards to wavelength. When semiconductor lasers are used as plural light sources having different oscillation wavelengths for these measurements, the devices in a commercial can-package are used alongside each other. In semiconductor laser devices of the conventional art, there is usually a semiconductor laser of one wavelength in one can-package. As an exception, Patent Document 3 (JP-A Hei 11-186651) discloses semiconductor lasers having two wavelengths, i.e., 780 nm for CD read and 650 nm for DVD read/write used in optical disk record regeneration devices installed on a sub-mount in one can-package, which is commercially available. Further, Patent Document 4 (JP-A 2001-230502) discloses a technology wherein semiconductor lasers having three wavelengths, i.e., a wavelength of 405 nm for Blu-Ray or HD-DVD record regeneration in addition to the first two wavelengths, are simultaneously housed in one can package. These semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are not made to oscillate simultaneously due to their different applications. Patent Document 5 (JP-A 2006-186243) discloses a light source wherein semiconductor lasers having three wavelengths are disposed in proximity to each other in one package. These three wavelengths correspond for example to red, green and blue for display applications. By using a can-package housing semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths, devices that contain this light source can be made more compact. The semiconductor lasers used as a light sources in measurement instruments, optical disk record regeneration devices and displays, must be detected an optical output, and provided with an electrical feedback circuit to stabilize the optical output. The optical output detection method may be for example a front monitor method which is frequently used in optical disk record regeneration devices (Patent Document 6 (JP-A 2004-207420)), or a rear monitor method used with semiconductor lasers for commercial products (Non-patent Document 1 (Ryoichi Ito, Michio Nakamura, Semiconductor Lasers [Fundamentals and Application], Baifukan, (1989), p.236)). Since, in the former front monitor method, the semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are not often driven simultaneously, it there is usually one optical output power monitoring device, and in Patent Document 6, a device is disclosed wherein plural lasers are operated on a time-sharing basis, and an optical output power is detected in synchronism with their operation interval. In the latter rear monitor method, as described in Patent Document 7 (JP-A Hei 9-164722), there is a printing device having a light intensity corrector that uses one optical output power monitoring device for the light from plural light-emitting points. Since these beam-emitting elements are used for printing applications, they use an identical wavelength at which the photoreceptor that detects the light has a good sensitivity, and they are not made to emit light simultaneously. In the wavelength range of 700 nm-1300 nm which is described as preferable in Patent Document 1, since it is difficult to improve the characteristics and reliability of semiconductor lasers oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, there are very few of them on the market. The active layer material may be obtained by increasing the Al proportion of AlGaAs, by making GaInP highly strained, or by adding As to GaInP. According to Non-patent Document 2 (IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol.5, No.3, p.785-791 (1999)), when the quantum well layer is InGaAsP (strain 1.6%), a wavelength of 730 nm is obtained, but the strain is large and these lasers are not reliable. Also, in Patent Document 8 (JP-A Hei 9-307183), there is a numerical limitation of y≦50.15 in an In 1-x Ga x As y P 1-y quantum well layer, and the wavelength is 635 nm which is not contained within the wavelength range of the present invention.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the conventional art, living body light measuring devices are usually used only by a few medical institutions or research organizations, and for these devices to have wider application, they need to be more compact. Likewise, a light source having plural light-emitting devices of different wavelengths which are part thereof, needs to be more compact. One solution to this problem is to use a light source having plural wavelengths mounted on one sub-mount, such as is disclosed in disc recorder regeneration device applications or display applications, and house it in one can-package. Another problem is increasing the precision of living body light measuring devices. Since the state of a living body is constantly changing and it is difficult to distinguish the measurement signal from noise, which tends to lead to confusion, the optical output and the wavelength of the light source must be stable. Hence, since the noise in the signal from a living body is of the order of 1%, the optical output fluctuation of the light source must be less than 0.1%. Regarding the method of detecting the optical output of these semiconductor lasers, the problem in the conventional front monitor method is that when the optical output power monitoring device used for detection is taken out of the can-package in which the semiconductor laser is housed, the number of components increases. On the other hand, in the rear monitor method, the optical output power monitoring device used for detection can be mounted on the same heat sink as the light-emitting devices, and housed in one can-package. In Patent Document 5, a diagram is disclosed wherein optical output power monitoring devices of equal number to a number of semiconductor laser diodes are installed to the rear of the semiconductor lasers, but the detection method is not described in detail. In another method wherein plural semiconductor lasers used for living body measurement are operated simultaneously in a certain time interval, in the layout of Patent Document 5, the rear optical output of the semiconductor laser installed in front of one optical output power monitoring device and the rear optical output of the semiconductor laser adjacent to it are both input, so there is a possibility that a correct optical output power detection might not be possible, and it is difficult to separate the influence of the adjacent device. Further, in the wavelength band from 700 nm to 1300 nm which is described as preferred in Patent Document 1, in semiconductor lasers that oscillate at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, the active layer material is AlGaAs used for 780 nm band lasers where the Al proportion is increased, GaInP used in the 600 nm band which was highly strained, or InGaAsP which is difficult to obtain by crystal growth. In the case of AlGaAs, when the Al proportion is large, oxidation occurs easily and reliability decreases, and since the difference of composition from the AlGaAs cladding layer is small, confinement of the carrier is impaired which may lead to a deterioration of characteristics. With GaInP, if the material is highly strained, crystal defects tend to occur and reliability decreases. As for InGaAsP, it is said that crystal growth of this material is difficult, and there are very few reports. Hence, since it is difficult to improve the characteristics and reliability of light-emitting devices in this wavelength band, there are very few on the market. The problem therefore is to develop technology to improve the characteristics and reliability of semiconductor lasers in this wavelength band, and allow them to be manufactured stably. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide, as a light source for living body measurement, a compact light source wherein light-emitting devices oscillating at plural different wavelengths from the visible to the infrared are housed in one can-package, and an optical measurement instrument for a living body on which this light source is mounted. It is a further object of the invention to provide a design in which the characteristics of semiconductor lasers oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, which are difficult to acquire on the market as light sources for living body measurement, are stable and highly reliable. To attain the aforesaid object, the invention provides a design wherein plural semiconductor light-emitting devices oscillating at plural different wavelengths from the visible to the infrared are mounted on one sub-mount in proximity to each other together with one optical output power monitoring device that detects the optical output of these semiconductor light-emitting devices on the same heat sink, the whole being housed in one can-package, and having a circuit which separates the optical output signals from the light-emitting devices from the detection signal of the optical output power monitoring device. The method used by the circuit may be to modulate the semiconductor light-emitting devices at plural frequencies and separate the signals by a lock-in-amplifier, to operate the semiconductor light-emitting devices on a time division basis and perform detection in synchronism with their operation, or a combination of the both methods. FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 show the basic construction of the invention. FIG. 1 shows the construction of a light source used in the optical measurement instrument of the invention, three of the plural semiconductor lasers being shown in the diagram. Semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 are joined to a sub-mount 4 by solder. An anode side 5 to 7 of a bonding pad and a cathode side 8 are wired to drive the semiconductor lasers. In this example, the cathode side was common, but the anode side may be common. At the same time, an optical output power monitoring device 9 is disposed to the rear of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 , and mounted together with the sub-mount 4 on a heat sink 10 . The signal received from the optical output power monitoring device 9 arrives at a monitored signal separation circuit 11 . Depending on the separated signals, electrical feedback signals such that the optical outputs of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 remain constant, are sent to light-emitting device driving power supplies 12 to 14 . To use this light source for living body measurement, a wavelength must be selected with reference to a unique absorption wavelength of the material to be measured. For example, as the wavelength of the light source used to measure deoxy-hemoglobin, referring to the absorption coefficients of deoxy- and oxy-hemoglobin shown in FIG. 3 , two wavelengths, i.e., 760 nm which is the unique absorption wavelength of this substance and a wavelength near this wavelength (e.g., 800 nm) may be used, or three wavelengths, i.e. these two wavelengths for which there is a large difference in the absorption coefficient of this substance and one intermediate wavelength may be used. From FIG. 3 , the first of these three wavelengths is selected from a region just below 730 nm at which the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin is large, and above 650 nm at which the absorption of the living body is not too large so that sufficient signal strength can be obtained (e.g., 690 nm). The second is a wavelength selected from a region just above 830 nm at which the absorption coefficient of oxy-hemoglobin is large (e.g., 830 nm). The third is selected at 760 nm, which is between these two wavelengths. Since the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin has a local maximal value between 750 nm to 760 nm, at this wavelength the absorbed signal increases, and it is a unique absorption wavelength which contributes to enhancing measurement precision. Therefore, selecting one wavelength of the light source in the range 750 nm to 760 nm is advantageous. When selecting the first wavelength, referring to safety standards (JISC6802) and world standards (IEC60825) for laser products, if a wavelength above 700 nm is selected, the permissible strength can be increased even for the same class of laser and the measurement signal can be increased, so precision can be increased. Since there is little scattering in biological tissue, measurement precision can be increased even while respecting safety standards, so selecting a wavelength above 700 nm is advantageous. The light generated from the light source having the construction of FIG. 1 may be guided into an optical fiber and transmitted as it is, may be propagated in the air, or a living body may be exposed to it directly. If it is guided into an optical fiber, the original optical power is attenuated in the optical fiber, so the optical output of the light source must be designed for fiber output with due regard to safety. On the other hand, in the case of air propagation and living body exposure, there are safety restrictions on the optical output of the light source depending on wavelength. From safety considerations, to ensure safety of the operator's eyes, there is a restriction on the light intensity in a circle of diameter 7 mm corresponding to the pupil size at a distance of 10 cm which is the shortest focal distance, therefore the light should be made to diverge using a light diverging modality such as a lens or the like. From FIG. 3 , it is seen also that the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin in the region below 805 nm is sensitive to wavelength fluctuations, so wavelength fluctuations are preferably small. According to semiconductor laser catalogs, the wavelength specification is set to ±10 nm. If the optical source is disposed in proximity to the living body, considering that there may be a wavelength variation from a room temperature of 25° C. to about 50° C. which results from adding 10° C. due to the heat of the device to the body temperature of about 40° C., the wavelength fluctuation rate relative to temperature variation is 0.2 nm/K, so the wavelength fluctuation would be about 5 nm. In addition, if sufficient tolerance is allowed for compositional variations in the active layer per lot during fabrication, the wavelength fluctuation would then be double this, i.e., about ±5 nm. In an optical measurement instrument where the subject is directly exposed to the light source, fluctuation of the light source due to optical feedback from the subject leads to measurement errors, so some tolerance must be allowed. In one solution, it is preferred to set the reflectance of the front facet high so that the reflected optical feedback from the subject does not enter the resonator of the semiconductor laser. In the case of an edge-emitter semiconductor laser, if silicon dioxide and silicon nitride which are well known materials, are alternately laminated (→deposited/stacked?) respectively to a quarter-wave film thickness, a film having a high reflectance of about 50% is obtained. If plural growth cycle layers are stacked, a film of even higher reflectance can be manufactured and a better tolerance can be obtained. In a vertical cavity surface emitting laser, in a stacked film of semiconductor AlGaAs, a reflectance exceeding 95% is often used. A light-emitting diode may also be used as the light-emitting device, and in this case the light is not coherent from the beginning, which is robust to optical feedback. If on the other hand it is desired to decrease the reflectance of the light source and increase the optical output from the front facet, another solution is to convert the longitudinal mode to multimode by self-pulsation so that coupling is more difficult, which is a technique known in the art. When biological information is to be measured in proximity to a living body using this optical source, positioning is easier by using a probe, in which the optical source device brought into intimate contact with the living body, and a detector that detects light that has been partially absorbed by the living body and fed back, are disposed in an optimum position. The optical source has at least two light-emitting devices having different light emission wavelengths, and these light-emitting devices are operated either by intensity modulation of different frequencies or by time division. By having plural these optical sources and detectors, and using probes disposed in two dimensions, a wide variety of biological information can be obtained in one session. Next, the method of implementing the semiconductor light-emitting device oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, will be described in detail. As an active layer which can provide this wavelength region, we have selected InGaAsP on a GaAs substrate which is difficult to manufacture since a suitable crystal growth technique had not been developed. Using a metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) system and experimentally optimizing the growth conditions, we have succeeded in obtaining epitaxial growth of InGaAsP having a film thickness corresponding to that of the active layer of a semiconductor laser on a GaAs substrate. The growth conditions are within the normal range when using a GaAs substrate, but each system must be optimized. FIG. 12 shows a light-emitting device oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm. On an n-type GaAs substrate 201 , an n-type GaAs buffer layer 202 , an n-type AlGaInP cladding layer 203 , an n-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 204 , a strained quantum well active layer 205 , a p-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 206 , a first p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 207 , a second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208 , a p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and a p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are grown sequentially by the MOVPE method. The second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208 , p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are formed in a striped shape by a predetermined etching, the side walls of the stripes being subjected to passivation by a dielectric film 211 . Moreover, on the p-type GaAs capping layer 210 , a p-side electrode 212 is formed, and under the n-type GaAs substrate 201 , an n-side electrode 213 is formed. The strained quantum well active layer 205 includes an In 1-x Ga x As y P 1-y (0.10≦y≦0.45) quantum well layer (lattice constant a w in the surface), and (AlGa 1-z ) w ln 1-w P barrier layer. The strain of the InGaAsP quantum well layer can be determined by experiment to evaluate characteristics and reliability. As a result of theoretical calculation and experiment, it is clear that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(a w −a)/a×100 is preferably 0.4%≦ε≦1.4. In particular, when the wavelength is from 700 nm to 720 nm, 0.4%≦ε≦1.2% is preferred, and 0.4%≦ε≦0.9% is optimum. When the wavelength is from 725 nm to 760 nm, it was clear that a strain range of 0.6%≦ε≦1.4% is preferred. The GaAs substrate may be an off substrate wherein the orientation is inclined from the ( 100 ) plane to the <011> direction, and the quantum well active layer 205 may be a strain-compensated structure wherein a tensile strain is applied to the barrier layer. Here, the difference between the invention and the conventional art will be described. According to Patent Document 1, to obtain biological information, CT measurement is required prior to optical measurement, but according to the invention, biological information can be obtained via optical measurement alone. Patent Document 2 describes that biological information can be displayed in a time series by optical measurement, but apart from the wavelength, the light source is not described in detail. According to the present invention, the signal processing theory of Patent Document 2 is used without modification, and a construction for the light source used for the optical measurement instrument and control of optical output stabilization is proposed. Patent Documents 3, 4, 7 describe a semiconductor light source having plural semiconductor light-emitting devices installed therein, but since the main application is optical recording and optical printing, there is no way of having the respective light-emitting points function simultaneously, whereas the present invention has semiconductor light-emitting devices emit plural different wavelengths simultaneously. The fact that one optical output power monitoring device is used is in common with Patent Document 7, but whereas Patent Document 7 describes a construction wherein a control signal is fed back and the optical output is stabilized for only one device which emits in a specific time, the present invention has plural semiconductor light-emitting devices that emit light simultaneously, and by operating these at different frequencies or by time division, the signals entering one optical output power monitoring device are separated, so the output powers of the respective semiconductor light-emitting devices can be stabilized. Hence, the design is different insofar as concerns optical output power stabilization. In the features of this optical output stabilization method, there is also a distinction from Patent Document 5. In Patent Document 5, in a semiconductor light source wherein plural light-emitting devices of different wavelength are installed, since the main application is a display, the plural light-emitting devices are operated simultaneously, but the same number of optical output power monitoring devices is provided to measure the optical outputs of these light-emitting devices. According to the present invention, to solve the problem of stabilization, the signals entering one optical output power monitoring device are separated. In Patent Document 6, an optical output power monitoring device is placed midway in the light path in front of the plural light-emitting devices, but since the present invention is used in applications where the light source is placed in proximity with a living body, the optical output power monitoring device cannot be placed midway in the light path, and it is therefore placed to the rear of the light-emitting points of the light-emitting devices. The light-emitting device of Patent Document 8 uses InGaAsP for the active layer, and at a light-emitting wavelength of 635 nm, it uses a composition which can be stably obtained by crystal growth even by the conventional art, but with the same design, a composition providing a wavelength band above 700 nm as in the present invention cannot be obtained. On the other hand, Non-patent Document 2 uses the same light-emitting wavelength band as that of the invention, but the present invention differs from the conventional art in that, to supply crystals which give a light-emitting device having a light-emitting wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm which is more reliable, a limitation is placed on the composition particularly with regard to strain. Even if all of the conventional arts are combined, they cannot measure information in proximity with a living body. The difference of the present invention from the conventional art is that it employs a light source in proximity with a living body and a detector that detects a signal from the living body, and the timing at which the light source is activated is selected, so the optical output is stabilized and the light emission wavelength is stabilized. Further, since a light imaging device having a light emission wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm cannot be supplied by a reliable semiconductor light-emitting device, in the conventional art, a semiconductor light source having a different wavelength range is used for living body light measurement. The highly reliable construction of the present invention makes it possible to use a light-emitting device having a light emission wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm for the first time as a light source of an optical measurement instrument for a living body. As an optical measurement instrument for a living body, compared to the case where plural can-packages containing light-emitting devices are arranged alongside each other, one can-package containing light-emitting devices having plural wavelengths is used, thus permitting compactness and lightweightness. Also, by having one optical output power monitoring device that detects the optical outputs of the light-emitting devices which is mounted to the rear of and in proximity to the plural light-emitting devices, and a circuit that separates the signals from the plural light-emitting devices, the effect of adjacent devices can be separated. And, a semiconductor laser having a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm which has been so far difficult to manufacture, can now be supplied as a light source of living body measurement.
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CLAIM OF PRIORITY The present application claims priority from Japanese application JP2007-076844, filed on Mar. 23, 2007, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference into this application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an optical measurement instrument using a semiconductor light-emitting device, and in particular to a living body measuring instrument using light and a light source operating in a wavelength range from the visible to the infrared used in this device. 2. Description of the Related Arts Spectroscopy using a light source in a wavelength range from the visible to the infrared is a widely practiced technique, and wavelengths suitable for measuring information pertaining to the living body have been indicated. For example, according to Patent Document 1 (JP-A Hei 2-290534), it is widely known that specific light wavelengths ranging from the visible to the infrared are absorbed by metabolic substrates, and the use of wavelengths of 700 nm to 1300 nm is preferred since their scattering in biological tissues is small and their absorption by water is small. In Patent Document 1, the light source used to measure deoxy-hemoglobin concentration of blood uses two wavelengths, 760 nm which is a unique absorption wavelength of this substance, and a wavelength near this wavelength (e.g., 800 nm), or three wavelengths including these two wavelengths at which there is a large difference in the absorption coefficient of the substance and an intermediate wavelength. To measure the concentration of oxy-hemoglobin at the same time as that of deoxy-hemoglobin, a total of four wavelengths, i.e., a unique absorption wavelength at which there is a difference between the two hemoglobins, e.g., 650 nm, a wavelength near this wavelength, an absorption wavelength at which the absorption of the two hemoglobins is the same, e.g., 805 nm, and a wavelength near this wavelength, are used. Patent Document 1 discloses that prior to performing living body light measurement, the shape of the living body must be determined by x-ray CT (computed tomography) or NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance). Patent Document 2 (JP-A Hei 8-103434) discloses that, in an instrument that measures information in a living body using only light, an information processing method is performed wherein a light source is intensity-modulated at an arbitrary frequency, and a signal from the living body is processed by a lock-in-amplifier or the like and displayed as time series data. It is mentioned that a semiconductor laser diode may also be used as the light source, but no detailed description is given except as regards to wavelength. When semiconductor lasers are used as plural light sources having different oscillation wavelengths for these measurements, the devices in a commercial can-package are used alongside each other. In semiconductor laser devices of the conventional art, there is usually a semiconductor laser of one wavelength in one can-package. As an exception, Patent Document 3 (JP-A Hei 11-186651) discloses semiconductor lasers having two wavelengths, i.e., 780 nm for CD read and 650 nm for DVD read/write used in optical disk record regeneration devices installed on a sub-mount in one can-package, which is commercially available. Further, Patent Document 4 (JP-A 2001-230502) discloses a technology wherein semiconductor lasers having three wavelengths, i.e., a wavelength of 405 nm for Blu-Ray or HD-DVD record regeneration in addition to the first two wavelengths, are simultaneously housed in one can package. These semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are not made to oscillate simultaneously due to their different applications. Patent Document 5 (JP-A 2006-186243) discloses a light source wherein semiconductor lasers having three wavelengths are disposed in proximity to each other in one package. These three wavelengths correspond for example to red, green and blue for display applications. By using a can-package housing semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths, devices that contain this light source can be made more compact. The semiconductor lasers used as a light sources in measurement instruments, optical disk record regeneration devices and displays, must be detected an optical output, and provided with an electrical feedback circuit to stabilize the optical output. The optical output detection method may be for example a front monitor method which is frequently used in optical disk record regeneration devices (Patent Document 6 (JP-A 2004-207420)), or a rear monitor method used with semiconductor lasers for commercial products (Non-patent Document 1 (Ryoichi Ito, Michio Nakamura, Semiconductor Lasers [Fundamentals and Application], Baifukan, (1989), p.236)). Since, in the former front monitor method, the semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are not often driven simultaneously, it there is usually one optical output power monitoring device, and in Patent Document 6, a device is disclosed wherein plural lasers are operated on a time-sharing basis, and an optical output power is detected in synchronism with their operation interval. In the latter rear monitor method, as described in Patent Document 7 (JP-A Hei 9-164722), there is a printing device having a light intensity corrector that uses one optical output power monitoring device for the light from plural light-emitting points. Since these beam-emitting elements are used for printing applications, they use an identical wavelength at which the photoreceptor that detects the light has a good sensitivity, and they are not made to emit light simultaneously. In the wavelength range of 700 nm-1300 nm which is described as preferable in Patent Document 1, since it is difficult to improve the characteristics and reliability of semiconductor lasers oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, there are very few of them on the market. The active layer material may be obtained by increasing the Al proportion of AlGaAs, by making GaInP highly strained, or by adding As to GaInP. According to Non-patent Document 2 (IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol.5, No.3, p.785-791 (1999)), when the quantum well layer is InGaAsP (strain 1.6%), a wavelength of 730 nm is obtained, but the strain is large and these lasers are not reliable. Also, in Patent Document 8 (JP-A Hei 9-307183), there is a numerical limitation of y≦50.15 in an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer, and the wavelength is 635 nm which is not contained within the wavelength range of the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In the conventional art, living body light measuring devices are usually used only by a few medical institutions or research organizations, and for these devices to have wider application, they need to be more compact. Likewise, a light source having plural light-emitting devices of different wavelengths which are part thereof, needs to be more compact. One solution to this problem is to use a light source having plural wavelengths mounted on one sub-mount, such as is disclosed in disc recorder regeneration device applications or display applications, and house it in one can-package. Another problem is increasing the precision of living body light measuring devices. Since the state of a living body is constantly changing and it is difficult to distinguish the measurement signal from noise, which tends to lead to confusion, the optical output and the wavelength of the light source must be stable. Hence, since the noise in the signal from a living body is of the order of 1%, the optical output fluctuation of the light source must be less than 0.1%. Regarding the method of detecting the optical output of these semiconductor lasers, the problem in the conventional front monitor method is that when the optical output power monitoring device used for detection is taken out of the can-package in which the semiconductor laser is housed, the number of components increases. On the other hand, in the rear monitor method, the optical output power monitoring device used for detection can be mounted on the same heat sink as the light-emitting devices, and housed in one can-package. In Patent Document 5, a diagram is disclosed wherein optical output power monitoring devices of equal number to a number of semiconductor laser diodes are installed to the rear of the semiconductor lasers, but the detection method is not described in detail. In another method wherein plural semiconductor lasers used for living body measurement are operated simultaneously in a certain time interval, in the layout of Patent Document 5, the rear optical output of the semiconductor laser installed in front of one optical output power monitoring device and the rear optical output of the semiconductor laser adjacent to it are both input, so there is a possibility that a correct optical output power detection might not be possible, and it is difficult to separate the influence of the adjacent device. Further, in the wavelength band from 700 nm to 1300 nm which is described as preferred in Patent Document 1, in semiconductor lasers that oscillate at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, the active layer material is AlGaAs used for 780 nm band lasers where the Al proportion is increased, GaInP used in the 600 nm band which was highly strained, or InGaAsP which is difficult to obtain by crystal growth. In the case of AlGaAs, when the Al proportion is large, oxidation occurs easily and reliability decreases, and since the difference of composition from the AlGaAs cladding layer is small, confinement of the carrier is impaired which may lead to a deterioration of characteristics. With GaInP, if the material is highly strained, crystal defects tend to occur and reliability decreases. As for InGaAsP, it is said that crystal growth of this material is difficult, and there are very few reports. Hence, since it is difficult to improve the characteristics and reliability of light-emitting devices in this wavelength band, there are very few on the market. The problem therefore is to develop technology to improve the characteristics and reliability of semiconductor lasers in this wavelength band, and allow them to be manufactured stably. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide, as a light source for living body measurement, a compact light source wherein light-emitting devices oscillating at plural different wavelengths from the visible to the infrared are housed in one can-package, and an optical measurement instrument for a living body on which this light source is mounted. It is a further object of the invention to provide a design in which the characteristics of semiconductor lasers oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, which are difficult to acquire on the market as light sources for living body measurement, are stable and highly reliable. To attain the aforesaid object, the invention provides a design wherein plural semiconductor light-emitting devices oscillating at plural different wavelengths from the visible to the infrared are mounted on one sub-mount in proximity to each other together with one optical output power monitoring device that detects the optical output of these semiconductor light-emitting devices on the same heat sink, the whole being housed in one can-package, and having a circuit which separates the optical output signals from the light-emitting devices from the detection signal of the optical output power monitoring device. The method used by the circuit may be to modulate the semiconductor light-emitting devices at plural frequencies and separate the signals by a lock-in-amplifier, to operate the semiconductor light-emitting devices on a time division basis and perform detection in synchronism with their operation, or a combination of the both methods. FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 show the basic construction of the invention. FIG. 1 shows the construction of a light source used in the optical measurement instrument of the invention, three of the plural semiconductor lasers being shown in the diagram. Semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 are joined to a sub-mount 4 by solder. An anode side 5 to 7 of a bonding pad and a cathode side 8 are wired to drive the semiconductor lasers. In this example, the cathode side was common, but the anode side may be common. At the same time, an optical output power monitoring device 9 is disposed to the rear of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3, and mounted together with the sub-mount 4 on a heat sink 10. The signal received from the optical output power monitoring device 9 arrives at a monitored signal separation circuit 11. Depending on the separated signals, electrical feedback signals such that the optical outputs of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 remain constant, are sent to light-emitting device driving power supplies 12 to 14. To use this light source for living body measurement, a wavelength must be selected with reference to a unique absorption wavelength of the material to be measured. For example, as the wavelength of the light source used to measure deoxy-hemoglobin, referring to the absorption coefficients of deoxy- and oxy-hemoglobin shown in FIG. 3, two wavelengths, i.e., 760 nm which is the unique absorption wavelength of this substance and a wavelength near this wavelength (e.g., 800 nm) may be used, or three wavelengths, i.e. these two wavelengths for which there is a large difference in the absorption coefficient of this substance and one intermediate wavelength may be used. From FIG. 3, the first of these three wavelengths is selected from a region just below 730 nm at which the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin is large, and above 650 nm at which the absorption of the living body is not too large so that sufficient signal strength can be obtained (e.g., 690 nm). The second is a wavelength selected from a region just above 830 nm at which the absorption coefficient of oxy-hemoglobin is large (e.g., 830 nm). The third is selected at 760 nm, which is between these two wavelengths. Since the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin has a local maximal value between 750 nm to 760 nm, at this wavelength the absorbed signal increases, and it is a unique absorption wavelength which contributes to enhancing measurement precision. Therefore, selecting one wavelength of the light source in the range 750 nm to 760 nm is advantageous. When selecting the first wavelength, referring to safety standards (JISC6802) and world standards (IEC60825) for laser products, if a wavelength above 700 nm is selected, the permissible strength can be increased even for the same class of laser and the measurement signal can be increased, so precision can be increased. Since there is little scattering in biological tissue, measurement precision can be increased even while respecting safety standards, so selecting a wavelength above 700 nm is advantageous. The light generated from the light source having the construction of FIG. 1 may be guided into an optical fiber and transmitted as it is, may be propagated in the air, or a living body may be exposed to it directly. If it is guided into an optical fiber, the original optical power is attenuated in the optical fiber, so the optical output of the light source must be designed for fiber output with due regard to safety. On the other hand, in the case of air propagation and living body exposure, there are safety restrictions on the optical output of the light source depending on wavelength. From safety considerations, to ensure safety of the operator's eyes, there is a restriction on the light intensity in a circle of diameter 7 mm corresponding to the pupil size at a distance of 10 cm which is the shortest focal distance, therefore the light should be made to diverge using a light diverging modality such as a lens or the like. From FIG. 3, it is seen also that the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin in the region below 805 nm is sensitive to wavelength fluctuations, so wavelength fluctuations are preferably small. According to semiconductor laser catalogs, the wavelength specification is set to ±10 nm. If the optical source is disposed in proximity to the living body, considering that there may be a wavelength variation from a room temperature of 25° C. to about 50° C. which results from adding 10° C. due to the heat of the device to the body temperature of about 40° C., the wavelength fluctuation rate relative to temperature variation is 0.2 nm/K, so the wavelength fluctuation would be about 5 nm. In addition, if sufficient tolerance is allowed for compositional variations in the active layer per lot during fabrication, the wavelength fluctuation would then be double this, i.e., about ±5 nm. In an optical measurement instrument where the subject is directly exposed to the light source, fluctuation of the light source due to optical feedback from the subject leads to measurement errors, so some tolerance must be allowed. In one solution, it is preferred to set the reflectance of the front facet high so that the reflected optical feedback from the subject does not enter the resonator of the semiconductor laser. In the case of an edge-emitter semiconductor laser, if silicon dioxide and silicon nitride which are well known materials, are alternately laminated (→deposited/stacked?) respectively to a quarter-wave film thickness, a film having a high reflectance of about 50% is obtained. If plural growth cycle layers are stacked, a film of even higher reflectance can be manufactured and a better tolerance can be obtained. In a vertical cavity surface emitting laser, in a stacked film of semiconductor AlGaAs, a reflectance exceeding 95% is often used. A light-emitting diode may also be used as the light-emitting device, and in this case the light is not coherent from the beginning, which is robust to optical feedback. If on the other hand it is desired to decrease the reflectance of the light source and increase the optical output from the front facet, another solution is to convert the longitudinal mode to multimode by self-pulsation so that coupling is more difficult, which is a technique known in the art. When biological information is to be measured in proximity to a living body using this optical source, positioning is easier by using a probe, in which the optical source device brought into intimate contact with the living body, and a detector that detects light that has been partially absorbed by the living body and fed back, are disposed in an optimum position. The optical source has at least two light-emitting devices having different light emission wavelengths, and these light-emitting devices are operated either by intensity modulation of different frequencies or by time division. By having plural these optical sources and detectors, and using probes disposed in two dimensions, a wide variety of biological information can be obtained in one session. Next, the method of implementing the semiconductor light-emitting device oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm, will be described in detail. As an active layer which can provide this wavelength region, we have selected InGaAsP on a GaAs substrate which is difficult to manufacture since a suitable crystal growth technique had not been developed. Using a metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) system and experimentally optimizing the growth conditions, we have succeeded in obtaining epitaxial growth of InGaAsP having a film thickness corresponding to that of the active layer of a semiconductor laser on a GaAs substrate. The growth conditions are within the normal range when using a GaAs substrate, but each system must be optimized. FIG. 12 shows a light-emitting device oscillating at a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm. On an n-type GaAs substrate 201, an n-type GaAs buffer layer 202, an n-type AlGaInP cladding layer 203, an n-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 204, a strained quantum well active layer 205, a p-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 206, a first p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 207, a second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208, a p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and a p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are grown sequentially by the MOVPE method. The second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208, p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are formed in a striped shape by a predetermined etching, the side walls of the stripes being subjected to passivation by a dielectric film 211. Moreover, on the p-type GaAs capping layer 210, a p-side electrode 212 is formed, and under the n-type GaAs substrate 201, an n-side electrode 213 is formed. The strained quantum well active layer 205 includes an In 1-xGaxAsyP1-y (0.10≦y≦0.45) quantum well layer (lattice constant aw in the surface), and (AlGa1-z)wln1-wP barrier layer. The strain of the InGaAsP quantum well layer can be determined by experiment to evaluate characteristics and reliability. As a result of theoretical calculation and experiment, it is clear that the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 is preferably 0.4%≦ε≦1.4. In particular, when the wavelength is from 700 nm to 720 nm, 0.4%≦ε≦1.2% is preferred, and 0.4%≦ε≦0.9% is optimum. When the wavelength is from 725 nm to 760 nm, it was clear that a strain range of 0.6%≦ε≦1.4% is preferred. The GaAs substrate may be an off substrate wherein the orientation is inclined from the (100) plane to the <011> direction, and the quantum well active layer 205 may be a strain-compensated structure wherein a tensile strain is applied to the barrier layer. Here, the difference between the invention and the conventional art will be described. According to Patent Document 1, to obtain biological information, CT measurement is required prior to optical measurement, but according to the invention, biological information can be obtained via optical measurement alone. Patent Document 2 describes that biological information can be displayed in a time series by optical measurement, but apart from the wavelength, the light source is not described in detail. According to the present invention, the signal processing theory of Patent Document 2 is used without modification, and a construction for the light source used for the optical measurement instrument and control of optical output stabilization is proposed. Patent Documents 3, 4, 7 describe a semiconductor light source having plural semiconductor light-emitting devices installed therein, but since the main application is optical recording and optical printing, there is no way of having the respective light-emitting points function simultaneously, whereas the present invention has semiconductor light-emitting devices emit plural different wavelengths simultaneously. The fact that one optical output power monitoring device is used is in common with Patent Document 7, but whereas Patent Document 7 describes a construction wherein a control signal is fed back and the optical output is stabilized for only one device which emits in a specific time, the present invention has plural semiconductor light-emitting devices that emit light simultaneously, and by operating these at different frequencies or by time division, the signals entering one optical output power monitoring device are separated, so the output powers of the respective semiconductor light-emitting devices can be stabilized. Hence, the design is different insofar as concerns optical output power stabilization. In the features of this optical output stabilization method, there is also a distinction from Patent Document 5. In Patent Document 5, in a semiconductor light source wherein plural light-emitting devices of different wavelength are installed, since the main application is a display, the plural light-emitting devices are operated simultaneously, but the same number of optical output power monitoring devices is provided to measure the optical outputs of these light-emitting devices. According to the present invention, to solve the problem of stabilization, the signals entering one optical output power monitoring device are separated. In Patent Document 6, an optical output power monitoring device is placed midway in the light path in front of the plural light-emitting devices, but since the present invention is used in applications where the light source is placed in proximity with a living body, the optical output power monitoring device cannot be placed midway in the light path, and it is therefore placed to the rear of the light-emitting points of the light-emitting devices. The light-emitting device of Patent Document 8 uses InGaAsP for the active layer, and at a light-emitting wavelength of 635 nm, it uses a composition which can be stably obtained by crystal growth even by the conventional art, but with the same design, a composition providing a wavelength band above 700 nm as in the present invention cannot be obtained. On the other hand, Non-patent Document 2 uses the same light-emitting wavelength band as that of the invention, but the present invention differs from the conventional art in that, to supply crystals which give a light-emitting device having a light-emitting wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm which is more reliable, a limitation is placed on the composition particularly with regard to strain. Even if all of the conventional arts are combined, they cannot measure information in proximity with a living body. The difference of the present invention from the conventional art is that it employs a light source in proximity with a living body and a detector that detects a signal from the living body, and the timing at which the light source is activated is selected, so the optical output is stabilized and the light emission wavelength is stabilized. Further, since a light imaging device having a light emission wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm cannot be supplied by a reliable semiconductor light-emitting device, in the conventional art, a semiconductor light source having a different wavelength range is used for living body light measurement. The highly reliable construction of the present invention makes it possible to use a light-emitting device having a light emission wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm for the first time as a light source of an optical measurement instrument for a living body. As an optical measurement instrument for a living body, compared to the case where plural can-packages containing light-emitting devices are arranged alongside each other, one can-package containing light-emitting devices having plural wavelengths is used, thus permitting compactness and lightweightness. Also, by having one optical output power monitoring device that detects the optical outputs of the light-emitting devices which is mounted to the rear of and in proximity to the plural light-emitting devices, and a circuit that separates the signals from the plural light-emitting devices, the effect of adjacent devices can be separated. And, a semiconductor laser having a wavelength of 700 nm to 760 nm which has been so far difficult to manufacture, can now be supplied as a light source of living body measurement. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a diagram showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source and its optical output control system according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing a wavelength dependence of an extinction coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin and hemoglobin; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing a semiconductor laser crystal growth structure used in the invention; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing a living body measuring instrument using a semiconductor laser integrated light source according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source and its optical output control system according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing a living body measuring instrument using a light source module according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 10 is a block cross-sectional view showing a living body measuring instrument using a light source module according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view showing a semiconductor laser integrated light source according to one embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a semiconductor laser according to one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Some embodiments of the invention will now be described referring to the drawings. First Embodiment A first embodiment of the invention will be described referring to the device shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. For the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3, crystals are grown in the order of an n-type cladding layer 102, an active layer 103, a p-type cladding layer 104, and a p-type contact layer 105 on an n-type GaAs substrate 101 as shown by the cross-sectional structure of FIG. 4 using a metal oxide vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) system. Among the three semiconductor lasers, 1, 2 targeting an oscillation wavelength below 760 nm use an AlGaInP layer of thickness 1.5 μm for the n-type and p-type cladding layers 102, 104, and a multi quantum well structure including a well layer of GaIn(As)P of thickness 10 nm and a barrier layer of AlGaInP of thickness 15 nm, together with an optical guiding layer which is an AlGaInP layer of thickness 25 nm sandwiching the structure, as the active layer 103, and use a GaAs layer for the p-type contact layer 105. The remaining semiconductor laser 3 targeting an oscillation wavelength of 800 nm uses an AlGaAs layer of thickness 1.5 μm for the n-type, p-type cladding layers 102, 104, and has a multi quantum well structure including a well layer of GaAs of thickness 10 nm and a barrier layer of AlGaAs of thickness 15 nm, together with a an optical guiding layer which is an AlGaAs layer of thickness 25 nm sandwiching the structure, as the active layer 103, and uses a GaAs layer for the p-type contact layer 105. After forming a striped pattern by photolithography, etching is performed by a dry-etching apparatus leaving the stripes so as to form a mesa shape. In the case of the semiconductor laser 3 only, a block layer is grown including n-type doped AlGaAs and n-type doped GaAs in the part outside the stripes by selective area growth using the MOVPE system with the mask used for stripe patterning, and after removing the mask, a p-type doped GaAs contact layer is grown to bury the mesa. Passivation is performed by silicon dioxide of thickness 350 nm at locations outside the stripes, and titanium, platinum and gold which will form the p side electrode are electron beam evaporated in sequence. After lapping the GaAs substrate to 100 μm, gold-germanium, nickel, titanium, platinum and gold which will form the n side electrode are electron beam evaporated in sequence on the back, and alloyed. Each wafer is cleaved so that the cavity length of the semiconductor laser is 800 μm. On the cleaved facet, alumina is deposited on the front surface by a sputtering device to give a reflectance of about 13%, and a stacked layer of alumina and titanium oxide is deposited on the back surface to give a reflectance of 90% or more. The semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 fabricated in this manner are then mounted on the sub-mount 4 by junction-down. On the heat sink 10, a monitoring photodiode (hereafter, monitor-PD) 9 is first fixed by solder as an optical output power monitoring device for stabilizing the optical output of the semiconductor laser, and the sub-mount 4 on which the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 are mounted is then fixed by solder. The wires from the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 are connected to input/output pin via bonding pads 5 to 8. In FIG. 1, the case of a cathode common connection was shown, but it may also be anode common, which can be controlled in an identical way. The can-package is then completed by sealing with a cap (not shown). The output from the monitor PD 9 is guided to a monitored signal separation circuit 11, the separated signals are fed back to the driver power supplies 12 to 14 of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3, and a correction is applied to eliminate optical output fluctuations. Here, to increase the precision of spectroscopic analysis in light measurement, the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 are modulated at frequencies which are very close to each other but different, and the monitored signal separation circuit 11 in this case may be a lock-in-amplifier. The oscillation wavelengths of the semiconductor lasers 1 to 3 fabricated in this embodiment are respectively 690 nm, 760 nm and 830 nm. They operate at an optical output of 50 mW from 25° C. to 50° C., and the fluctuation of oscillation wavelength within this temperature range was within ±5 nm. Also, in a life test at a fixed optical power at 50° C., 50 mW, operation in excess of 2000 hours has been verified. Further, by modulating the semiconductor lasers at different frequencies, the signal monitored optical outputs detected at the rear can be separated using the lock-in-amplifier, and by performing an electrical feedback to the semiconductor laser driver power supplies 12 to 14, the fluctuation amount of the optical output was suppressed to equal to or less than 0.1%. Second Embodiment A second embodiment of the invention will now be described in the case of the optical measurement instrument for a living body shown in FIG. 5. An optical source 15 on which semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are mounted, is obtained by an identical fabrication method to that of the first embodiment. A pulse signal from a pulse generator 19 in a transmitter 18, which is controlled by a control and display personal computer 17, is supplied to a light source driver 16 as a modulated signal from a CDMA (code division multiple access) encode circuit 20 to drive the light source 15. The signal monitored optical outputs received at the rear of the semiconductor laser are separated by CDMA-decoding. This light source 15 oscillates at oscillation wavelengths of 695 nm, 780 nm and 850 nm, and at an optical output of 50 mW from 25° C. to 60° C., it operates with an optical output fluctuation of less than 0.1%. The light of three wavelengths emitted from this light source 15 has an emitting point distance of 220 μm, and this light is guided into a bundle fiber 21 having a core of diameter 1 mm. This fiber output light is frequency-modulated, a living body 22 is exposed to it, and the light fed back after absorption in the biological material is captured by a light-receiving device module 23. This light source 15 and light-receiving device module 23 are detachably fixed to a probe 24 at the optimum interval for signal processing, so positioning on the surface of the living body 22 is easy, and the module can be replaced in the event of a fault. Signal processing is performed using a receiver 27 combining an analog amplifier 25 and CDMA decode circuit 26, and analyzed/displayed by the control and display personal computer 17. The optical output fluctuation of the light source 15 is small, so the reliability of the signal is increased. Third Embodiment A third embodiment of the invention has an identical construction to the device shown in FIG. 5. The light source 15 on which semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are mounted is fabricated by an identical method to that of the first embodiment, oscillates at oscillation wavelengths of 680 nm, 755 nm and 830 nm, and at an optical output of 50 mW from 25° C. to 60° C., it operates with an optical output fluctuation of less than 0.1%. These wavelengths, from FIG. 3, are selected to be 680 nm at which the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin is very high, 830 nm at which the absorption coefficient of oxy-hemoglobin is relatively high, and 750 nm, which is an intermediate wavelength. The light of three wavelengths emitted by this light source 15 is guided into the bundle fiber 21 having a core of diameter 1 mm. This fiber output light is frequency-modulated and the living body 22 is exposed to it. The light fed back after absorption in the biological material is captured by the light-receiving device module 23, signal processing is performed using the receiver 27 similarly to the second embodiment, and the signal from the living body is analyzed. The optical output fluctuation of the light source 15 is small, and since two wavelengths are selected at which there is a large difference in the absorption coefficients of deoxy-hemoglobin and oxy-hemoglobin in the measurement target, and an intermediate wavelength, a high precision measurement can be performed. Fourth Embodiment In a fourth embodiment of the invention, the wavelength of the semiconductor laser of the light source device shown in FIG. 1 is limited. The active layer composition is determined so that the oscillation wavelengths of the semiconductor lasers 1, 2, 3 are respectively 705±5 nm, 755±5 nm, and 830±5 nm. The semiconductor lasers 1, 2 may be manufactured using a multi quantum well structure having an InGaAsP well layer in the active layer, and the semiconductor laser 3 may be manufactured using a multi-quantum well structure having a GaAs well layer in the active layer. In particular, since the wavelength of 700 nm to 1300 nm is selected, which has a small scattering in biomedical tissue and a low absorption in water, a signal from the living body can be extracted with high precision. Among these, the semiconductor laser 1 has the shortest wavelength of 705±5 nm, and it is a wavelength with a small scattering in biomedical tissue at which the absorption coefficient of deoxy-hemoglobin is as high as it can be above 700 nm, considering safety standards. Also, since the semiconductor laser 2 oscillates at 750 to 760 nm which is a unique absorption wavelength having an extremely high value of absorption coefficient for deoxy-hemoglobin, the absorbed signal is large. Due to these facts, the selection of 705±5 nm and 755±5 nm as the oscillation wavelengths of the semiconductor lasers contributes to increasing measurement precision. Fifth Embodiment A fifth embodiment of the invention will now be described referring to the devices shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7. FIG. 6 is a view of the light source from the emitting facet, and FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view from the side. The semiconductor lasers 120, 121, 122 are vertical cavity surface emitting lasers, and their wavelengths are 780 nm, 805 nm, 830 nm. These semiconductor lasers are mounted on a sub-mount 123, and fixed to a heat sink 125 together with a monitor PD 124. They are then sealed with a cap 126 which has a reflectance of about 10% at these wavelengths, having a window, which is slightly inclined from the vertical with respect to the light propagation direction. This light source 28 gave an optical output of 2 mW at each of these three wavelengths. A construction which stabilizes the optical output will now be described referring to FIG. 8. The output from the monitor PD 124 is guided to the monitored signal separation circuit 11, the signals separated here are fed back to the light source driver 16 of the semiconductor lasers 120 to 122, and a correction is applied to eliminate optical output fluctuation. Here, to increase the precision of the spectrophotometric analysis of the living body measurement, the semiconductor lasers 120 to 122 are driven by time division, and in the monitor signal, only the signal synchronized with the semiconductor lasers 120 to 122 is detected by the monitored signal separation circuit 11. The overall construction forms a light source module 29. The light source of this embodiment is used in proximity to the living body at a distance of several mm, and since the operating temperature is maintained at about 40° C., the wavelength fluctuation is small, and within ±5 nm for each device. Further, with a vertical cavity surface emitting laser, since the reflectance of the light-emitting surface is approximately 95%, there is optical feedback tolerance, and the optical output fluctuation is within 0.05%. Due to this, a stable signal with little noise is obtained from the living body. The semiconductor lasers 120, 121, 122 may be replaced by light-emitting diodes. Since light-emitting diodes do not give coherent light, they have a good optical feedback tolerance. Sixth Embodiment A sixth embodiment of the invention will now be described referring to the device shown in FIG. 9. The light source module 29 on which semiconductor lasers having plural wavelengths are mounted, is obtained by an identical fabrication method to that of the fifth embodiment. Here, the lasers oscillate at two oscillation wavelengths, i.e., 780 nm and 830 nm, and in the operating temperature range of 25° C. to 40° C., at an optical output of 2 mW, the wavelength fluctuation was within ±5 nm and the optical output fluctuation was within 0.05%. This light source module 29 receives a signal that determines the operation timing by the transmitter 18, and the living body 22 is exposed to the light. The light fed back after absorption by the biomedical tissue is captured by the light-receiving device module 23. The signal is processed by the receiver 27, and analyzed/displayed by the control and display personal computer 17 as a signal from the living body. This light source module 29 and light receiving device module 23 are detachably fixed to the probe 24 at the optimum interval for signal processing, positioning on the surface of the living body 22 is easy, and the module can be replaced in the event of a fault. FIG. 10 shows a partial cross-section of the probe 24. The light source module 29 is housed in a case 31 together with the light source 28 and optical output stabilization circuit 30, and receives a power supply from outside by a power feeding connector 32. The light receiving device module 23 is housed in the case 31, together with an avalanche photodiode 33 and an amplifier, and a control circuit 34 containing a high voltage power supply unit, and receives a power supply from outside by the power feeding connector 32. The case 31 can be detached from the probe 24. In the diagram, two each of the light source modules 29 and light receiving device modules 23 are fixed, but more modules can be disposed in an array to obtain signals from a wider area of the living body. Since the light source module 29 guides light to the living body, an optical fiber is not required, and the device can be made compact and lightweight, therefore, a living body light measuring device can be made compact while maintaining the measurement precision of the conventional art. Seventh Embodiment A seventh embodiment of the invention will now be described referring to the device shown in FIG. 11. A semiconductor laser 130 is an edge emitting laser fabricated by the dual wavelength integrated semiconductor laser technique known in the art, its oscillation wavelengths being 690 nm and 760 nm. The reflectance of the light-emitting surface is made 68% by forming two growth cycle layers of a quarter wave film thickness of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride. The optical output is 4 mW at these respective wavelengths. To avoid safety problems, considering the risk of the laser directly entering the observer's eyes, the optical source package has a modality that widens the beam, e.g., a lens 131. The construction that stabilizes the optical output is identical to that of FIG. 8. The semiconductor laser 130 is driven by time division, and regarding the monitor signal, only a signal synchronized with light of each wavelength from the semiconductor laser 130 is detected by an identical circuit to the monitored signal separation circuit 11. Here, to improve the measurement precision, operating at plural wavelengths simultaneously is preferred since plural signals can be obtained at the same time, but a method can also be used where light of each wavelength from the semiconductor laser 130 is intensity-modulated at different frequencies, and the light intensity of each wavelength is stabilized using a lock-in-amplifier as the circuit 11 which separates the monitored signals. To improve precision still further, the light of plural wavelengths can be driven at two drive timings combined together, i.e., time division and intensity modulation at different frequencies. In both cases, a circuit identical to the monitored signal separation circuit 11 may be manufactured to separate the signals entering the monitor PD 9 according to the drive timing of the light-emitting devices. The light source of this embodiment is used in proximity to the living body at a distance of several millimeters, and since the operating temperature is maintained at 40° C., the wavelength fluctuation was small and the fluctuation was within ±5 nm for each device. Since the reflectance of the light-emitting surface is 68%, there is optical feedback tolerance, and the optical output fluctuation is within 0.08%. Due to this, a stable signal with little noise is obtained from the living body. Eighth Embodiment An eighth embodiment of the invention will now be described referring to FIG. 11. Here, the semiconductor laser 130 has increased optical feedback tolerance by generating a pulsation by providing a saturable absorbing area near the facet that emits light. To stabilize the optical output, for example, in the same way as in the construction of FIG. 2, the semiconductor lasers may be driven at different frequencies, and the signals from the monitor PD may be separated by a lock-in-amplifier. The optical source in this embodiment is used in proximity to the living body at a distance of several mm, and since the operating temperature is maintained at approximately 40° C., the wavelength fluctuation is small, and the fluctuation was within ±5 nm for each light-emitting device. Due to pulsation, the optical feedback does not couple easily, and the optical output fluctuation was within 0.08%. Hence, a stable signal with little noise can be obtained from the living body. Ninth Embodiment A ninth embodiment will be described using a cross-sectional structural view (FIG. 12) of the semiconductor laser. On a predetermined n-type GaAs substrate 201, an n-type GaAs buffer layer 202, an n-type AlGaInP cladding layer 203, an n-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 204, a strained quantum well active layer 205, a p-type AlGaInP optical guiding layer 206, a first p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 207, a second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208, a p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and a p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are grown sequentially by the MOVPE method. The second p-type AlGaInP cladding layer 208, p-type GaInP capping layer 209 and p-type GaAs capping layer 210 are formed in a striped shape by a predetermined etching, the side walls of the stripes being subjected to passivation by a dielectric film 211. On the p-type GaAs capping layer 210, a p-side electrode 212 is formed, and on the n-type GaAs substrate 201, an n-side electrode 213 is formed. According to the ninth embodiment, the strained quantum well layer 205 has an In0.5Ga0.5As0.16P0.84 quantum well (compressive strain 0.7%), and a (Al0.5Ga0.5)0.5In0.5P barrier layer. In this case, a semiconductor laser device oscillating at a wavelength of 705 nm is obtained by adjusting the quantum well thickness to within 7 to 12 nm. By applying this to the semiconductor laser 1 of the first embodiment, a light source suitable for living body measurement can be supplied. Tenth Embodiment A tenth embodiment will be described using the cross-sectional structural view (FIG. 12) of the semiconductor laser. According to this embodiment, the strained quantum well layer 205 has an In0.5Ga0.5As0.32P0.68 quantum well (compressive strain 1.2%), and an (Al0.5Ga0.5)0.5In0.5P barrier layer. In this case, a semiconductor laser device oscillating at a wavelength of 755 nm is obtained by adjusting the quantum well thickness to within 7 to 12 nm. By applying this to the semiconductor laser 2 of the first embodiment, a light source suitable for living body measurement can be supplied. The GaAs substrate 201 may be an off substrate wherein the surface orientation is inclined from the (100) plane to the <011> direction. The strained quantum well layer 205, may be a strain compensated structure in which a tensile strength is applied to the barrier layer. The strain of the InGaAsP quantum well layer can be determined experimentally to evaluate characteristics and reliability. As a result of theoretical calculation and experiment, it has been found that 0.4%≦ε≦1.4% is preferred regardless of wavelength. Particularly, in the case where the wavelength is from 700 nm to 720 nm, 0.4%≦ε≦1.2% is preferred, and the optimum range is 0.4%≦ε≦0.9%. Also, in the case where the wavelength is from 725 nm to 760 nm, it has been found that a strain in the range of 0.6%≦ε≦1.4% is preferred. The semiconductor laser devices which can be manufactured by this embodiment and its modifications are as follows. 1. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(*)=(ax−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.1%≦y≦0.45, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm. 2. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.2%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.25, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 730 nm. 3. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦0.9%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.20, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 720 nm. 4. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.20≦y≦0.35, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm. 5. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.1%≦ε≦0.45%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.4≦y≦1, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 760 nm. 6. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a predetermined GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦1.2%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.25, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 730 nm. 7. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a predetermined GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.4%≦ε≦0.9%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.10≦y≦0.20, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 700 nm to 720 nm. 8. A semiconductor laser device having a light-emitting layer including an In1-xGaxAsyP1-y quantum well layer having a lattice constant aw in the surface and barrier layer provided on a predetermined GaAs substrate having a lattice constant a, wherein the strain ε defined by ε(%)=(aw−a)/a×100 satisfies 0.6%≦ε≦1.4%, wherein y in the composition satisfies 0.20≦y≦0.35, and the wavelength of the emitted light is from 725 nm to 760 nm. The present invention may be used as a high precision living body light measuring device and a light source using plural wavelengths.
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A
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| 17A61B
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5
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00
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11695939
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US20080249575A1-20081009
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Anchor Member Locking Features
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ACCEPTED
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20080924
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20081009
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[]
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A61B1704
|
["A61B1704", "A61B1770", "A61F244"]
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8425607
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20070403
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20130423
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623
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017160
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99370.0
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CUMBERLEDGE
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JERRY
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Waugh", "inventor_name_first": "Lindsey G.", "inventor_city": "Memphis", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Edie", "inventor_name_first": "Jason A.", "inventor_city": "Memphis", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Schultz", "inventor_name_first": "Matthew D.", "inventor_city": "Memphis", "inventor_state": "TN", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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An implantable medical device may include an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough. An anchor member may be configured to extend through the aperture. A locking ring may be supplied to inhibit back-out of the anchor member.
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1. An implantable medical device, comprising: an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough, the aperture including an inner surface having an integral inwardly extending elastically deformable locking ring having a first diameter; and an anchor member configured to extend through the aperture, the anchor member including a head portion having a second diameter greater than the first diameter, wherein the locking ring and the anchor member are configured in a manner that allows the anchor member to pass in a first direction and restricts passage in an opposite second direction. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the implant includes an upper surface, a lower surface, and a front surface between the upper and lower surfaces, the upper surface being configured to engage a lower endplate of an upper vertebra and the lower surface being configured to engage an upper endplate of a lower vertebra, and wherein the aperture is formed in the front surface. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the locking ring includes a leading tapering surface and a trailing locking surface. 4. The device of claim 3, wherein the locking surface is substantially perpendicular to the inner surface. 5. The device of claim 3, wherein the inner surface includes a tapering surface portion. 6. The device of claim 5, wherein the anchor member head portion includes a tapering surface configured to match the tapering surface portion of the inner surface of the aperture. 7. The device of claim 1, wherein the implant member includes four apertures and two of the apertures angle toward a vertebral endplate of an upper vertebra and two of the apertures angle toward a vertebral endplate of a lower vertebra. 8. The device of claim 1, wherein the locking ring is formed of a single annular ring. 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the implant member is a spacer sized for placement between bearing surfaces of adjacent vertebrae. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the implant member and the anchor member are configured to fit entirely within the disc space. 11. The device of claim 1, wherein the aperture is aligned in the implant member so that the anchor member in the aperture penetrates a bearing surface of a vertebral body. 12. An implantable medical device, comprising: an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough, the aperture having an inner surface and having a semicircular channel formed in the inner surface, the semicircular channel having end boundary walls; and a semicircular locking ring disposed in the semi-circular channel, wherein the end boundary walls are configured to limit rotation of the locking ring in the semicircular channel. 13. The device of claim 12, further comprising: an anchor member configured to extend through the aperture, the anchor member having a geometry that interacts with the locking ring to expand the locking ring while inserting the anchor member. 14. The device of claim 12, wherein the ring is elastically deformable in a manner that allows an anchor member to pass in a first direction and restrict passage in an opposite second direction. 15. The device of claim 12, wherein the channel includes a slot formed therein, and wherein the ring includes a protruding portion configured to fit within the slot. 16. The device of claim 15, wherein the locking ring includes a first and a second end, the protruding portion being a first protruding portion at the first end and further including a second protruding portion at the second end. 17. The device of claim 12, wherein the locking ring has a first inner diameter while in a neutral condition, the device comprising an anchor member including a head portion having a second diameter greater than the first diameter of the locking ring. 18. The device of claim 12, wherein the channel is disposed within the aperture so that a cross-section through the inner surface intersects only a part of the inner surface. 19. The device of claim 12, wherein the locking ring is entirely contained within the aperture. 20. The device of claim 12, wherein the implant member is a spacer sized for placement between adjacent vertebrae. 21. The device of claim 20, wherein the aperture is aligned in the implant member so that an anchor member in the aperture is aligned to penetrate a bearing surface of a vertebral body. 22. The device of claim 12, wherein the implant member and the locking ring are configured to fit entirely within the disc space. 23. An implantable medical device, comprising: an implant member including an aperture extending therethrough, the aperture having an inner surface and having an implant member channel formed in the inner surface; an anchor member configured to be inserted in the aperture, the anchor member including an anchor member channel formed therein; and a locking ring disposed within the anchor member channel, the locking ring having a cross-section that fits within the implant member channel and also permits removal of the anchor member from the implant member. 24. The device of claim 23, wherein the locking ring includes a contact region configured in a manner that allows the locking ring to selectively engage and disengage the implant member channel. 25. The device of claim 24, wherein the contact region is a rounded outer surface portion of the locking ring. 26. The device of claim 23, wherein the locking ring has a substantially circular shaped cross-section. 27. The device of claim 23, wherein the locking ring has a first diameter when in a neutral condition, and wherein the aperture has an inner surface, at least a portion of the inner surface defining a second diameter, the first diameter of the locking ring being greater than the second diameter of the inner surface. 28. The device of claim 23, wherein the implant member is a spacer sized for placement between adjacent vertebrae. 29. The device of claim 23, wherein the aperture is aligned in the implant member so that when the anchor member is in the aperture, the anchor member is aligned to penetrate a bearing surface of a vertebral body. 30. The device of claim 23, wherein the implant member, the anchor member, and the locking ring are configured to fit entirely within the disc space. 31. A method of implanting an implantable medical device, comprising: introducing an implant member into a disc space formed between two adjacent vertebrae, the implant member having an aperture formed therein, the aperture having an inner surface; introducing an anchor member into the aperture so that the anchor member engages a bearing endplate of one of the vertebrae, the anchor member having an outer surface; deforming a locking ring from a neutral condition by contacting the locking ring against one of: the inner surface of the aperture, and the outer surface of the anchor member; and physically inhibiting back-out of the anchor member by allowing the locking ring to at least partially deflect toward the neutral condition. 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the locking ring is disposed in an anchor member channel on the anchor member, and wherein deforming the locking ring includes contacting the locking ring against the inner surface of the aperture to compress the locking ring until it engages an aperture channel formed in the inner surface. 33. The method do claim 32, further including removing the anchor member by turning the anchor member to apply a load against the locking ring from an edge of the aperture channel until the locking ring compresses by deflecting out of the aperture channel formed in the inner surface. 34. The method of claim 31, wherein the locking ring is disposed in an aperture channel formed in the aperture, and wherein deforming the locking ring includes contacting the locking ring against the outer surface of the anchor member to compress the locking ring until the anchor member passes the locking member. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the channel formed in the aperture is semicircular and deforming the locking ring includes expanding the locking ring into the semicircular channel. 36. The method of claim 31, wherein introducing the implant member and introducing the anchor member includes disposing the implant member and the anchor member entirely within the disc space.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Spinal discs between the endplates of adjacent vertebrae in a spinal column of the human body provide critical support. However, due to injury, degradation, disease or the like, these discs can rupture, degenerate and/or protrude to such a degree that the intervertebral space between adjacent vertebrae collapses as the disc loses at least a part of its support function. This can cause impingement of the nerve roots and severe pain. In some cases, surgical correction may be required. Some surgical corrections include the removal of the natural spinal disc from between the adjacent vertebrae. In order to preserve the intervertebral disc space for proper spinal-column function, an implant member can be inserted between the adjacent vertebrae. Some implant members employ anchor members that fix the implant member in place between the adjacent vertebrae. Over time, due to micro motion of the vertebrae relative to the implant member, the anchor members may loosen and start to back-out of vertebrae. In addition to possibly allowing the implant member to become loose and potentially displace within the vertebral space, the anchor members themselves may protrude and cause damage to sensitive tissue and organs in the patient. What is needed is an implantable device that reduces or eliminates anchor member back-out. The implantable devices disclosed herein address one or more deficiencies in the art.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. It may include an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough. The aperture may include an inner surface having an integral inwardly extending elastically deformable locking ring having a first diameter. The device also may include an anchor member configured to extend through the aperture. The anchor member may include a head portion having a second diameter greater than the first diameter. The locking ring and the anchor member may be configured in a manner that allows the anchor member to pass in a first direction and restricts passage in an opposite second direction. In another exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. The device may include an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough. The aperture may have an inner surface and may have a semicircular channel formed in the inner surface. The semicircular channel may have end boundary walls. The device also may include a semicircular locking ring disposed in the semi-circular channel. The end boundary walls may be configured to limit rotation of the locking ring in the semicircular channel. In another exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. The device may include an implant member including an aperture extending there through. The aperture may have an inner surface and may have an implant member channel formed in the inner surface. An anchor member may be configured to be inserted into the aperture. The anchor member may include an anchor member channel formed therein. A locking ring may be disposed within the anchor member channel. The locking ring may have a cross-section that fits within the implant member channel and also may permit removal of the anchor member from the implant member. In yet another exemplary aspect, a method of implanting an implantable medical device is disclosed. The method may include introducing an implant member into a disc space formed between two adjacent vertebrae. The implant member may have an aperture formed therein, the aperture having an inner surface. The method also may include introducing an anchor member into the aperture so that the anchor member engages a bearing endplate of one of the vertebrae. The anchor member may have an outer surface. A locking ring may be deformed from a neutral condition by contacting the locking ring against one of: the inner surface of the aperture, and the outer surface of the anchor member. Back-out of the anchor member may be physically inhibited by allowing the locking ring to at least partially deflect toward the neutral condition. Further aspects, forms, embodiments, objects, features, benefits, and advantages of the present invention shall become apparent from the detailed drawings and descriptions provided herein.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to the field of medical implants secured by anchor members. BACKGROUND Spinal discs between the endplates of adjacent vertebrae in a spinal column of the human body provide critical support. However, due to injury, degradation, disease or the like, these discs can rupture, degenerate and/or protrude to such a degree that the intervertebral space between adjacent vertebrae collapses as the disc loses at least a part of its support function. This can cause impingement of the nerve roots and severe pain. In some cases, surgical correction may be required. Some surgical corrections include the removal of the natural spinal disc from between the adjacent vertebrae. In order to preserve the intervertebral disc space for proper spinal-column function, an implant member can be inserted between the adjacent vertebrae. Some implant members employ anchor members that fix the implant member in place between the adjacent vertebrae. Over time, due to micro motion of the vertebrae relative to the implant member, the anchor members may loosen and start to back-out of vertebrae. In addition to possibly allowing the implant member to become loose and potentially displace within the vertebral space, the anchor members themselves may protrude and cause damage to sensitive tissue and organs in the patient. What is needed is an implantable device that reduces or eliminates anchor member back-out. The implantable devices disclosed herein address one or more deficiencies in the art. SUMMARY In one exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. It may include an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough. The aperture may include an inner surface having an integral inwardly extending elastically deformable locking ring having a first diameter. The device also may include an anchor member configured to extend through the aperture. The anchor member may include a head portion having a second diameter greater than the first diameter. The locking ring and the anchor member may be configured in a manner that allows the anchor member to pass in a first direction and restricts passage in an opposite second direction. In another exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. The device may include an implant member having an aperture extending therethrough. The aperture may have an inner surface and may have a semicircular channel formed in the inner surface. The semicircular channel may have end boundary walls. The device also may include a semicircular locking ring disposed in the semi-circular channel. The end boundary walls may be configured to limit rotation of the locking ring in the semicircular channel. In another exemplary aspect, an implantable medical device is disclosed. The device may include an implant member including an aperture extending there through. The aperture may have an inner surface and may have an implant member channel formed in the inner surface. An anchor member may be configured to be inserted into the aperture. The anchor member may include an anchor member channel formed therein. A locking ring may be disposed within the anchor member channel. The locking ring may have a cross-section that fits within the implant member channel and also may permit removal of the anchor member from the implant member. In yet another exemplary aspect, a method of implanting an implantable medical device is disclosed. The method may include introducing an implant member into a disc space formed between two adjacent vertebrae. The implant member may have an aperture formed therein, the aperture having an inner surface. The method also may include introducing an anchor member into the aperture so that the anchor member engages a bearing endplate of one of the vertebrae. The anchor member may have an outer surface. A locking ring may be deformed from a neutral condition by contacting the locking ring against one of: the inner surface of the aperture, and the outer surface of the anchor member. Back-out of the anchor member may be physically inhibited by allowing the locking ring to at least partially deflect toward the neutral condition. Further aspects, forms, embodiments, objects, features, benefits, and advantages of the present invention shall become apparent from the detailed drawings and descriptions provided herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an illustration of a lateral view of a segment of a lumbar spine. FIG. 2 is an illustration of a lateral view of a spinal segment formed by two vertebrae with an exemplary implantable device disposed therebetween. FIG. 3 is an illustration of a perspective view of one exemplary embodiment of the implantable device shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a cross-sectional view of the exemplary implantable device shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is an illustration of a perspective view of another exemplary embodiment of an implantable device. FIG. 6 is an illustration of a perspective view of an exemplary locking ring forming a part of the implantable device shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is an illustration of a cross-sectional view of a portion of the implantable device shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 8 is an illustration of another cross-sectional view of a portion of the implantable device shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 9 is an illustration of a perspective view of yet another exemplary embodiment of an implantable device. FIG. 10 is an illustration of a cross-sectional view of a portion of the implantable device shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 11 is an illustration of a perspective view of an anchor member forming a part of the implantable device shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 12 is an illustration of a perspective view of an exemplary locking ring forming a part of the implantable device shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 13 is an illustration of a cross-sectional view of the locking ring shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 14 is an illustration of another cross-sectional view of the implantable device shown in FIG. 9. DETAILED DESCRIPTION For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments, or examples, illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended. Any alterations and further modifications in the described embodiments, and any further applications of the principles of the invention as described herein are contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention relates. FIG. 1 shows a lateral view of a portion of a spinal column 10, illustrating a group of adjacent upper and lower vertebrae V1, V2, V3, V4 separated by natural intervertebral discs D1, D2, D3. The illustration of four vertebrae is only intended as an example. Another example would be a sacrum and one vertebra. For the sake of further example, two of the vertebrae will be discussed with reference to a spinal segment 12 shown in FIG. 2. An upper vertebra 14 and a lower vertebra 16, which may be any of the vertebrae V1, V2, V3, V4, define the spinal segment 12. Although the illustrations of FIGS. 1 and 2 generally depict a lumbar vertebrae and a lumbar vertebral segment, it is understood that the devices, systems, and methods of this disclosure may also be applied to all regions of the vertebral column, including the cervical and thoracic regions. Some types of disc arthroplasty require that some or the entire natural disc that would have been positioned between the two vertebrae 14, 16 be removed via a discectomy or a similar surgical procedure. Removal of the diseased or degenerated disc results in the formation of an intervertebral space between the upper and lower vertebrae 14, 16. Once the diseased or degenerated disc is removed, an implantable prosthetic device may be used to maintain the vertebral spacing and provide vertebral support. As shown in FIG. 2, an implantable device, referenced herein by the reference numeral 100, resides within the vertebral space. Sized to fit the disc space height in a manner similar to a natural intervertebral disc, such as any of discs D1-D4, the implantable device 100 provides support and stabilization to the vertebrae. FIGS. 3 and 4 show the implantable device 100 in greater detail. FIG. 3 shows a perspective view of the implantable device 100, while FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional view of the implantable device 100. Referring now to both FIGS. 3 and 4, the implantable device includes an implant member 102, such as a spacer, and one or more anchor members 104. The implant member 102 may include an upper surface 106, a lower surface 108, side surfaces, 110a-b, a rear surface 112 and an front surface 114. The upper and lower surfaces 106, 108 may be configured to interface with the bearing endplates of the upper and lower vertebrae 14, 16 as shown in FIG. 2, while the side, rear, and front surfaces 110a-b, 112, 114 extend between the upper and lower surfaces 106, 108. In this exemplary embodiment, the front surface is an anterior surface and the rear surface is a posterior surface. However, the front and rear surfaces are relative and may be face any direction within the disc space. A hollow center 116 may allow placement of bone growth materials, such as allograft to promote bonding and fusion of the implantable device 100 to the adjacent vertebrae. In the embodiment shown, the upper and lower surfaces 106, 108 include bone engaging features 118 configured to reduce slipping or movement of the implant member 102 relative to vertebrae 14, 16. In the exemplary embodiment shown, the bone engaging features 118 are angled teeth that permit introduction into the disc space, but also restrict removal. The side surfaces 110a-b each include a recessed slot 120 configured to cooperate with an insertion tool (not shown) that selectively connects to the implant member 102. In some embodiments, within the slot 120, connecting impressions (not shown) may be configured to provide a secure connection with the insertion tool. The front surface 114 includes apertures 122 that receive anchor members 104 for attaching the implant member 102 to the vertebral bodies 14, 16. In this exemplary embodiment, the anchor members 104 are bone screws. However, other anchor members are contemplated. The anchor members 104 extend through the front surface 114 and out the hollow center 116 and into the bearing endplates of the vertebrae 14, 16, thereby securely locating the implant member 102 entirely within the disc space. In this exemplary embodiment, the implant member 102 includes four apertures 122—two angled to allow anchor members 104 to attach to an upper vertebral endplate and two angled to allow anchor members 104 to attach to a lower vertebral endplate, as best seen in FIG. 3. This allows the anchor members 104 to penetrate the bearing endplates of the vertebral bodies. In addition, when the implantable device 100 is a spacer as shown in FIG. 2, it is capable of being entirely contained within the disc space. Accordingly, anchor member locking features that reduce the chance of anchor member back-out, also may be disposed entirely within the disc space. This reduces a chance of creating additional patient trauma that may occur if organs and tissue are able to easily contact the implantable device outside the disc space. To reduce the chance of the anchor members 104 backing out of the vertebral bodies over time and causing the implant member 102 to become loose, the apertures 122 each include an inner surface 126 with an integral inwardly extending locking ring 128, shown best in FIG. 4. The aperture inner surface 126 is formed to have a first surface portion 130 defining a first diameter D1 and a second surface portion 132 that tapers inwardly. When in a neutral or unloaded condition, the locking ring 128 defines a second inner diameter D2 that is smaller than the first diameter D1 of the inner surface 126. In the embodiment shown, a leading tapered surface 134 and a trailing locking surface 136 together form the locking ring 128. The leading tapered surface 134 creates a gradual decrease in size of the aperture 122, while the trailing locking surface 136 extends from and is substantially perpendicular to the inner surface 126, forming a lip or shoulder. Other shapes at other angles also are contemplated. The locking ring 128 may be constructed in whole or in part of biocompatible materials of various types. Examples of locking ring materials include, but are not limited to, reinforced or non-reinforced polymers, carbon-reinforced polymer composites, PEEK and PEEK composites, shape-memory alloys, titanium, titanium alloys, cobalt chrome alloys, stainless steel, ceramics and combinations thereof. Polymer and composites may be particularly well-suited for forming the locking ring 128 because of their compliant properties, as the compliant protruding locking ring 128 may elastically deform or yield when the anchor member 104 is inserted into the aperture 122, as described further below. In other embodiments, the locking ring, or other components of the implantable device 100 may be formed of a shape memory material or a super elastic material. The anchor member 104 includes a threaded body portion 138 and a head portion 140, as shown in FIG. 4. The head portion 140 includes a tapering surface 142 and a tool receiving end 144 having an end surface 146 and a tool receiving bore 148. The tapering surface 142 leads to an outermost diameter D3 that is greater than the second inner diameter D2 of the locking ring D2 when the locking ring 128 is in a neutral or unloaded condition, but smaller than the first diameter D1 of the first surface portion 130 of the aperture 122. The implantable device 100 may be implanted in a properly prepared spinal column to provide support and stability to the column. In some embodiments, the implant member 102 may be placed in a prepared disc space between adjacent vertebrae so that the upper and lower surfaces 106, 108 contact bearing endplates of the vertebral bodies. Once positioned, one of the anchor members 104 may be introduced through one of the apertures 122 in the implant member 102, and then rotated to engage with and advance into one of the vertebral endplates. As the anchor member 104 advances through the aperture 122, the tapering surface 142 of the head portion 140 engages and slides against the leading tapered surface 134 of the locking ring 128. Further advancement may cause the compliant locking ring 128 to deform slightly or yield to allow passage of the anchor member head portion 140. Once the anchor member head portion 140 passes the locking ring 128, the locking ring 128 may at least partially deform back to its original condition, so that its inner diameter D2 is smaller than the anchor member head portion diameter D3. The locking ring 128, with its smaller diameter, inhibits anchor member back-out because the trailing locking surface 136, physically obstructs back-out movement of the anchor member 104. As the anchor member 104 further advances, the tapering surface 142 of the head portion 140 contacts and pushes against the second surface portion 132 of the inner surface 126 to secure the implant member 102 and the entire implantable device 100 in place. Although shown as an annular projecting ring in FIGS. 3 and 4, in other embodiments, the locking ring 128 is formed of a plurality of spaced protrusions that together operate similar to the annular locking ring 128 described above. For example, in one embodiment, the locking ring 128 is defined by four protrusions equally spaced about the inner surface 126. Other arrangements also are contemplated. In some alternate embodiments, the anchor member head portion 140 is compliant while the locking ring 128 is rigid, such as may occur when an anchor member formed at least partially of a yielding material, such as a polymer, is used with a titanium implant member. In these embodiments, the head portion slightly deforms as the anchor member is driven past the locking ring, and once past, at least partially elastically deforms so that the locking ring interferes with the head portion to prevent anchor member back-out. In yet other embodiments, both the anchor member head portion 140 and the locking ring 128 are compliant, such as when they are formed of a similar material, such that they both deform slightly so that the anchor member head portion 140 can advance past the locking ring 128. FIGS. 5-8 show another embodiment of an implantable device, generally referenced herein by the reference numeral 200. Similar to the device described above, the implantable device in this embodiment includes an implant member 202 shown as a spacer, and an anchor member 204. The implant member 202 may include any of the features of the implant member 102 described above, including apertures for receiving the anchor members, referenced with respect to this embodiment as 206. Although only one anchor member 204 is shown in FIG. 5, it should be understood that this is for ease of explanation and that two, three, four or more anchor members 204 may be used to secure the implant member 202 in place between the upper and lower vertebrae 14, 16 depending on the number of apertures 206. In this embodiment, a locking ring 208, configured to inhibit anchor member back-out, is disposed within each aperture 206. One exemplary embodiment of the locking ring 208 is shown in FIG. 6. Here, the locking ring 208 is semicircular shaped and includes an arcing body 210 having a first end 212 and a second end 214, shown best in FIG. 6. At each end 212, 214, outwardly protruding portions 216 help secure the locking ring 208 in the aperture 206. In the embodiment shown, the protruding portions 216 extend in opposite directions along an axis 218. Although the semicircular locking ring 208 is shown as a half-circle, it is understood that the term “semicircular” is intended to include rings that are more than or less than a half-circle. In some exemplary embodiments, the locking ring 208 may be formed of a spring-type material that is capable of at least partial elastic deformation. In other embodiments, the locking ring may be formed of a shape memory material, a metal such as titanium or stainless steel for example, a polymer material, among others. In some embodiments, the locking ring 208 is a snap ring configured to have a first inner diameter D4 when in a first neutral condition, is configured to expand to a second larger inner diameter when the anchor member 204 is inserted into the aperture 206 and driven through the locking ring 208, and is configured to at least partially elastically return to its neutral condition. FIG. 7 shows a cross-sectional view of a part of the implantable device 100 with the locking ring 208 disposed within a channel 220 formed within the aperture 206 of the implant member 202. As shown, the aperture 206 includes an inner surface 222 with the channel 220 formed therein and outwardly extending therefrom. The channel 220 includes slots 224 formed therein and has a depth that allows the locking ring 208 to expand within the channel 220 when required. When placed within the channel 220, the protruding portions 216 of the locking ring 208 are configured to fit within the slots 224 to reduce the chance of the locking ring 208 disengaging from the channel 220. In addition, the channel 220 includes boundary walls 226 that limit the amount of locking ring rotation within the aperture 206, holding the semicircular locking ring 208 in place. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7, the cross-section, taken through the channel 220 substantially perpendicular to an axis formed by the aperture 206, intersects only a part of the angled aperture 206. Because of the angle, the remaining part is not cross-sectioned. Accordingly, the channel 220 is formed at a depth within the angled aperture 206 that does not allow a complete circumferential channel to be contained within the implant member 202. Therefore, in this exemplary embodiment, the channel 220 and the locking ring 208 are formed to be semicircular so that they may be disposed entirely within the aperture 206 of the implant member 202. It is understood however, that the channel 220 may be formed within the aperture 206 at any desired depth, including a depth that allows a full circumferential channel to extend about the inner circumference of the aperture 206. FIG. 8 shows a cross-sectional view of the implant member 202 and locking ring 208 with the anchor member 204 in place. As can be seen, the anchor member 204 may be substantially similar to the anchor member 104 described above, having an anchor member head portion 232 with a tapering surface 234. The inner surface 222 of the aperture 206 includes a first surface portion 236 and a second surface portion 238. The first surface portion 236 may be formed substantially cylindrically, while the second surface portion 238 may include a narrowing taper or conical shape that interfaces with the tapering surface 234 of the anchor member 204 to secure the implant member 202 in place against the vertebrae. This is because the anchor member 204 has a greater diameter than an inner diameter of the locking ring 208 in its neutral condition. Here, the anchor member 204 has a geometry that interacts with the locking ring 208 to expand the locking ring 208 while inserting the anchor member 204. For example, when inserted into the aperture 206, the tapering surface 234 of the anchor member head portion 232 deforms the locking ring 208 by forcing it to outwardly deflect into the channel 220 formed within the inner surface 222 of the aperture 206. Once the anchor member head portion 232 passes, the locking ring 208 springs back into place behind the anchor member head portion 232, thereby physically inhibiting any undesired anchor member back-out. Although shown as a single locking ring in FIGS. 7 and 8, in other embodiments, the locking ring 208 may comprise two or more locking rings used to cooperatively interact with sides, such as opposing sides, of the anchor member head portion 232 to inhibit back-out. Further, although shown as extending about fifty percent of the way around the head portion 232, in other embodiments, the locking ring 208 extends between about twenty-five and seventy-five percent of the distance around the anchor member head portion 232. In yet other embodiments the locking ring 208 extends between about thirty and sixty percent of the distance around the anchor member head portion 232. In embodiments extending less than fifty percent of the distance around the anchor member, a radius of the curve may be measured and doubled to obtain the diameter. FIG. 9 shows yet another embodiment of an implantable device. This embodiment of the implantable device is referenced herein by the reference numeral 300. The implantable device 300 may include an implant member 302, such as a spacer, and anchor members 306. In this embodiment, only one anchor member 304 is shown, although others are contemplated, as mentioned above. The implant member 302 may include any of the features of other embodiments described herein, including apertures, referenced in this embodiment by the reference numeral 306. Turning to FIG. 10 a cross-sectional view of the implant member 302 taken through one of the apertures 306 shows an inner surface 308 having a channel 310 formed therein. The inner surface 308 includes a first surface portion 312 and a second surface portion 314. In this embodiment, the first surface portion 312 in this embodiment may be slightly tapered or conically shaped, while the second surface portion 314 also may be slightly tapered or conically shaped, and in some embodiments may have an angle different than the first surface portion. Adjacent the channel 310, the first surface portion 312 may have a diameter D5. The channel 310 in this exemplary embodiment is disposed between the surface portions 312, 314 and may be formed as a substantially annular ring having a U-shaped inner channel surface 316 with a rear locking wall 318 configured to engage a locking ring, as explained below. FIG. 11 shows an exemplary anchor member 304 with an associated locking ring 320. The anchor member 304 may include any of the features described in other embodiments, but here also includes a head portion 322 having a ring channel 324 formed therein. The channel 324 is a U-shaped channel configured to fit the locking ring 320 at least partially therein. The head portion 322 defines an outer diameter D6 in the region the channel 324 is located. The locking ring 320 is shown in greater detail in FIGS. 12 and 13. The locking ring 320 in this embodiment may be a compressible snap ring that has a first outer diameter D7 and a first inner diameter D8 in a neutral or uncompressed condition, but that is compressible to a second or smaller diameter. The neutral outer diameter D7 of the locking ring 320 is greater than the diameter D6 of the head portion 322 and greater than the inner surface diameter D5 of the aperture 306. Likewise, the neutral inner diameter D8 of the locking ring 320 is less than the diameter D6 of the head portion 322 and less than the inner surface diameter D5 of the aperture 306. Thus, the locking ring 320 is sized to simultaneously extend into the head portion channel 324 and the aperture channel 216. An outer surface 326 of the locking ring 320 may include a leading contact region 328 configured to contact the aperture inner surface 308 (FIG. 10) when the anchor member 304 is being driven into the aperture 306. It also may include a trailing contact region 330 configured to engage the rear locking wall 318 (FIG. 10) of the aperture channel 310 when the anchor member 304 is being removed or when the anchor member 304 begins to experience back-out. In this embodiment, the trailing contact region 330 cooperates with the aperture channel 310 to inhibit back-out. In addition, because of its shaped cross-section including the rounded trailing contact region 330, the anchor member 304 is capable of being removed manually from the implant member 302, if desired, by turning the anchor member 304 until the locking ring 320 engages the rear locking wall 318 of the aperture channel 310, and until the force deflects the locking ring 320 into the anchor member channel 324 and entirely out of the aperture channel 310. Thus, the anchor member 304 not only inhibits back-out, but also can be removed more easily than prior locking designs. Although shown as having a round or circular cross-section, in other embodiments the cross section of the locking ring 320 is oval shaped, D-shaped, triangular shaped, among others. Therefore, in some embodiments, as described above, the trailing contact region 330 may be rounded or tapered to engage the rear locking wall 318 to promote securing of the anchor member 304 within the aperture, but also may be shaped, such as rounded or tapered to slide over and disengage the rear locking wall 318 to allow removal of the anchor member 304 from the aperture 306. Yet other cross-sectional shapes are contemplated. FIG. 14 shows the anchor member 304 and locking ring 320 engaged in the implant member 302. When inserting the anchor member 304, the tapered first surface portion 312 of the inner surface 308 of the implant member 302 compresses the locking ring 320 into the anchor member head channel 324, decreasing the locking ring diameter. When inserted to the aperture channel 310, the locking ring 320 at least partially snaps back to a larger diameter, thereby engaging both the anchor member channel 324 and the aperture channel 310. In this condition, the locking ring 320 inhibits anchor member back-out. If desired, the anchor member 304 can still be removed from the implant member 302 by unscrewing the anchor member 304 until the rear locking wall 318 of the channel 310 interfaces with the trailing contact region 330 of the locking ring 320 and its outer shape forces the locking ring 320 to compress inwardly and slip out of the aperture channel 310 and more fully into the anchor member channel 324, thereby disengaging the locking ring 320 from the aperture channel 310. Some embodiments of the implantable devices disclosed herein employ radiopaque materials that allow locations of the components of the implantable devices to be tracked. For example, in some embodiments, the locking ring may be formed of a radiopaque material. In other embodiments, other components may be formed of radiopaque materials. In some embodiments, the implantable devices disclosed herein or individual components of the implantable devices are constructed of solid sections of bone or other tissues. Further, in some circumstances, it is advantageous to pack the hollow center of any of the implant members with a suitable osteogenetic material or therapeutic composition. Osteogenic materials include, without limitation, autograft, allograft, xenograft, demineralized bone, synthetic and natural bone graft substitutes, such as bioceramics and polymers, and osteoinductive factors. A separate carrier to hold materials within the device can also be used. These carriers can include collagen-based carriers, bioceramic materials, such as BIOGLASS®, hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate compositions. The carrier material may be provided in the form of a sponge, a block, folded sheet, putty, paste, graft material or other suitable form. The osteogenetic compositions may include an effective amount of a bone morphogenetic protein, transforming growth factor β1, insulin-like growth factor 1, platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, LIM mineralization protein (LMP), and combinations thereof or other therapeutic or infection resistant agents, separately or held within a suitable carrier material. A technique of an embodiment of the invention is to first pack the interior of the implant member with material and then place it within the disc space. Access to the surgical site may be through any surgical approach that will allow adequate visualization and/or manipulation of the bone structures. Example surgical approaches include, but are not limited to, any one or combination of anterior, antero-lateral, posterior, postero-lateral, transforaminal, and/or far lateral approaches. Implant insertion can occur through a single pathway or through multiple pathways, or through multiple pathways to multiple levels of the spinal column. Minimally invasive techniques employing instruments and implants are also contemplated. It is understood that all spatial references, such as “top,” “inner,” “outer,” “bottom,” “left,” “right,” “anterior,” “posterior,” “superior,” “inferior,” “medial,” “lateral,” “upper,” “lower,” “front,” and “rear” are for illustrative purposes only and can be varied within the scope of the disclosure. While embodiments of the invention have been illustrated and described in detail in the disclosure, the disclosure is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. All changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the invention are to be considered within the scope of the disclosure.
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A
| 7A61
| 17A61B
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17
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04
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11951296
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US20090148064A1-20090611
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COLLAGE DISPLAY OF IMAGE PROJECTS
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ACCEPTED
|
20090527
|
20090611
|
[]
|
G06K936
|
["G06K936"]
|
8775953
|
20071205
|
20140708
|
715
|
764000
|
99196.0
|
HAILU
|
TADESSE
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Schulz", "inventor_name_first": "Egan", "inventor_city": "San Jose", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Techniques are described for displaying projects of images as “collages”. Collages differ from conventional thumbnail displays of projects in that collages display an entire project as if the project were a single image. Consequently, collages better convey the characteristics of projects as a whole, while de-emphasizing the distinctiveness of individual images within the projects. When displayed as collages, side-by-side comparisons may be readily performed between projects as a whole. For example, a single display may include collages for multiple projects, thereby allowing viewers to quickly tell how the projects differ in a variety of ways, including but not limited to size of shoot or density of shoot, dominant color, mood, time of day, bracketed shots or bursts, location and subject matter. The content of the collage for a project is based on the individual images that belong to the project. However, details of the individual images on which the project image is based may not be readily discernible from the collage. In addition, not all individual images that belong to a project may be used in a collage. Techniques for selecting which individual images of a project to include in the project are also described.
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1. A method for displaying digital images, comprising the computer-executed steps of: determining which images belong to each of a plurality of projects; and concurrently displaying a collage for each project of the plurality of projects; wherein the collage for each project is composed of a plurality of images that belong to the project, and wherein borders between images that belong to the same collage are indicated differently than borders between different collages. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein borders between different collages are wider than borders between different images that belong to the same collage. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein: the plurality of projects include a first project and a second project; the step of concurrently displaying a collage for each project includes concurrently displaying a first collage for the first project and a second collage for the second project; the number of images in the first collage is different than the number of images in the second collage; and the pixel resolution of the first collage is the same as the pixel resolution of the second collage. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein: the plurality of projects include a first project and a second project; the step of concurrently displaying a collage for each project includes concurrently displaying a first collage for the first project and a second collage for the second project; all images of which the first collage is composed are displayed at a first pixel resolution; all images of which the second collage is composed are displayed at a second pixel resolution; and the first pixel resolution is different than the second pixel resolution. 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising selecting, for a particular project of the plurality of projects, a subset of images that belong to the particular project to include in the collage for the particular project. 6. The method of claim 5 wherein: the step of selecting is performed in response to determining that the number of images in the particular project exceeds a maximum desired number of collage components; the step of selecting includes selecting the first N images of the project where N is the maximum desired number of collage components. 7. The method of claim 5 wherein: the images that belong to the particular project have a particular order; and the subset of images that are selected come earlier, in the particular order, than all images that are not selected to be included in the collage for the particular project. 8. The method of claim 5 wherein: the images that belong to the particular project have a particular order; and the step of selecting includes selecting images that are evenly distributed throughout the project, relative to the particular order. 9. A method for displaying images, the method comprising the computer-executed steps of: determining which images belong to a project; of the images that belong to a project, selecting a subset of images to be included in a collage for the project; and displaying the collage for the project based on the selected subset of images. 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the images that belong to the project have a particular order; and the step of selecting includes selecting images that are evenly distributed throughout the project, relative to the particular order 11. The method of claim 9 further comprising: displaying a virtual loupe that includes a selection region; and in response to detecting that the selection region selects a plurality of images within the collage, displaying a magnified depiction of the plurality of images that are selected by the virtual loupe. 12. The method of claim 9 further comprising the steps of: receiving user input; and in response to the user input, moving the collage in a particular direction thereby causing (a) at least some of said images in said subset of images to cease to be displayed as part of said collage, and (b) at least some of the images of the projects that are not in said subset to be displayed as part of said collage. 13. The method of claim 9 wherein the subset of images is a first subset of imaged, the method further comprising the steps of: receiving user input; and in response to the user input, (a) ceasing to display the collage composed of the first subset of images; and (b) displaying a collage that is composed of a second subset of images of the project, wherein the second subset is different from the first subset. 14. A computer-readable storage medium storing instructions, the instructions including instructions which, when executed by one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform the steps of: determining which images belong to each of a plurality of projects; and concurrently displaying a collage for each project of the plurality of projects; wherein the collage for each project is composed of a plurality of images that belong to the project; wherein borders between images that belong to the same collage are indicated differently than borders between different collages. 15. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 14 wherein: the plurality of projects include a first project and a second project; the step of concurrently displaying a collage for each project includes concurrently displaying a first collage for the first project and a second collage for the second project; the number of images in the first collage is different than the number of images in the second collage; and the pixel resolution of the first collage is the same as the pixel resolution of the second collage. 16. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 14 wherein: the plurality of projects include a first project and a second project; the step of concurrently displaying a collage for each project includes concurrently displaying a first collage for the first project and a second collage for the second project; all images of which the first collage is composed are displayed at a first pixel resolution; all images of which the second collage is composed are displayed at a second pixel resolution; and the first pixel resolution is different than the second pixel resolution. 17. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 14 further comprising instructions for selecting, for a particular project of the plurality of projects, a subset of images that belong to the particular project to include in the collage for the particular project. 18. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 17 wherein: the step of selecting is performed in response to determining that the number of images in the particular project exceeds a maximum desired number of collage components; and the step of selecting includes selecting the first N images of the project where N is the maximum desired number of collage components. 19. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 17 wherein: the images that belong to the particular project have a particular order; and the subset of images that are selected come earlier, in the particular order, than all images that are not selected to be included in the collage for the particular project. 20. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 17 wherein: the images that belong to the particular project have a particular order; and the step of selecting includes selecting images that are evenly distributed throughout the project, relative to the particular order. 21. A computer-readable storage medium storing instructions, the instructions including instructions which, when executed by one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform the steps of: determining which images belong to a project; of the images that belong to a project, selecting a subset of images to be included in a collage for the project; and displaying the collage for the project based on the selected subset of images. 22. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 21 wherein the images that belong to the project have a particular order; and the step of selecting includes selecting images that are evenly distributed throughout the project, relative to the particular order 23. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 21 further comprising instructions for: displaying a virtual loupe that includes a selection region; and in response to detecting that the selection region selects a plurality of images within the collage, displaying a magnified depiction of the plurality of images that are selected by the virtual loupe. 24. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 21 further comprising instructions for: receiving user input; and in response to the user input, moving the collage in a particular direction thereby causing (a) at least some of said images in said subset of images to cease to be displayed as part of said collage, and (b) at least some of the images of the projects that are not in said subset to be displayed as part of said collage. 25. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 21 wherein the subset of images is a first subset of images, the instructions further comprising instructions for: receiving user input; and in response to the user input, (a) ceasing to display the collage composed of the first subset of images; and (b) displaying a collage that is composed of a second subset of images of the project, wherein the second subset is different from the first subset.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A project is a set of digital images that are related in some manner. A project may include, for example, all photos taken on a particular day, on a particular location, or at a particular event. A project may also be all photos downloaded at the same time from a particular device, such as a digital camera. The project(s) to which a digital image belongs is typically determined based on metadata associated with the image. Such metadata may explicitly establish an image-to-project mapping (e.g. photo X belongs to project Y), or may be used as a factor to indirectly determine the project for the image. For example, the day/time that a photo was taken may be stored as metadata, and an image management application may automatically establish all photos taken on a particular day as a project. It is often desirable to compare digital images with other digital images. For example, when selecting which digital images from a photo shoot to include in a magazine, or brochure, it is important to be able to look at the candidate photos together, to decide between them. Consequently, most image management applications include a feature that allows digital images to be concurrently displayed to facilitate side-by-side comparisons between photos. While comparing individual photos to individual photos is relatively easy, comparing entire projects to other entire projects is not so straightforward. For example, many image management applications allow users to view thumbnails of the images that belong to a project. However, even in views where the images of a project are displayed as thumbnails, the emphasis of the display is clearly to facilitate consideration of individual photos, not the project as a whole. For example, the size of the thumbnails is typically chosen so that the user can clearly discern the content of the individual images. Consequently, for projects that have large numbers of photos, only a small subset of the photos will fit on the screen at any given time. To see all the photos in the project, the user has to scroll or page through many screens. To compare two large projects, the user has to first browse through several pages of thumbnails of the photos for one project, and then browse through several pages of thumbnails of photos for the other project. Further, such thumbnail views typically display information about the individual photos adjacent to the thumbnails. The individual-photo metadata displayed adjacent to the thumbnails typically includes the name of the image, and may also include information such as the date the photo was taken, the resolution of the photo, the photographer, etc. The approaches described in this section are approaches that could be pursued, but not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated, it should not be assumed that any of the approaches described in this section qualify as prior art merely by virtue of their inclusion in this section.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating concurrent displays of collages for projects, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a technique for using a virtual loupe in conjunction with collages, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a technique for performing a zoom operation using a virtual loupe to select multiple image components for magnification, according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a computer system upon which embodiments of the invention may be implemented. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to digital images and, more specifically, to techniques for displaying projects of digital images. BACKGROUND A project is a set of digital images that are related in some manner. A project may include, for example, all photos taken on a particular day, on a particular location, or at a particular event. A project may also be all photos downloaded at the same time from a particular device, such as a digital camera. The project(s) to which a digital image belongs is typically determined based on metadata associated with the image. Such metadata may explicitly establish an image-to-project mapping (e.g. photo X belongs to project Y), or may be used as a factor to indirectly determine the project for the image. For example, the day/time that a photo was taken may be stored as metadata, and an image management application may automatically establish all photos taken on a particular day as a project. It is often desirable to compare digital images with other digital images. For example, when selecting which digital images from a photo shoot to include in a magazine, or brochure, it is important to be able to look at the candidate photos together, to decide between them. Consequently, most image management applications include a feature that allows digital images to be concurrently displayed to facilitate side-by-side comparisons between photos. While comparing individual photos to individual photos is relatively easy, comparing entire projects to other entire projects is not so straightforward. For example, many image management applications allow users to view thumbnails of the images that belong to a project. However, even in views where the images of a project are displayed as thumbnails, the emphasis of the display is clearly to facilitate consideration of individual photos, not the project as a whole. For example, the size of the thumbnails is typically chosen so that the user can clearly discern the content of the individual images. Consequently, for projects that have large numbers of photos, only a small subset of the photos will fit on the screen at any given time. To see all the photos in the project, the user has to scroll or page through many screens. To compare two large projects, the user has to first browse through several pages of thumbnails of the photos for one project, and then browse through several pages of thumbnails of photos for the other project. Further, such thumbnail views typically display information about the individual photos adjacent to the thumbnails. The individual-photo metadata displayed adjacent to the thumbnails typically includes the name of the image, and may also include information such as the date the photo was taken, the resolution of the photo, the photographer, etc. The approaches described in this section are approaches that could be pursued, but not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated, it should not be assumed that any of the approaches described in this section qualify as prior art merely by virtue of their inclusion in this section. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating concurrent displays of collages for projects, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a technique for using a virtual loupe in conjunction with collages, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a technique for performing a zoom operation using a virtual loupe to select multiple image components for magnification, according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a computer system upon which embodiments of the invention may be implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention. Overview Techniques are described herein for displaying projects of images as “collages”. Collages differ from conventional thumbnail displays of projects in that collages display an entire project as if the project were a single image. Consequently, collages better convey the characteristics of projects as a whole, while de-emphasizing the distinctiveness of individual images within the projects. The collage for a project is based on the individual images that belong to the project. However, details of the individual images on which the project image is based may not be readily discernible from the collage. In addition, in some situations, not all individual images that belong to a project may be used in the collage of the project. Techniques for selecting which individual images of a project to include in the collage of the project shall be described in detail hereafter. When displayed as collages, side-by-side comparisons may be readily performed between projects as a whole. For example, a single display may include collages for multiple projects, thereby allowing viewers to quickly tell how the projects differ in a variety of ways, including but not limited to size of shoot or density of shoot, dominant color, mood, time of day, bracketed shots or bursts, location and subject matter. Collages make it easier for users to quickly find projects for which they are searching, and to quickly find specific individual photos within those projects, as shall be described in greater detail hereafter. Collage Image Quantities The individual images that are reflected in a collage are referred to herein as collage components. The “image quantity” of a dimension of a collage refers to how many collage components are included in the collage relative to the dimension. For example, a rectangular collage made up of 20 rows of 30 images has a height image quantity of 20, and a width image quantity of 30. The total image quantity of such a collage is 600. Most digital images are rectangular. Therefore, to allow users to make project-to-project comparisons as easily as image-to-image comparisons, rectangular collages are generated, in one embodiment of the invention. One technique for generating a rectangular collage involves generating a W×H array of thumbnails, where W is the width image quantity and H is the height image quantity. When square collages are desired, W=H. In one embodiment, the actual values of W and H vary based on the number of images in the project for which the collage is being generated. Thus, the larger the number of images in the project, the larger the values for W and H. For example, assume that one project includes 25 images, and another project includes 100 images. Further assume that square collages are desired. Under these circumstances, the 25 image project may be represented as a 5×5 collage, and the 100 image project may be represented as a 10×10 collage. Thus, both collages will have the same peripheral shape (squares), but the 10×10 collage will be composed of significantly more images. While it is preferable for the collages of all projects to have the same peripheral shape, that shape need not be a square. For example, in one embodiment, the peripheral shape of collages may be rectangles in which the W=2H. In such an embodiment, an 18 image project may be represented by a 6×3 collage, and a 98 image project may be represented by a 14×7 collage. In some embodiments, the peripheral shapes of collages may result in “missing components”. For example, when the peripheral shape of the collages is a square, some projects may not have a perfect square number of images. Under these conditions, the last row of the collage may be incomplete. For example, if a project with 24 images is shown as a square collage, the collage may include four rows of 5 images, and one row of four images. The bottom-right corner of the collage (where the twenty-fifth image would have been displayed) may simply be empty. An image management application may provide user interface controls that allow users to select the peripheral shape of collages. For example, the user interface controls may provide options for displaying square collages, rectangular collages where height is greater than width, and rectangular collages where width is greater than height. Other collage shapes, such as circular or X-shaped collages, are also possible. The image management application determines the image quantity for each dimensions of each collage in a manner that ensures that the resulting in collage has the selected peripheral shape. Collage Pixel Resolutions The image quantities of the dimensions of a collage dictate how many collage components are in the collage, but do not necessarily determine the actual display size (pixel resolution) of the collage. The pixel resolution of a collage is also affected by the display size of the collage components of which the collage is composed. In one embodiment, the pixel size of collage components is the same across all collages, regardless of the image quantities of the dimensions of the collages. For example, collage components of all collages may be displayed as 32 pixel×32 pixel images. In such an embodiment, the pixel resolutions of a collage will vary based on the image quantities of the dimensions of the collage. Thus, the pixel resolution of collages for small projects may be very small, while the pixel resolution for collages for large projects may be enormous. While it is desirable for collages to visually reflect the number of images within the project, it may be cumbersome to work with collages of vastly different pixel resolutions. Therefore, in one embodiment, rather than have the pixel resolution of collage components be uniform across all collages, the pixel resolution of the collage components is inversely proportional to the image quantities of the dimensions of the collage. Thus, the more collage components a collage has, the smaller the dimensions of each of those collage components. In one embodiment, the pixel resolution of the collage components of each collage is selected in a manner that results in all collages having the same pixel resolution, regardless of the image quantities of their dimensions. In such an embodiment, the relative number of images that a project has is clearly discernible by the size of the collage components of which the collage is composed. Further, the fact that all collages have the same size and shape facilitates the concurrent display of multiple collages, and makes side-by-side comparisons easier. FIG. 1 is a block diagram depicting three collages 102, 104 and 106 generated according to an embodiment of the invention. The image quantities of collage 102 are 5×5. The image quantities of collage 104 are 10×10. The image quantities of collage 106 are 15×15. Despite these differences in image quantities, the pixel resolution of the collages is the same for all three collages 102, 104 and 106. This pixel resolution equality is achieved by displaying relatively smaller components for collages that have more components, and relatively larger components for collages that have fewer components. According to one embodiment, the collages of multiple projects are concurrently displayed in a manner that allows the user to easily determine which images belong to which collages. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the boundaries between images that belong to a collage are significantly smaller than the boundaries between collages. In other embodiments, the boundaries between collages may be visually distinguished in other ways. For example, the boundaries between collages may be one color, while the boundaries between images within the same collage may be another color. Changing the Pixel Resolutions of a Collage In one embodiment, all collages are initially displayed at the same pixel resolution, such as 160 pixels by 160 pixels, regardless of the image quantities of their dimensions. The pixel resolutions of collage components are adjusted to achieve the desired collage pixel resolution. Thus, the pixel resolutions of the components of collages with many components will be small, while the pixel resolutions of the components of collages with few components will be relatively large. According to one embodiment, an image management application provides various features to allow users to select or change the pixel resolution of a collage. For example, in one embodiment, user interface controls are provided to allow users to select the pixel resolution of collages from a plurality of available collage pixel resolution options. The available dimensions may range, for example, from 128×128 pixels to 241×241 pixels. In one embodiment, user interface controls are also provided for resizing collages in a manner similar to how individual images may be resized. For example, a user may click and drag on the border of a collage to grow or shrink the collage image. In response to user input received through such user controls, the image management application increases or decreases the pixel resolution of the collage components, thereby increasing or decreasing the pixel resolution of the collage itself. The image management application may impose certain limits on how a user may resize a collage. For example, in one embodiment, (a) collage components may never be reduced to fewer than 4 pixels by 4 pixels, and (b) the border between the collage components is never less than one pixel. In such an embodiment, the total size of any collage never shrinks below 5N+1 by 5M+1, where W and H represent the dimensions of the collage in terms of components. In such an embodiment, a project with 1024 images would produce a 32×32 collage. When shown at the smallest allowed pixel resolution, such a collage would result in a 161×161 pixel square. Collage Component Borders According to one embodiment, collage components are separated from each other in a manner that allows individual-image boundaries to be readily perceived. Such borders may, for example, simply be a one-pixel-wide line of a particular color, such as black. Preferably, information about the individual images of which a collage is composed is not displayed near the collage components themselves. Such information would detract from the informational content of the collage itself. As mentioned above, such informational content may include, but is not limited to: the size of a project, the density of the project, the dominant color of the project, the mood of the project, the time of day of the project, bracketed shots or bursts within the project, location of the project, and general subject matter of the project. Selecting Collage Components In one embodiment, all images that belong to a project are used as collage components for the collage of the project. However, such an embodiment will often result in collages that do not conform to a desired peripheral shape. For example, assume that the desired peripheral shape is a square, and that a project has 27 photos. Under these circumstances, a 6×6 collage would have nine extra image positions. If the nine extra image positions are left blank, then the collage would not look exactly square. On the other hand, a 5×5 collage would leave out two of photos. If the two extra photos are included in a sixth row, then peripheral shape will not be square. Another disadvantage of an embodiment that uses all images of a project to create the collage for the project is that some projects may have so many images that using all images will result in collage components that are too small to be useful. For example, assuming that the collage pixel resolutions are 160×160, collages with more than 900 images (e.g. 30×30 collages) tend to be too dense to effectively convey some of the characteristics of the project. For example, a project with 1600 images yields a 40×40 image square collage which is too dense to be effectively displayed in a 160×160 pixel region. Thus, it may be desirable to generate a collage that includes less than all of the images of the project. To maintain a specified peripheral shape and some minimum pixel size for the collage components, embodiments are provided in which not all images that belong to a project are used in the collage of the project. In such embodiments, the image management application includes logic for selecting which images within each project to use as collage components for the collage of the project. The mechanisms for selecting which images to include in a collage may vary from implementation to implementation, and include a cropping mechanism, a formula mechanism, a cropped view with scrubbing mechanism and a cropped view with paging mechanism, each of which shall be described in greater detail hereafter. Selection Through Cropping Selection through cropping involves selecting the first N images in a project to be the collage components for the project, where N is highest number of images that (1) will achieve the desired peripheral collage shape, and (2) results in collage components that are not too small. For example, assume that collages are to be displayed as N×N squares, and that 30×30 is the maximum acceptable density for the collages. Assume further that a user has requested the concurrent display of collages for three projects A, B and C which have 70, 200 and 2000 images respectively. Under these conditions, the image quantities of the collage for project A would be 8×8, formed of the first 64 images in project A. The image quantities of the collage for project B would be 14×14, formed of the first 196 images in project B. Finally, the image quantities of the collage for project C would be 30×30, formed of the first 900 images in project C. Selection through cropping has the benefit that it retains all the bracket shots and perceived “story” of a project for what is visible in the collage. However, the greater the number of images that were excluded from the collage, the smaller the percentage of the project that the collage represents. For example, for project C, the entire second half of the project is not reflected in the 30×30 collage at all. Selection Through Formula Selection through formula involves excluding the same number of images from the collage as cropping. However, selection through formula does not simply include the first N images, and exclude the rest. Instead, the images that are included in the collage by selection through formula are evenly spread throughout the project. For example, assume that 25 images are to be used to make a 5×5 collage for a project that includes 30 images. Rather than select the first 25 images for inclusion, the image management application may skip every 6th image. Thus, the collage would include images 1-5, 7-11, 13-17, 19-23 and 25-29. For projects that have vastly more images than the maximum image quantity size will allow, the number of skipped images will be greater than the number of images that are not skipped. For example, if the maximum image quantity size for collages is 30×30, and a project includes 2700 images, every third image in the project would be selected for inclusion, and two out of every three images would be skipped. Selection through formula is beneficial because the user always sees at least some images from the whole project. However, many of the characteristics that make collages easy to recognize, such as bracketed shots, become more and more compromised as the number of “skipped” images increases. Cropped View with Scrubbing Cropped view with scrubbing involves generating a collage that is larger than the maximum desired collage pixel resolutions (i.e. an “oversized collage”), and then only displaying a subset of the oversized collage at any given time. Thus, the view is cropped, but the actual collage is not. For example, assume that a project has 1600 images, but 30×30 are the maximum collage image quantities. Under these circumstances, the image management application may actually generate a 30×54 collage (with the last row only partially filled), but only show the top thirty rows of the collage. The user may then view the other portions of the 30×54 collage by operating user interface controls. For example, user interface logic may be provided to allow the user to “scrub” (click and drag) an oversized collage. In response to user input that scrubs an oversized collage in a particular direction, the visible portion of the oversized collage will move in that direction. As a result of the movement, part of the oversized collage will cease to be displayed, and part of the oversized collage that was previously hidden will be displayed. For example, assume that a 30×30 subset of a 30×54 oversized collage is currently displayed. Assume that a user scrubs the oversized collage up. As a result, the original 30×30 subset will move up, and the topmost row of collage components will become hidden. However, a new row of collage components will appear to the below of what was previously the lowest visible row. Thus, the user will continue to see only a 30×30 subset of the 30×54 collage, but through user input the user determines what subset of the collage is displayed. According to one embodiment, the cropped view with scrubbing technique makes a masked window out of the portion of the screen occupied by the collage. Thus, if the pixel resolutions of collages is set to be 160×160, then the 160×160 pixel square occupied by each collage is a masked window that a user can scrub to see different portions of collages that are actually larger than 160×160. Cropped View with Paging Cropped view with paging is similar to cropped view with scrubbing, except that different user input is used to see the hidden portions of an oversized collage. With scrubbing, the user input “moves” the displayed portion of an oversized collage to reveal other portions of the oversized collage. In cropped view with paging, a user interface control is provided that allows a user to transition to another “page” of an oversized collage, thereby replacing the currently-displayed portion of the oversized collage with the display of another portion. In one embodiment, a single click on an oversized collage causes a different page of the collage to be displayed. In another embodiment, a small paging control may be displayed on a collage in response to the user “rolling over” the collage. The user may then click on the control to cause a different page of the oversized collage to be displayed. User-Specified Image Quantities According to one embodiment, an image management application provides users the ability to specify the collage image quantities of each collage. For example, slider controls may be provided for changing the image quantities of a collage without affecting the pixel resolution of the collage. When a thumb control is moved to one end of the slider control, a minimum number (e.g. two or one) of images are used to generate the collage. When the thumb control is moved to the other end of the slider control, all of the images that belong to the project are used to generate the collage for the project. Since the pixel resolution of the collage is not being changed, the pixel resolution of the collage components is reduced as the number of collage components increases. When the thumb control is at a point between the two ends of the slider control, the image management application generates the collage based on a subset of images. The number of images used to generate the collage is based on the total number of images in the project and the position of the thumb along the slider. For example, if a project has 200 images, and the thumb control is moved to the middle of the slider control, then the collage may be generated based on 100 images. When image quantities are specified by a user in this manner, any of the various techniques described above may be used to determine which images to include in the collage. For example, if 100 of 200 images are to be used, then the cropping technique may be used to select the first 100 images of the project. Alternatively, the selection through formula technique may be used to select 100 images by skipping every other image of the 200 images. Combining Collages and Events When the formula technique has been used to generate a collage based on a subset of the images in a project, there will typically be images that (1) are not in the collage, and (b) are adjacent, within the project, to an image that is in the collage. According to one embodiment, such images may be easily accessed through the collage interface by treating the image that is in the collage as a representative image of an “event”. For example, in one embodiment, as a user enters user input to skim over the representative image, the image management software visually “flips through” the images that are represented, within the collage, by the representative image. In this context, the images represented by the representative image are all images that precede or follow the representative image in the project, but that are not themselves shown in the collage. Various techniques may be used for visually flipping through the images that are represented, within the collage, by a representative image. For example, an image in a collage may effectively represent a series of five images (e.g. where four of the five images were “skipped” in generating the collage). In one embodiment, when the user positions a pointer over the left edge of the representative image, the first of the five images image is temporarily displayed in place of the representative image. As the user moves the pointer from the left edge of the image to the right edge of the image, the image changes to the second, third, fourth, and then fifth represented image. In another embodiment, the representative image itself continues to be displayed within the collage, but another portion of the screen flips through a display of the represented images, in response to the user moving the pointer across the face of the representative image. Using the Loupe on Collages Digital images may be shown on a display at various levels of magnification. For example, a digital image may be shown at a reduced resolution relative to the original resolution, such that a viewer of the reduced resolution digital image cannot determine details that are apparent to a viewer of the digital image at the original resolution. To assist a viewer of the reduced resolution digital image that is rendered on a display, a software application may enable the viewer to view a magnified portion of the digital image. Some image management applications allow users to view images at different level of magnification using a virtual loupe. One technique for implementing a virtual loupe is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/960,339, entitled “Viewing Digital Images On A Display Using A Virtual Loupe”, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. A virtual loupe may include one region (a “selection region”) that is used for selecting what portion of an image to magnify, and another region (a “display region”) for showing the selected portion at some specified level of magnification. Typically, the image management application includes logic for moving the selection region in response to user input. The display region may move along with the selection region, or may remain at a fixed position on the display screen. According to one embodiment, a virtual loupe may be used in combination with a collage display to see the images that correspond to collage components in greater detail. For example, when the selection region of a virtual loupe is placed over a collage component of a collage, the image management application determines which image, within the project associated with the collage, corresponds to the selected collage component. The image management application further determines which portion of that image is actually selected by the loupe. The image management application then displays, within the display region of the loupe, a magnified version of the selected portion of the selected collage component. In one embodiment, the selection portion of the loupe is designed to select one or more entire collage components. In such an embodiment, the display region displays magnified versions of all images selected by the selection region. For example, FIG. 2 illustrates en embodiment in which the selection region 202 is a square sized to cover a single collage component. The collage component currently selected by the selection region is displayed in greater detail in the display region 204. Referring to FIG. 3, the selection region 302 is a square sized to select a three-by-three array of collage components. The three-by-three array of collage components currently selected by the selection region is displayed in the display region 304. Preferably, the images thus selected are displayed in the same arrangement in the display region 204 as their arrangement within the collage itself. According to one embodiment, controls are provided that allow users to “zoom” the virtual loupe when viewing components of a collage. Under these circumstances, zooming the virtual loupe has the effect of increasing or decreasing the size of the selection area. Increasing the size of the selection area causes the loupe to select more collage components. Selecting more components, in turn, causes more images to be displayed in the display region. To display more images in the display region, the size of the magnified images may have to be reduced. Conversely, decreasing the size of the selection area causes the loupe to select fewer collage components. Selecting fewer components causes fewer images to be displayed in the display region. Because fewer images are displayed, the images can be displayed at greater levels of magnification. According to one embodiment, double-clicking a component of a collage, whether or not the component is currently selected by a loupe, will cause the image that corresponds to the component to be opened in an image viewer and/or editor. Allowing individual images to be directly selected and opened from the collage display (which may include many collages), allows user to quickly navigate from a view that contains potentially thousands of photos, to a view that contains a single selected photo. Hardware Overview FIG. 4 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system 400 upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. Computer system 400 includes a bus 402 or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and a processor 404 coupled with bus 402 for processing information. Computer system 400 also includes a main memory 406, such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled to bus 402 for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor 404. Main memory 406 also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor 404. Computer system 400 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 408 or other static storage device coupled to bus 402 for storing static information and instructions for processor 404. A storage device 410, such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, is provided and coupled to bus 402 for storing information and instructions. Computer system 400 may be coupled via bus 402 to a display 412, such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), for displaying information to a computer user. An input device 414, including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled to bus 402 for communicating information and command selections to processor 404. Another type of user input device is cursor control 416, such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to processor 404 and for controlling cursor movement on display 412. This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane. The invention is related to the use of computer system 400 for implementing the techniques described herein. According to one embodiment of the invention, those techniques are performed by computer system 400 in response to processor 404 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory 406. Such instructions may be read into main memory 406 from another computer-readable medium, such as storage device 410. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory 406 causes processor 404 to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions to implement the invention. Thus, embodiments of the invention are not limited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software. The term “computer-readable medium” as used herein refers to any medium that participates in providing data that causes a machine to operation in a specific fashion. In an embodiment implemented using computer system 400, various computer-readable media are involved, for example, in providing instructions to processor 404 for execution. Such a medium may take many forms, including but not limited to storage media and transmission media. Storage media includes both non-volatile media and volatile media. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device 410. Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory 406. Transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise bus 402. Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infra-red data communications. All such media must be tangible to enable the instructions carried by the media to be detected by a physical mechanism that reads the instructions into a machine. Common forms of computer-readable media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical medium, punchcards, papertape, any other physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave as described hereinafter, or any other medium from which a computer can read. Various forms of computer-readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor 404 for execution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk of a remote computer. The remote computer can load the instructions into its dynamic memory and send the instructions over a telephone line using a modem. A modem local to computer system 400 can receive the data on the telephone line and use an infra-red transmitter to convert the data to an infra-red signal. An infra-red detector can receive the data carried in the infra-red signal and appropriate circuitry can place the data on bus 402. Bus 402 carries the data to main memory 406, from which processor 404 retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by main memory 406 may optionally be stored on storage device 410 either before or after execution by processor 404. Computer system 400 also includes a communication interface 418 coupled to bus 402. Communication interface 418 provides a two-way data communication coupling to a network link 420 that is connected to a local network 422. For example, communication interface 418 may be an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card or a modem to provide a data communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. As another example, communication interface 418 may be a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN. Wireless links may also be implemented. In any such implementation, communication interface 418 sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information. Network link 420 typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, network link 420 may provide a connection through local network 422 to a host computer 424 or to data equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) 426. ISP 426 in turn provides data communication services through the world wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the “Internet” 428. Local network 422 and Internet 428 both use electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on network link 420 and through communication interface 418, which carry the digital data to and from computer system 400, are exemplary forms of carrier waves transporting the information. Computer system 400 can send messages and receive data, including program code, through the network(s), network link 420 and communication interface 418. In the Internet example, a server 430 might transmit a requested code for an application program through Internet 428, ISP 426, local network 422 and communication interface 418. The received code may be executed by processor 404 as it is received, and/or stored in storage device 410, or other non-volatile storage for later execution. In this manner, computer system 400 may obtain application code in the form of a carrier wave. In the foregoing specification, embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. Thus, the sole and exclusive indicator of what is the invention, and is intended by the applicants to be the invention, is the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction. Any definitions expressly set forth herein for terms contained in such claims shall govern the meaning of such terms as used in the claims. Hence, no limitation, element, property, feature, advantage or attribute that is not expressly recited in a claim should limit the scope of such claim in any way. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.
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9
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11864088
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US20080080775A1-20080403
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METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF OBJECTS
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ACCEPTED
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20080318
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20080403
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[]
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G06K968
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["G06K968"]
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8103068
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20070928
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20120124
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382
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128000
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75238.0
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SHERVIN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Zabih", "inventor_name_first": "Ramin", "inventor_city": "New York", "inventor_state": "NY", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Raj", "inventor_name_first": "Ashish", "inventor_city": "San Francisco", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Methods and systems for reconstructing an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system.
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1. A method for reconstruction of objects, the method comprising the steps of: expressing the reconstruction of an object as minimization of a function; applying a predetermined transformation, said predetermined transformation converting the function into another function, said function being amenable to minimization by a minimization method utilizing graph cuts; and minimizing said another function by said minimization method utilizing graph cuts; thereby obtaining the reconstruction of the object. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the minimization method utilizing graph cuts comprises the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) forming a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) selecting a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assigning a weight value to each said edge of said graphed graph; e) determining a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of a cost; f) forming another graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and g) repeating steps c-f until an acceptable solution according to a predetermined criterion is reached. 3. The method of claim 2 wherein said move is an α-expansion; wherein said α-expansion comprises assigning a label α to a subset of said pixels, said subset having at least one pixel. 4. The method of claim 2 wherein the step of applying the predetermined transformation comprises the steps of: assigning to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; assigning to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms. 5. The method of claim 2 wherein said predetermined criterion comprises obtaining a substantially minimum cost; and wherein said cost comprises said another function. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the minimization method utilizing graph cuts and the steps of applying the predetermined transformation and minimizing said another function by the minimization method utilizing graph cuts comprise the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) graphing forming a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) selecting a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assigning to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; e) assigning to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms; f) assigning a weight value to each said edge of said graph; g) determining a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of said another function; h) forming another graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and i) repeating steps c, f-h until a substantially minimum value of said another function is reached. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the object comprises MR images. 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the object comprises an image after deblurring. 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the object comprises location of magnetic field sources in Magneto Encephalography. 10. The method of claim 1 wherein the object comprises individual user signals separated from a collection of signals received at a base station in a CDMA system. 11. A system comprising: at least one processor; and at least one computer usable medium having computer readable code embodied therein, said computer readable code being capable of causing said at least one processor to: receive data from interaction of an object with a system; express reconstruction of the object as minimization of a function obtained from the received data; apply a predetermined transformation, said predetermined transformation converting the function into another function, said function being amenable to minimization by a minimization method utilizing graph cuts; and minimize said another function by said minimization method utilizing graph cuts; obtain the reconstruction of the object from the minimization of said another function. 12. The system of claim 11 wherein, in minimizing said another function, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: a) provide an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) graphing form a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) select a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assign a weight value to each said edge of said graph; e) determine a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of a cost; f) form a graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and g) repeat steps c-f until an acceptable solution according to a predetermined criterion is reached. 13. The system of claim 12 wherein said move is an α-expansion; wherein said α-expansion comprises assigning a label α to a subset of said pixels, said subset having at least one pixel. 14. The system of claim 12 wherein, in applying said predetermined transformation, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: assign to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; assign to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms. 15. The system of claim 12 wherein said predetermined criterion comprises obtaining a substantially minimum cost; and wherein said cost comprises said another function. 16. The system of claim 11 wherein, in applying the predetermined transformation and minimizing said another function by the minimization method utilizing graph cuts, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: a) provide an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) graphing form a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) select a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assign to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; e) assign to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two of diagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms f) assign a weight value to each said edge of said graph; g) determine a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of said another function; h) form a graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and g) repeat steps c, f-h until an acceptable solution according to a substantially minimum value of said another function is reached. 17. The system of claim 11 wherein the object comprises MR images and the system comprises at least two MR receiver coils. 18. A computer program product comprising: a computer usable medium having computer readable code embodied therein, said computer readable code being capable of causing at least one processor to: receive data from system; express reconstruction of an object as minimization of a function obtained from the received data; apply a predetermined transformation, said predetermined transformation converting the function into another function, said function being amenable to minimization by a minimization method utilizing graph cuts; and minimize said another function by said minimization method utilizing graph cuts; obtain the reconstruction of the object from the minimization of said another function. 19. The computer program product of claim 18 wherein, in minimizing said another function, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: a) provide an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) graphing form a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) select a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assign a weight value to each said edge of said graph; e) determine a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of a cost; f) form a graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and g) repeat steps c-f until an acceptable solution according to a predetermined criterion is reached. 20. The computer program product of claim 19 wherein said move is an α-expansion; wherein said α-expansion comprises assigning a label α to a subset of said pixels, said subset having at least one pixel. 21. The computer program product of claim 19 wherein, in applying said predetermined transformation, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: assign to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; assign to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms. 22. The computer program product of claim 19 wherein said predetermined criterion comprises obtaining a substantially minimum cost; and wherein said cost comprises said another function. 23. The computer program product of claim 18 wherein, in applying the predetermined transformation and minimizing said another function by the minimization method utilizing graph cuts, said computer readable code is capable of causing said at least one processor to: a) provide an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) graphing forming a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) select a move from said graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assign to said each pixel from said plurality of pixels a binary variable indicating whether said each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; e) assign to said each pixel another binary variable, said another binary variable being a complement of said binary variable; said another function being a function of said binary variable and said another binary variable; said another function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of said two offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of said two consecutive diagonal terms f) assign a weight value to each said edge of said graph; g) determine a minimum graph cut in response to said assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of said another function; h) form a graph from graphing results of said minimum graph cut; and i) repeat steps c, f-h until a substantially minimum value of said another function is reached. 24. The computer program product of claim 18 wherein the object comprises MR images and the system comprises at least two MR receiver coils.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In a number of situations in a variety of fields, ranging from reconstruction of MR images, other medical image reconstructions, image deblurring, to temperature estimation in transient problems (including automotive applications) and vibrations and geophysics (such as the seismic inverse problem), the problem reduces to reconstructing an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system. One illustrative but very practicality important, example of the solution of this type of problem is the reconstruction of MR images. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has great importance, both for clinical and for research applications, due to its safety and exibility. The MR imaging process, however, imposes a fundamental tradeoff between image quality and scan time. It is very important to reduce scan time, for a number of reasons. The primary issue is that MR is very sensitive to motion artifacts, so reducing scan times decreases the odds of obtaining a poor-quality image. Some parts of the body, notably the heart and lungs, undergo periodic motion; as a result, only sufficiently fast scans can be used to image these organs, or any other adjacent tissues. In addition, there are obvious issues of patient comfort as well as cost that arise from lengthy scans. Finally, if the basic image acquisition process were faster, even for a xed scan duration a higher signal to noise ratio could be obtained. This is important for many important modalities, such as fMRI, perfusion, diffusion or time-resolved angiography, where the physical process being imaged takes place over short time periods. There is a need for better algorithms to result in faster (and hence better) MR. The image formation process in MR is quite unlike a conventional camera, and this in turn leads to a number of interesting computational challenges. In MR, an image is acquired as its Fourier transform (usually called “k-space”), and this acquisition takes place serially. Typically one row in k-space is acquired at a time, and each row takes tens of milliseconds to acquire (the details depend on the particular study being performed). A particularly important technique for accelerating MR scans is called parallel imaging, which uses multiple receiver coils. According to a recent survey article “Parallel imaging is one of the most promising recent advances in MRI technology and has revolutionized MR imaging”. While parallel imaging requires solving a linear inverse problem, existing methods either do not incorporate spatial priors, or assume that the image is globally smooth. In computer vision, of course, Markov Random Fields (MRF's) are commonly used to encode better priors. The parallel imaging problem is illustrated in FIG. 1 a . FIG. 1 a is a schematic of the pixel-wise aliasing process, for a single pair of aliasing pixels p and p′, for 2× acceleration using 3 coils. The aliased observations Y are obtained by a weighted sum of the aliasing pixels, weighted by coil sensitivity values S 1 . To simplify the figure, aliasing is shown in the horizontal direction. The scan time can be reduced in half by dropping every other column in k-space. The resulting image, when reconstructed from a conventional RF receiver coil, is an aliased image like those shown in the top row of FIG. 1 a . Such an image is half the width of the original (unobserved) image shown in the bottom row. It is formed by multiplying the original image by a slowly varying function S(p) and then adding the left half of the resulting image to the right half. The multiplication by S(p) comes from the spatial response of the coil, while the addition of the two image halves is a consequence of dropping alternate k-space columns. Thus, each pixel pin the aliased image is the weighted sum of two pixels (p,p′) in the original image, where p′ is in the same row but half the width of the image away. The weights come from the function S. If only had a single aliased image were available, it would be impossible to reconstruct the original image. However, we multiple coils can be used, each of which has a different S, without increasing the scan time. In the above example, there is a simple linear system for each pair of pixels p, p′: [ Y 1 ( p ) Y 2 ( p ) Y 3 ( p ) ] = [ S 1 ( p ) S 1 ( p ′ ) S 2 ( p ) S 2 ( p ′ ) S 3 ( p ) S 3 ( p ′ ) ] [ X ( p ) X ( p ′ ) ] . ( 1 ) The functions S are called sensitivity maps, and can be computed in advance. In addition, the sum over the coils is usually normalized: ∑ l = 1 L S i 2 ( p ) ≈ 1. Formally, assuming Cartesian sampling in k-space, an (unobserved) true image X is desired, which must be reconstructed from the sensitivity maps S 1 , . . . S 1 , . . . SL and the coil outputs Y 1 , . . . Y 1 , . . . YL. While X and S 1 are of size N x M, Y 1 is of size N R M x , where the acceleration factor is R. By stacking the receiver coil outputs into the column vector y and the image into x, the image formation process can be expressed as in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? y=Ex (2) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where the encoding matrix E contains the sensitivity maps. Least squares can be used to compute the maximum likelihood estimate from equation (2) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? {circumflex over (x)} SENSE =( E H E ) −1 E H y (3) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? This is an MR reconstruction algorithm called SENSE, which has been widely applied in research and clinical systems. Tikhonov-style regularization methods are also commonly used to handle the ill-conditioning of H. The most general form of these methods is x ^ regSENSE = arg min x { Ex - y 2 + μ 2 A ( x - x T ) 2 } ( 4 ) Here, the second term penalizes that are far from a prior reference image x r , and that are not spatially smooth according to the regularizer matrix A. The regularization parameter μ controls the tradeoff between aliasing and local noise in the output. Note that since A is a linear operator, global spatial smoothness is imposed. There is a simple closed-form solution for this equation. FIG. 1 a is typical of the parallel imaging problem, for 2× acceleration with 3 coils. The unobserved image is shown at bottom, and the aliased image observed from each coil is shown at top. Each pixel in an aliased image is the weighted sum of two pixels in the unobserved image. The weights are different for each pixel and each aliased image. The linear system that relates the unobserved image to the observations is given in equation (1). Every clinical system, and almost every research paper in MR, computes some variant of xˆ reg . The original paper on SENSE did not perform regularization (i.e., μ=0). For numerical reasons, authors proposed variants of equation (4), typically using the identity matrix for A. While this does not impose spatial smoothness, it has significant computational advantages in terms of the structure of H. Even the most general variants of this method, however, can only impose spatial smoothness globally, and give poor performance for acceleration factors significantly greater than 2. Other reconstructions of an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system have similar detailed descriptions.
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<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>In one embodiment, the method of these teachings includes the steps of expressing the reconstruction of an object as the minimization of an energy-like function, applying a predetermined transformation that converts the energy-like function into another energy-like function, the other energy-like function being amenable to minimization by graph cuts, and minimizing the other energy-like function by graph cuts, thereby obtaining the reconstruction. Since the reconstruction of an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system is in some embodiments the reconstruction of an image while in other embodiments images are not the object of interest, the term “pixel” as used herein refers to, in non-image embodiments, one individual element (or one individual data element) in a signal, typically a multidimensional signal. For image reconstruction embodiments, the term “pixel” (or the equivalently used term “voxel”) is used in the manner customary in the art. In another embodiment of the method of these teachings, the embodiment includes the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a number of labels, wherein each pixel from a number of pixels has a corresponding pixel label; b) forming a graph from the initial solution, the graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting the nodes, each pixel having a corresponding node; c) selecting a move from the graph, wherein the move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel; d) assigning to each pixel a binary variable indicating whether the pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; e) assigning to each pixel another binary variable, the other binary variable being a complement of the binary variable; the other function being a function of the binary variable and the other binary variable; the other function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of the two of diagonal terms being adjacent to each one of the two consecutive diagonal terms f) assigning a weight value to each edge of the graph; g) determining a minimum graph cut in response to the assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of the edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of the other function; h) forming a graph from results of the minimum graph cut; and i) repeating steps c, f-h until a substantially minimum value of the other function is reached. Other embodiments of the method of these teachings are also disclosed. Systems and computer program products that implement the methods are also disclosed. For a better understanding of the present teachings, together with other and further needs thereof, reference is made to the accompanying drawings and detailed description and its scope will be pointed out in the appended claims.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/848,319, entitled METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF MR IMAGES, filed on Sep. 29, 2006, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND In a number of situations in a variety of fields, ranging from reconstruction of MR images, other medical image reconstructions, image deblurring, to temperature estimation in transient problems (including automotive applications) and vibrations and geophysics (such as the seismic inverse problem), the problem reduces to reconstructing an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system. One illustrative but very practicality important, example of the solution of this type of problem is the reconstruction of MR images. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has great importance, both for clinical and for research applications, due to its safety and exibility. The MR imaging process, however, imposes a fundamental tradeoff between image quality and scan time. It is very important to reduce scan time, for a number of reasons. The primary issue is that MR is very sensitive to motion artifacts, so reducing scan times decreases the odds of obtaining a poor-quality image. Some parts of the body, notably the heart and lungs, undergo periodic motion; as a result, only sufficiently fast scans can be used to image these organs, or any other adjacent tissues. In addition, there are obvious issues of patient comfort as well as cost that arise from lengthy scans. Finally, if the basic image acquisition process were faster, even for a xed scan duration a higher signal to noise ratio could be obtained. This is important for many important modalities, such as fMRI, perfusion, diffusion or time-resolved angiography, where the physical process being imaged takes place over short time periods. There is a need for better algorithms to result in faster (and hence better) MR. The image formation process in MR is quite unlike a conventional camera, and this in turn leads to a number of interesting computational challenges. In MR, an image is acquired as its Fourier transform (usually called “k-space”), and this acquisition takes place serially. Typically one row in k-space is acquired at a time, and each row takes tens of milliseconds to acquire (the details depend on the particular study being performed). A particularly important technique for accelerating MR scans is called parallel imaging, which uses multiple receiver coils. According to a recent survey article “Parallel imaging is one of the most promising recent advances in MRI technology and has revolutionized MR imaging”. While parallel imaging requires solving a linear inverse problem, existing methods either do not incorporate spatial priors, or assume that the image is globally smooth. In computer vision, of course, Markov Random Fields (MRF's) are commonly used to encode better priors. The parallel imaging problem is illustrated in FIG. 1a. FIG. 1a is a schematic of the pixel-wise aliasing process, for a single pair of aliasing pixels p and p′, for 2× acceleration using 3 coils. The aliased observations Y are obtained by a weighted sum of the aliasing pixels, weighted by coil sensitivity values S1. To simplify the figure, aliasing is shown in the horizontal direction. The scan time can be reduced in half by dropping every other column in k-space. The resulting image, when reconstructed from a conventional RF receiver coil, is an aliased image like those shown in the top row of FIG. 1a. Such an image is half the width of the original (unobserved) image shown in the bottom row. It is formed by multiplying the original image by a slowly varying function S(p) and then adding the left half of the resulting image to the right half. The multiplication by S(p) comes from the spatial response of the coil, while the addition of the two image halves is a consequence of dropping alternate k-space columns. Thus, each pixel pin the aliased image is the weighted sum of two pixels (p,p′) in the original image, where p′ is in the same row but half the width of the image away. The weights come from the function S. If only had a single aliased image were available, it would be impossible to reconstruct the original image. However, we multiple coils can be used, each of which has a different S, without increasing the scan time. In the above example, there is a simple linear system for each pair of pixels p, p′: [ Y 1 ( p ) Y 2 ( p ) Y 3 ( p ) ] = [ S 1 ( p ) S 1 ( p ′ ) S 2 ( p ) S 2 ( p ′ ) S 3 ( p ) S 3 ( p ′ ) ] [ X ( p ) X ( p ′ ) ] . ( 1 ) The functions S are called sensitivity maps, and can be computed in advance. In addition, the sum over the coils is usually normalized: ∑ l = 1 L S i 2 ( p ) ≈ 1. Formally, assuming Cartesian sampling in k-space, an (unobserved) true image X is desired, which must be reconstructed from the sensitivity maps S1, . . . S1, . . . SL and the coil outputs Y1, . . . Y1, . . . YL. While X and S1 are of size NxM, Y1 is of size N R M x , where the acceleration factor is R. By stacking the receiver coil outputs into the column vector y and the image into x, the image formation process can be expressed as y=Ex (2) where the encoding matrix E contains the sensitivity maps. Least squares can be used to compute the maximum likelihood estimate from equation (2) {circumflex over (x)}SENSE=(EHE)−1EHy (3) This is an MR reconstruction algorithm called SENSE, which has been widely applied in research and clinical systems. Tikhonov-style regularization methods are also commonly used to handle the ill-conditioning of H. The most general form of these methods is x ^ regSENSE = arg min x { Ex - y 2 + μ 2 A ( x - x T ) 2 } ( 4 ) Here, the second term penalizes that are far from a prior reference image xr, and that are not spatially smooth according to the regularizer matrix A. The regularization parameter μ controls the tradeoff between aliasing and local noise in the output. Note that since A is a linear operator, global spatial smoothness is imposed. There is a simple closed-form solution for this equation. FIG. 1a is typical of the parallel imaging problem, for 2× acceleration with 3 coils. The unobserved image is shown at bottom, and the aliased image observed from each coil is shown at top. Each pixel in an aliased image is the weighted sum of two pixels in the unobserved image. The weights are different for each pixel and each aliased image. The linear system that relates the unobserved image to the observations is given in equation (1). Every clinical system, and almost every research paper in MR, computes some variant of xˆreg. The original paper on SENSE did not perform regularization (i.e., μ=0). For numerical reasons, authors proposed variants of equation (4), typically using the identity matrix for A. While this does not impose spatial smoothness, it has significant computational advantages in terms of the structure of H. Even the most general variants of this method, however, can only impose spatial smoothness globally, and give poor performance for acceleration factors significantly greater than 2. Other reconstructions of an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system have similar detailed descriptions. BRIEF SUMMARY In one embodiment, the method of these teachings includes the steps of expressing the reconstruction of an object as the minimization of an energy-like function, applying a predetermined transformation that converts the energy-like function into another energy-like function, the other energy-like function being amenable to minimization by graph cuts, and minimizing the other energy-like function by graph cuts, thereby obtaining the reconstruction. Since the reconstruction of an object from observations of interaction of the object with a physical system is in some embodiments the reconstruction of an image while in other embodiments images are not the object of interest, the term “pixel” as used herein refers to, in non-image embodiments, one individual element (or one individual data element) in a signal, typically a multidimensional signal. For image reconstruction embodiments, the term “pixel” (or the equivalently used term “voxel”) is used in the manner customary in the art. In another embodiment of the method of these teachings, the embodiment includes the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a number of labels, wherein each pixel from a number of pixels has a corresponding pixel label; b) forming a graph from the initial solution, the graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting the nodes, each pixel having a corresponding node; c) selecting a move from the graph, wherein the move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel; d) assigning to each pixel a binary variable indicating whether the pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move; e) assigning to each pixel another binary variable, the other binary variable being a complement of the binary variable; the other function being a function of the binary variable and the other binary variable; the other function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of the two of diagonal terms being adjacent to each one of the two consecutive diagonal terms f) assigning a weight value to each edge of the graph; g) determining a minimum graph cut in response to the assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of the edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of the other function; h) forming a graph from results of the minimum graph cut; and i) repeating steps c, f-h until a substantially minimum value of the other function is reached. Other embodiments of the method of these teachings are also disclosed. Systems and computer program products that implement the methods are also disclosed. For a better understanding of the present teachings, together with other and further needs thereof, reference is made to the accompanying drawings and detailed description and its scope will be pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1a is a schematic representation of a conventional pixel-wise aliasing process; FIGS. 1b-1c are schematic flowchart representations of embodiments of the method of these teachings; FIGS. 2a-2c are graphical representations of typical performance of conventional edge-preserving and edge-blurring reconstruction on noisy image row; FIGS. 3a-3b are Two separation cost functions for spatial priors; FIGS. 4a-4c is a graphical representation of the expansion move algorithm; FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of a Graph construction for minimizing a given binary objective function; FIG. 6 shows Convergence behavior of an embodiment of the method of these teachings, the modified graph cut algorithm (hereinafter referred to as EPIGRAM), for acceleration factor R=3, L=8 coils, on GRE torso data. FIGS. 7a-7d Brain A: In vivo brain result with R=4, L=8. Views were acquired vertically. (a) Reference image (b) SENSE regularized with μ=0.08 (c) SENSE regularized with μ=0.16, (d) EPIGRAM reconstruction; FIGS. 8a-8d Brain B: In vivo brain result with R=5, L=8. Views were acquired vertically. (a) Reference image (b) SENSE regularized with μ=0.1 (c) SENSE regularized with μ=0.2, (d) EPIGRAM reconstruction; FIGS. 9a-9f present comparison of reconstructions utilizing conventional techniques and reconstructions utilizing embodiments of the method of these teachings for Cardiac A: in vivo result R=3, L=8; 9(a) presents the Reference image 9(b) presents reconstructions utilizing SENSE regularized with μ=0.16 (optimal) 9(c) present EPIGRAM reconstruction and zoomed-in portions of (a)-(c) are shown in 9(d)-9(f); FIG. 10a-10h present further comparison of reconstructions utilizing conventional techniques and reconstructions utilizing embodiments of the method of these teachings for Cardiac B: in vivo result R=3, L=8—effect of regularization on g-factor maps; FIG. 11 represents a graph of Average RMSE of regularized SENSE reconstruction of torso data; and FIG. 12 is a block diagram representation of an embodiment of a component of the system of these teachings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The problem of reconstructing an object from data obtained from interaction of the object with a “system” is usually referred to as the inverse problem. There are many examples of applications of inverse problems. The method and system described hereinbelow are described for illustrative purposes in terms of MR image reconstruction. But it should be noted that these teachings are not limited only to that illustrative example and other application of embodiments of the method and system of these teachings are within the scope of these teachings. The term “object” as used herein refers to the input (or source) in a system or a representation of the input or source in a system including multidimensional signals used to represent the object. The term “system” as used herein is used in the sense of systems theory in engineering (electrical or mechanical engineering in most cases) where an input or source to the system results in output data. The nouns “function” and “functional” are used interchangeably where the meaning would be clear to one skilled in the art. In the illustrative embodiment of MR imaging, although the source is a physical body exposed to predetermined time varying magnetic fields, the reconstruction of the source results in MR images. The system in the illustrative embodiment of MR imaging includes the MR receiver coils. Various concepts of MR image reconstruction referred to in this application are conventional, for example, the SENSE algorithms, the system configuration, and thus they need not be described in detail herein. These concepts are described, for instance, in “An investigation of the MR parallel imaging technique through sensitivity encoding (SENSE) and simulation of coil arrays designated for pediatric MR imaging,” Anders Nordell, Master of Science Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, June 2004; and in W. Scott Hoge, Dana H. Brooks, Bruno Madore, Walid E. Kyriakos, “A tour of accelerated parallel MR imaging from a linear systems perspective,” Concepts Magn Recon Part A, 27A(1):17-37, September 2005. A voxel, as used herein, is volume pixel, the smallest distinguishable box-shaped part of a three-dimensional image. Voxels are obtained by including depth by means of cross-sectional images (“slices”) where the cross-sectional images are comprised of pixels. The terms voxel and pixel are used somewhat interchangeably hereinbelow since a voxel is comprised of slices comprised of pixels. The term “pixel” as used herein refers to, in non-image embodiments, one individual element (or one individual data element) in a signal, typically a multidimensional signal. The term “voxel” or pixel includes the smallest element of a regular grid for values of a signal used to represent an object. In one embodiment, shown in FIG. 1b, the method of these teachings includes the steps of expressing the reconstruction of an object as the minimization of an energy-like function (step 10, FIG. 1b), applying a predetermined transformation that converts the energy-like function into another energy-like function (step 15, FIG. 1b), the other energy-like function being amenable to minimization by graph cuts, and minimizing the other energy-like function by graph cuts (step 20, FIG. 1b), thereby obtaining the reconstruction. Another, more detailed, embodiment of the method of these teachings, the minimization method utilizing graph cuts and the steps of applying the predetermined transformation and minimizing the other function by the minimization method utilizing graph cuts includes the steps shown in FIG. 1c. Referring to FIG. 1c, the embodiment shown therein includes the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a number of labels, wherein each pixel from a number of pixels has a corresponding pixel label (step 25, FIG. 1c); b) forming a graph from the initial solution, the graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting the nodes, each pixel having a corresponding node (step 30, FIG. 1c); c) selecting a move from the graph, wherein the move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel (step 35, FIG. 1c); d) assigning to each pixel a binary variable indicating whether the pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move (step 40, FIG. 1c); e) assigning to each pixel another binary variable, the other binary variable being a complement of the binary variable (step 45, FIG. 1c); the other function being a function of the binary variable and the other binary variable; the other function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of the two of diagonal terms being adjacent to each one of the two consecutive diagonal terms; f) assigning a weight value to each edge of the graph (step 50, FIG. 1c); g) determining a minimum graph cut in response to the assigned weights (step 55, FIG. 1c), wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of the edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of the other function; h) forming a graph from results of the minimum graph cut (step 60, FIG. 1c); and i) repeating steps c, f-h until a substantially minimum value of the other function is reached (step 65, FIG. 1c). In one instance, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 1b, the predetermined transformation comprises assigning to each pixel from a number of pixels a binary variable indicating whether each pixel acquired the new corresponding pixel label in the move, assigning to each pixel another binary variable, the other binary variable being a complement of the binary variable, applying a predetermined transformation, the other function being a function of the binary variable and the other binary variable; the other function being submodular; a submodular function of two variables being a function wherein a sum of two consecutive diagonal terms is at most equal to a sum of two offdiagonal terms, each one of the two of offdiagonal terms being adjacent to each one of the two consecutive diagonal terms. In another instance, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 1b, the minimization method utilizing graph cuts comprises the steps of: a) providing an initial solution having a plurality of labels, wherein each pixel from a plurality of pixels has a corresponding pixel label from the plurality of labels; b) forming a graph from said initial solution, said graph being comprised of nodes and of edges connecting said nodes, each said pixel having a corresponding node; c) selecting a move from the graph, wherein said move comprises assigning a new corresponding pixel label to at least one pixel from said plurality of pixels; d) assigning a weight value to each edge of the graph; e) determining a minimum graph cut in response to the assigned weights, wherein a graph cut comprises a subset of said edges; a minimum graph cut having a smallest value of a cost; f) forming another graph from graphing results of the minimum graph cut; and g) repeating steps c-f until an acceptable solution according to a predetermined criterion is reached. In another instance, in the minimization method disclosed hereinabove, the move is an α-expansion; wherein the α-expansion comprises assigning a label α to a subset of the pixels, said subset having at least one pixel. In yet another instance, in the minimization method disclosed hereinabove, the predetermined criterion includes obtaining a substantially minimum cost and the cost is the other function disclosed hereinabove. Prior to proceeding with a description of illustrative applications of embodiments of the present teachings, concepts related to illustrative embodiments are disclosed hereinbelow. Even with regularization there is a noise/unfolding limit. If μ is too small, there will be insufficient noise reduction. If μ is too high, noise will be removed but residual aliasing will occur. This fundamental aliasing/noise limit cannot be overcome unless more information about the data is exploited. This naturally suggests a Bayesian approach, a subject of some recent work. Given the imaging process, observation and the prior probability distribution of the target image, Bayesian methods maximize the posterior probability Pr(x/y)∝Pr(y/x)·Pr(x) [5] The first right-hand term, called the likelihood function, comes from the imaging model, and the second term is the prior distribution. In the absence of a prior, this reduces to maximizing the likelihood, as performed by SENSE. Assuming that the noise is white Gaussian noise, y=Ex implies a simple Gaussian distribution for: Pr(y/x)∝e−∥y−Ex∥2 [6] Similarly, the prior can be written, without loss of generality, as Pr(x)∝e−G(x) [7] Depending on the term G(x), this form can succinctly express both the traditional Gaussianity and/or smoothness assumptions, as well as more complicated but powerful Gaussian or Gibbsian priors modeled by Markov Random Fields (MRFs). The posterior is maximized by x ^ MAP = arg min x ( y - Ex 2 + G ( x ) ) , [ 8 ] which is the maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimate. Conventional image priors impose spatial smoothness; hence this can be viewed as the sum of a data penalty and a smoothness penalty. The data penalty forces x to be compatible with the observed data, and the smoothness penalty G(x) penalizes solutions that lack smoothness. Traditionally, only smoothness penalties of the kind G(x)=∥Ax∥2 have been used, where A is a linear differential operator. This corresponds to {circumflex over (x)}regSENSE=xr+(EHE+μ2AHA)−1EH(y−Exr) if the reference image xr=0 and is commonly known as Tikhonov regularization. However, this smoothness penalty assumes that intensities vary smoothly across the entire image. Such an assumption is inappropriate for most images, since most image data change smoothly, but have discontinuities at object boundaries. As a result, Tikhonov smoothness penalty causes excessive edge blurring, while an edge-preserving G is desired in the embodiment disclosed herein. To illustrate this, FIG. 2(a) shows a single noisy image row, and FIGS. 2(b)-2(c) show two possible strategies to de-noise it. FIGS. 2a-2c are graphical representations of typical performance of edge-preserving and edge-blurring reconstruction on noisy image row. FIG. 2(b) was obtained by globally smoothing via a Gaussian kernel, FIG. 2(c) by an edge-preserving median filter. The difference in performance between global smoothing (obtained by Gaussian blurring) and edge-preserving smoothing (via median filtering) is apparent; whereas both denoise the signal, one over-smoothes sharp transitions, but the other largely preserves them. In order to further illustrate the present teachings, exemplary embodiments, applied to MR image reconstruction, are presented herein below. A natural class of edge-preserving smoothness penalties is: G EP ( x ) = ∑ ( p , q ) ∈ N s V ( x p , x q ) [ 9 ] The spatial neighborhood system Nδconsists of pairs of adjacent pixels, usually the 8-connected neighbors. The separation cost V(xp, xq) gives the cost to assign intensities xp and xq to neighboring pixels p and q; the form of this prior can be justified in terms of Markov Random Fields. Typically V has a non-convex form such as V(xp, xq)=λ min(|xp−xq|,K) for some metric |·| and constants K, λ. Such functions effectively assume that the image is piecewise smooth rather than globally smooth. FIGS. 3a-3b are two natural separation cost functions for spatial priors. The L2 cost on the left usually causes edge blurring due to excessive penalty for high intensity differences, whereas the truncated linear potential on the right is considered to be edge-preserving and robust. For MR data, the truncated linear model appears to work best. While the L2 separation cost does not preserve edges, its convex nature vastly simplifies the optimization problem. For MR data the truncated linear model seems to present substantially the best balance between noise suppression (due to the linear part) as well as edge-preservation (due to truncation of penalty function). Therefore, neighboring intensity differences within the threshold K will be treated as noise and penalized accordingly. However, larger differences will not be further penalized, since they occur, most likely, from the voxels being separated by an edge. Note that this is very different from using a traditional convex distance for the separation cost, such as the L2 norm, which effectively forbids two adjacent pixels from having very different intensities. Although the L2 separation cost does not preserve edges, it is widely used since its convex nature simplifies the optimization problem. A possible problem with the truncated linear penalty is that it can lead to some loss of texture, since the Bayesian estimate will favor images with piecewise smooth areas rather than textured areas. Ways to mitigate this characteristic are presented below. The computational problem is to efficiently minimize ∥y−Ex∥2+GEP(x) [10] It is known that E has a diagonal block structure, and decomposes into separate interactions between R aliasing voxels, according to Eq. [1]. Let us first define for each pixel p=( i, j) in Y1 the set of aliasing pixels in X that contribute to Y1 ( ), as follows: For image X of size undergoing R-fold acceleration, aliasing only occurs in the phase encode direction, between aliasing pixels. Then y - Ex 2 = ∑ p _ ∑ i [ Y l ( p _ ) - ∑ [ p ] = p _ S l ( p ) x p ] 2 [ 11 ] This can be understood by examining the aliasing process depicted in FIG. 1. After some rearrangement, this expands to: y - Ex 2 = ∑ p _ ∑ l Y l 2 ( p _ ) + ∑ p ( ∑ l S l 2 ( p ) ) x p 2 2 ∑ p ( ∑ l S l ( p ) Y l ( [ p ] ) ) x p + 2 ∑ ( p , p ′ ) ∈ N c ( ∑ l S l ( p ) S l ( p ′ ) ) x p x p ′ [ 12 ] where the aliasing neighborhood set is defined as Na={(p, p′) [p]=[p′], p≠p} over all aliasing pairs. Grouping terms under single pixel and pairwise interactions, the following expression is obtained y - Ex 2 = a 2 + ∑ p b ( p ) x p 2 - 2 ∑ p c ( p ) x p + 2 ∑ ( p , p ′ ) ∈ N a d ( p , p ′ ) x p x p ′ for appropriately chosen functions b(p), c(p) and d(p,p′). The first term is a constant and can be removed from the objective function; the next two terms depend only on a single pixel while the last term depends on two pixels at once, both from the aliasing set. This last term, which is referred to as a cross term, arises due to the non-diagonal form of the system matrix E. To perform edge-preserving parallel imaging, the objective function: ɛ ( x ) = a 2 + ∑ p b ( p ) x p 2 - 2 ∑ p c ( p ) x p + 2 ∑ ( p , p ′ ) ∈ N a d ( p , p ′ ) x p x p ′ + ∑ ( p , q ) ∈ N s V ( x p , x q ) [ 15 ] [ 13 ] has to be substantially minimized. Considering first the simpler case of the objective function that would arise if E were diagonal. In this case there would be no cross terms (i.e., d(p,p′)=0), which appears to simplify the problem considerably. Yet even this simplification results in a difficult optimization problem. There is no closed form solution, the objective function is highly non-convex, and the space being minimized over has thousands of dimensions (one dimension per pixel). Worse still, minimizing such an objective function is almost certain to require an exponentially large number of steps. If E were diagonal, however, the objective function would be in a form that has been extensively studied in computer vision, and where significant recent progress has been made. Specifically, a number of powerful methods have been designed for such problems, using a discrete optimization technique called graph cuts, which we briefly summarize in the next section. Graph cuts are a powerful method to minimize E in [13], and can be easily applied as long as E is diagonal. The presence of off-diagonal entries in E gives rise to cross terms in the objective function, making traditional graph cut algorithms inapplicable, and requiring an extension described in the hereinbelow. Objective functions similar to [13] can be minimized by computing the minimum cut in an appropriately defined graph (“graph cuts”). This technique was first used for images, used to optimally denoise binary images. A recent series of papers extended the method significantly, so that it can now be used for problems such as stereo matching and image/video synthesis in computer vision; medical image segmentation; and fMRI data analysis (see also U.S. Pat. No. 6,744,923, which is incorporated by reference herein). The basic idea is to first discretize the continuous pixel intensities xp into a finite discrete set of labels L={1, . . . , Nlabels}. Since the above exemplary embodiment relates to MR reconstruction problems, labels are assumed to be intensities, and use the terms interchangeably; however, the methods of theses teachings can be used on a wide variety of problems, and often use labels with a more complex meaning. Then instead of minimizing over continuous variables xp the above expression is minimize over individual labels αεL, allowing any pixel in the image to take the label α. In practice the dynamic range of intensities may need to be reduced for computational purposes, although this is not a requirement of the technique of these teachings. The most powerful graph cut method is based upon expansion moves. Given a labeling={xp|pερx={xp|pεP} and a label α, an α-expansion χ=χp|pεP} is a is a new labeling where χp is either xp or α. Intuitively, is constructed from x by giving some set of pixels the label α. The expansion move algorithm picks a label α, finds the lowest cost χ and moves there. This is pictorially depicted in FIG. 4. FIGS. 4a-4c depict the expansion move algorithm. Start with the initial labeling of the image shown by different color labels in (a), assuming only 3 labels. Note that here labels correspond to intensities, although this need not be the case in general. First find the expansion move on the label “green” (“G”) that most decreases objective function E, as shown in (b). Move there, then find the best “orange” (“O”) expansion move, etc. When no a-expansion move decreases the cost, for any label, the process is complete. Corresponding to every expansion move (b) is a binary image (c), where each pixel is assigned 1 if its label changes, and 0 if it does not. The algorithm converges to a labeling where there is no α-expansion that reduces the value of the objective function ε for any α. The key subroutine in the expansion move algorithm is to compute the α-expansion χ that minimizes E. This can be viewed as an optimization problem over binary variables, since during an α-expansion each pixel either keeps its old label or moves to the new label. This is also shown in FIGS. 4a-4c. An α-expansion χ is equivalent to a binary labeling b={bp|pεP} where X p = { x p iff b p = 0 α iff b p = 1 [ 14 ] Just as for a labeling χ there is an objective function ε, for a binary labeling b there is an objective function B. More precisely, assuming χ is equivalent to b, B is defined by B(b)=ε(χ) The arguments x, α have been dropped for clarity, but the equivalence between the α-expansion χ and the binary labeling b clearly depends on the initial labeling x and on α. In summary, the problem of computing the α-expansion that minimizes ε is equivalent to finding the b that minimizes the binary objective function B. The exact form of B will depend on ε. Minimization of ε proceeds via successive binary minimizations corresponding to expansion moves. The binary minimization subroutine is somewhat analogous to the role of line search in Conjugate Gradient, where a local minimum is repeatedly computed over different 1D search spaces. With graph cuts however, the binary subroutine efficiently computes the global minimum over 2|P| candidate solutions, where |P| is the number of pixels in the image. In contrast to traditional minimization algorithms like Conjugate Gradients, trust region, simulated annealing etc., graph cuts can therefore efficiently optimize highly non-convex objective functions arising from edge-preserving penalties. Consider a binary objective function of the form B ( b ) = ∑ p B 1 ( b p ) + ∑ p , q B 2 ( b p , b q ) [ 15 ] Here, B1 and B2 are functions of binary variables; the difference is that B1 depends on a single pixel, while B2 depends on pairs of pixels. Graph cut methods minimize B by reducing computing a minimum cut on an appropriately constructed graph. The graph consists of nodes which are voxels of the image as well as two special terminal nodes, as shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 5 is a Graph construction for minimizing a given binary objective function. The graph consists of nodes corresponding to image voxels, as well as two special “terminal” nodes ‘S’ and ‘T’. Edges between nodes represent single-voxel (B1) and pairwise cost (B2) terms. A minimum cut on this graph solves the binary minimization problem. The voxel nodes have been labeled p, q, r etc and terminal nodes by S, T. All nodes are connected to both terminals via edges, each of which have weights obtained from the B1 terms above. Nodes are also connected to each other via edges with weights obtained from the pairwise interaction term B2. The binary optimization problem can be solved by finding the minimum cut on this graph (Boykov Y, Veksler O, Zabih R. Fast Approximate Energy Minimization Via Graph Cuts. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 2001; 23(11); 1222-39, incorporated by reference herein). A cut is defined as a partition of the graph into two connected subgraphs, each of which contains one terminal. The minimum cut minimizes the sum of the weights of the edges between the subgraphs. There are fast algorithms to find the minimum cut, using max-flow methods. It is shown in Kolmogorov V, Zabih R. What Energy Functions Can Be Minimized Via Graph Cuts? IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 2004; 26(2): 147-59, incorporated by reference herein, that the class of B that can be can be minimized exactly by computing a minimum cut on such a graph satisfies the condition B2(0,0)+B2(1,1)≦B2(1,0)+B2(0,1) [16] If B2(x, y) satisfies [16], then it is said to be submodular with respect to x and y, and a function B is called submodular if it consists entirely of submodular terms. Single-variable terms of the form of B1 are always submodular. The set of all pixel pairs for which B2(bp,bq) are submodular is referred to as the submodular set S. Previous applications of graph cuts have been for diagonal E; this leads to no cross terms, and so B1 comes solely from the data penalty and B2 comes only from the smoothness penalty. It has been shown that if the separation cost is a metric then B2 satisfies Eq. [16]. Many edge-preserving separation costs are metrics, including the truncated cost V used here and shown in FIG. 4(b) (see Boykov Y, Veksler O, Zabih R. Fast Approximate Energy Minimization Via Graph Cuts. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 2001; 23(11): 1222-39, which is incorporated by reference herein, for details). However, the situation is more complicated in parallel MR reconstruction, where E is non-diagonal. As a result the data penalty has pairwise interactions due to the presence of the cross-terms in Eq. [15]. This also follows from FIG. 1a, which shows how this data penalty arises from the joint effect of both aliasing voxels p and p′ in the image. It was previously shown that the binary optimization problem arising from [15] is in general submodular only for a small subset of all cross terms. This necessitates the use of a subroutine (due to Hammer P, Hansen P, Simeone B., Roof duality, complementation and persistency in quadratic 0-1 optimization. Mathematical Programming 1984; 28: 121-155, incorporated by reference herein) to accommodate cross-terms arising in MR reconstruction, as described hereinbelow. The subroutine used herein to find a good expansion move is closely related to relaxation methods for solving integer programming problems, where if the linear programming solution obeys the integer constraints it solves the original integer problem. An expansion move is computed by applying the algorithm of Hammer et. al., which was introduced into computer vision in early 2005 by Kolmogorov. The theoretical analysis and error bounds (presented in Raj A, Singh G, Zabih R. MRIs for MRFs: Bayesian Reconstruction of MR Images via Graph Cuts. IEEE Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference 2006; 1061-1069, incorporated by reference herein) help explain the strong performance of this construction for MR reconstruction. For each pixel p, there is a binary variable bp that was 1 if p acquired the new label and 0 otherwise. A new binary variable {tilde over (b)}p is introduced, which will have the opposite interpretation (i.e., it will be 0 if p acquired the new label and 1 otherwise). A pixel is called consistent if {tilde over (b)}p=1−bp·I. Instead of original objective function B(b), a new objective function {tilde over (B)}(b, {tilde over (b)}), is minimized, where b is the set of new binary variables {tilde over (b)}={{tilde over (b)}p|pεP}. {tilde over (B)}(b,{tilde over (b)}) is constructed so that {tilde over (b)}=1−b{tilde over (B)}(b,{tilde over (b)})=B(b) (in other words, if every pixel is consistent then the new objective function is the same as the old one). Specifically, the new objective functionis defined by 2 · B ~ ( b 1 b ~ ) = ∑ p ( B 1 ( b p ) + B 1 ( 1 - b ~ p ) ) + ∑ ( p , q ) ∈ S ( B 2 ( b p , b q ) + B 2 ( 1 - b ~ p , 1 - b ~ q ) ) + ∑ ( p , q ) ∉ S ( B 2 ( b p , 1 - b ~ q ) + B 2 ( 1 - b ~ p , b q ) ) [ 19 ] Here, the functions B1(·) and B2(·) come from the original objective function B in [15]. Importantly, the new objective function is submodular. The first summation only involves {tilde over (B)}(b,{tilde over (b)}) is B1(·), while for the remaining two terms, simple algebra shows that B2(b,b′) is submodular B2(1−b,1−b′) is submodular B2(b,b′) is non-submodular both B2(b,1−b′) and B2(1−b,b′) are submodular As a result, the last two summations in [17] only contain submodular terms. Thus {tilde over (B)}(b,{tilde over (b)}) is submodular, and can be easily minimized using the binary graph cut subroutine. In summary, minimizing {tilde over (B)}(b,{tilde over (b)}) is exactly equivalent to minimizing the original objective function B, as long as a solution where every pixel is consistent is obtained. It should be noted that the above technique is not specific to MR reconstruction, but can compute the MAP estimate of an arbitrary linear inverse system under an edge-preserving prior GEP. While it cannot be guaranteed that all pixels are consistent, in practice this is true for the vast majority of pixels (typically well over 95%). In the above algorithm, pixels that are not consistent can be allowed to keep their original labels rather than acquiring the new label. However, even if there are pixels which are not consistent, the above subroutine has some interesting optimality properties. It has been shown that any pixel which is consistent is assigned its optimal label. As a result, the present algorithm finds the optimal expansion move for the vast majority of pixels, obtaining a substantially optimal result. The convergence properties of the proposed technique have been investigated using simulated data from a Shepp-Logan phantom, with intensities quantized to integer values between 0 and 255. The objective function [13] achieved after each iteration is computed, for 3× acceleration and 8 coils. High field strength (4 Tesla) structural MRI brain data was obtained using a whole body scanner (Bruker/Siemens Germany) equipped with a standard birdcage, 8 channel phased-array transmit/receive head-coil localized cylindrically around the S-I axis. Volumetric Ti-weighted images (1×1×1 mm3 resolution) were acquired using a Magnetization-Prepared RApid Gradient Echo (MPRAGE) sequence with TI/TR=950/2300 ms timing and a flip angle of 8°. Total acquisition for an unaccelerated dataset is about 8:00 minutes. In a separate study, images of the torso region were acquired using a Gradient Echo sequence with a flip angle of 60 degrees and TE/TR of 3.3/7.5 ms on a GE 1.5 T Excite-11 system. Several axial and oblique slices of full resolution data (256×256) were acquired from an 8 channel upper body coil arranged cylindrically around the torso. In order to allow quantitative and qualitative performance evaluations, all data at full resolution and no acceleration were acquired. The aliased images for acceleration factors between 3 and 5 were obtained by manually undersampling in k-space. In each case the full rooted sum of squares (RSOS) image was also computed after dividing by the relative sensitivity maps obtained from calibration lines. The self-calibrating strategy for sensitivity estimation was used, whereby the centre of k-space is acquired at full density and used to estimate low-frequency (relative) sensitivity maps. The central 40 densely sampled calibration lines were used for this purpose. These lines were multiplied by an appropriate Kaiser-Bessel window to reduce ringing and noise, zero-padded to full resolution and transformed to the image domain. Relative sensitivity was estimated by dividing these images by their RSOS. To avoid division by zero a small threshold was introduced in the denominator, amounting to 5 percent of maximum intensity. This also served effectively to make the sensitivity maps have zero signal in background regions. However, further attempts at segmenting background/foreground from this low-frequency data proved unreliable in some cases and were not implemented. Algorithmic parameters were chosen empirically. It was sufficient to quantize intensity labels to Nlabels=256, since the resulting quantization error is much smaller than observed noise. The computational cost of EPIGRAM grows linearly with Nlabels, so fewer labels are preferable. Model parameters were varied (geometrically) over the range Kε[Nlabels/20,Nlabels/2], λε[0.01·max(x),1·max(x)], to find the best values. However, performance was found to be rather insensitive to these choices, and the same parameters for all cases shown above were used. Graph cut algorithms are typically insensitive to initialization issues, and the zero image was chosen as an initial guess. All reconstructions were obtained after twenty iterations. Regularized SENSE reconstruction was used to compare with an embodiment of the method of these teachings. Regularization factor μ was chosen after visually evaluating image quality with a large range of values in the region με[0.01, 0.6]. The images giving the best results are shown in the next section, along with those obtained with a higher regularization. The latter result was obtained to observe the noise versus aliasing performance of SENSE. Apart from visual evidence presented in the next section, a quantitative performance evaluation was conducted on reconstructed in vivo data. For in vivo data the problem of ascertaining noise estimate or other performance measures is challenging due to the non-availability of an accurate reference image. Unfortunately none of the reconstruction methods implemented, whether RSOS, regularized SENSE or EPIGRAM, are unbiased estimators of the target. This makes direct estimation of noise performance difficult, and the traditional root mean square error (RMSE) is inadequate. instead a recent evaluation measure for parallel imaging methods proposed by Reeder et al (Reeder S B, Wintersperger B J, Dietrich O, Lanz T, Greiser A, Reiser M F, Glazer G M, Schoenberg S O. Practical Approaches to the Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio Performance with Parallel Imaging: Application with Cardiac Imaging and a 32-Channel Cardiac Coil. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 2005; 54:748-754, which is incorporated by reference herein) is utilized, which provides an unambiguous and fair comparison of SNR and geometry factor. Two separate scans of the same target with identical settings are acquired, and their sum and difference obtained. The local signal level at each voxel is computed by averaging the sum image over a local window, and the noise level obtained from the standard deviation of the difference image over the same window. Then SNR = mean ( Sum image ) 2 stdev ( Diff image ) Here the mean and standard deviation are understood to be over a local window, in the case of these teachings a 5×5 window around the voxel in question. This provides unbiased estimates that are directly comparable across different reconstruction methods. A similar calculation is performed, with a crucial difference: instead of acquiring two scans, a single scan was used but add random uncorrelated Gaussian noise in the coil outputs to obtain two noisy data sets. This halves the acquisition effort without compromising estimate quality, since uncorrelated noise is essentially what the two-scan method also measures. Reeder et al explain that their method can be erroneous for in vivo data because motion and other physiological effects can seriously degrade noise estimates. The present modification, while achieving the same purpose, does not suffer from this problem, and hence should be more appropriate for in vivo data. The SNR calculation also allows the geometry factor or g-factor maps for each reconstruction method to be obtained. For each voxel p and acceleration factor R: g ( p , R ) = SNR RSOS ( p ) SNR ( p ) R where SNRRSOS is the SNR of the RSOS reconstruction. The SNR and g-map images appeared quite noisy due to the division step and estimation errors, and they were smoothed for better visualization. The convergence behavior of the objective function [13] against the number of iterations for R=3, L=8 is shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 6 shows Convergence behavior of the modified graph cut algorithm (hereinafter referred to as EPIGRAM) for acceleration factor R=3, L=8 coils, on GRE torso data. The vertical axis shows the value of objective function [13] achieved after each outer iteration, which represents a single cycle through Nlabels=256 expansion moves As is typical with graph cut algorithms, most of the improvement happens in the first few (approx 5) iterations. In one implementation of EPIGRAM, which is written primarily in MatLab, an iteration takes about a minute on this data set. Since EPIGRAM is almost linear in the number of nodes, total running time approximately scales as N2, the image size. The best parameter values were consistent across all in vivo data sets tried: K=Nlabels/7. λ=0.04·max(x). Results of several brain imaging experiments with these parameter values are displayed in FIGS. 7a-8d. FIGS. 7a-7d show reconstruction of a MPRAGE scan of a central sagittal slice, with an undersampling factor R=4 along A-P direction. The RSOS reference image is shown in (a), regularized SENSE with (empirically obtained optimal) μ=0.08 in (b), regularized SENSE with μ=0.16 in 7(c) and EPIGRAM in 7(d). Reduction in noise is visually noticeable in the EPIGRAM reconstruction, compared to both SENSE reconstructions. Higher regularization in SENSE caused unacceptable aliasing, as observed in 7(c). It should be noted that unregularized (i.e. standard) SENSE results were always worse than regularized SENSE, and have consequently not been shown. Another sagittal scan result is shown in FIGS. 8a-8d, this time from the left side of the patient. Image support is smaller, allowing 5× acceleration. The optimally regularized SENSE output (b), with μ=0.1 is noisy at this level of acceleration, and μ=0.2 in (c) introduced significant aliasing, especially along the central brain region. EPIGRAM (d) exhibits some loss of texture, but on the whole, appears to outperform SENSE. A set of torso images acquired on GE 1.5 T scanner using a GRE sequence and acceleration factor of 3 (along A-P direction) is resolved from 40 sensitivity calibration lines. Various slice orientations, both axial and oblique, were used. Shown in FIGS. 9a-9f, this data also shows the practical limitation of SENSE when an inadequate number of calibration lines are used for sensitivity estimation. Reconstruction quality of SENSE is poor as a result of the combination of ill-conditioning of the matrix inverse and calibration error. SENSE exhibits both high noise as well as residual aliasing. In fact what appears at first sight to be uncorrelated noise is, upon finer visual inspection, found to arise from unresolved aliases, as the background in 10(b) clearly indicates. EPIGRAM has been able to resolve aliasing correctly and suppress noise, without blurring sharp edges and texture boundaries. To demonstrate the performance of these methods more clearly, zoomed in versions of the images in 9(a)-(c) are shown in 9(d)-(f). The trade-off between noise and aliasing performance is demonstrated herein below in FIGS. 10a-10h. Views were acquired horizontally. FIGS. 10a-10g show another torso slice, along with associated g-maps computed as specified hereinabove. The effect of various regularizations of SENSE are investigated FIGS. 10(a) and 10(e) show SENSE reconstruction and its g-map for μ=0.1. There is inadequate noise suppression, with a g-factor as high as 6. Results for μ=0.3 are shown in 10(b), 10(f). The g-maps has become correspondingly flatter, but at the cost of aliasing. The rightmost column 10(d), 10(h) shows EPIGRAM results, which has significantly lower g values as well as lower aliasing artifacts. The SENSE algorithm with μ=0.5 was used for FIGS. 10c and 10g. The results shown in 10(c), 10(g) match the EPIGRAM g-map, but yield unacceptable aliasing. The leftmost column, 10(a) and 10(e), show the SENSE result and its g-map for μ=0.1. There appears to be inadequate noise suppression in the result shown in FIGS. 10a and 10e, where some regions of the image have a g-factor as high as 6. Noise amplification may be reduced by increasing regularization. In the next column results for are shown. The g-map has become correspondingly flatter, but the reconstruction indicates that this has been achieved at the cost of introducing some aliasing in the image. The rightmost column shows EPIGRAM results. In the next column results for the SENSE algorithm with μ=0.3 are shown. The g-map has become correspondingly flatter, but the reconstruction indicates that this has been achieved at the cost of introducing some aliasing in the image. In the third column it can be shown that by an appropriate choice of it is possible to match the EPIGRAM g-map—compare (g) and (h). However, at this choice of μ=0.5, SENSE yields unacceptable aliasing. Table 1 shows mean SNR and g-factor values of EPIGRAM and various regularizations of SENSE. It is observed that the regularization needed in SENSE to match the EPIGRAM g values (approximately μ=0.5 in almost all cases) yields unacceptable aliasing. Instead, a more modest must be chosen empirically. The standard RMSE criterion is not appropriate here. FIG. 11 represents a graph of Average RMSE of regularized SENSE reconstruction of torso data. The optimum was observed at around 0.25, although visual quality was found to be best for smaller values, in the region [0.1-0.2]. Three example torso reconstructions are also shown. Observe that as regularization increases, residual aliasing artifacts and blurring both get worse. Also note that non-regularized SENSE (i.e., μ=0) gives substantially worse RMSE. In FIG. 11 displays the average over all the torso data, of the root mean square error for various regularization factors. For this data set, the optimal μ in terms of RMSE was found to be around 0.25, although in practice the best visual quality was observed below this value, around 0.1-0.15. This seems to suggest that the RMSE measure does not capture reconstruction quality very accurately; in particular it seems to under-emphasize the effect of residual aliasing. In all experimental data shown in this section, the optimal regularization for SENSE was obtained empirically for each data set by visual inspection as far as possible. To give an idea of the visual quality corresponding to a certain μ value, FIG. 11 also shows a portion of the resulting SENSE reconstruction. Mean SNR and g-factor for all reconstruction examples presented here are summarized in Table 2. Non-regularized SENSE data are not shown since they are always worse than regularized SENSE. TABLE 1 Mean reconstructed SNR and mean g-factor values of reconstructed data for various regularization factors, with R = 3, L = 8. Two data sets, Cardiac B and Brain A were used. The means are over object foreground. RSOS mean g value is 1 by definition. Cardiac B Brain A mean SNR mean g Mean SNR Mean g RSOS 42 1.0 59 1.0 SENSE, μ = 0.1 15 3.3 21 3.7 SENSE, μ = 0.3 18 2.3 26 2.5 SENSE, μ = 0.5 24 1.4 30 1.9 EPIGRAM 36 1.4 40 1.85 TABLE 2 Quantitative performance measures for reconstruction examples. Both mean reconstructed SNR and mean g-factor values are shown. The means are over object foreground wherever the latter was available. Corresponding reconstructed images were presented in FIGS. 8a-11. Note that numbers for large μ shown below are closer to EPIGRAM numbers, but produce images with considerably more aliasing. SENSE, optimal μ SENSE, large μ EPIGRAM mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean R SNR g SNR g SNR g Brain A 4 8 4.6 13 2.4 23 1.7 Brain B 5 10 3.5 13 2.4 17 2.2 Cardiac A 3 20 2.3 25 1.6 33 1.5 Cardiac B 3 15 3.3 18 2.3 36 1.4 One embodiment of components of a system of these teachings is shown in FIG. 12. Referring to FIG. 12, a processor 110 and supporting computer usable medium (memory, in one instance) 130 could be used to implement the method of this invention. The computer usable medium 130 as computer readable code embodied therein, the computer readable code being capable of causing the processor 110 (or one or more processors) to implement the methods of these teachings such as the embodiments described herein above. Processor 110 can be a dedicated processor, or a digital signal processor, or a general purpose processor and supporting memory 130 could be any computer usable medium. The processor and memory systems and the code to cause the processor to implement the methods of this invention constitute means for expressing the reconstruction of MR images as the minimization of an energy-like function, for applying a predetermined transformation that converts the energy-like function into another energy-like function, the other energy-like function being amenable to minimization by graph cuts, and for minimizing the other energy-like function by graph cuts. It should be noted that although the above disclosed exemplary embodiment was described in terms of MR image reconstruction, applications of the methods and systems of these teachings to other inverse problems (such as, but not limited to, image deblurring, nondestructive testing problems, seismic inverse problems, flow source reconstruction problems, and others) are within the scope of these teachings. Several other exemplary embodiments, in which the methods and systems of these teachings can be applied, are presented hereinbelow. It should be noted that these teachings are not limited to only this exemplary embodiments but other embodiments are also within the scope of these teachings. In one exemplary embodiment, briefly described herein below, the method and systems of these teachings are applied to image deblurring. One typical image processing task includes processing a blurry input image to remove the blur and sharpen the image, a process called deblurring. The image deblurring problem is usually posed as an inverse problem, whereby given a known blurring function and the observed blurry image, the task is to estimate the original, but unknown, sharp image. The blurring operator can be represented by a kernel H, usually with a banded matrix structure. The process of blurring, in that representation, has a linear form: y=Hx, where x is the original image to be estimated, and y is the observed blurred and noisy image. An embodiment of the method of these teachings can be directly applied to the image deblurring problem to obtain an estimate of x, by minimizing the energy-like function E(x)=∥y−Hx∥2+G(x) where G(x) is substantially identical or similar to the term in the MR application. In another exemplary embodiment of the method of these teachings, the method of these teachings is applied to Magneto Encephalography (MEG) Source Localization. (It should be noted that similar exemplary embodiments involving source localization occur in various other fields from determination of pollutant or similar sources into complex flow to problems in electromagnetic signal detection where there are many sources, incomplete measurements, small signals and high noise, making the reconstruction program ill posed if treated by standard methods.) MEG is a promising technology for the detection and recording of magnetic signals at the surface of the head arising from the human cerebral cortex. Approximately 100-300 magnetic sensors at surface measure magnetic fields induced by neural activity in the cortex. One problem in MEG imaging is pinpointing the location within the cortex of the recorded signals. This is a difficult problem since tomographic reconstruction from these measurements is highly ill-posed and under-determined, with 2562 voxels to be estimated, but only 300 observations available. This is another inverse problem that is amenable to a solution by the method of these teachings. In one instance, x represents a collection of magnetic moments at all voxels, and y represents a collection of the measured magnetic signal from surface sensors. In that representation, the forward model for the propagation of the magnetic fields from the cortex to the surface (known as “Lead Field” in the literature) is given by the matrix L. Then, the forward problem is given by y=Lx+n, and the quantity x can be estimated by minimizing the following energy-like functional using the method of these teachings, E(x)=∥y−Lx∥2+G(x) where G(x) is substantially identical or similar to the corresponding term in the MR application. In another exemplary embodiment, the method of these teachings is applied to Multiuser detection in CDMA. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems are one type of cellular mobile phone systems. Since in CDMA, the individual user signals within the same cell are separated not by frequency (as in GSM systems) but by the unique code assigned to each user, CDMA systems at their core need to be able to separate the individual user signals from the collection of signals received at the cell base station from all users within that cell. This process is called multi-user detection (MUD). MUD is well-modeled as a linear system of the form r=RAb+n where R,A represents the channel transfer function and code, respectively; r is the observed overall signal at the cell base, b is the collection of symbols (bits) being sent by each user, and n is random noise. For N users transmitting K bits in each block, bε{0,1}NK. This forward linear model assumes a synchronous system, additive white Gaussian noise, and equiprobable symbols from all users. MUD is generally solved via a jointly optimal multiuser detection decision rule: b*=arg min {bTARAb−2bTAr}, which is equivalent to minimizing the following energy-like functional E(b)=∥r−RAb∥2. S. Verdu et al showed that MUD is NP-hard, meaning that no efficient algorithm can be designed to find the best possible symbol estimate in non-exponential time. The minimization of the above functional is computationally unfeasible under conventional methods like Viterbi search, but can be performed efficiently using the method of these teachings, since the energy-like functional above is in the same mathematical form as the other energy-like functionals described earlier. In general, the techniques described above may be implemented, for example, in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. The techniques described above may be implemented in one or more computer programs executing on a programmable computer including a processor, a storage medium readable by the processor (including, for example, volatile and non-volatile memory and/or storage elements), at least one input device, and at least one output device. Program code may be applied to data entered using the input device to perform the functions described and to generate output information. The output information may be applied to one or more output devices. Elements and components described herein may be further divided into additional components or joined together to form fewer components for performing the same functions. Each computer program within the scope of the claims below may be implemented in any programming language, such as assembly language, machine language, a high-level procedural programming language, or an object-oriented programming language. The programming language may be a compiled or interpreted programming language. Each computer program may be implemented in a computer program product tangibly embodied in a computer-readable storage device for execution by a computer processor. Method steps of the invention may be performed by a computer processor executing a program tangibly embodied on a computer-readable medium to perform functions of the invention by operating on input and generating output. Common forms of computer-readable media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic medium, a CDROM, any other optical medium, punched cards, paper tape, any other physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, or any other medium from which a computer can read. From a technological standpoint, a signal or carrier wave (such as conventionally used for Internet distribution of software) encoded with functional descriptive material is similar to a computer-readable medium encoded with functional descriptive material, in that they both create a functional interrelationship with a computer. In other words, a computer is able to execute the encoded functions, regardless of whether the format is a disk or a signal. Although these teachings has been described with respect to various embodiments, it should be realized these teachings are also capable of a wide variety of further and other embodiments within the spirit of the appended claims.
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G
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9
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68
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11698497
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US20070188809A1-20070816
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Printing apparatus
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ACCEPTED
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20070801
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20070816
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[]
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G06K1500
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["G06K1500"]
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8130388
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20070125
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20120306
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358
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001130
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82109.0
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GARCIA
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GABRIEL
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Noda", "inventor_name_first": "Noriyuki", "inventor_city": "Nagano-ken", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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There is disclosed a method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium. A first mode for selecting a type of the printing is effected. A prescribed command is received after the first mode is effected. A second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium is effected when the prescribed command is received. The printing position is adjusted when the second mode is effected. The first mode is effected when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received.
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1. A method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting a type of the printing; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode Is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received; adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. 2. The method as set forth in claim 1, further comprising: displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. 3. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein: the recording medium is a portable recording medium. 4. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein: the printing medium is a label face of a disk-type recording medium. 5. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein: the printing medium is a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. 6. A printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting a type of the printing : a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command. 7. A method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received; adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. 8. The method as set forth in claim 7, further comprising: displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. 9. The method as set forth in claim 7, further comprising: displaying the image to be printed with a printing range when the first mode is effected. 10. The method as set forth in claim 7, wherein: the recording medium is a portable recording medium. 11. The method as set forth in claim 7, wherein: the printing medium is a label face of a disk-type recording medium. 12. The method as set forth in claim 7, wherein: the printing medium is a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. 13. A printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention relates to a printing apparatus, and more particularly, to a printing apparatus for reading an image file from an inserted portable recording medium and performing printing. 2. Related Art The popularization of digital cameras has led to an increasing request for direct printers that are directly connected with a portable recording medium (for example, a memory card) without a host computer to perform printing. Among such direct printers, there are printers which can perform a printing operation to a label surface of a CD-R or a seal sheet of paper (also referred to as “divided seal sheet of paper”) having cut lines therein. Such a printer is disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 2004-114357A (JP-A-2004-114357). When the printing operation is performed to the label surface of a CD-R or the divided seal sheet of paper, unlike the printing operation to a general sheet of paper, it is important that the printing operation is performed with higher positioning accuracy. For example, when a specified image does not enter but departs from the range designated by a user at the time of the printing operation to the label surface, the printed matters have an ill appearance. When a plurality of images does not enter a frame surrounded with the cut lines at the time of the printing operation to the divided seal sheet of paper, seals having an ill appearance including neighboring images are obtained at the time of separating the seals. In view of such a problem, a printer which can adjust a printing position with respect to a printing medium is known. Such a printer adjusts the positions in accordance with a user's instruction by effecting a positioning mode when a setup button is depressed. FIG. 7 shows a flow of processes of printing a label on a CD in such a printer. Upon activation, the printer waits for the selection of a printing mode (such as “general printing mode from a memory cards”, “CD label printing mode”, and “divided seal sheet printing mode”) (step S 51 ). When the “CD label printing mode” is selected, the printer effects the selected mode (step S 52 ) and receives the selection of an image to be printed (step S 53 ). When receiving a printing instruction after selecting an image, the printer prints the selected image on the label surface of the CD (step S 54 ). In such a process, it is assumed that a user tries to adjust the printing position after effecting the “CD label printing mode.” In the printer, when the setup button is depressed, the “CD label printing mode” is terminated and a “setup mode” is effected, thereby displaying a menu including a “positioning mode” (step S 55 ). Then, when the user selects the “positioning mode”, the “positioning mode” is effected (step S 56 ). Thereafter, when the positioning is finished, the printer is returned to the process of first waiting for a printing mode (step S 51 ). Accordingly, when the user once selects the positioning mode, the user should select again the “CD label printing mode” from the original menu and select again an image to be printed. Such operations are bothersome.
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<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>It is therefore one advantageous aspect of the invention to adjust a printing position with respect to a printing medium without involving bothersome operations. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting a type of the printing; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received: adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. The method may further comprise displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. The recording medium may be a portable recording medium. The printing medium may be a label face of a disk-type recording medium. The printing medium may be a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the readout data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting a type of the printing; a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received; adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. The method may further comprise displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. The method may further comprise displaying the image to be printed with a printing range when the first mode is effected. The recording medium may be a portable recording medium. The printing medium may be a label face of a disk-type recording medium. The printing medium may be a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command.
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BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to a printing apparatus, and more particularly, to a printing apparatus for reading an image file from an inserted portable recording medium and performing printing. 2. Related Art The popularization of digital cameras has led to an increasing request for direct printers that are directly connected with a portable recording medium (for example, a memory card) without a host computer to perform printing. Among such direct printers, there are printers which can perform a printing operation to a label surface of a CD-R or a seal sheet of paper (also referred to as “divided seal sheet of paper”) having cut lines therein. Such a printer is disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 2004-114357A (JP-A-2004-114357). When the printing operation is performed to the label surface of a CD-R or the divided seal sheet of paper, unlike the printing operation to a general sheet of paper, it is important that the printing operation is performed with higher positioning accuracy. For example, when a specified image does not enter but departs from the range designated by a user at the time of the printing operation to the label surface, the printed matters have an ill appearance. When a plurality of images does not enter a frame surrounded with the cut lines at the time of the printing operation to the divided seal sheet of paper, seals having an ill appearance including neighboring images are obtained at the time of separating the seals. In view of such a problem, a printer which can adjust a printing position with respect to a printing medium is known. Such a printer adjusts the positions in accordance with a user's instruction by effecting a positioning mode when a setup button is depressed. FIG. 7 shows a flow of processes of printing a label on a CD in such a printer. Upon activation, the printer waits for the selection of a printing mode (such as “general printing mode from a memory cards”, “CD label printing mode”, and “divided seal sheet printing mode”) (step S51). When the “CD label printing mode” is selected, the printer effects the selected mode (step S52) and receives the selection of an image to be printed (step S53). When receiving a printing instruction after selecting an image, the printer prints the selected image on the label surface of the CD (step S54). In such a process, it is assumed that a user tries to adjust the printing position after effecting the “CD label printing mode.” In the printer, when the setup button is depressed, the “CD label printing mode” is terminated and a “setup mode” is effected, thereby displaying a menu including a “positioning mode” (step S55). Then, when the user selects the “positioning mode”, the “positioning mode” is effected (step S56). Thereafter, when the positioning is finished, the printer is returned to the process of first waiting for a printing mode (step S51). Accordingly, when the user once selects the positioning mode, the user should select again the “CD label printing mode” from the original menu and select again an image to be printed. Such operations are bothersome. SUMMARY It is therefore one advantageous aspect of the invention to adjust a printing position with respect to a printing medium without involving bothersome operations. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting a type of the printing; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received: adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. The method may further comprise displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. The recording medium may be a portable recording medium. The printing medium may be a label face of a disk-type recording medium. The printing medium may be a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the readout data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting a type of the printing; a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method executed in a printing apparatus operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data with respect to a printing medium, the method comprising: effecting a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; receiving a prescribed command after the first mode is effected; effecting a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the prescribed command is received; adjusting the printing position, when the second mode is effected; and effecting the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the prescribed command is received. The method may further comprise displaying an adjustment result of the printing position in an animation manner. The method may further comprise displaying the image to be printed with a printing range when the first mode is effected. The recording medium may be a portable recording medium. The printing medium may be a label face of a disk-type recording medium. The printing medium may be a sheet medium provided with a plurality of peelable areas. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a printing apparatus, operable to read out data from a recording medium and to execute printing based on the read-out data, the apparatus comprising: a first mode executer, operable to effect a first mode for selecting an image to be printed; a command receiver, adapted to receive a prescribed command after the first mode executer effects the first mode; a second mode executer, operable to effect a second mode for adjusting a printing position relative to the printing medium, when the command receiver receives the prescribed command; an adjuster, operable to adjust the printing position, when the second mode executer effects the second mode; and a mode transition controller, operable to effect the first mode when the adjusting of the printing position is finished, with a condition that is effected when the command receiver receives the prescribed command. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a printer according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a functional configuration of a controller in the printer. FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing label printing performed in the printer. FIG. 4 shows an image selection screen displayed when the label printing is performed. FIG. 5 shows screen transitions of a positioning screen displayed when a positioning mode is effected. FIG. 6 shows a modified example of the positioning screen. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing label printing performed in a related-art printer. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Exemplary embodiments of the invention will be described below in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows a printer according to one embodiment of the invention. The printer according to this embodiment is a direct printer that is adapted to be directly connected with a portable recording medium (memory card) 45 without a host computer to perform printing. However, the printer can be connected with a host computer, receive a control command from a printer driver to perform printing. Also, the printer can perform printing using a digital camera as a host. As shown in FIG. 1, the printer includes a controller 10 for performing a variety of processes for print, a control panel 20, a print engine 30 for performing printing, and a memory card reader/writer 40. Although it will be described in this embodiment that an object on which a label should be printed is a CD-R 35, the object may be a CD -RW, a DVD-R, a DVD-RW, or the like. The controller 10 includes a CPU 101 as a main controller, a ROM 102 in which programs, etc. are recorded, a RAM 103 as a main memory temporarily storing data, etc., a nonvolatile memory 104 holding stored data even when the printer is deactivated, an interface 105 controlling an input to and an output from the control panel 20, and a system bus 106 serving as a communication path among individual components. The interface 105 may be formed of an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) designed to exclusively perform the processes. The nonvolatile memory (EEPROM) 104 is a device serving to store information which must be held even when the printer is deactivated. The nonvolatile memory 104 stores as “positioning information” the amount of adjusted printing position adjusted as described later. For example, the amount of adjusted position is “1.0 mm to right and 1.0 mm downward.” The control panel 20 includes a liquid crystal display and operation buttons to serve as a user interface for receiving an instruction regarding layout or a selection of an image file to be printed, from a user. The print engine 30 performs a printing operation based on image data under the control of the controller 10. The print engine 30 includes a sheet tray 31 for loading normal sheets of paper and a disk tray 32 for loading a CD (or DVD). The print engine 30 includes a mechanism for sending the printing medium (sheet or CD) to a position opposing a printing head when label printing is performed. The memory card reader/writer 40 reads out a file stored in a memory card 45 and sends the read file to the controller 10. The memory card reader/writer 40 serves to delete or update the files stored therein in accordance with a command of the controller 10. FIG. 2 shows an example of the functional configuration of the controller 10. Each functional component can be realized in a software or hardware manner. As shown in FIG. 2, the controller 10 includes a command analyzer 111, an image processor 112, and a print processor 113. The command analyzer 111 analyzes a user's request input through the control panel 20 and commands the functional parts to perform processes corresponding to the request. For example, when a request for printing a label is received, the command analyzer 111 commands the image processor 112 to perform label printing. The command analyzer 111 receives an instruction for adjustment of a printing position through the control panel 20. The image processor 112 read image data to be printed from the memory card 45 in accordance with the user's instruction, determines a layout, converts the image data into print data, and then sends the print data to the print processor 113. The print processor 113 controls the print engine 30 to perform a printing operation. For example, the print processor 113 sends the image data received from the image processor 112 to the print engine 30 so as to print the image data on the label surface of the CD-R 35. Next, operations of the printer having the above-mentioned configuration will be described with reference to FIG. 3. When the printer is activated, the command analyzer 111 waits for a selection of a printing mode based on the user's operation of the control panel (step S11). The printing mode includes a “mode in which an image of the memory card 45 is printed on a general sheet of paper” and a “CD label printing mode.” Buttons for inputting such modes are provided in the control panel 20. When the “CD label printing mode” is selected, the command analyzer 111 instructs the image processor 112 to start the CD label printing operation. In response to this instruction, the image processor 112 starts the “CD label printing mode” (step S12) and receives the selection of an image to be printed on the label surface (step S13). Specifically, the image processor 112 displays an image selection screen 200 on a display of the control panel 20, as shown in FIG. 4. In addition, the image processor 112 displays the images 201 read from the memory card 45 one by one on the image selection screen 200. At this time, in order to clarify the printing range with respect to the label surface, the image processor 112 superposes a circular frame 202 corresponding to the shape of the label surface on the displayed image 201. The size and position of the circular frame 202 are determined In advance on the basis of the printing range of the print engine 30. When a rightward button on the control panel 20 is depressed, the image processor 112 reads a next image from the memory card 45, and displays the read image. On the other hand, when a leftward button on the control panel 20 is depressed, the image processor 112 reads again the image displayed previously, and displays the read image. When a plus or minus button on the control panel 20 is depressed, the image processor 112 designates number of sheets to be printed. The printing operation can be performed by dividing one label surface into a plurality of regions and assigning one image to each of the regions. The command analyzer 111 waits for a request for adjusting a printing position from a user while the image processor 112 receives the selection of an image. In this embodiment, the command analyzer 111 displays a menu including the “positioning modes when the setup button” of the control panel 20 is depressed. The command analyzer 111 judges that a positioning request is given when the “positioning mode” is selected. The command analyzer 111 may display the menu including the “positioning mode” when the “print setting button” of the control panel 20 is depressed. In this case, when the “positioning mode” is selected, the command analyzer 111 may judge that the positioning request is given. When the positioning request is given, the command analyzer 111 effects the positioning mode (step S15) as shown in FIG. 5. The command analyzer 111 displays a positioning screen 210 on the display of the control panel 20. An initial printing position 211, an adjusted printing position 212, and an amount of adjustment (an amount of displacement from the initial state) 213 are displayed on the positioning screen 210. The command analyzer 111 receives the adjustment of a printing position by the use of the upward, downward, rightward, and leftward buttons of the control panel 20. When the upward, downward, rightward, and leftward buttons are depressed, the command analyzer 111 increase or decrease the amount of adjustment by a predetermined amount (for example, 0.1 mm by once depressing of a button) in response thereto. Then, by superposing the printing position 212 shifted by the set adjustment amount on the initial printing position, a positional relation therebetween is displayed on the positioning screen 210. Since the set printing position 212 moves In response to the user's depression of the upward, downward, rightward, and leftward buttons, the printing position is displayed in an animation manner. A screen 210U, a screen 210D, a screen 210L, and a screen 210R show the printing positions moving upward, downward, leftward, and rightward, respectively. At this time, when the user gives the determination request (when an “OK button” is depressed), the command analyzer 111 stores the set adjustment amount (an amount of upward, downward, leftward, and rightward movements from the initial printing position) as the “positioning information” in the nonvolatile memory 104. Then, the positioning mode is terminated. Incidentally, the image processor 112 displays again the image selection screen 200 shown in FIG. 4 and receives the selection of an image to be printed. The image processor 112 maintains the state (the displayed image and the number of sheets to be printed for each image) before initiating the positioning mode and restarts the process from the state. That is, the image processor 112 displays the image displayed before initiating the positioning mode on the display. Then, the number sheets to be printed set before initiating the positioning mode is displayed as the number of sheets to be printed. When a print request is given by a user in the course of the image selection process (step S13) (when the “start button ” of the control panel 20 is depressed), the image processor 112 performs the printing operation (step S14). Specifically, the image processor 112 sequentially reads out images selected as the images to be printed (the images of which the number of sheets to be printed is designated as one or more) from the memory card 45, lays out the images in the form of label, performs a color conversion process to the laid-out images, and then acquires image data for print. The acquired image data are color data with coordinate information. Next, the image processor 112 shifts the coordinates of the images as a whole on the basis of the “positioning information” so as to perform the printing operation to the position set in the positioning mode. Accordingly, the image processor 112 first acquires the “positioning information” stored in the nonvolatile memory 104. Then, the image processor 112 horizontally and vertically shifts the coordinates of the images as a whole on the basis of the “positioning information.” For example, when the coordinates are shifted upward, the values of the y coordinates of the image data are decreased by the corresponding number of dots. In this way, the image data to be printed at the positions set in the positioning mode are generated. Thereafter, the image processor 112 sends the generated image data to the print processor 113 to perform the printing operation and then finishes the operation of printing a label. According to the above-mentioned configuration, when the printing position is adjusted in the course of performing a setting operation in the initially selected printing mode and the adjustment of the printing position is finished, the original printing mode is restored and thus the operations can be performed from the restored state. Accordingly, even when the positioning mode is once effected, it is not necessary to restart the printing operation from the initial state (to start from the initial menu), thereby simplifying the operation. In the positioning mode, an animation indicating the shift of the printing position in response to the user's instruction is displayed. Accordingly, it can be clearly understood in which direction the printing position is adjusted. Since the frame (label-shaped circular frame) corresponding to the printing range is displayed in the screen displayed on the display panel, the user can easily understand the print result. The items to be set up may include an outer diameter and an inner diameter of the CD (DVD) to determine the printing range. That is, when the outer diameter and the inner diameter are set after the label printing mode is effected, the label printing mode before the outer diameter and the inner diameter are set is restored after the setting is finished. Accordingly, it is possible to reduce the user's labor of showing the initial menu again after setting the outer diameter and the inner diameter. A label frame may be displayed so as to correspond to the set outer and inner diameters of the label. In this case, it is possible to more easily understand the print result. The invention is not limited to the printing of an outer surface of a recording medium such as a CD-R, but is suitable for printing operations requiring positioning accuracy. For example, the invention can be applied to divided seals (also referred to as “mini photo seals”) including cut lines which are prepared to obtain small seals having a plurality of images by once printing operation. FIG. 6 shows an example of the positioning screen 220 in such a positioning mode. In the figure, the adjusted printing position 222 is superposed on the initial printing position 221. The adjusted printing position 212 corresponds to the user's instruction for the upward, downward, rightward, and leftward movement. That is, the printing position is displayed in the animation manner. A recording medium serving as a backup source is not limited to a memory card, but may be a portable recording medium, such as a USB memory or a small hard disk, capable of being inserted into a digital camera. In the above embodiments, a printer is exemplified as a printing apparatus. However, the invention is applicable to a hybrid apparatus having the functions of a copier, a scanner, a facsimile, etc. Although only some exemplary embodiments of the invention have been described in detail above, those skilled in the art will readily appreciated that many modifications are possible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the invention. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the invention. The disclosure of Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-16002 filed Jan. 25, 2006 including specification, drawings and claims is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
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G
| 60G06
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15
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00
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11850815
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US20080075395A1-20080327
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MANAGING DIGITAL IMAGES
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ACCEPTED
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20080313
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20080327
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[]
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G06K960
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["G06K960", "G06F1200"]
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8687924
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20070906
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20140401
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382
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305000
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94522.0
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CHU
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RANDOLPH
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Wallace", "inventor_name_first": "Alexander David", "inventor_city": "Sunnyvale", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Perrodin", "inventor_name_first": "Laurent", "inventor_city": "Menlo Park", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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Approaches for managing a library of digital images and information about any editing operations performed on those digital images are provided. A managed library of digital images and a referenced library of digital images may be maintained. Digital images may be moved from the managed library of digital images to the referenced library of digital images, and vice-versa. A preview digital image data may also be generated from master digital image data. Rather than performing image operations directly on the master digital image data, change data that identifies one or more operations to perform to a digital picture represented by either the preview digital image data or the master digital image data may be stored, thereby allowing operations to be performed on the preview digital image data when the master digital image data is not accessible. Digital image may be automatically renamed based on rules for doing so.
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1. A method for editing a digital image, comprising: generating preview digital image data from master digital image data, wherein said preview digital image data represents a lower quality version of a digital picture represented by said master digital image data; receiving a request to perform a modification to said digital picture; determining that said master digital image data is not currently accessible; in response to said determining that said master digital image data is not current accessible, performing said request by: storing change data that identifies one or more operations to perform to said digital picture, which when applied to said digital picture, result in at least said modification being performed to said digital picture, wherein storing said change data does not modify said master digital image data or said preview digital image data; and displaying a result of performing said one or more operations to an image generated based on said preview digital image data. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: upon determining that said master digital image data is currently accessible, applying said one or more operations identified by said change data to an image generated based on said master digital image. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said request is a first request, wherein said modification is a first modification, wherein said change data further specifies a second modification to perform to said digital picture, wherein said second modification was requested to be performed to said digital picture by a prior request that was received before said first request, and wherein: displaying said result of performing said one or more operations to the image generated based on said preview digital image data includes displaying the result of performing said first modification and said second modification. 4. A method for importing a plurality of digital images into a storage medium, comprising: receiving user input that defines one or more rules for renaming digital images; and upon receiving a request to import a digital image into a library of digital images managed by an application, automatically renaming said digital image based on said one or more rules. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said one or more rules include at least one rule that is based on each of file metadata for the digital images, application metadata for the digital images, and file system metadata for the digital images, wherein said file metadata is data that describes characteristics of the digital image and is assigned upon creation of the digital image, wherein said application metadata is data that describes characteristics of the digital image and is assigned by an application for the digital image, and wherein said file system metadata is data that that describes characteristics of a digital image and is assigned by a file system for the digital image. 6. The method of claim 4, wherein said user input is first user input, and wherein the method further comprises: receiving second user input that defines a set of rules for (a) creating a folder hierarchy, and (b) storing copies of the digital images in said folder hierarchy; and upon receiving said request to import said digital image into said library of digital images managed by said application, automatically, based on said set of rules, creating at least of portion of said folder hierarchy and storing a copy of said digital image in said portion of said folder hierarchy. 7. A method for tracking locations of digital images, comprising: storing location data, accessible to an application, which indicates an initial location for each of a plurality of digital images; moving each of said plurality of digital images from the initial location for each of the plurality of digital images to a new location for each of the plurality of digital images; and in response to the application determining that a first digital image of said plurality of digital images is currently stored at a different location than said initial location of the first digital image, the application updating said location data to identify that said plurality of digital images are each currently stored at the new location for each of the plurality of digital images. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said determining that the first digital image is currently stored at the different location comprises determining that the first digital image is currently stored at the new location for the first digital image. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein said moving each of said plurality of digital images is performed during a point in time when said initial location is not accessible by said application over a network. 10. A method for managing a library of digital images, comprising: storing a managed library of digital images, wherein said managed library of digital images stores a copy of a first set of digital images that are managed by application; storing a referenced library of digital images, wherein said referenced library of digital images stores references that indicate storage locations of a second set of digital images that are managed by said application; and in response to receiving a request to move a particular digital image from said managed library of digital images to said referenced library of digital images, creating a reference to said particular digital image in said referenced library of digital images, wherein said reference identifies, to said referenced library of digital images, where said particular digital image is located. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising: in response to receiving a request to move a second digital image from said referenced library of digital images to said managed library of digital images to, storing a copy of said second digital image and metadata that describes attributes of said second digital image in said managed library of digital images. 12. The method of claim 10, further comprising: in response to receiving a request to update a location of said particular digital image from a first location in said managed library of digital images to a second location in said managed library of digital images, updating said reference to said particular digital image in said referenced library of digital images to identify said second location. 13. A method for managing the location of a plurality of digital images, comprising: storing location data that identifies on which storage device, of a plurality of storage devices, each of the plurality of digital images, are stored; in response to detecting that a first storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, that was previously accessible is presently inaccessible, performing the steps of: accessing said location data to determine which digital images, of said plurality of digital images, are stored on said first storage device; and displaying information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images, of said plurality of digital images, that are stored on said first storage device are inaccessible; and in response to detecting that a second storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, is was previously inaccessible is presently accessible, performing the steps of: accessing said location data to determine which digital images, of said plurality of digital images, are stored on said second storage device; and displaying information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images, of said plurality of digital images, that are stored on said second storage device are accessible. 14. One or more computer-readable storage media storing one or more sets of instructions for editing a digital image, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by one or more processors causes: generating preview digital image data from master digital image data, wherein said preview digital image data represents a lower quality version of a digital picture represented by said master digital image data; receiving a request to perform a modification to said digital picture; determining that said master digital image data is not currently accessible; in response to said determining that said master digital image data is not current accessible, performing said request by: storing change data that identifies one or more operations to perform to said digital picture, which when applied to said digital picture, result in at least said modification being performed to said digital picture, wherein storing said change data does not modify said master digital image data or said preview digital image data; and displaying a result of performing said one or more operations to an image generated based on said preview digital image data. 15. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 14, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by the one or more processors further causes: upon determining that said master digital image data is currently accessible, applying said one or more operations identified by said change data to an image generated based on said master digital image. 16. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 14, wherein said request is a first request, wherein said modification is a first modification, wherein said change data further specifies a second modification to perform to said digital picture, wherein said second modification was requested to be performed to said digital picture by a prior request that was received before said first request, and wherein: displaying said result of performing said one or more operations to the image generated based on said preview digital image data includes displaying the result of performing said first modification and said second modification. 17. One or more computer-readable storage media storing one or more sets of instructions for importing a plurality of digital images into a storage medium, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by one or more processors causes: receiving user input that defines one or more rules for renaming digital images; and upon receiving a request to import a digital image into a library of digital images managed by an application, automatically renaming said digital image based on said one or more rules. 18. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 17, wherein said one or more rules include at least one rule that is based on each of file metadata for the digital images, application metadata for the digital images, and file system metadata for the digital images, wherein said file metadata is data that describes characteristics of the digital image and is assigned upon creation of the digital image, wherein said application metadata is data that describes characteristics of the digital image and is assigned by an application for the digital image, and wherein said file system metadata is data that that describes characteristics of a digital image and is assigned by a file system for the digital image. 19. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 17, wherein said user input is first user input, and wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by the one or more processors further causes: receiving second user input that defines a set of rules for (a) creating a folder hierarchy, and (b) storing copies of the digital images in said folder hierarchy; and upon receiving said request to import said digital image into said library of digital images managed by said application, automatically, based on said set of rules, creating at least of portion of said folder hierarchy and storing a copy of said digital image in said portion of said folder hierarchy. 20. One or more computer-readable storage media storing one or more sets of instructions for tracking locations of digital images, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by one or more processor causes: storing location data, accessible to an application, which indicates an initial location for each of a plurality of digital images; moving each of said plurality of digital images from the initial location for each of the plurality of digital images to a new location for each of the plurality of digital images; and in response to the application determining that a first digital image of said plurality of digital images is currently stored at a different location than said initial location of the first digital image, the application updating said location data to identify that said plurality of digital images are each currently stored at the new location for each of the plurality of digital images. 21. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 20, wherein said determining that the first digital image is currently stored at the different location comprises determining that the first digital image is currently stored at the new location for the first digital image. 22. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 20, wherein said moving each of said plurality of digital images is performed during a point in time when said initial location is not accessible by said application over a network. 23. One or more computer-readable storage media storing one or more sets of instructions for managing a library of digital images, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by one or more processors causes: storing a managed library of digital images, wherein said managed library of digital images stores a copy of a first set of digital images that are managed by application; storing a referenced library of digital images, wherein said referenced library of digital images stores references that indicate storage locations of a second set of digital images that are managed by said application; and in response to receiving a request to move a particular digital image from said managed library of digital images to said referenced library of digital images, creating a reference to said particular digital image in said referenced library of digital images, wherein said reference identifies, to said referenced library of digital images, where said particular digital image is located. 24. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 23, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by the one or more processors further causes: in response to receiving a request to move a second digital image from said referenced library of digital images to said managed library of digital images to, storing a copy of said second digital image and metadata that describes attributes of said second digital image in said managed library of digital images. 25. The one or more computer-readable storage media of claim 23, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by the one or more processors further causes: in response to receiving a request to update a location of said particular digital image from a first location in said managed library of digital images to a second location in said managed library of digital images, updating said reference to said particular digital image in said referenced library of digital images to identify said second location. 26. One or more computer-readable storage media storing one or more sets of instructions for managing the location of a plurality of digital images, wherein execution of the one or more sets of instructions by one or more processors causes: storing location data that identifies on which storage device, of a plurality of storage devices, each of the plurality of digital images, are stored; in response to detecting that a first storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, that was previously accessible is presently inaccessible, performing the steps of: accessing said location data to determine which digital images, of said plurality of digital images, are stored on said first storage device; and displaying information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images, of said plurality of digital images, that are stored on said first storage device are inaccessible; and in response to detecting that a second storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, is was previously inaccessible is presently accessible, performing the steps of: accessing said location data to determine which digital images, of said plurality of digital images, are stored on said second storage device; and displaying information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images, of said plurality of digital images, that are stored on said second storage device are accessible.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The approaches described in this section are approaches that could be pursued, but not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated, it should not be assumed that any of the approaches described in this section qualify as prior art merely by virtue of their inclusion in this section. Digital image management applications may be used to manage a collection of digital images. Digital image management applications may be used to store and retrieve digital images to and from a storage medium, such as a hard drive. However, some digital image management applications are limited on how many digital images they can manage because all of the digital images managed by the application must be stored on the storage medium. As a result, the number of digital images that a digital image management application can manage may be limited by the size of the storage medium. Certain digital image management applications may also be used to perform an edit operation on a digital image that causes a change in a visual characteristic of the digital image. When an application performs an edit operation on a digital image, the application typically creates, based on the existing digital image, a new digital image that reflects the performance of the edit operation. Thus, after performing the edit operation, not only is the prior digital image stored on the storage medium, but also the new digital image that reflects the performance of the edit operation. Consequently, editing digital images in this manner exacerbates the limitations of a digital image management application as ample space must be available on the storage medium to store, in addition to the original digital images, the results of any edit operations performed on the digital images managed by the digital image management application.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>Embodiments of the invention are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of editing a digital image according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of importing a plurality of digital images into a storage medium according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of tracking locations of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing a library of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing the location of a plurality of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 7 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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RELATED APPLICATION DATA The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/846,830, entitled “Architecture for Image Manipulation,” filed on Sep. 22, 2006, invented by Nikhil Bhatt et al., the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. BACKGROUND The approaches described in this section are approaches that could be pursued, but not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated, it should not be assumed that any of the approaches described in this section qualify as prior art merely by virtue of their inclusion in this section. Digital image management applications may be used to manage a collection of digital images. Digital image management applications may be used to store and retrieve digital images to and from a storage medium, such as a hard drive. However, some digital image management applications are limited on how many digital images they can manage because all of the digital images managed by the application must be stored on the storage medium. As a result, the number of digital images that a digital image management application can manage may be limited by the size of the storage medium. Certain digital image management applications may also be used to perform an edit operation on a digital image that causes a change in a visual characteristic of the digital image. When an application performs an edit operation on a digital image, the application typically creates, based on the existing digital image, a new digital image that reflects the performance of the edit operation. Thus, after performing the edit operation, not only is the prior digital image stored on the storage medium, but also the new digital image that reflects the performance of the edit operation. Consequently, editing digital images in this manner exacerbates the limitations of a digital image management application as ample space must be available on the storage medium to store, in addition to the original digital images, the results of any edit operations performed on the digital images managed by the digital image management application. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of editing a digital image according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of importing a plurality of digital images into a storage medium according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of tracking locations of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing a library of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing the location of a plurality of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 7 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments of the invention discussed herein. It will be apparent, however, that the embodiments of the invention discussed herein may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the embodiments of the invention discussed herein. In the common vernacular, a digital picture or digital image may either refer to an image file that may be processed to display an image or the actual image itself. As used herein, digital image data refers to digital data that may be processed to display a digital image or digital picture. For example, non-limiting, illustrative examples of digital image data include a .BMP file, a .JPEG file, a .TIF file, or a .GIF file. Thus, a digital image or a digital picture is the visual display of digital image data. However, in contexts where the distinction between the visual image rendered from digital image data and the digital image data itself is not important to understand how the embodiment of the invention works, a reference to a digital image or digital picture may follow the common vernacular and implicitly include reference to the digital image data used to display the digital image or digital picture. For example, a description of “storing a digital image” at a particular location refers to storing digital image data, which when processed causes the display of the digital image, at the particular location. Functional Overview Embodiments of the invention advantageously provide techniques for managing a collection of digital images and information about any editing operations performed on those digital images. For example, in an embodiment, non-destructive digital image editing may be performed. In such an embodiment, preview digital image data is generated from master digital image data, where the preview digital image data represents a lower quality version of a digital picture represented by the master digital image data. The preview digital image data may be used to display the digital picture, rather than the master digital image data, in some circumstances to facilitate a faster display. Rather than making a request to perform a modification to the digital picture by updating the master digital image data, change data that identifies one or more operations to perform to the digital picture is stored. A result of performing a requested operation to the digital image may be shown to a user by displaying a digital image obtained by applying the change data to the preview digital image data. In this way, neither the master digital image data nor the preview digital image data need be modified to perform an edit operation on the digital picture. Such an approach yields numerous advantages, e.g., the result of performing the edit operation may be digitally stored using less space than prior approaches. According to another embodiment of the invention, a digital image may be automatically renamed when being imported into a library of digital images. The digital image may be renamed based on one or more rules that are established by a user. The one or more rules may also be used to create, at least of portion of, a folder hierarchy and store a copy of the imported digital image in the portion of the folder hierarchy. In another embodiment of the invention, locations of digital images managed by an application may be tracked with greater precision than by prior approaches. In response to the application determining that a first digital image of a plurality of digital images is currently stored at a different location than an initial location of the first digital image, the application updates data that identifies that the plurality of digital images are each currently stored at a new location. To illustrate how an embodiment may be employed, assume that an application stores data that identifies where each of a plurality of digital images are stored. Using such an embodiment, if a user moves a digital image to a different location in a digital image store while the digital image store is inaccessible to the application, then when the digital image stores becomes accessible to the application, the application may reconcile the present location of the digital image with the location at which the application expected the digital image to reside. In this way, the application will not treat a moved digital image, at its new location, as a new digital image that the application has not previously encountered. Other embodiments of the invention enable an application to manage digital images that are either stored in a managed library of digital images or a referenced library of digital images. A managed library of digital images stores a copy of a digital image in the managed library, whereas the referenced library of digital images store a reference to a digital image in the referenced library. Embodiments of the invention enable digital images, which are managed by the application, to be moved from the managed library to the referenced library, and vice-versa. In another embodiment of the invention, in response to detecting that a particular storage device, of a plurality of storage devices, that was previously accessible is presently inaccessible, location data that identifies on which storage device, of a plurality of storage devices, each of a plurality of digital images are stored is accessed to determine which digital images are stored on the particular storage device. Thereafter, information that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images that are stored on the particular storage device are inaccessible is displayed to a user. In this way, once a determination is made that a particular storage device is inaccessible, the set of digital images stored thereon that are inaccessible may be immediately known to the user without a determination being made, for each digital image of the plurality of digital images, as to whether the digital image is accessible or not, thereby saving time and resources. These and other embodiments of the invention shall be discussed in greater detail below. Architecture Overview FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system 100 according to an embodiment of the invention. In an embodiment, system 100 includes computer systems 110 and 112, digital image store 150 and 152, and communications link 160. While only two computer systems are depicted in system 100, other embodiments of the invention may contain any number of computer systems. At least one computer system in system 100 executes application 120, although application 120 may be executed on more than one computer system. Additionally, any number of digital image stores may reside, but need not reside, on a computer system, and any number of computer systems containing digital image stores may be comprised within system 100. Computer system 110 executes application 120. Application 120 may be implemented by software that is configured to manage, store, or edit digital images. For example, in an embodiment, application 120 may perform the steps illustrated in one or more of FIGS. 2-6. The functions performed by application 120 shall be discussed in greater detail below. In an embodiment, application 120 may comprise managed library of digital images 130 and referenced library of digital images 140. Managed library of digital images 130 stores a copy of each digital image in the managed library. Referenced library of digital images 140 stores a reference to where each digital image in the referenced library is located. For example, digital image data for a first digital image may be stored in digital image store 150 and digital image data for a second digital image may be stored in digital image store 152. Referenced library of digital images 140 may store a first reference to the location in digital image store 150 where digital image data for the first digital image is stored and store a second reference to the location in digital image store 152 where digital image data for the second digital image is stored. Note that while application 120 is depicted in FIG. 1 as comprising managed library of digital images 130 and referenced library of digital images 140, in other embodiments of the invention, application 120 may comprise only one of managed library of digital images 130 and referenced library of digital images 140. In other embodiments of the invention, application 120 may not comprise either managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140. As a result, the presence of managed library of digital images 130 and referenced library of digital images 140 in system 100 is optional. In an embodiment, computer system 112 comprises digital image store 150. A digital image store, such as digital image store 150 and 152, refers to any volatile or non-volatile storage medium that is capable of storing digital image data. A digital image store may be implemented on a computer system (such as digital image store 150). Such a digital image store may include a database, a file system, an operating system, and any other software executing on computer system 112 which may be used to store digital images. A digital image store may not be implemented on what is traditionally considered a computer system (such as digital image store 152), e.g., such a digital image store may correspond to a flash memory card, a cell phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA) or any other device which enables the storage of digital images. Communications link 160 may be implemented by any medium or mechanism that provides for the exchange of data between computer systems and/or between a computer system and a digital image store. Examples of communications links 160 include, without limitation, a network such as a Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Ethernet or the Internet, or one or more terrestrial, satellite or wireless links. Although not shown in FIG. 1, digital image store 152 and/or computer system 112 may be physically connected to computer system 110 to enable communications therewith, e.g., if digital image store 152 is a portable disk drive, the portable disk drive may be physically connected to computer system 110 for purposes of enabling communications between digital image store 152 and computer system 110. Having described an illustrative system according to an embodiment of the invention, an approach for performing non-destructive digital image editing according to an embodiment of the invention will now be discussed. Non-Destructive Digital Image Editing FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of editing a digital image according to an embodiment of the invention. By performing the steps illustrated by FIG. 2, embodiments of the invention may edit a digital image without making any changes to the original digital image. Further, any changes made to a digital image may be undone at any time. Initially, in step 210, preview digital image data is generated from master digital image data. Master digital image data represents the original digital image data that represents a digital picture. For example, when a photographer takes a picture with a digital camera, the digital camera will create master digital image data for each digital picture taken by the digital camera. Master digital image data will typically represent a high quality version of a digital picture, e.g., the digital camera may be configured to take digital pictures at a high degree of resolution. As a result, the processing of master digital image data by application 120 to display the digital picture represented by the master digital image data may be resource intensive. Consequently, in step 210, application 120 creates preview digital image data from the master digital image data. Preview digital image data represents the same digital picture as the master digital image data used to create the preview digital image data. However, preview digital image data represents a lower quality version of the digital picture represented by the master digital image data. Since the preview digital image data represents a lower quality version of the digital picture, it takes fewer resources of application 120 to process the preview digital image data to display the digital picture represented by the preview digital image data than compared to processing the corresponding master digital image data. In an embodiment, after application 120 creates the preview digital image data for a particular digital image, anytime application 120 needs to display the particular digital image, application 120 does so by processing the preview digital image data to display the particular digital image to save resources. In step 220, a request to perform a modification to a digital picture is received. The request may be received by application 120. For example, a user may configure a graphical user interface provided by application 120 to instruct application 120 to perform a modification to a particular digital picture. For example, step 220 may be performed by a user instructing application 120 to perform a crop operation on a particular digital image. In step 230, a determination is made that master digital image data for the digital picture is not currently accessible. To illustrate, application 120 may store location data that identifies a location where master digital image data, for each digital image managed by application 120, is stored. Such a location for the master digital image data may either by in managed library of digital images 130 or in a location in a digital image store identified by referenced library of digital images 140. In step 230, application 120 may determine that a digital image store which stores the master digital image data that represents the digital picture which is the subject of the requested modification is not currently accessible by application 120. For example, a photographer may store in the master digital image data in a removable hard drive or in a portable computer which is not operationally connected via a network (such as communications link 160) to application 120. In an embodiment, master digital image data may only become inaccessible if the master digital image data was stored in a location identified by referenced library of digital images 140. Note that step 230 is optional, as there is no requirement that master digital image data for the digital picture be inaccessible. In step 240, in response to determining that the master digital image data is not currently accessible, application 120 performs the requested modification to the digital picture. In an embodiment, application 120 performs the requested modification to the digital picture by storing change data that identifies one or more operations to apply to the digital picture. When the one or more operations identified by the change data are applied to the digital picture, the requested modification is performed (in addition, as explained in further detail below, any previously requested modifications to the digital picture are also performed). For example, change data may specify that a crop operation is to be performed to the digital picture represented by either the master digital image data or the preview digital image data. Storing change data does not modify either the master digital image data or the preview digital image data. Thus, the original digital image taken by the photographer need not ever be modified, altered, or changed in any way to perform any modifications to the digital image by embodiments of the invention. For example, the original digital image may be cropped to a reduced size by storing change data that instructs application 120 on how to perform the crop operation to the original digital image, without ever modifying, altering, or changing the original digital image. In an embodiment, change data may specify that more than one operation is to be performed to the digital image. This is so because change data may identify all operations that have been requested to be made to the digital picture. Thus, if two modifications have been requested to be performed to a digital picture, then change data identifies two operations to be applied to the digital picture to result in the performance of the two requested modifications. In step 250, a result of performing the one or more operations identified by the change data to an image generated based on said preview digital image data is displayed. Application 120 may display the result of performing a requested modification by applying the change data, which identifies operations to be applied to the digital picture to perform all requested modifications to the digital picture received by application 120, to preview digital image data for the digital picture. In this way, application 120 may display, to a user, the result of performing any modification to a digital picture without ever having modified the master digital image data for that digital picture. In an embodiment where more than one modification has been requested to be made to the digital picture, the performance of step 250 causes the result of performing each requested modification to be displayed. In an embodiment, if application 120 determines that master digital image data is currently accessible, then application 120 may apply the change data to the image generated based on the master digital image for the digital picture. In this way, the result of performing a modification to a digital image may initially be shown to a user by generating a digital image that displays the result of performing the modification using the preview digital image data, but a later point in time when master digital image data becomes available, the result of performing the modification may be shown to the user by generating a digital image using the master digital image data. In an embodiment, in order to save the current state of editing a digital image, a user need not issue an express command to application 120 to save the current state of editing a digital image. This is so because application 120 saves change data each time change data is updated to reflect the performance of a new operation to a digital image. In an embodiment, any operation identified by the change data may be “undone” simply by the user subsequently instructing application 120 that the particular operation is not to be performed. Thus, at any point in time, a user may instruct application 120 to undo a previous edit operation performed to a digital image. For example, since the change data identifies all operations that are to be performed to a digital image relative to either the master digital image data or the preview image data, if the user subsequently changes his or her mind, the user may update the change data so that one of the operations identified by the change data is not performed. As a result, the digital image resulting from applying the change data to the master digital image data or the preview digital image data will not reflect the performance of the operation that the user wishes “undone.” The performance of the steps illustrated in FIG. 2 yield numerous advantages. For example, in an embodiment, the result of performing edit operations may be digitally stored using less space than prior approaches. Further, in an embodiment, changes that are made to a digital image rendered at a lesser degree of resolution (for example, a digital images rendered using preview digital image data) may be automatically performed on a digital image rendered at a higher degree of resolution (for example, when master digital image data becomes accessible to application 120). Additionally, embodiments of the invention may automatically save the current state of editing a digital image. Having described an approach for performing non-destructive digital image editing, an approach for automatically treating digital images upon the performance of an event (such as importing the digital images into a library of digital images) according to an embodiment of the invention will now be discussed. Automatic Treatment of Digital Images FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of importing a plurality of digital images into a storage medium according to an embodiment of the invention. In step 310, user input, which defines one or more rules for renaming digital images, is received. The user input of step 310 may be received by application 120. For example, the user may define the user input in a graphical user interface provided by application 120. The one or more rules for renaming digital images may be based on any type of characteristic or criteria. In an embodiment, the one or more rules may be based on one or more of file metadata for the digital images, application metadata for the digital images, and file system metadata for the digital images. File metadata is data that describes characteristics of a digital image. File metadata may be assigned, recorded, or created for the digital image by the entity that creates the digital image, such as a digital camera. A non-limiting, illustrative example of file metadata includes information about a global positioning system (GPS) location associated with the digital camera when the digital image was taken. Application metadata is data that describes the digital image and is assigned by an application for a digital image. A non-limiting, illustrative example of file metadata includes a given name, assigned by an application, for a digital image. File system metadata is data that describes the digital image and is assigned by a file system for a digital image. A non-limiting, illustrative example of file metadata includes a creation date for the digital image. To illustrate how a user may perform step 310, a user could use a graphical user interface provided by application 120 to submit user input that defines a rule for organizing digital images into a hierarchy of folders according to a GPS location associated with each digital image. In this way, the user could create a rule that organizes the user's digital images into folders based on the location of where the digital images were taken. In such an embodiment, file metadata that identifies GPS location information for a digital image may be referenced by such a rule. As another example, a user could use a graphical user interface provided by application 120 to submit user input that defines a rule for renaming digital images based on the creation date of the digital image and whether the digital image is color or black and white. In an embodiment, a rule for renaming digital images could specify that the new name is composed of a set of portions, and each portion in the name may correspond to a particular characteristic of the digital image. For example, an illustrative rule could specify that digital images should be renamed according to: (Project name for digital image)(Creation date of digital image). In step 320, application 120 automatically renames a digital image based on the one or more rules of step 310. Step 320 may be performed in response to receiving a request to import the digital image to be renamed into a library of digital images, such as either managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140. Application 120 may perform step 320 in importing a plurality of digital images into either managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140. Thus, each of the plurality of digital images that are imported by application 120 will be renamed according to the one or more rules of step 310 upon being imported into managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140. While step 320 is being described herein as being performed in response to importing digital images into a library, in other embodiments of the invention, step 320 may be performed in response to other actions, such as receipt of a request to rename a specified set of digital images which are already included in one or more of managed library of digital images 130 and referenced library of digital images 140. In an embodiment, in addition to renaming digital images, a user may submit user input that defines rules to perform other actions, such as how to store the digital image. As another example, a user could use a graphical user interface provided by application 120 to submit user input that defines a rule for (a) creating a folder hierarchy, and (b) storing copies of digital images in the folder hierarchy. In such an embodiment, upon receiving the request to import a digital image into a library of digital images managed by application 120, application 120 may automatically, based on the set of rules of step 310, create at least of portion of the folder hierarchy specified by the rule and store a copy of the digital image or create a reference to the digital image in the newly created portion of the folder hierarchy. For example, an illustrative rule could specify that digital images should be grouped into folders according to global positioning system (GPS) coordinates or according to project name. Having described an approach for automatically treating digital images upon the performance of an event, an approach for tracking locations of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention will now be discussed. Tracking Locations of Digital Images FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of tracking locations of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention. By performing the steps of FIG. 4, application 120 will not treat a digital image managed by either managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140 that has been moved to a new location as a new digital image that application 120 has not previously encountered. This feature is particularly useful when the digital image is moved at a point in time when the digital image is not accessible to application 120, e.g., the digital image is moved when the digital image is stored in digital image store 150 when digital image store 150 is currently offline or unreachable to computer system 110. In step 410, location data that indicates a location for each of a plurality of digital images is stored. In an embodiment, the location data of step 410 may be stored by application 120. The location data may indicate a location for each of a plurality of digital images in either managed library of digital images 130, referenced library of digital images 140, or both. For example, a photographer may wish to work on location for an extended period. As such, the photographer may wish to move master digital image data for a plurality of digital images from managed library of digital images 130 to his laptop computer (which corresponds to computer system 112 in this example). Thus, the photographer may move master digital image data for the plurality of digital images from managed library of digital images 130 to digital image store 150. Upon doing so, location data, maintained by application 120, is updated to reflect that master digital image data for each of the plurality of digital images is now stored at digital image store 150. Additionally, in an embodiment, the location data may further identify the particular location at digital image store 150 where master digital image data for each digital image of the plurality of digital images is stored. For example, the location data may identify a particular folder or path where master digital image data for each digital image of the plurality of digital images is stored at digital image store 150. In effect, the photographer has moved the responsibility for managing master digital image data for these digital images from managed library of digital images 130 to referenced library of digital images 140 (a process explained in further detail below), where the referenced library of digital images 140 comprises references to the locations of each of the digital images on digital image store 150. In step 420, each of the plurality of digital images is moved to new location. Step 420 may be performed by the photographer moving the plurality of digital images from an existing location to a new location, e.g., each of the plurality of digital images may be moved to a new location at digital image store 150. In an embodiment, each of the plurality of digital images may be moved in step 420 during a point in time when the initial location of each of the plurality of digital images is not accessible by application 120 over communications link 160. For example, the photographer may disconnect his laptop from the network when working on location. In this example, digital image store 150 will be inaccessible to application 120 since computer system 112 will not be connected to communications link 160. In step 430, application 120 updates the location data of step 410 to identify that each of the plurality of digital images are each currently stored at a new location in response to determining that one digital image, of the plurality of digital images, is stored at a new location. Step 430 may be performed in response to digital image store 150 becoming accessible to application 120. For example, once the photographer reconnects his laptop to the network when he arrives home, his laptop (in this example his laptop corresponds to computer system 112) is connected to communications link 160 and therefore, digital image store 150 becomes accessible to computer system 110. In an embodiment, if a digital image has been moved to a new location on the same file system, then application 120 may update the location data to identify the new location of a moved digital image based on the file alias for the moved digital image. As the file alias used by the file system to identify the digital image does not change when the digital image is moved to a new location managed by the file system, embodiments of the invention may update the location data using the file alias to determine that the moved digital image is the same digital that was previously stored in a different location. In an embodiment, once digital image store 150 becomes accessible to application 120, application 120 accesses information that identifies all the digital images that are stored on digital image store 150. Once application 120 is informed of all the digital images that are stored on digital image store 150, application 120 may consult the location data to ensure that each of those digital images has not been moved from the location identified by the location data. In this way, application 120 may quickly identify, since the digital image store 150 was last accessible to application 120, which digital images previously stored on digital image store 150 have moved locations and which digital images previously stored on digital image store 150 have not moved locations. In an embodiment, the user may specifically identify to application 120 where one digital image has moved. Prior to doing so, application 120 may offer one or more suggestions to the user based on an analysis of similarities between the digital images that application 120 has identified as being moved and digital images which application 120 discovers as being in a location where application 120 did not anticipate such digital images being. In an embodiment, once a user identifies where one of the plurality of digital images has moved, application 120 may update the location data to identify where each of the plurality of digital images have moved. According to one approach for doing so, application 120 may determine where each of the plurality of digital images has moved based on a comparison of the path from the prior location to the new location for the digital image whose movement was verified by the user. To illustrate, if application 120 determines that a particular folder was moved from a first location to a second location, then application 120 may update the location of all digital images and/or folders logically stored in the moved folder to reflect the new location of the moved folder. As a result of performing the steps of FIG. 4, if five hundred digital images are moved in the same manner, rather than the photographer manually updating application 120 with the knowledge of where each of the five hundred digital images are currently located, the photographer may simply inform application 120 about how one of the digital images has been moved, and application 120 will automatically determine how the other four hundred and ninety-nine digital images moved, thereby saving the photographer time and frustration and increasing the accuracy of updating application 120. Having described an approach for tracking locations of digital images, an approach for managing a library of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention will now be discussed. Storing Digital Images Anywhere FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing a library of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention. By performing the steps of FIG. 5, embodiments of the invention enable digital images, which are managed by application 120, to be moved from managed library of digital images 130 to referenced library of digital images 140, and vice-versa. Accordingly, application 120 may manage digital images stored in either managed library of digital images 130 or referenced library of digital images 140, thereby reaping the best of both worlds. For ease of explanation, the steps of FIG. 5 are illustrated as being sequential; however, steps 530 and 540 are optional, and may be performed in any order and at any time after the performance of steps 510 and 520 by embodiments of the invention. In step 510, managed library of digital images 130 is stored or established by application 120. For example, step 510 may be performed by storing or establishing managed library of digital images 130 in system 100. In step 520, referenced library of digital images 140 is stored or established by application 120. For example, step 520 may be performed by storing or establishing referenced library of digital images 140 in system 100. In step 530, management of a digital image is transferred from managed library of digital images 130 to referenced library of digital images 140. In an embodiment, the performance of step 530 is referred to as relocation. In an embodiment, step 530 may be performed in response to application 120 receiving a request to move a particular digital image from managed library of digital images 130 to referenced library of digital images 140. Relocation of the digital image may be performed by creating a reference to the digital image in referenced library of digital images 140. The reference identifies, to referenced library of digital images 140, where the digital image is located. In step 540, management of a digital image is transferred from referenced library of digital images 140 to managed library of digital images 130. In an embodiment, the performance of step 540 is referred to as consolidation. In an embodiment, step 540 may be performed in response to application 120 receiving a request to move a particular digital image from referenced library of digital images 140 to managed library of digital images 130. Consolidation of the digital image may be performed by storing a copy of the digital image and metadata that describes attributes of the digital image in managed library of digital images 130. In an embodiment, in response to application 120 receiving a request to update the location of a particular digital image from a first location in referenced library of digital images 140 to a second location in referenced library of digital images 140, application 120 updates a reference to the particular digital image in referenced library of digital images 140 to identify the second location. FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating the functional steps of managing the location of a plurality of digital images according to an embodiment of the invention. By performing the steps of FIG. 6, once a determination is made by application 120 that a particular storage device is inaccessible, the set of digital images stored thereon that are inaccessible may be immediately displayed to the user without application 120 determining, for each digital image of the plurality of digital images, as to whether the digital image is accessible or not, thereby saving time and resources. In step 610, location data is stored by application 120. In an embodiment, location data is data that identifies on which storage device each of a plurality of digital images is stored. In step 620, in response to application 120 detecting that a first storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, that was previously accessible is presently inaccessible, application 120 performs certain actions. To illustrate, application 120 accesses the location data stored in step 610 to determine which digital images, of the plurality of digital images, are stored on the first storage device. For example, if application detects that digital image store 152, which was previously accessible becomes inaccessible, then application 120 may access location data to determine which digital images are stored on digital image store 152. Thereafter, application 120 displays information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images that are stored on digital image store 152 are presently inaccessible. In this way, by determining that digital image store 152 is inaccessible, application 120 may determine that the digital images which are known to be stored on digital image store 152 are consequently inaccessible without making an individual determination, for each digital image stored on digital image store 152, whether the digital image is accessible or not. In this way, time and resources may be saved. In step 630, in response to application 120 detecting that a first storage device, of said plurality of storage devices, that was previously inaccessible is presently accessible, application 120 performs certain actions. To illustrate, in an embodiment, application 120 accesses the location data stored in step 610 to determine which digital images, of the plurality of digital images, are stored on the first storage device. For example, if application detects that digital image store 152, which was previously inaccessible becomes accessible, then application 120 may access location data to determine which digital images are stored on digital image store 152. Thereafter, application 120 displays information to a user that indicates that at least of portion of the digital images that are stored on digital image store 152 are presently accessible. In this way, by determining that digital image store 152 is currently accessible, application 120 may determine that the digital images which are known to be stored on digital image store 152 are consequently accessible without making an individual determination, for each digital image stored on digital image store 152, whether the digital image is accessible or not. In this way, time and resources may be saved. Implementing Mechanisms FIG. 7 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system 700 upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. For example, in an embodiment, computer system 110, 112, and/or 114 may correspond to computer system 700. Computer system 700 includes a bus 702 or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and a processor 704 coupled with bus 702 for processing information. Computer system 700 also includes a main memory 706, such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled to bus 702 for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor 704. Main memory 706 also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor 704. Computer system 700 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 708 or other static storage device coupled to bus 702 for storing static information and instructions for processor 704. A storage device 710, such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, is provided and coupled to bus 702 for storing information and instructions. Computer system 700 may be coupled via bus 702 to a display 712, such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), for displaying information to a computer user. An input device 714, including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled to bus 702 for communicating information and command selections to processor 704. Another type of user input device is cursor control 716, such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to processor 704 and for controlling cursor movement on display 712. This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane. The invention is related to the use of computer system 700 for implementing the techniques described herein. According to one embodiment of the invention, those techniques are performed by computer system 700 in response to processor 704 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory 706. Such instructions may be read into main memory 706 from another machine-readable medium, such as storage device 710. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory 706 causes processor 704 to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions to implement the invention. Thus, embodiments of the invention are not limited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software. The term “machine-readable medium” as used herein refers to any medium that participates in providing data that causes a machine to operation in a specific fashion. In an embodiment implemented using computer system 700, various machine-readable media are involved, for example, in providing instructions to processor 704 for execution. Such a medium may take many forms, including but not limited to, non-volatile media, volatile media, and transmission media. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device 710. Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory 706. Transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise bus 702. Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infra-red data communications. All such media must be tangible to enable the instructions carried by the media to be detected by a physical mechanism that reads the instructions into a machine. Common forms of machine-readable media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical medium, punchcards, papertape, any other physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave as described hereinafter, or any other medium from which a computer can read. Various forms of machine-readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor 704 for execution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk of a remote computer. The remote computer can load the instructions into its dynamic memory and send the instructions over a telephone line using a modem. A modem local to computer system 700 can receive the data on the telephone line and use an infra-red transmitter to convert the data to an infra-red signal. An infra-red detector can receive the data carried in the infra-red signal and appropriate circuitry can place the data on bus 702. Bus 702 carries the data to main memory 706, from which processor 704 retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by main memory 706 may optionally be stored on storage device 710 either before or after execution by processor 704. Computer system 700 also includes a communication interface 718 coupled to bus 702. Communication interface 718 provides a two-way data communication coupling to a network link 720 that is connected to a local network 722. For example, communication interface 718 may be an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card or a modem to provide a data communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. As another example, communication interface 718 may be a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN. Wireless links may also be implemented. In any such implementation, communication interface 718 sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information. Network link 720 typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, network link 720 may provide a connection through local network 722 to a host computer 724 or to data equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) 726. ISP 726 in turn provides data communication services through the world wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the “Internet” 728. Local network 722 and Internet 728 both use electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on network link 720 and through communication interface 718, which carry the digital data to and from computer system 700, are exemplary forms of carrier waves transporting the information. Computer system 700 can send messages and receive data, including program code, through the network(s), network link 720 and communication interface 718. In the Internet example, a server 730 might transmit a requested code for an application program through Internet 728, ISP 726, local network 722 and communication interface 718. The received code may be executed by processor 704 as it is received, and/or stored in storage device 710, or other non-volatile storage for later execution. In this manner, computer system 700 may obtain application code in the form of a carrier wave. In the foregoing specification, embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. Thus, the sole and exclusive indicator of what is the invention, and is intended by the applicants to be the invention, is the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction. Any definitions expressly set forth herein for terms contained in such claims shall govern the meaning of such terms as used in the claims. Hence, no limitation, element, property, feature, advantage or attribute that is not expressly recited in a claim should limit the scope of such claim in any way. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.
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G
| 60G06
| 163G06K
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9
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60
|
|||
11717302
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US20070215698A1-20070920
|
Credit card security system and method
|
ACCEPTED
|
20070905
|
20070920
|
[]
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G06K500
|
["G06K500"]
|
8365986
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20070313
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20130205
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235
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380000
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61090.0
|
HESS
|
DANIEL
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Perry", "inventor_name_first": "Daniel D.", "inventor_city": "Loudon", "inventor_state": "NH", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A transaction method, system and apparatus of the present invention employs two electromagnetically read cards. A first card is employed for accessing account data of a corresponding account. A second card effectively carries identity data of the owner/account holder of the first card. During a transaction, the two cards must be used sufficiently in tandem or in proper series order, in order for the card processing center to authorize the subject transaction. In particular, use of the first card accesses a corresponding account to determine if the account is active versus in a halted state (e.g., due to a reported stolen or lost card). Use of the second card spaced apart (in time and/or in distance) from the first card then verifies identity of the user as an authorized person to be accessing the corresponding account and hence authorized user of the first card. As such the second card verifies, validates, authenticates or otherwise confirms identity of the first card owner (also referred to as the corresponding account owner) and serves as an identity data member.
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1. A system for conducting a transaction using a magnetic card reader comprising: a first electromagnetically read card with a respective data carrying magnetic stripe, the first card for accessing a corresponding account; a second magnetically read card with a respective data carrying magnetic stripe, the second card for carrying identity data of authorized user and/or owner of the account corresponding to the first card, the first and second cards being read by a card reader in a manner such that the second card verifies or otherwise validates use of the first card. 2. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the first and second cards are read by the card reader in tandem, in ordered series, or in cooperation with each other. 3. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the second card is usable with other credit, debit or other transaction type cards. 4. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein at least one of the first and second cards employs a respective data carrying magnetic stripe, a digital processor unit, or a radio-frequency identification (RF) unit. 5. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the second card enables request of credit history of the authorized user/account owner to be made. 6. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the second card enables request of a digital image of the authorized user/account owner to be made. 7. A system as claimed in claim 6 wherein the digital image may be updated by the authorized user/account owner. 8. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the first or second card uses multiple magnetic stripes for data. 9. A system as claimed in claim 1 wherein the respective data carrying magnetic stripe of the first or second card uses a Track 1 and a Track 2 for storing data. 10. A system as claimed in claim 9 wherein Track 1 and Track 2 contains a 7-bit alphanumeric characters or a 5-bit numeric characters. 11. A method for conducting a transaction using a magnetic card reader comprising: accessing an authorized user and/or owner account using a first electromagnetically read card with a respective data carrying magnetic stripe; identifying an authorized user and/or owner of the account corresponding to the first card using a second magnetically read card with a respective data carrying magnetic stripe, the second card magnetically carrying identity data of authorized user and/or owner of the account corresponding to the first card and; verifying or otherwise validating the use of the first card. 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the first and second cards are read by a card reader in tandem, in ordered series, or in cooperation with each other. 13. The method of claim 11 wherein the second card is usable with other credit, debit or other transaction type cards. 14. The method of claim 11 wherein at least one of the first and second cards employs a respective data carrying magnetic stripe, a digital processor unit, or a radio-frequency (RF) unit. 15. The method of claim 111 further comprises requesting credit history of the authorized user/account owner using the second card. 16. A method as claimed in claim 11 further comprises requesting a digital image of the authorized user/account owner using the second card. 17. A method as claimed in claim 16 further comprises updating the digital image of the authorized user/account owner. 18. A method as claimed in claim 111 wherein the first or second card uses multiple magnetic stripes for data. 19. A method as claimed in claim 11 wherein the respective data carrying magnetic stripe of the first or second card uses a Track 1 and a Track 2 for storing data. 20. A method as claimed in claim 19 wherein Track 1 and Track 2 contains a 7-bit alphanumeric characters or a 5-bit numeric characters.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Many monetary transactions are performed using a plastic card with a data carrying magnetic stripe. Examples are credit cards, debit cards, telephone calling cards, ATM cards and gift cards. There are other transactions (non-monetary included) that use such electromagnetically read plastic cards. The problems with such plastic cards include piracy and identity theft. The British Broadcasting Corporation reports card cloning or “skimming” has doubled in the United Kingdom in the past year with the resulting thefts up to millions of dollars. See “How Credit Cards Get Cloned”, news.bbc.co.uk, Thursday, Jan. 4, 2001.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention addresses the foregoing problems in the prior art. In particular, the present invention provides increased security of identity data of card owners of magnetically read cards. In one embodiment, a transaction method, system and apparatus of the present invention employs two electromagnetically read cards. A first card is employed for accessing account data of a corresponding account. A second card effectively carries identity data of the owner/account holder of the first card. During a transaction, the two cards are used sufficiently in tandem or in proper series order, in order for the card processing center to authorize the subject transaction. In particular, use of the first card accesses a corresponding account to determine if the account is active versus in a halted state (e.g., due to a reported stolen or lost card). Use of the second card spaced apart (in time and/or in distance) from the first card then verifies identity of the user as an authorized person to be accessing the corresponding account and hence authorized user of the first card. As such the second card verifies, validates, authenticates or otherwise confirms identity of the first card owner (also referred to as the corresponding account owner) and serves as an identity data member. Preferably the identity data member is universal and thus usable with other credit/debit/transaction cards. That is, an individual may own several credit/debit cards and the like but need only have one identity data card which is usable in tandem/series with each such credit, debit card or other transaction type card in the manner described above. In order to deter piracy and theft, the second card (identity data member) is encoded or programmed so as to not be usable before a first card to access an account and causes generation of error signals if not used properly in succession after a first card (i.e., if used other than second in turn). In other embodiments, the identity data member is a transaction card with a digital processing chip instead of electromagnetically readable stripe. Other alternative embodiments include use of RF (radio frequency) technology or similar for the identity data member to reduce the ability to be skimmed (cloned). In that embodiment, the identity data member includes an electronic tag (or digital processing chip plus radio frequency antenna) that electronically communicates the identity data to the system. The card reader may be wireless or otherwise configured to further accommodate the present invention. In other embodiments, the identity data member enables credit history requests and other personal records requests to be initiated in a paperless fashion. In another embodiment, the identity data member enables requests of a digital image of the authorized user/account owner to be initiated. An authorized user/account owner updates the digital image. In yet another embodiment, a first or second card uses multiple magnetic stripes for storing data. In still yet another embodiment, a respective data carrying magnetic stripe of the first or second card uses a Track 1 and a Track 2 for storing data. The Track 1 and Track 2 contains either a 7-bit alphanumeric characters or a 5-bit numeric characters. BRFSUM description="Brief Summary" end="tail"?
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RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/782,562 filed on Mar. 14, 2006. The entire teachings of the above application are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many monetary transactions are performed using a plastic card with a data carrying magnetic stripe. Examples are credit cards, debit cards, telephone calling cards, ATM cards and gift cards. There are other transactions (non-monetary included) that use such electromagnetically read plastic cards. The problems with such plastic cards include piracy and identity theft. The British Broadcasting Corporation reports card cloning or “skimming” has doubled in the United Kingdom in the past year with the resulting thefts up to millions of dollars. See “How Credit Cards Get Cloned”, news.bbc.co.uk, Thursday, Jan. 4, 2001. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses the foregoing problems in the prior art. In particular, the present invention provides increased security of identity data of card owners of magnetically read cards. In one embodiment, a transaction method, system and apparatus of the present invention employs two electromagnetically read cards. A first card is employed for accessing account data of a corresponding account. A second card effectively carries identity data of the owner/account holder of the first card. During a transaction, the two cards are used sufficiently in tandem or in proper series order, in order for the card processing center to authorize the subject transaction. In particular, use of the first card accesses a corresponding account to determine if the account is active versus in a halted state (e.g., due to a reported stolen or lost card). Use of the second card spaced apart (in time and/or in distance) from the first card then verifies identity of the user as an authorized person to be accessing the corresponding account and hence authorized user of the first card. As such the second card verifies, validates, authenticates or otherwise confirms identity of the first card owner (also referred to as the corresponding account owner) and serves as an identity data member. Preferably the identity data member is universal and thus usable with other credit/debit/transaction cards. That is, an individual may own several credit/debit cards and the like but need only have one identity data card which is usable in tandem/series with each such credit, debit card or other transaction type card in the manner described above. In order to deter piracy and theft, the second card (identity data member) is encoded or programmed so as to not be usable before a first card to access an account and causes generation of error signals if not used properly in succession after a first card (i.e., if used other than second in turn). In other embodiments, the identity data member is a transaction card with a digital processing chip instead of electromagnetically readable stripe. Other alternative embodiments include use of RF (radio frequency) technology or similar for the identity data member to reduce the ability to be skimmed (cloned). In that embodiment, the identity data member includes an electronic tag (or digital processing chip plus radio frequency antenna) that electronically communicates the identity data to the system. The card reader may be wireless or otherwise configured to further accommodate the present invention. In other embodiments, the identity data member enables credit history requests and other personal records requests to be initiated in a paperless fashion. In another embodiment, the identity data member enables requests of a digital image of the authorized user/account owner to be initiated. An authorized user/account owner updates the digital image. In yet another embodiment, a first or second card uses multiple magnetic stripes for storing data. In still yet another embodiment, a respective data carrying magnetic stripe of the first or second card uses a Track 1 and a Track 2 for storing data. The Track 1 and Track 2 contains either a 7-bit alphanumeric characters or a 5-bit numeric characters. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a point of sale system and network employing embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 2a and 2b are schematic views of a first credit card. FIGS. 3a and 3b are schematic views of an identity data member of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of datastore records employed in the system of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A description of preferred embodiments of the invention follows. The subject invention is described below for use at a point of sale (POS) terminal 60 such as in restaurants and retail stores. The POS terminal 60 includes a cash register 61 and a card reader 10. The cash register 61 is of conventional type with a display 63, keypad 62, and drawer 64. The card reader 10 is a common magnetic reader and is connected over a network (e.g., Ethernet, telephone, cable net, or other suitable connection) 75 to an authentication server 80 for verifying and authorizing a credit card transaction. The authentication server 80 is operated by a credit card company or clearing house (an organization that contracts with multiple credit card companies to provide centralized credit checks and risk evaluation services). Card reader 10 may be of the wireless or any variety of types used in the industry. During a transaction in the present invention, card reader 10 reads a first of two credit cards 20, 30. In particular, card information such as a card number is read from the first credit card 20 and transmitted by the card reader 10 to the authentication server 80. In response, the authentication server 80 runs a credit check to verify if the credit card 20 was reported lost or stolen or if the corresponding credit card account is inactive for any other reason. The authentication server 80 returns the risk evaluation result to the POS terminal 60. Next data from the second 30 of the two cards of the present invention is read by the card reader 10 and provides information regarding the owner of the two cards 20, 30. The card reader 10 transmits this magnetically read identity data (from second card 30) to the authentication server 80 for matching to the subject credit card account (accessed by the first credit card 20). Specifically, authentication server 80 queries its datastore for owner and authorized user information of the subject credit card account as stored by authentication server 80 or otherwise recorded from the financial institution (e.g., bank) issuing the first credit card 20. If the transmitted identity data from the second card 30 does not match the account owner/authorized user information for the first card 20, then the authentication server 80 does not approve the transaction and returns a pertinent indication (message) to the POS terminal 60. In other embodiments, any number of credit cards owned by an individual may be used as the first credit card 20 above. The same one identity data (second) card 30 is universally usable with each qualifying first credit card to provide the above described authentication (e.g., identity verification). Further, if the second card 30 is used (read) preceding the first card 20, the authentication server 80 prevents any current transaction at POS terminal 60. That is, the data encoded on second card 30 does not include a valid or working credit card account number. Alternatively, the encoded data may otherwise indicate that second card 30 is a decoy credit card carrying identity data to serve only as a security check (and not as a typical account accessing transaction initiating means). Thus the authorized card user (account owner) is the only one who apparently knows which credit card serves as the identity data card 30 that is to be used second in succession with a qualifying first credit card 20. In another embodiment, the identity date of the second card 30 may also include a digital image of the account owner/authorized user. A card reader 10 transmits this magnetically read digital image (from second card 30) to an authentication server 80 for matching to the subject credit card account (accessed by the first credit card 20). Specifically, authentication server 80 queries its datastore for the owner and authorized user of the subject credit card account as stored by authentication server 80. The authentication server 80 returns a stored digital image to a vendor. The vendor visually inspects the returned visual image with a person using the second credit card 30. If the transmitted digital image from the second card 30 does not match the person using the second credit card 30, the vendor will not approve the transaction. It is useful to note that a person should update the digital image corresponding to their second card 30. Other POS terminals 15 of respective merchants are similarly capable of processing tandem/serial credit cards 20, 30 of the present invention by connecting to authentication server 80 through network 75. The first and second credit cards 20, 30 of the present invention are encoded using known technology. Any number of encoders which magnetically encode data onto magnetic strips known in the art may be used. For example, the encoder may include a magnetic imprinter of conventional design for erasably imprinting the below described indicia on stripes 22, 32 (FIGS. 2b, 3b) of conventional temporarily magnetizable material such as is commonly used on credit cards. Stripes 22, 32 extend along appropriate substrates on the back of the cards 20, 30. Typically a magnetic stripe card includes a magnetic stripe within a plastic-like film. The magnetic stripe is located about 0.223 inches from the edge of the card, and is about 0.375 inches wide. The magnetic stripe may also operatively contain three tracks, each about 0.110 inches wide. Tracks one and three are typically recorded at about 210 bits per inch, while track two typically has a recording density of about 75 bits per inch. Each track can either contain 7-bit alphanumeric characters, or 5-bit numeric characters. Financial transactions typically use up to three tracks on magnetic cards. Following industry protocol or industry standards, these tracks are named Track 1, Track 2, and Track 3. Currently, Track 3 remains unused by the major worldwide networks. In fact, Track 3 is not physically present on many of the magnetic cards in use. A Point-of-sale card readers almost always read track 1, or track 2, and sometimes both, in case one track is unreadable. The minimum cardholder account information needed to complete a transaction is present on both tracks. Track 1 has a higher bit density (210 bits per inch vs. 75), is the only track that may contain alphabetic text, and hence is the only track that contains the cardholder's name. A track format is written with a 5-bit scheme (4 data bits+1 parity), which allows for sixteen possible characters, which are the numbers 0-9, plus the six special characters (e.g., : ; < = > ?). The data format typically includes a start sentinel, primary account number, separator, expiration date, service code, discretionary data, end sentinel, and LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check). In accordance with the principles of the present invention, the magnetic stripe 22 (FIG. 2b) on the back surface of a qualifying first credit card 20 is encoded with account data, such as a credit card account number, bank identifier, etc. In an embodiment, a first or second card 20, 30 may use two magnetic stripes for storing data. For example, a magnetic stripe may be used for each Track. The front surface of credit card 20 bears the credit card account number, name of the card (and account) owner and other indicia as typical in the industry. FIG. 2a is illustrative. An authorized user places his signature on the back of card 20 in a designated area 24 shown in FIG. 2b. An n-digit code 26 appears in the signature area 24 of the credit card 20 and serves as extra security by means known in the art. The second credit card 30, serving as the identity data member of the present invention, is encoded with name of the authorized user and/or owner and holder of accounts corresponding to qualifying first credit cards 20. Means for linking to or otherwise referencing those accounts may also be encoded on second card 30. In one embodiment, the magnetic stripe 32 (FIG. 3b) of the second credit card 30 holds only account owner (or authorized user) identity data matching the account owner (authorized user) data of the accounts of qualifying first credit cards 20 without the second card's 30 account number data and information normally encoded on credit cards. However, as shown in FIGS. 3a and 3b, the front and back side of the second credit card 30 from all appearances look like a credit card and bears a credit card number, signature area 34 with n-digit code 36 and other indicia as a decoy. That is, the second credit card 30 is encoded in a manner such that a transaction cannot be initiated by the second credit card 30 but only authorized user identity is verified or otherwise validated. In this way, those not familiar with the two cards 20, 30 cannot easily distinguish which is the identity data card 30 and which is a conventional credit card usable for initiating transactions. Only the authorized user/owner of the credit cards 20, 30 knows the distinction either based on the printed card number on the face of the cards or the n-digit code 26, 36 or other security number printed on the back of the cards. In some embodiments, the account number on the face of the second card 30 is effectively an inactive account number as interpreted by the authentication server 80. Other decoy indicia and fashioning of a second credit card 30 are suitable. For example, second credit card/identity data member 30 may appear as a gift card, telephone calling card, library card, fundraising card, a card for a random organization or entity, etc. In other embodiments, the first and/or second credit cards may employ digital processor chips instead of magnetic stripes 22, 32 for carrying respective data. In another embodiment, the second credit card or identity data member 30 is implemented using RF technology. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or transponders. An RFID tag is an object that can be attached to or incorporated into a product, such as a credit card for the purpose of identification using radio waves. Chip-based RFID tags contain silicon chips and antennas. The card 30 has (i) a digital chip and radio frequency antenna or (ii) an electronic tag for electronically communicating the authorized user identity data to authentication server 80. In other embodiments, smart cards containing an integrated circuit chip are used. A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit(s) card (ICC), is a pocket-sized card with embedded integrated circuits. In another embodiment, the identity data member (second card) 30 is used to electronically communicate name, address and other personal identity data of an authorized user (card owner and account holder). For example, such communication may be to a credit bureau in a request for credit history such as by a real estate office, mortgage broker, car dealer, etc. A card reader 10 in that example transmits the read identity data over a network 75 to a credit bureau server (not shown) programmed to process such requests. In response, the credit bureau server searches and finds credit records corresponding to the subject user and generates a credit history report. Authentication server 80 may serve as such a credit bureau server or may be coupled to communicate to one. Other configurations are suitable and in the purview of one skilled in the art, given this disclosure of the present invention. For example, on-line shopping (via the Internet) using the invention dual cards 20, 30 approach (method) of the present invention may occur as follows. The user enters account data from first credit card 20 as prompted. When prompted to enter the additional security code from the back of the credit card, the user enters the code 36 from the back of the second card 30. The authentication server 80 is programmed to match this security code 36 with the authorized user of qualifying first credit card 20 and corresponding credit card account. This effectively validates, authenticates or otherwise confirms that the end-user is a legitimate (authorized) user of the first credit card 20. Further authentication server 80 is programmed by known means and techniques to properly interpret the serial or tandem reading of the invention cards 20, 30 as described above. A time threshold between the two readings or other spacing between the reading of the two cards 20, 30 may be utilized (so that if the second card 30 does not readily follow the reading of the first card 20, authentication server 80 denies/does not approve the transaction). Database indexes, links or other techniques may be employed by authentication server 80 to implement the cooperation between the first credit card 20 (account data) and the identity data card 30 (authorized user data) in the many embodiments described above. For example, in a database or other datastore accessible by authentication server 80, there is one record 40 (FIG. 4) per credit card account. For a given credit card account, the respective record 40a has a field for holding the credit card (account) number such as at 42 in FIG. 4. This field 42a may serve as an index to the record 40a enabling authentication server 80 to find the record based on a search (query) using the credit card number. The record 40a also indicates other subject account information such as name of issuing bank 41, billing information 44, n-digit code 26 and whether the account is active 46. For the latter, a flag may indicate a reported lost or stolen credit card and hence inactive or halted account status. The record 40a also indicates names of authorized users 48a (e.g., account/card owner and/or others). The record 40b for the identity data member (second card 30) has similar fields 41b, 42b, 44b, 46b, 48b of information as above. The field or flag indicating account status 46b is set to “inactive”, or “identity purpose only” or the like. This enables authentication server 80 to send a proper “non-authorized transaction” response to a second card 30 being read out of turn (i.e., before a first card 20) as mentioned above. In addition, the names of authorized users 48b and n-digit code 36 are indexed, linked or otherwise cross-referenced to the records 40 of qualifying first card 20 (as indicated by dashed lines) that the second card 30 is usable with (to authenticate). This enables the authentication server 80 (and/or card reader 10 program) to respond to the reading of the second card 30 subsequent to the reading of a first card 20 by matching authorized users data 48a, b. The foregoing is for example and not limitation of the present invention. Other configurations, indications, and programming are suitable. While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.
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10590778
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US20070248266A1-20071025
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Method of Generating a Labeled Image and Image Processing System
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ACCEPTED
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20071010
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20071025
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[]
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G06K934
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["G06K934"]
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7974471
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20070619
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20110705
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382
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180000
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60289.0
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YEH
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EUENG NAN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Matsuno", "inventor_name_first": "Noriyasu", "inventor_city": "Kanagawa", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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To identify pixels constituting image elements for generating a labeled image in which pixels are labeled with identification information, a pixel block including four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions is inputted as a unit from data including pixels that form an image. All of the on-pixels that are subject for grouping, included in the pixel block are labeled with the same identifier. Since the on- pixels that are included in a pixel block are consecutively connected, such pixels can be labeled with the same identifier without having to calculate whether such pixels are connected.
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1. A method of generating a labeled image, including the steps of: inputting a pixel block, which includes a plurality of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including pixels for forming an image; and labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subjects for grouping and are included in the pixel block with common identification information. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the pixel block is composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions or eight pixels adjacent to one another in three dimensions. 3. The method according to claim 1, comprising: a first stage of scanning the image, labeling with provisional identification information, and generating connecting information for the provisional identification information; and a second stage of labeling with real identification information showing image elements based on the connecting information, wherein the first stage and the second stage each include the step of inputting and the step of labeling, in the step of labeling of the first stage, the provisional identification information is the common identification information for labeling, and in the step of labeling of the second stage, the real identification information is the common identification information for labeling. 4. The method according to claim 1, comprising a first stage of scanning the image and labeling with provisional identification information, the first stage including the step of inputting and the step of labeling, wherein the step of inputting of the first stage includes inputting, together with the pixel block, an adjacent pixel group including pixels that are adjacent to the pixel block and have already been labeled with the provisional identification information, and the step of labeling of the first stage includes the steps of: inheriting, when the adjacent pixel group includes inheritable provisional identification information, the inheritable provisional identification information as the common identification information; recording, when the adjacent pixel group includes other inheritable provisional identification information, connecting information for the inherited provisional identification information and non-inherited provisional identification information; and setting, when the adjacent pixel group does not include inheritable provisional identification information, new provisional identification information as the common identification information. 5. The method according to claim 4, further comprising: a second stage of labeling with real identification information showing image elements, after the first stage, wherein the second stage includes the step of inputting and the step of labeling that are independent of the steps of inputting and labeling of the first stage respectively, and the step of labeling of the second stage includes setting the real identification information that is common to pixel blocks in a connecting relationship by the connecting information, as the common identification information. 6. The method according to claim 4, wherein in the step of inputting of the first stage, the pixel block composed of four pixels that are adjacent to one another in two dimensions and the adjacent pixel group composed of six pixels that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the pixel block are inputted, and in the step of labeling of the first stage, when both the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels that constitute an image element in which pixels are consecutive, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group is inheritable. 7. The method according to claim 4, wherein in the step of inputting of the first stage, at least one pixel block and the adjacent pixel group including pixel blocks that are adjacent to the at least one pixel block are inputted, and in the step of labeling of the first stage, when both the at least one pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels that are the subjects for grouping, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group is inheritable. 8. The method according to claim 4, wherein in the step of inputting of the first stage, a large pixel block composed of four pixel blocks that are adjacent to one another in two dimensions and the adjacent pixel group composed of six pixel groups that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the large pixel block are inputted, and in the step of labeling of the first stage, when both the large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels that are the subjects for grouping, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group is inheritable. 9. The method according to claim 8, further comprising a second stage for labeling image elements with real identification information, after the first stage, the second stage including the step of inputting and the step of labeling that are independent of the step of inputting and labeling of the first stage respectively, and wherein the step of labeling of the second stage includes setting the real identification information that is common to large pixel blocks in a connecting relationship by the connecting information, as the common identification information and labeling all of the pixels that are the subjects for grouping and are included in the large pixel block. 10. A method of analyzing an image, including the steps of: inputting a pixel block, which includes a limited number of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including a plurality of pixels for forming an image; labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping included in a pixel block with common identification information; and calculating characteristic values of respective image elements by repeatedly carrying out an operation in units that include at least one pixel block. 11. The method according to claim 10, further including a step of calculating a block characteristic value that contributes to a characteristic value of an image element, the step of calculating a block characteristic value being performed in parallel with the step of labeling and in units of the pixel blocks under labeling. 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the step of labeling includes scanning the image for labeling with provisional identification information. 13. The method according to claim 11, wherein the calculating a block characteristic value includes calculating the block characteristic value based on multivalue pixels included in the pixel block under labeling. 14. The method according to claim 11, wherein in the inputting, the pixel block composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions or eight pixels adjacent to one another in three dimensions is inputted as a single unit. 15. The method according to claim 11, wherein in the step of inputting, in addition to the pixel block composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions, a large pixel block composed of four pixel blocks adjacent to one another in two dimensions is inputted as another single unit, and in the step of labeling, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping included in the large pixel block are labeled with the common identification information. 16. An image processing method, comprising: inputting a pixel block, which includes a plurality of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including pixels for forming an image; labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping and are included in the pixel block with same identification information; and distinguishing image elements in a labeled image. 17. A system including: an interface configured for inputting data including a plurality of pixels, which are adjacent in more than one dimension and constitute a pixel block, in parallel from data including pixels for forming an image; and a labeling processor configured for labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping and are included in the pixel block with common identification information in parallel. 18. The system according to claim 17, wherein the pixel block is composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions or eight pixels adjacent to one another in three dimensions. 19. The system according to claim 17, comprising: a processor including a processing region that includes a plurality of processing elements, a plurality of data paths that operate in parallel being configured by the plurality of processing elements in the processing region, wherein the interface and the labeling processor are configured in the processing region. 20. The system according to claim 17, comprising: a first processing system for scanning the image, labeling with provisional identification information, and generating connecting information for the provisional identification information; and a second processing system for labeling with real identification information showing image elements based on the connecting information, wherein the first processing system and the second processing system respectively include the interface and the labeling processor, the labeling processor of the first processing system assigns the provisional identification information as the common identification information for labeling, and the labeling processor of the second processing system assigns the real identification information as the common identification information for labeling. 21. The system according to claim 20, comprising: a reconfigurable processor including a processing region that includes a plurality of processing elements, a plurality of data paths that operate in parallel being configured by the plurality of the processing elements in the processing region, and a control unit for reconfiguring the processing region, wherein the interface and the labeling processor included in the first processing system and the interface and the labeling processor included in the second processing system are configured at different timing in the processing region. 22. The system according to claim 17, comprising a first processing system for scanning an image and labeling with provisional identification information, wherein the first processing system includes the interface and the labeling processor, the interface of the first processing system is configured to input the pixel block and an adjacent pixel group including pixels that are adjacent to the pixel block and have already been labeled with the provisional identification information, and the labeling processor of the first processing system is configured for performing: inheriting, when the adjacent pixel group includes inheritable provisional identification information, the inheritable provisional identification information as the common identification information; recording, when the adjacent pixel group includes other inheritable provisional identification information, connecting information for the inherited provisional identification information and non-inherited provisional identification information; and setting, when the adjacent pixel group does not include inheritable provisional identification information, new provisional identification information as the common identification information. 23. The system according to claim 22, wherein the labeling processor of the first processing system is configured for pipeline processing: a process that decodes the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group, and a process that labels the pixels for grouping in the pixel block with selected one of the inheritable provisional identification information and the new provisional identification information as the common identification information. 24. The system according to claim 22, further comprising a second processing system for labeling with real identification information showing image elements, the second processing system including the interface and the labeling processor that are configured independently of the first processing system, wherein the labeling processor of the second processing system is configured to set the real identification information that is common to the pixel blocks in a connecting relationship as the common identification information, based on the connecting information. 25. The system according to claim 22, wherein the interface of the first processing system is configured to supply the pixel block composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions and the adjacent pixel group composed of six pixels that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the pixel block to the labeling processor of the first processing system, and the labeling processor of the first processing system is configured to inhere, when both the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels that constitute an image element in which pixels are consecutive, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group. 26. The system according to claim 22, wherein the interface of the first processing system is configured to supply a large pixel block composed of four pixel blocks adjacent to one another in two dimensions and the adjacent pixel group composed of six pixel blocks that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the large pixel block to the labeling processor of the first processing system, and the labeling processor of the first processing system is configured to inhere, when both the large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels for grouping, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group. 27. The system according to claim 26, further comprising a second processing system for labeling with real identification information showing image elements, the second processing system including the interface and the labeling processor that are configured independently of the first processing system, wherein the labeling processor of the second processing system is configured to set, based on the connecting information, the real identification information that is common to large pixel blocks in a connecting relationship as the common identification information and to label all of the pixels for grouping included in the large pixel block. 28. The system according to claim 17, further comprising a first processor configured to repeatedly performing an operations in units of at least one pixel block to calculate a characteristic value of each image element. 29. The system according to claim 17, further comprising a second processor configured to, data including a pixel block being supplied to the second processor by the interface in parallel with the labeling processor, calculate a block characteristic value that contributes to a characteristic value of an image element in units of the pixel blocks under labeling. 30. The system according to claim 29, wherein the second processor is configured to calculate values that contribute to the characteristic values of image elements from multivalue pixels included in pixel blocks under labeling.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>A labeling process that assigns labels to pixels of connected components is known as a basic method for processing two-dimensional images. Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. H07-192130 discloses a provisional labeling process of a labeling process that is carried out using a one-dimensional SIMD (Single Instruction stream Multiple Data stream) processor. In the disclosed technique, a process of provisional labeling is carried out on each row in an image in order using the one-dimensional SIMD processor. Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2002-230540 discloses a labeling process carried out in parallel for pixels in a diagonal direction in a pixel array in an input image by a plurality of PEs (processing elements) in a one-dimensional SIMD processor. By processing a plurality of pixels in the diagonal direction in parallel, labeling can be carried out for the pixels that are adjacent of a target pixel and would be connecting to the target pixel before labeling the target pixel. By doing so, effective use is made of the parallel processing ability of the SIMD processor and therefore the processing speed is increased. To realize this method however, even for an image with a resolution of around 200 dpi, a one-dimensional SIMD processor with several thousand PEs are required to scan in the diagonal direction.
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<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 shows scanning an image in units of pixel blocks. FIG. 2 ( a ) shows an enlargement of the arrangements of a pixel block and an adjacent pixel group and FIG. 2 ( b ) shows the arrangement of provisional identifiers (provisional IDs). FIG. 3 ( a ) to FIG. 3 ( d ) respectively shows the combinations of the pixel arrangements of the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting a provisional identifier. FIG. 4 is a table in which combinations of the pixel arrangement of the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting the provisional identifier are collectively shown. FIG. 5 shows scanning an image in units of large pixel blocks. FIG. 6 ( a ) shows an enlargement of the arrangement of a large pixel block and an adjacent pixel group and FIG. 6 ( b ) shows the arrangement of provisional identifiers (provisional IDs). FIG. 7 ( a ) to FIG. 7 ( d ) respectively shows the combinations of the pixel arrangements of the large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting the provisional identifier. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing an overview of image processing. FIG. 9 schematically shows the construction of a reconfigurable processing device suited to image processing. FIGS. 10 ( a ) to 10 ( c ) show the configuration of an image processing apparatus that uses the reconfigurable processing device. FIG. 11 schematically shows the configuration of an interface and a labeling processor of a first stage for labeling with provisional identifiers. FIG. 12 schematically shows the configuration of a logic part of the labeling processor shown in FIG. 11 . FIG. 13 schematically shows the configuration of a processor (a second processor) that analyzes gray levels. FIG. 14 schematically shows the configuration of a threshold unit of the processor shown in FIG. 13 . FIG. 15 schematically shows gray level data. FIG. 16 schematically shows the configuration of an interface and a labeling processor of a second stage for labeling with real identifiers. FIG. 17 schematically shows the configuration of an analysis processor (a first processor) that carries out a process for extracting a maximum value in the Y direction. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?
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TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a method of labeling used for extracting image elements and other purposes. BACKGROUND ART A labeling process that assigns labels to pixels of connected components is known as a basic method for processing two-dimensional images. Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. H07-192130 discloses a provisional labeling process of a labeling process that is carried out using a one-dimensional SIMD (Single Instruction stream Multiple Data stream) processor. In the disclosed technique, a process of provisional labeling is carried out on each row in an image in order using the one-dimensional SIMD processor. Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2002-230540 discloses a labeling process carried out in parallel for pixels in a diagonal direction in a pixel array in an input image by a plurality of PEs (processing elements) in a one-dimensional SIMD processor. By processing a plurality of pixels in the diagonal direction in parallel, labeling can be carried out for the pixels that are adjacent of a target pixel and would be connecting to the target pixel before labeling the target pixel. By doing so, effective use is made of the parallel processing ability of the SIMD processor and therefore the processing speed is increased. To realize this method however, even for an image with a resolution of around 200 dpi, a one-dimensional SIMD processor with several thousand PEs are required to scan in the diagonal direction. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION One aspect of the present invention is a method of generating a labeled image, including the steps of: a1. inputting a pixel block, which includes a plurality of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including pixels for forming an image; and a2. labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that subject for grouping and are included in the pixel block with common identification information. If the image is a two-dimensional image, the pixel block is composed of 2×2=4 pixels that are adjacent to one another in two dimensions. Conversely, if the image is a three-dimensional image, the pixel block is composed of 2×2×2=8 pixels that are adjacent to one another in three dimensions. Each pixel included in a pixel block is adjacent to all of the other pixels included in the pixel block. When grouping or segmenting pixels composing an image is performed, based on a binarized image, by labeling pixels that are connected in eight directions with the same or common identification information, among the pixels included in a pixel block, all the pixels that are subjects for grouping, that is, all the pixels with the same state or value (i.e., all on-pixels that are ON (“1”) or all off-pixels that are OFF (“0”)) in the pixel block can be labeled with the common identification information. Accordingly, a process that assigns identification information to individual pixels for grouping included in the pixel block is not required, and parallel processing with the plurality of pixels included in a pixel block becomes possible. It is therefore possible to improve the speed of the process that includes generating a labeled image in which the pixels have been labeled with identification information. One of other aspects of the present invention is an image processing system including: b1: an interface configured for inputting data including a plurality of pixels, which are adjacent in more than one dimension and compose a pixel block, in parallel from data including pixels for forming an image; and b2. a labeling processor configured for labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping and are included in the pixel block with common identification in parallel. In the image processing system, a plurality of pixels that compose a pixel block are input in parallel and the plurality of pixels are labeled with the common identification information in parallel. The image processing system preferably includes a processor equipped with a processing region that includes a plurality of processing elements and, in the processing region, a plurality of data paths that operate in parallel are configured by the plurality of the processing elements. The interface and the labeling processor can be configured in the processing region of the processor and it is possible to provide the processor that can execute the process that inputs a plurality of pixels and the process that labels the plurality of pixels by pipeline processing. Further one of other aspects of the present invention is an image processing method, including the steps of: c1. inputting a pixel block, which includes a plurality of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including a plurality of pixels for forming an image; c2. labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels for grouping that are included in the pixel block, with same identification information; and c3. distinguishing image elements in a labeled image. Distinguishing image elements leads identifying the image elements, extracting the image elements, and calculating characteristic values of the image elements. The characteristic values (characteristic amounts) include a one-dimensional or two-dimensional moment, an area, a boundary length, a density, a width, and other values of the image element. If the image is a three-dimensional, the characteristic values of the image elements include a volume (cubic content), a center of gravity, a moment, and other values. Identifying the image elements and finding the characteristic values thereof are effective for many applications that include a process where it is necessary to recognize an image. Using a labeled image, an industrial robot that carries out automatic mounting can judge the position and tilting of a component that has been attached. In an automatic driving apparatus, a labeled image is used to recognize the road or obstacles. In a three-dimensional CT scan, the labeled image is used in a process for having basic characteristics of a body of an image, or preprocessing for the same. The process for generating a labeled image preferably include a first stage and a second stage; the first stage including scanning an image, labeling with provisional identification information showing the relationship with pixels in the vicinity, and generating connecting (linking or combining) information for the provisional identification information; and the second stage including labeling with real identification information showing image elements based on the provisional identification information and the connecting information thereof. The step of inputting and the step of labeling described above can be applied to the first stage and the second stage respectively, and the processing speed of the respective stages can be improved. The image processing system is provided that includes a first processing system and a second processing system; the first processing system being for scanning the image, labeling with the provisional identification information, and generating connecting information for the identification information; and the second processing system being for labeling with real identification information showing image elements based on the connecting information. The first processing system and the second processing system respectively include the interface and the labeling processor, wherein the labeling processor of the first processing system assigns the provisional identification information as the common identification information for labeling, and the labeling processor of the second processing system assigns the real identification information as the common identification information for labeling. The image processing system preferably includes a reconfigurable processor equipped with a processing region and a control unit for reconfiguring the processing region. The interface and the labeling processor included in the first processing system and the interface and the labeling processor included in the second processing system can be configured in the processing region after the processing of the respective processing system has ended. By configuring the first processing system and the second processing system at different timing in the processing region, it is possible to make effective use of the hardware resources of the processor and to provide a small-scale image processing system with high performance. A reconfigurable integrated circuit device such as an FPGA equipped with a plurality of processing units is one of hardware that includes a function for performing many processes in parallel. The reconfigurable integrated circuit device disclosed by WO02/095946 filed by the present applicant is suited to the above image processing system since the circuit configuration can be dynamically changed. In the first stage and the first processing system, at the labeling with the provisional identification information, pixel blocks are units for labeling with the provisional identification information. Accordingly, the provisional identification information for labeling is selected not for (unit of) individual pixel but for (unit of) pixel block units. In the first stage and the first processing system, at the labeling with the provisional identification information, a pixel block is inputted together with an adjacent pixel group including pixels that have already been labeled with the provisional identification information. The following steps are carried out in pixel block units for labeling with provisional identification information: d1. inheriting, when the adjacent pixel group includes inheritable provisional identification information, the inheritable provisional identification information as the common identification information; d2. recording, when the adjacent pixel group includes other inheritable provisional identification information, connecting information for the inherited provisional identification information and non-inherited provisional identification information; and d3 setting, when the adjacent pixel group does not include inheritable provisional identification information, new provisional identification information as the common identification information. The processor for labeling with the provisional identification information can be configured for pipeline processing a process that decodes the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group; and a process that labels the pixels for grouping in the pixel block with selected one of the inheritable provisional identification information and the new provisional identification information as the common identification information. The second stage that is executed after the first stage and labels with real identification information as the common identification information includes the step of inputting and the step of labeling that are independent of the first stage, wherein in the step of labeling, based on the connecting information, the real identification information that is common to pixel blocks in a connecting relationship is assigned as the common identification information for labeling. One of the labeled images has the identification information for segmenting image elements in which pixels are consecutive or connected. For generating such labeled image, in the first stage and the first processing system, a pixel block composed of four pixels adjacent to one another in two dimensions and an adjacent pixel group composed of six pixels that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the pixel block are inputted, and when both the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels that compose an image element in which the pixels are consecutive, the provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group is inherited. It is also possible to input a plurality of pixel blocks and adjacent pixel group related to the pixel blocks and to label pixels included therein that compose connected image elements with the common provisional identification information. In the method where all of the pixels for grouping included in a pixel block are labeled with the common identification information, it is not judged whether the pixels for grouping included in the pixel block are consecutively connected. When the range labeled with the common identification information is a pixel block that includes only 2×2 pixels, the pixels connected in eight directions are identified by the common identification information. By increasing the number of pixels included in one pixel block and/or labeling the pixel blocks having some relationship with the common identification information, it is possible to label pixels that are not necessarily consecutively connected, with the common identification information. According to this type of labeling, it is possible to roughly group pixels included in high-resolution pixel data. That is, pixels that are not connected can be grouped together according to predetermined conditions. In addition, since it is possible to collectively assign the same identification information to pixels included in a pixel block using parallel processing, the processing speed of the labeling process is improved. Since no process that changes the image resolution is included in the labeling procedure according to the present method, it is possible to assign identification information that has been roughly grouped to high-resolution image data without deterioration in the precision of the image data. In the first stage and the first processing system, when at least one pixel block and an adjacent pixel group including at least one pixel block that is adjacent to the at least one pixel block are inputted, and when both the at least one pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels for grouping, provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group is inherited. So long as pixels are present in a range in which pixel blocks are interrelated, provisional identification information is inherited even if the pixels are not consecutive or connected. Accordingly, it is possible to assign the common identification information to pixels that have some range of relationship exceeding a range where the pixels are connected. In the first stage and the first processing system, when a large pixel block composed of four pixel blocks that are adjacent to one another in two dimensions and an adjacent pixel group composed of six pixel groups that are adjacent to two adjacent edges of the large pixel block are inputted, and when both the large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group include pixels for grouping, provisional identification information included in the adjacent pixel group can be inherited. The large pixel block including four pixel blocks is composed of sixteen pixels. Accordingly, it is possible to assign the common identification information to pixels in a range in which four pixel blocks and six pixel blocks that are adjacent to the four pixel blocks are related, thereby grouping such pixels together. With this type of labeling, sixteen pixels can be labeled in parallel, and to do so, forty pixels included in a large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group, are processed in parallel. This method is suited to implementation in hardware (a processor) with a large number of processing elements that operate in parallel. Although the logic relating to inheritance will become complex, it is also possible to input a plurality of large pixel blocks and adjacent pixel group related thereto and to label the pixels in parallel. In the second stage and the second processing system for labeling with real identification information, it is also possible to set, based on the connecting information, real identification information that is common to large pixel blocks in a connecting relationship as the common identification information and to label all of the pixels for grouping included in the large pixel block with the real identification information. In this stage of relabeling where some of the provisional identification information is combined, sixteen or more pixels can be labeled with the real identification information in parallel. Further on of other aspects of the present invention is a method of analyzing an image, including the steps of: e1. inputting a pixel block, which includes a limited number of pixels that are adjacent to one another in more than one dimension, as a single unit from data including pixels for forming an image; e2 labeling, based on binarized pixels, all on-pixels or all off-pixels that are subject for grouping, included in the pixel block with common identification information; and e3 calculating characteristic values of respective image elements by repeatedly carrying out an operation in units that include at least one pixel block. In the step of labeling, the same or common identification information is collectively assigned to the pixels included in one pixel block as a unit. Since the image elements are assembled with pixel blocks, by repeating an operation in units that include pixel blocks, it is possible to calculate characteristic values of the respective image elements. The image processing system also preferably includes a first processor configured to calculate characteristic values of the respective image elements by repeating an operation in units that include at least one pixel block. When the image processing system includes a reconfigurable processor, the first processor can be reconfigured in the processing region at appropriate timing after the processing of the first processing system has been completed. It is preferable for the method to further include a process that is executed in parallel with the labeling and calculates, in units of the pixel blocks under the labeling, block characteristic values that contribute to characteristic values of image elements. Finding the characteristic values of the respective pixel blocks is effective as preprocessing when finding the total of the characteristic values of the image elements grouped together using the identification information. In the process that calculates the block characteristic values, it is possible to find characteristic amounts using binarized pixels and it is also possible to calculate the block characteristic values from multivalue pixels included in the labeled pixel blocks. Accordingly, a process that finds a characteristic value from multivalue pixels including gray level information can be carried out in parallel to the labeling process and in particular the process for labeling with provisional identification information, and therefore it becomes possible to omit the processing time required to reaccess the image data including gray level information based on the labeled information. The image processing system preferably further includes a second processor that is supplied by the interface with data including a pixel block in parallel with the labeling processor and is configured to calculate block characteristic values that contribute to characteristic values of image elements in units of the pixel blocks under the labeling. The second processor should preferably be configured to calculate values that contribute to the characteristic values of image elements from multivalue pixels included in pixel blocks under the labeling. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows scanning an image in units of pixel blocks. FIG. 2(a) shows an enlargement of the arrangements of a pixel block and an adjacent pixel group and FIG. 2(b) shows the arrangement of provisional identifiers (provisional IDs). FIG. 3(a) to FIG. 3(d) respectively shows the combinations of the pixel arrangements of the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting a provisional identifier. FIG. 4 is a table in which combinations of the pixel arrangement of the pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting the provisional identifier are collectively shown. FIG. 5 shows scanning an image in units of large pixel blocks. FIG. 6(a) shows an enlargement of the arrangement of a large pixel block and an adjacent pixel group and FIG. 6(b) shows the arrangement of provisional identifiers (provisional IDs). FIG. 7(a) to FIG. 7(d) respectively shows the combinations of the pixel arrangements of the large pixel block and the adjacent pixel group for selecting the provisional identifier. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing an overview of image processing. FIG. 9 schematically shows the construction of a reconfigurable processing device suited to image processing. FIGS. 10(a) to 10(c) show the configuration of an image processing apparatus that uses the reconfigurable processing device. FIG. 11 schematically shows the configuration of an interface and a labeling processor of a first stage for labeling with provisional identifiers. FIG. 12 schematically shows the configuration of a logic part of the labeling processor shown in FIG. 11. FIG. 13 schematically shows the configuration of a processor (a second processor) that analyzes gray levels. FIG. 14 schematically shows the configuration of a threshold unit of the processor shown in FIG. 13. FIG. 15 schematically shows gray level data. FIG. 16 schematically shows the configuration of an interface and a labeling processor of a second stage for labeling with real identifiers. FIG. 17 schematically shows the configuration of an analysis processor (a first processor) that carries out a process for extracting a maximum value in the Y direction. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION 1. Basic Concept of Block Labeling FIG. 1 shows the basic concept of block labeling. Here, a binarized two-dimensional image (a binary image) 1 to be outputted (displayed, printed, etc.) in frame units is used as an example image. The image 1 is a two-dimensional array of a plurality of pixels 5 that each have a value of “0” (OFF) or “1” (ON). By generating a labeled image where the pixels 5 have been labeled with identification information, it is possible to analyze the information included in the image data including the pixels 5. Image elements composed of pixels 5 that are in a predetermined relationship are segmented or distinguished from the information in the image 1 so that the image 1 can be automatically analyzed or specific elements in the image 1 can be shown to the user and analyzed further. Conventional labeling is used to segment or classify elements (areas or parts, referred to as “image elements” in the present specification) where pixels 5 are consecutively connected. Block labeling herein can be used to segment image elements where the pixels 5 are consecutive and can also be used to segment image elements from pixels 5 that are not consecutive but have a predetermined relationship. In the present specification, identifying pixels 5 that are not consecutive but have a predetermined relationship and also identifying consecutive pixels 5 are called “grouping”. In particular, the identifying pixels 5 that are not consecutive but have a predetermined relationship is sometimes referred to as “rough grouping”. A block labeling process makes grouping, that includes the rough grouping possible and therefore even when the pixels 5 are not consecutive, it becomes possible to judge that pixels that are in a given range or have a given distance relationship compose a single element in the image. On of the rough grouping identifies pixels that are several pixels away at most, including consecutive pixels, as belonging to the same group. In a binary image, it is possible to treat compositions (elements) made up of on-pixels, which are pixels that are ON (i.e., that have the value “1”), as image elements, contrary it is also possible to treat compositions (elements) made up of off-pixels, which are pixels that are OFF (i.e., that have the value “0”), as image elements. In An example image described below includes image elements composed of on-pixels (value “1”). Accordingly, in an example method of block labeling described, the on-pixels having value “1” are labeled with identification information as pixels that are subjects for grouping. It is also possible to carry out the block labeling process for grouping off-pixels having value “0” using the similar method. 1.1 Identifying Image Elements where Pixels are Connected FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 show an example method of block labeling pixels that relate to image elements where pixels are connected. In a process that generates a labeled image where pixels have been labeled with identification information used to distinguish image elements, it is necessary to judge how the large number of pixels included in a single image are connected. In a two-dimensional image, an “image element” is a connected region that extends in two dimensions. A large amount of memory is required to search for image elements in two dimensions, and since there is a high probability of duplicated processing, the processing is normally inefficient. In this method, first, a search is carried out in direction of one dimension to judge whether respective pixels are connected to other pixels that have already been labeled with provisional identification information and label the respective pixels with provisional identification information. During the labeling with provisional identification information while scanning an image, when an identifier of the provisional identification information that has assigned is connected to the other identifier of the provisional identification information that has also assigned at the later stage, one of the identifiers is inherited and connecting information for the connected identifiers of the provisional identification information is generated. When the scanning of the image is complete and the connecting information is aggregated for the image, “real” identification information showing connected elements are selected using the provisional identification information and the connecting information for the provisional identification information, then a labeled image where the pixels are relabeled with real identification information is generated. From this labeled image, it is possible to distinguish independent image elements which can be used in a variety of image processing. In the block labeling process, when labeling the pixels 5 that are arranged in two dimensions, instead of processing the pixels 5 one by one or processing in one dimension such as in row units, four pixels 5 that are adjacent above, below, left, and right are processed in parallel as a single unit (called a “pixel block”). A pixel block 2 is a 2×2 and a two-dimensional array, and the pixels 5 included in the pixel block 2 are adjacent to one another. Accordingly, if it is assumed that there are eight directions in which pixels can be connected, if a pixel block 2 includes pixels that are “1”, all of the on-pixels 5 included in the pixel block 2 are connected with no need for further logic operations, and the common identification information, for example, the same identification data (an identifier) such as a label, will definitely be assigned to each pixel. This means that by carrying out labeling pixels in pixel blocks 2 as units, a 2×2 array of four pixels 5 is processed in parallel and simultaneously it is possible to omit processing for logic operations regarding the relationship between the four pixels 5. The direction of scanning that has pixel blocks 2 as units can be any of up, down, left and right. In the present embodiment, block labeling is carried out with the left to right direction (Y direction) for the image 1 shown in FIG. 1 as the scanning direction and the top to bottom direction (X direction) as the subscanning direction. An adjacent pixel group 4 referred to when determining how the pixels 5 included in a single pixel block 2 are connected is composed of six pixels 5 that are adjacent to the upper edge and to the left edge of the pixel block 2. During block labeling, the data (referred to as “provisional identifiers”, “provisional IDs”, or “provisional labels”) for provisionally or preliminary identifying the four pixels P included in a pixel block 2 is the same, and the four pixels P included in a pixel block 2 are labeled with the same data in parallel. As shown in FIGS. 2(a) and 2(b), the four pieces of data (“provisional identifiers”, “provisional IDs”, or “provisional labels”) PID(i,j), PID (i,j+1), PID (i+1,j), and PID (i+1,j+1) used to provisionally identify the four pixels P(i,j), P(i,j+1), P(i+1,j), and P(i+1,j+1) included in the pixel block 2 are the same. Accordingly, the pixels are labeled in parallel with the same identifier. The provisional identifier of the pixel block 2 is decided by referring to the respective provisional identifiers of the six pixels P(i−1,j−1), P(i−1,j), P(i−1,j+1), P(i−1,j+2), P(i,j−1), and P(i+1,j−1) included in the adjacent pixel group 4 that have already been labeled with provisional identifiers. This processing is repeated while scanning the entire image 1 in units of pixel blocks 2. To simplify the description below, the pixels 5 included in a pixel block 2 are referred to as the pixels g0 to g3 in the order described above and the pixels 5 included in an adjacent pixel group 4 are referred to as the pixels r0 to r5 in the order described above. FIGS. 3(a) to 3(d) show examples of where a provisional identifier included in the adjacent pixel group 4 is inherited by the pixel block 2 based on the states of the pixels in the adjacent pixel group 4 and the states of the pixels of the pixel block 2. Note that in FIGS. 3(a) to 3(d), examples where the provisional identifier used to label the pixels 5 of the pixel block 2 is based on only the state of the upper left pixel g0 of the pixel block 2 are shown. In FIG. 3(a), the pixel g0 of the pixel block 2 is “0”, and it is not possible to decide whether to inherit a provisional identifier based on the pixel g0 of the pixel block 2 alone. If the other pixels g1 and g2 are also “0” and only the lower right pixel is “1”, regardless of the state of the adjacent pixel group 4, no provisional identifier included in the adjacent pixel group 4 is inheritable and a new provisional identifier will be assigned to the pixel g3. In FIG. 3(b), the pixel g0 of the pixel block 2 is “1” and the pixels r0 to r2, r4, and r5 of the adjacent pixel group 4 are “0”. Accordingly, a provisional identifier that can be inherited by the pixel g0 is not included in the adjacent pixel group 4. However, depending on the state of the pixel r3 of the adjacent pixel group 4 and the state of the pixel g1 in the pixel block 2, there is a possibility of a provisional identifier included in the adjacent pixel group 4 being inherited by the pixel block 2. If there is no inheritable identifier, a new provisional identifier is assigned to the pixels of the pixel block 2, including the pixel g0. In the left and right cases shown in FIG. 3(c), the pixel g0 in pixel block 2 is “1”. In the left case, the pixels r0 and r2 of the adjacent pixel group 4 have been labeled with provisional identifiers. That is, the pixels r0 and r2 of the adjacent pixel group 4 on the left side are both “1” and since pixels in the adjacent pixel group 4 have already been labeled with provisional identifiers, a provisional identifier or provisional identifiers will have already been assigned to the pixels r0 and r2. In the right case, a provisional identifier or provisional identifiers have been assigned to the pixels r2 and r5 of the adjacent pixel group 4. In addition, since the on-pixels that are “1” in the adjacent pixel group 4 are not consecutive (connected), there is the possibility that these pixels will have been labeled with different provisional identifiers. In these cases, when there are a plurality of inheritable provisional identifiers for the pixel g0, one of the inheritable provisional identifiers is inherited and connecting information for the inherited inheritable provisional identifier and the one or plurality of other inheritable provisional identifiers that have not been inherited is outputted. That is, when there are a plurality of inheritable provisional identifiers, one of such inheritable identifiers is inherited as the provisional identifier and other identifier(s) is/are inherited as the connecting information. Accordingly, by referring to the provisional identifiers and the connecting information, the connected relationships of pixels become clear. Depending on the states of the other pixels of the pixel block 2 and the other pixels of the adjacent pixel group 4, the provisional labels that can be inherited by the pixel block 2 are not only limited to provisional labels related to the pixel g0. In the left and right cases shown in FIG. 3(d), the pixel g0 of the pixel block 2 is “1”. In the left case, the pixels r0 and r1 of the adjacent pixel group 4 are “1”, the pixels r0 and r1 are connected and therefore the probability of both pixels r0 and r1 having the same provisional identifier is high. In the right case, the pixel r4 of the adjacent pixel group 4 is “1” and has been assigned a provisional identifier. In such cases, there is only one inheritable provisional identifier for the pixel g0, and therefore such provisional identifier is inherited. However, depending on the other pixels of the pixel block 2 and the other pixels of the adjacent pixel group 4, a plurality of inheritable provisional identifiers may be existed for the pixel block 2, and in such case, connecting information is generated. FIG. 4 shows combinations of the pixels g0 to g3 in the pixel block 2 and corresponding combinations of the pixel arrangements of the adjacent pixel group 4 that relate to determining the provisional identifiers of the pixel block 2. The combinations #1 to #5 are the cases where one of the provisional identifiers assigned to the adjacent pixel group 4 is inherited and assigned to the pixel block 2. Such combinations of the adjacent pixel group 4 shown in FIG. 4 are judged by the logical OR results, and one of the provisional identifiers have been assigned to the pixels shown as “1” is inherited as the provisional identifier of the pixel block 2 according to the state of the pixels in the pixel block 2. For example, in the combination #1, if a provisional identifier has been assigned to any of the pixels P(r0), P(r1), P(r2), P(r4), and P(r5) of the adjacent pixel group 4 and the pixel P(g0) of the pixel block 2 is “1”, one of the provisional identifiers PID(r0), PID(r1), PID(r2), PID(r4), and PID(r5) of the adjacent pixel group 4 is inherited as the provisional identifier of the pixel block 2. Out of the pixels P(g0), P(g1), P(g2), and P(g3) of the pixel block 2, the pixels with the value “1” that are subject for grouping are labeled with the provisional identifier inherited. That shows the inheritance of provisional identifiers shown in FIGS. 3(a) to 3(d). 1.2 Identifying Image Elements by Rough Grouping The labeling described above is one of that for extracting elements respectively composed of strictly consecutively connected pixels. Identifying elements respectively composed of non-consecutively (within one or a range of few pixels) connecting pixels by rough grouping and extracting such image elements are also effective. Since pixels do not need to be strictly consecutive for the rough grouping, one of applications is that, after an image is converted to data by a scanner or the like, extracting elements that were originally consecutively connected in an image but become non-consecutive by one or a range of a few pixels during the process of converting the image to data. Compared to the labeling for extracting elements composed of consecutive pixels, it is possible to extract image elements composed of the pixels having some relationship at high speed and without degrading the image data, and therefore such process can be used as a pre-analysis of an image to the full or real analysis where consecutive elements in the image are labeled for extracting. One of reference methods includes generating a labeled image by applying labeling process to a low resolution image converted from a high resolution image, provisionally deciding boundary positions using the labeled image, then generating another labeled image by applying labeling process to the original high resolution image on regions in the periphery of the boundaries and finally deciding the boundary positions. By doing so, it is possible to limit the region of the high resolution image in which labeling to be carried out. However, the low resolution image data is merely used to provisionally decide the boundary positions, and since such image data have low image quality, such data are useless and cannot be used to find the characteristic values of the image elements. On the other hand, when applying the rough grouping for provisionally deciding the boundary positions, processing speed becomes high without generating data of lower resolution. Since lowering the resolution of the data is not required for the rough grouping, the same image data can be used for high precision grouping and for finding the characteristic values of the image elements. FIGS. 5 and 6 show an example of where rough grouping is carried out using block labeling. This grouping can identify pixels related to image elements where the pixels are not necessarily consecutively connected. The pixels 5 for grouping are ON (that have the value “1”) that are similar to the above. For rough grouping also, when identifying the pixels 5 disposed in two dimensions, instead of processing the pixels 5 one by one, four pixels 5 that are adjacent above, below, left, and right are first processed as a single unit, that is, as a pixel block 2. In addition, in the rough grouping, if at least one of the pixels 5 included in the pixel block 2 is ON (that is, the value is “1”), the pixel block 2 is treated as if state of block is ON, and if both pixel blocks 2 that are adjacent, include at least one on-pixel (pixel 5 that is on) respectively, the common identification information (the same identifier, ID, or label value) is assigned to all on-pixels in such pixel blocks 2. The pixels 5 included in the pixel block 2 are adjacent to one another in two dimensions. This means that if any out of the plurality of pixels 5 included in one pixel block 2 is “1”, there is no need to carry out a logic operation for the positional relationships between such pixels. The “1” pixels 5 that are included in the pixel block 2 are consecutively connected, and are definitely assigned the same identifier. In addition, if at least one “1” pixel 5 is included in the pixel block 2, the pixel block 2 is treated as ON. When both pixel blocks 2 adjacent or adjoining each other are ON, all of such pixels 5 included in such pixel blocks 2 are assigned the same identifier. Accordingly, by merely calculating the positional relationship of the pixel blocks 2, grouping all of the pixels included in the pixel blocks 2 can be performed without calculating the positional relationships of the individual pixels 5 included in the pixel blocks 2. This means that a larger number of pixels can be labeled in parallel and that less processing time is spent labeling. In the rough grouping shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, four pixel blocks 2 that are adjacent above, below, left, and right are labeled in parallel as one large pixel block 3, that is, the large pixel blocks 3 are the pixel processing units for generating a labeled image. The large pixel block 3 includes four (i.e., 2×2) pixel blocks 2 that are adjacent to each other in two dimensions. Accordingly, if any of the plurality of pixel blocks 2 included in one large pixel block 3 is ON, further logic operations do not need to be carried out. These pixel blocks 2 should be ON and such pixels 5 included in such pixel blocks 2 are labeled with the same identifier. By carrying out a grouping process with the large pixel block 3 as a unit, it is possible to process 2×2×4=16 pixels 5 in parallel without a process for logic operations on the relationships between such sixteen pixels 5. The pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 have a distance-based relationship in that they are within a range of two pixel blocks 2, and can be thought of as being identified as belonging to a group of pixels that are linked by such relationship. Also, it can be understood that, when pixels 5 that are ON are included in a large pixel block 3 and in pixel blocks 2 that are adjacent the large pixel block 3, by labeling such pixels 5 with the same identifier, pixels that have distance-based relationships with a maximum range of three pixel blocks 2 are grouped or segmented. In the rough grouping, the direction of scanning that has the large pixel blocks 3 as units can be any of up, down, left and right. In the present embodiment, as described above, a search is carried out with the left to right direction (Y direction) for the image 1 shown in FIG. 5 as the scanning direction and the top to bottom direction (X direction) as the subscanning direction. Accordingly, the adjacent pixel group 4 for which the relationship with one large pixel block 3 is to be determined is composed of six pixel blocks 2 that are adjoining or adjacent the upper edge and to the left edge of the large pixel block 3. FIGS. 6(a) and 6(b) show the composition of the pixel blocks 2 included in the large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel group 4. In such block labeling, the large pixel block 3 is composed of pixel blocks BL5, BL6, BL8, and BL9 (hereinafter the individual pixel blocks 2 are shown as “BL”) and the provisional identifiers PID5, PID6, PID8, and PID9 of the respective pixel blocks are the same. The provisional identifiers IPD0 to PID4 and PID7 respectively assigned to the six small pixel blocks BL0 to BL4 and BL7 included in the adjacent pixel group 4 (the group of adjacent pixel block) are referred to when deciding the provisional identifier commonly assigned to the four pixel blocks 2 included in the large pixel block 3. The process for labeling process with provisional identifiers is repeated while scanning the entire image 1 in units of large pixel blocks 3. To label the sixteen pixels Pi0 to Pi15 included in the large pixel block 3 with a provisional identifier, data of forty pixels in a range of columns Co0 to Co7 of the lines Li0 to Li5, including the adjacent pixel group 4, are inputted in parallel and the sixteen pixels Pi0 to Pi15 are labeled with a provisional identifier in parallel, thereby generating a labeled image that has pixels labeled with provisional identifiers. FIGS. 7(a) to 7(d) show an algorithm that carries out labeling based on the ON/OFF states of the pixel blocks 2 in the adjacent pixel group 4 and the ON/OFF states of the pixel blocks 2 in the large pixel block 3 so that the large pixel block 3 inherits a provisional identifier included in the adjacent pixel group 4 or is assigned a new provisional identifier. In FIG. 7(a), all of the pixel blocks 2 included in the large pixel block 3 are “0”. That is, the large pixel block 3 does not include any pixels 5 that are ON and subjects for grouping, and therefore the labeling process that assigns a provisional identifier is not carried out (NOP). In FIG. 7(b), all of the pixel blocks 2 included in the adjacent pixel group 4 are zero and on-pixels are included in the large pixel block 3. In this case, the adjacent pixel group 4 does not include any ON pixels 5 that are subject for grouping and there are no inheritable provisional identifiers. For this reason, a new provisional identifier is assigned to all of such pixels 5 of the pixel blocks 2 included in the large pixel block 3. That is, the pixels 5 that are ON included in the large pixel block 3 are commonly labeled with a new provisional identifier. In FIG. 7(c), pixel blocks 2 that are ON but are not adjacent are included in the adjacent pixel group 4 and on-pixels are included in the large pixel block 3. In the adjacent pixel group 4, there is the possibility that pixels have been labeled with different provisional identifiers in pixel block 2 units. Accordingly, the pixel blocks 2 in the large pixel block 3 inherit one of the plurality of provisional identifiers present in the adjacent pixel group 4 by labeling such pixels 5 in the large pixel block 3 with the inherited provisional identifier. In addition, it is determined that such pixel blocks 2 of the adjacent pixel group 4 are included in the same group via the large pixel block 3. Accordingly, when a new connecting relationship is known for the provisional identifiers of such pixel blocks 2 in the adjacent pixel group 4, connecting information of the provisional identifiers that are in connecting relationship is output. In FIG. 7(d), pixel blocks 2 that are ON and are also adjacent are included in the adjacent pixel group 4 and on-pixels are included in the large pixel block 3. Accordingly, the provisional identifier of the adjacent pixel group 4 is commonly assigned to such pixels 5 of the pixel blocks 2 in the large pixel block 3. Since adjacent pixel blocks 2 that are ON are present in the adjacent pixel group 4, the same provisional identifier will have already been assigned to such pixel blocks 2, and a new connecting relationship will not produced. With the algorithm shown in FIG. 7, even if pixel blocks 2 are not adjacent, by way of the large pixel blocks 3, such pixel blocks 2 can be assigned the same provisional identifier to group such blocks together as belonging to the same group. Accordingly, the same provisional identifier is assigned to such pixels 5 included in a range of a maximum of three small pixel blocks 2. In place of the algorithm shown in FIG. 7, it is possible to use an algorithm that assigns the same provisional identifier to only pixel blocks 2 that are completely adjacent or adjoining each other. Such algorithm is the similar as that described above with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4, and assigns the same provisional identifier to such pixels 5 included in a maximum range of two pixel blocks 2. In the algorithm shown in FIG. 7, the condition of a large pixel block 3 is only whether a pixel 5 that is ON is included in the large pixel block 3. Accordingly, determining the state of the large pixel block 3 by calculating a logical OR for the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 is effective. The states of the adjacent pixel group 4 depend on the pixel blocks 2 that are ON and included in the adjacent pixel group 4, and the states of the individual pixel blocks 2 can be determined by calculating a logical OR for the four pixels 5 included in each pixel block 2. Accordingly, by using hardware with sufficient performance or functioning to calculate a logical OR for a plurality of pixel data in parallel, it is possible to carry out the labeling with provisional identifiers by pipeline processing. In this way, block labeling is also effective for roughly grouping a large number of pixels that compose an image. If the process for grouping or segmenting consecutively connected pixels is called labeling or fine grain labeling, the process described above can be called rough labeling (or coarse grain labeling). For rough labeling, the same identifier (label) is assigned even if pixels are some distance apart, namely such pixels do not need to be strictly adjoining, thereby making it possible to identify elements composed by such pixels in an image. This means that low pass filtering that is a former process and a connecting process that is a latter process are executed at the same time as the labeling process. By carrying out rough labeling, the size of the block to be processed is increased and the process that assigns provisional labels can be accelerated. Since the number of provisional labels falls, number of provisional labels to be combined is also reduced, generating a merging table by sorting the connecting relationships is accelerated, and the process of assigning real labels is also accelerated. Accordingly, for a high-resolution image, grouping becomes possible that groups pixels that are included in a high-resolution image at high speed without having to convert the image to a low-resolution image. Providing software and an image processing apparatus becomes possible that can identify boundaries and the like of an image at high speed, and in addition, since the resolution of the image can be maintained for rough process, it is possible to obtain characteristic values of image elements with high precision. 2. Image Processing with Block Labeling FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing one example of processing that analyzes an image using block labeling. In this flowchart, the principal inputs and outputs of data are shown by dot-dash lines. The image processing 10 generates a labeled image and calculates characteristic values of image elements that have been distinguished from the labeled image. The image processing 10 includes process of generating the labeled image 25, the generating the labeled image including a first stage 11 that scans the image and attaches provisional identification information (“provisional identifiers”, “provisional IDs”, or “provisional labels”) to groups of pixels that compose image elements, and a second stage 12 that relabels the groups of pixels with the same real identification information (“real identifiers”, “real IDs”, or “real labels”) so as to merge the groups of pixels that have been assigned different provisional identifiers but compose the same image elements. As described above, the pixels that are not consecutively connected and are in a predetermined relationship can be grouped by the block labeling as well as the pixels that are consecutively connected. Accordingly, the image elements that can be distinguished in the image processing 10 are not limited to image elements composed of consecutively connected pixels. The following description will focus on an image processing method that identifies and analyzes image elements composed of pixels that have been roughly grouped using block labeling. The image processing 10 also includes an analysis stage 13 that extracts characteristic values of image elements composed of pixels that have been grouped together. To extract characteristic values not just for binary images but also for images expressed by multivalues or multiple shades (grayscale images), the image processing 10 further includes a process 14 that calculates block characteristic values of pixel blocks composed of multivalue pixels in parallel with the first stage 11 that labeling with provisional identifiers. The first stage 11 of labeling with provisional identifiers includes the step of inputting 100 that obtains, from the pixel data 29 including pixels that construct the image, sixteen pieces of pixel data included in the large pixel block 3 and twenty-four pieces of pixel data of the adjacent pixel group 4 adjacent to the large pixel block 3 to provide to the step of labeling 200 described below. The step of labeling 200 included in the first stage 11 can label the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 with the same provisional identifiers. In the step of inputting 100, in step 101, the data of the pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 are inputted from the pixel data file 29. In step 102, if unprocessed data are inputted from the pixel data that constitutes the image 1, in step 103 the multivalue pixel data 5 obtained from the pixel data file 29 are binarized. If the pixel data of the file 29 have already been binarized, this step is unnecessary. Data on the pixels 5 of the adjacent pixel group 4 that have been already labeled with provisional identifiers and temporarily stored in a buffer (buffer memory) 28 and data on the provisional identifiers assigned to such pixels 5 are obtained in step 104. In the step of labeling 200, in step 201, a logic operation is carried out for judging the conditions or states of the large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel group 4 and in step 202, it is determined whether any inheritable provisional identifiers are existed. The algorithm for inheriting provisional identifiers was described above with reference to FIGS. 7(a) to 7(d). When the adjacent pixel group 4 includes only one inheritable provisional identifier (condition d1), in step 205, the provisional identifier is inherited, and the pixels 5 of the large pixel block 3 are labeled with such the same provisional identifier and are outputted in the large pixel block 3 unit to a provisionally labeled image file 27. In addition, information on the provisional identifier included in the adjacent pixel group 4 that will be required in later processing of the large pixel block 3 is temporarily stored in pixel block 2 units in the buffer memory 28 that can be accessed at high speed. When the adjacent pixel group 4 includes a plurality of provisional identifiers that can be inherited or should be inherited (condition d2), in step 203, connecting information for the plurality of provisional identifiers is recorded. That is, connecting information for the provisional identifier inherited by the pixels 5 of the large pixel block 3 and the other identifiers that are not inherited is outputted to a connecting information file 26. In step 205, the pixels 5 of the large pixel block 3 are labeled with the inherited provisional identifier and are outputted to the provisionally labeled image file 27. When the adjacent pixel group 4 does not include any inheritable provisional identifiers (condition d3), in step 204, a new provisional identifier is generated and in step 205, the pixels 5 of the large pixel block 3 are labeled with the new provisional identifier and are outputted to the provisionally labeled image file 27. By doing so, a provisionally labeled image in which the pixels that constitute the input image have been labeled with provisional identifiers is generated. In the first stage 11 of labeling using the provisional identifiers, in the step of inputting 100, data on forty pixels Pi included in the large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel group 4 are read in parallel. Next, in the step of labeling 200, processes of labeling, with provisional identifiers, the pixels to be grouped (in the present embodiment, pixels that are ON (i.e., pixels with the value “1”)) out of the sixteen pixels Pi included in the large pixel block 3 are carried out in parallel. The step of inputting 100 and the step of labeling 200 can be implemented on hardware as a series of processes and executed by pipeline processing. In addition, in the step of labeling 200, the step 201 that decodes and operates the inputted forty pixels Pi to judge inheritance and the step 205 that labels the pixels with the provisional identifiers decided by the step 201 can be implemented on hardware so that such steps are executed by pipeline processing. Accordingly, the processing of the first stage 11 that labels the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 with provisional identifiers can be executed in effectively one clock cycle. The step 203 that records the connecting information and the step 204 that selects a new provisional identifier also use the result of decoding the large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel group 4. The processing of steps 203 and 204 can be implemented on hardware as included in the first stage 11 and the processing is executed in parallel with the processing of the step 201 that operate an inheritance and of the step 205 of labeling. Including these steps, the processing of the first stage 11 is executed without breakdown and/or delays in the pipeline for reading and labeling sixteen pixels. In the image processing 10, in the analyzing process 14 carried out in parallel to the first stage 11 that assigns the provisional identifiers, the multivalue data of the pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 under the labeling with the provisional identifiers is analyzed and gray level information is calculated in parts corresponding to the large pixel blocks 3. By the process, the gray level information is compressed as block characteristic values (to 1/16 the size in the present embodiment) corresponding to the large pixel blocks 3 and are outputted to a block characteristic value file 22. Since the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 are labeled with the same provisional identifier, such pixels are later labeled with the same real identifier and constitute the same image element. Accordingly, in process 14, it is effective to find gray-level information, such as maximum and minimum density values, an average value, and other values in advance in large pixel block 3 units from multivalue data (such as “shade data” or “grayscale data”) of the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3. After this, by calculating totals in large pixel block 3 units for the block characteristic values, for example the gray level information, based on the connecting information of the provisional identifiers, it is possible to find the gray level information of the respective image elements and to reduce the processing time taken to analyze the gray level information. In addition, in the first stage 11 of labeling with the provisional identifiers, the pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 are inputted from the pixel data file 29. For this reason, by finding the gray level information of the large pixel block 3 in parallel with the first stage 11, it is possible to omit a process that accesses the pixel data file 29 to calculate the gray level information, which also makes it possible to reduce the processing time taken to analyze the gray level information. When the first stage 11 is completed, in step 15, a merging table 23 is generated from the connecting information stored in the connecting information file 26. In step 203, when pixels 5 that have been labeled with different provisional identifiers are included in the adjacent pixel group 4, pairs of the provisional identifier inherited by the pixels of the large pixel block 3 and the non-inherited provisional identifier(s) are recorded in the connecting information file 26. The inherited provisional identifier and non-inherited provisional identifier(s) are identification information that show the same group (image element). For this reason, in the second stage 12, the pixels 5 that have been labeled with such provisional identifiers are relabeled with an identifier (a real identifier) showing that the pixels 5 ultimately belong to the same group. It is necessary to merge, integrate or combine the inherited provisional identifiers and the non-inherited provisional identifiers, and for this reason, in step 15, the merging table 23 is generated. In step 15, based on the connecting information file 26 for the provisional identifiers, the same real identifier (real label) is assigned to provisional identifiers that have been assigned to pixels belonging to the same group, and the merging table 23 showing correspondence between the provisional identifiers and the real identifier is generated. With the merging table 23, by using a provisional identifier as an address, for example, the corresponding real identifier can be read. Therefore by referring to the merging table 23 with the provisional identifier as an address, it is possible to convert the provisional identifier to a real identifier. If some provisional identifiers are connected, when extracting image elements composed by pixels connected, such connecting information show that pixels that are labeled with the some provisional identifiers are connected. In the rough grouping, the connecting of a plurality of provisional identifiers does not mean that pixels labeled with the some provisional identifiers are necessarily consecutively connected. However, such pixels are related within a predetermined range. Next, in the second stage 12, while referring to the merging table 23, the pixel data stored in the provisionally labeled image file 27 are labeled with real identifiers, thereby generating a labeled image (real-labeled data) that is outputted as the labeled image file 25. The provisionally labeled image may also be recorded in bitmap format. By recording in units of pixel blocks 2 with the same provisional identifiers and also in units of large pixel blocks 3, it is possible to reduce the amount of used memory, and in the second stage 12, it becomes easy to read the pixel data in units of large pixel blocks 3. In the second stage 12, in step 121 the pixel data included in the provisionally labeled image file 27 is inputted in parallel in large pixel block 3 units. In step 122, when data not relabeled are inputted from the provisionally labeled image file 27, in step 123, the merging table 23 is referred to and the provisional identifier of the large pixel block 3 is converted to a real identifier, and the pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 are labeled with the same real identifier in parallel. Labeled data that has been labeled with the real identifiers to identify independent image elements composed of pixels 5 in a predetermined relationship is generated and outputted to the labeled image file 25. In step 123 of labeling with the real identifiers, pixels for grouping included in a large pixel block 3 are labeled in parallel in large pixel block 3 units with the same real identifier. In the image processing 10, when the second stage 12 has been completed, the analysis stage 13 is executed. In the analysis stage 13, in step 131, analysis is carried out in large pixel block 3 units and the block characteristic values of the large pixel blocks 3 are calculated. Next, in a step 132, a process that totals the block characteristic values of the large pixel blocks 3 that have the same real identifier is repeatedly carried out to calculate a characteristic value for each image element. Characteristic values that can be calculated from binary pixels or binary data can be calculated in pixel block or large pixel block units from the provisionally labeled image file 27 in which binarized pixels have been labeled with provisional identifiers. Regarding the gray level information, the block characteristic values of large pixel blocks 3 are obtained as described above in stage 14. Accordingly, by calculating a total in step 133, it is possible to calculate characteristic values relating to the gray level of each image element. These characteristic values include information such as area, center of gravity, and height/width dimensions. In the analysis stage 13, instead of calculating the characteristic values for each image element based on the labeled image 25 that has been labeled with real identifiers, it is possible to refer to the merging table 23 and total the block characteristic values for each image element. Accordingly, if there are sufficient hardware resources, it is possible to configure hardware so that the analysis stage 13 is executed in parallel with the second stage 12. 3. Image Processing System In the image processing 10 described above, the first stage 11 of labeling with the provisional identifiers and the second stage 12 of labeling with the real identifiers are executed in that order. For the same image, such processes (steps) do not overlap. As described above, the analysis stage 13 may be executed after or in parallel with the second stage 12. For example, after the step 15 of generating the merging table 23 has been completed, the second stage 12 of labeling with the real identifiers and the analysis stage 13 can be carried out in parallel. The execution timings of the first stage 11 and the second stage 12 do not overlap. This means that by executing the image processing 10 by configuring a circuit for executing the first stage 11 and then a circuit for executing the second stage 12 on reconfigurable hardware, efficient use can be made of hardware resources. The image processing 10 can process a large amount of pixel data in parallel to reduce the processing time. By implementing the image processing 10 in a processor equipped with a processing region that includes a plurality of processing elements and in which a plurality of data paths that operate in parallel are configured by the plurality of processing elements, it is possible to make the most of the characteristics of the image processing 10 and thereby reduce the processing time. The processing elements should preferably include a certain level of arithmetic logic processing and should preferably be included in a reconfigurable integrated circuit device. A processing device 30 shown in FIG. 9 is one example of reconfigurable hardware and includes a region where circuits can be dynamically reconfigured. The processing device 30 includes a matrix region (processing region) 31 in which processing elements (hereinafter referred to as “EXE”) 32 equipped with a certain level of arithmetic logic processing, such as an ALU, are connected to configure various data paths. The processing device 30 also includes a controller 33 that controls connections between the EXEs 32 of the matrix 31 to dynamically configure data paths, a RAM 34 in which hardware information (configuration information) of the data paths to be configured in the matrix 31 is recorded, and a buffer 35 in which data to be processed by the circuits of the matrix 31 is temporarily recorded. The processing device 30 also includes an interface for inputting and outputting data into and out of an external memory 36. The processing device configures data paths that operate in parallel by connecting a plurality of EXEs 32 and it is a hardware resource that is suited to the image processing 10, i.e., to processing a plurality of pixel data in parallel. By reconfiguring the connections of the EXEs 32 of the matrix region (hereinafter, simply “matrix”) 31 of the processing device 30 so as to execute the stages 11 to 13 of the image processing 10 in order, it is possible to use the matrix region as a dedicated processing system for executing the image processing 10. An image processing system 50 that executes the image processing 10 using the processing device 30 is described below. Note that, in the processing device 30, it is possible to execute not only image processing relating to labeling but also other processing simultaneously if the hardware resources such as the EXEs 32 of the matrix 31 are sufficient to such multi processing. FIGS. 10(a) to (c) show how the matrix 31 that is the processing region is reconfigured so that the processing device 30 functions for the image processing system 50. To have the processing device 30 function for the image processing system 50, in this example three types of configuration information 51 to 53 are prepared in advance and stored in the configuration RAM 34 of the processing device 30. The configuration of the matrix 31 is changed at appropriate timing by the controller 33 to execute the image processing 10. FIG. 10(a) shows the matrix 31 having been reconfigured according to the first configuration information 51 so as to execute in parallel the first stage 11 and the process 14 where multivalue image data is analyzed in large pixel block 3 units. FIG. 10(b) shows the matrix 31 having been reconfigured according to the second configuration information 52 so as to execute the process that generates the merging table. FIG. 10(c) shows the matrix 31 having been reconfigured according to the third configuration information 53 so as to execute the second stage 12 and the analysis stage 13 in parallel. As shown in FIG. 10(a), by the first configuration information 51, an interface 54 and a labeling processor (labeling engine) 55 are configured in the matrix region 31 of the processing device 30, the interface 54 including a configuration for executing the step of inputting 100 of the first stage 11 and the labeling engine 55 including a configuration for executing the step of labeling 200. In addition, an analysis processor (analysis engine or second processor) 56 including a configuration for executing the process 14 that analyzes multivalue pixel data and a peripheral circuit 57 including a circuit for supplying data from the interface 54 to the labeling processor 55 and the analysis processor 56 are configured in the matrix region 31 by the first configuration information 51. The interface 54 includes a function for inputting the pixel data included in the large pixel block 3 in parallel and a function for inputting data on the provisional identifiers of the adjacent pixel group 4. The labeling processor 55 includes a function 55a that calculates and determines inheritance of provisional identifiers, a function 55b that labels using the provisional identifiers, a function 55c that outputs the connecting information on the inherited provisional identifier and the non-inherited provisional identifiers, and a function 55d for generating a new provisional identifier. The function 55b for labeling with the provisional identifiers assigns an inherited provisional identifier or a new provisional identifier as the same or common provisional identifier in parallel to all of the ON pixels 5 that are subjects for grouping and are included in the large pixel block 3. FIG. 11 shows an overview of the circuits configured in the matrix 31 by the first configuration information 51 in more detail. The interface 54 loads the pixel data included in the large pixel block 3 from the pixel data file 29 in the external memory 36, binarizes the pixel data using a binarizing circuit 61, and supplies the binarized data to the labeling processor 55. At the same time, the multivalue pixel data is supplied to the analysis processor 56. The provisional identifiers (provisional IDs) of the adjacent pixel group 4 are obtained from the buffer 28 and supplied to the labeling processor 55. The labeling processor 55 is equipped with a logic circuit 65 that calculates a logical OR for data supplied from the interface 54, a lookup table (LUT) 66 that determines from the results of the logical OR whether there are any provisional IDs to be inherited, a selector 67 that selects a provisional ID, and a selector 68 that selects connecting information. The logic circuit 65 generates an address 79 including ten values by carrying out logical OR operations on a total of ten pixel blocks 2 (BL0 to BL9 in FIG. 6) corresponding to a large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel blocks 4. The LUT 66 uses this value 79 as an address input and outputs a microcode stored at that address as an ID control signal 71. Various logic circuits such as the selectors 67 and 68 are controlled using this microcode 71. The data generating circuit 69 can labels the sixteen pixels 5 included in the large pixel block 3 in parallel with a provisional ID. In this example, the data generating circuit 69 gathers sixteen pieces of binary pixel data supplied from the interface circuit 54 and the selected provisional ID 72 to output the one word (32 bits) of block pixel data 73. That is, the block pixel data 73 includes an ID 73d and pixel data 73p for sixteen pixels. The labeling of the sixteen pixel data included in the large pixel block 3 is collectively carried out in parallel as one word of data. The provisionally labeled image data outputted to the provisionally labeled image file 27 is composed of such block pixel data 73. FIG. 12 shows an overall circuit configuration in the labeling processor 55 for generating and outputting block pixel data 73 from the supplied pixel data. First, the interface 54 uses a shift register and mask circuit to cut out the pixel data included in the large pixel block 3 and the adjacent pixel group 4 (the group of adjacent pixel blocks) from the pixel data 29 that has been stored from the external memory 36 in a line buffer 35. As one example, pixel data of the lines Li0 to Li5 and columns Co0 to Co7 shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 is loaded. If sufficient bus width can be reserved, 40 bits of pixel data for 40 dots can be read out in one clock (cycle). The logic circuit 65 of the labeling processor 55 calculates a logical OR for the pixel data 5 of the 0th line Li0 and the first line Li1 using an OR circuit 65a and judges whether the blocks BL0 to BL3 are ON, that is, whether the respective blocks include at least one on-pixel. In the same way, a logical OR is calculated for the pixel data 5 of the 2nd line Li2 and the 3rd line Li3 using an OR circuit 65b to judge whether the blocks BL4 to BL6 are ON. A logical OR is also calculated for the pixel data 5 of the 4th line Li4 and the 5th line Li5 using an OR circuit 65c to judge whether the blocks BL7 to BL9 are ON. The states of the adjacent pixel group 4 and the large pixel block 3 can be determined from the calculation results of the OR circuits 65a, 65b, and 65c. To do so, a logical OR is also calculated on the outputs of the OR circuits 65a, 65b, and 65c by the OR circuit 65d to generate a logical OR result for the ten pixel blocks BL0 to BL9 as a 10-bit address input 79 which is supplied to the LUT 66. By the address, a suitable microcode is outputted from the LUT 66 as the ID control signal 71. The LUT 66 can be realized using RAM elements provided in advance in the matrix region 31. The circuit having such configuration performs a series of processes that loads the pixels 5, calculates logical ORs in order and outputs the ID control signal 71 sequentially with no backtracking. Accordingly, by configuring data paths for many parallel processes using the large number of elements 32 disposed in the reconfigurable matrix 31, processes on pixel data related to one or a plurality of large pixel blocks 3 can be carried out in parallel and such processes becomes subjected to be pipeline processing. The provisional IDs for at least one large pixel block 3, that is, at least sixteen pixels can be determined in effectively one clock (cycle). The data generating circuit 69 generates one word (i.e., 32 bits) of block pixel data 73, which includes information on the sixteen pixels included in one large pixel block 3 and provisional ID information that has been commonly assigned to the sixteen pixels, and outputs the block pixel data 73 to the provisionally labeled image file 27 as provisionally labeled image data. In this block pixel data 73, it is possible to also include position information of the large pixel block 3, a characteristic value of the large pixel block 3 that has been calculated from information on sixteen pixels, and the like. To generate the block pixel data 73, it is necessary to supply the data generating circuit 69 with the data of the sixteen pixels included in the large pixel block 3 and data 72 on the provisional ID assigned to such pixels. To supply the data 72 on the provisional ID of the large pixel block 3 to the data generating circuit 69 according to the ID control signal 71 of the LUT 66, a certain amount of calculation time is required following the input of the pixel data of the large pixel block 3. By supplying the data of the sixteen pixels loaded by the input interface 54 to the data generating circuit 69 via a suitable delay circuit or a pipeline register, the data can be supplied to the data generating circuit 69 in synchronization with the data 72 on the provisional ID of the large pixel block 3. Accordingly, in the labeling processor 55, after the pixel data of the large pixel block 3 has been loaded from the line buffer 35, the processing as far as the labeling the pixel data with a provisional ID can be carried out by pipeline processing. This means that in the image processing system 50, the provisional ID is decided for at least one large pixel block 3, that is, at least sixteen pixels and provisionally labeled image data that has been labeled with such provisional ID can be outputted in effectively one clock cycle. Accordingly, the image processing system 50 can group at least sixteen pixels in one cycle, and compared to a process that carries out grouping in single pixel units, image processing can be carried out over ten times faster. Also, pixel data 73p of the original resolution is stored in the grouped block pixel data 73, and therefore there is no fall in the resolution of the analyzed image. FIG. 13 shows the overall configuration of a processor 56 that extracts characteristic values in large pixel block 3 units. To the analysis processor 56, the interface 54 supplies the original data, that is, grayscale (multivalue) pixel data for sixteen pixels included in one large pixel block 3 cut out from the line buffer 35. Processing units 62 having threshold values judges whether the respective pixel data are to be compared for setting a maximum or minimum of the gray level. The selectors 63a and 63b respectively select (calculate) a maximum value and a minimum value for the data on the sixteen pixels that have been processed with the threshold and the results of such calculations are packed into one word of gray level data 74 by a shift/OR circuit 63c. If there is no error for the calculation of the maximum value and minimum value, the gray level data 74 passes a gate circuit 63d and is outputted to the block characteristic value file 22. FIG. 14 shows a circuit configuration in the processing unit 62 having threshold values for carrying out an operation on one pixel with the threshold values. Pixel data 29p for one pixel is compared with a first threshold 62b by a comparator 62a and the pixel data 29p is judged to be significant if the pixel data 29p is larger than the first threshold 62b. As a result, a carry 62x is asserted and the pixel data 29p is outputted by the selector 62e as data to be compared with the maximum value. When the pixel data 29p falls below the first threshold 62b, “0” is outputted from the selector 62e and the pixel data 29p is ignored as a maximum value. The pixel data 29p is also compared with a second threshold 62d by a comparator 62c and is judged to be significant if the pixel data 29p is smaller than the second threshold 62d . As a result, a carry 62y is asserted and the pixel data 29p is outputted by the selector 62f as data to be compared with the minimum value. When the pixel data 29p is above the second threshold 62b, “FF” is outputted from the selector 62f and the pixel data 29p is ignored as a minimum value. A logical OR is calculated by a circuit 62g for the carries 62x and 62y that show the comparison results and a logical OR that includes the comparison results for other pixels is calculated by a circuit 62h. If, as a result, one of the pixel data 29p is outside the range of the first threshold value 62b and the second threshold value 62d, such pixel data 29p is outputted as significant gray level information. On of examples of this process is determining whether defects are present, and if the gray level data for all pixels is within the range of the first threshold value 62b and the second threshold value 62d, it is determined that there are no defects in the range of the large pixel block 3 being analyzed and gray level information is not outputted. In the same way as the labeling processor 55, the analysis processor 56 outputs the gray level information 74 in units of large pixel blocks 3. As shown in FIG. 15, the block characteristic data 74 that is gray level information in block units one-to-one corresponds to the block pixel data 73. Accordingly, by calculating totals based on the provisional identifiers (provisional IDs) and the merging table 23 at a lager stage, it is possible to obtain characteristic values (gray level information) for each image element. At a time after the first stage 11 has been completed, as shown in FIG. 10(b), the matrix 31 is reconfigured using the second configuration information 52 so as to generate the merging table. The provisional identifiers inherited by the pixels of the large pixel block 3 and the non-inherited provisional identifiers paired with such provisional identifiers are recorded in the connecting information file 26. At the following stage before generating the labeled image, the merging table 23 is generated by assigning the same real identifiers (real IDs) to the pairs of one or a plurality of provisional identifiers in a connecting relationship. The algorithm that generates the merging table 23 from the connecting information file 26 is as follows. In the connecting information file 26, a plurality of entries that show the connection of two provisional IDs are recorded. In the merging table 23, with a provisional ID as an address, the real label corresponding to the provisional identifier should be obtained. Step h1: If the provisional IDs in the nth entry in the connecting information file 26 are assumed to be “a” and “b”, the nth entry is stored as a group queue. Step h2: The top entry of the group queue, for example the pair “a” and “b”, is stored in a comparison register. Step h3: The values from the nth value onward are read from the connecting information file 26 and compared with the values “a” and “b” in the comparison register. Step h4: An entry where at least one value matches with the “a” or “b” is added to the group queue. Step h5: When the end of the connecting information file 26 is reached, the next entry is read from the group queue, is stored in the comparison register, and the same operation is carried out. Step h6: When the end of the group queue is reached, all provisional IDs entered in the group queue are assigned the same real identifier. As described above, information stored in the merging table 23 for one real ID is obtained, thereby completing the group for that real ID. Next, the n+1th entry is read from the connecting information file 26 and the same operation is carried out. However, connecting information that has already been stored in the group queue once is not stored in the group queue again. After the operation described above is completed, if there are provisional IDs that are yet to be assigned real IDs, unique real IDs are respectively assigned to such provisional IDs. By carrying out the operation described above, the merging table 23 is successfully generated. The second configuration information 52 configures data paths for carrying out the algorithm described above in the matrix region 31. At a time after the merging table 23 has been generated, as shown in FIG. 10(c), the matrix 31 is reconfigured by the third configuration information 53 so as to execute the second stage 12. At that time, the matrix 31 is also configured to execute the analysis stage 13 by the third configuration information 53. To execute the second stage 12, the third configuration information 53 configures an interface 59 that inputs the block pixel data 73 including the provisional IDs 73d and the pixel data 73p from the provisionally labeled image file 27 and a labeling processor (labeling engine) 60 that relabels the provisional IDs with the real IDs. Also, to execute the analysis stage 13, the third configuration information 53 configures an analysis processor 80 (analysis engine or “first processor”) that includes a circuit 81 that decodes the block pixel data 73 to calculate characteristic values in large pixel block 3 units and a circuit 82 that totals such characteristic values in block units based on the merging table 23 and thereby calculates a characteristic value for each image element. FIG. 16 shows an example circuit of the labeling processor 60 that reads the block pixel data 73 and refers to the merging table 23 to label with real identifiers (real IDs or real labels) in large pixel block 3 units. First, the interface circuit 59 accesses the provisionally labeled image file 27 and obtains the block pixel data 73. The block pixel data 73 includes pixel data 73p for sixteen pixels that constitute a large pixel block 3 and such pixel data is inputted in parallel. In the labeling processor 59b for the real identifiers, the merging table 23 is accessed with the provisional ID 73d of the block pixel data 73 as an address to obtain the real ID. Based on the pixel data for sixteen pixels in the block pixel data 73, the elements 32 of the matrix 31 are used as selectors that operate in parallel so that the ON (“1”) pixels that are to be grouped together are assigned the real ID, other pixels are set at “0”, and the labeled pixels are outputted to the labeled image file 25. The labeling processor 60 can also output block pixel data produced by rewriting the ID values 73d of the block pixel data 73 from provisional IDs to real IDs as the labeled image data. In this case also, the data 73p of sixteen pixels is collectively labeled in parallel with the same real ID. FIG. 17 shows an example circuit of the analysis processor 80. Logic that finds a maximum value in the Y coordinate direction is implemented in this circuit 80. The circuit 80 includes a first circuit 81 that finds characteristic amounts (maximum values) of the respective large pixel blocks 3 using a decoder and a second circuit 82 that calculates totals of the characteristic amounts using the real IDs and finds maximum values of pixels grouped by the real IDs. The first circuit 81 includes a decoder 83 that converts the data 73p of sixteen pixels in the block pixel data 73 to control data and a selector 84 that finds characteristic values, that is, maximum values in the Y coordinate direction in large pixel block 3 units from the control data. The second circuit 82 includes a Y-max table I/F 86, which converts the provisional ID 73d of the block pixel data 73 to a real ID using the merging table 23 and accesses the Y-Max table 85 with the real ID as an address, and a selector 87 that selects a maximum value. The selector 87 selects, among the inputs of a Y-coordinate maximum value obtained via the Y-Max table I/F 86 from the table 85 by the real ID and a Y coordinate obtained by the selector 84, the new maximum value. In addition, the selector 87 outputs the new maximum value via the I/F 86 to the Y-Max table 85 to update the maximum value. By the analysis processor 80, it is possible to find the width in the Y direction of the image element composed of the pixel groups that have been segmented. In the same way, a variety of characteristic amounts such as a minimum value in the Y coordinate direction and the maximum value and minimum value in the X coordinate direction can be found. Since it is possible to calculate the characteristic amounts in units of large pixel blocks 3 that are composed of sixteen pixels, the processing time required to calculate the characteristic amounts can be reduced. The analysis processor 80 also includes a circuit 89 that reads the following block pixel data 73, compares the real IDs via the merging table 23 and when the real IDs are the same, finds a maximum value by including the following block pixel data 73 before the data is written into the table 85. This circuit 89 can reduce the processing time when block pixel data 73 with the same ID is consecutive. Since the analysis processor 80 carries out a read-modify-write process on the Y-Max table 85, a function for a situation where the same real ID is consecutively inputted is required in order to not increase the latency of the pipeline. In addition to the circuit 89 in FIG. 17, by reading in advance and comparing the following block pixel data 73, it is possible to reduce the latency of the feedback path from five cycles to three cycles. The image processing method 10 and image processing device 50 described above can group pixels, when such pixels are not strictly adjoining, according to desired rules. A processing method and processing device for labeling pixels consecutively connected are also be provided with substantially the same configuration using the logic for assigning the provisional identifiers described with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. In addition, although an example where a two-dimensional binary image is analyzed has been described above, the scope of the present invention is not limited to. Although the small pixel blocks 2 that are the basic units are composed of four pixels that are adjacent to one another, when grouping together pixels that are related in a wider range, the pixel blocks used as basic units may be composed of five or more pixels. Similarly, although the large pixel blocks 3 are composed of four pixel blocks 2 that are adjacent to one another, when grouping together pixels that are related in a wider range, the large pixel block may be composed of five or more pixel blocks 2. Also, the binarization of the pixels is not limited to monochrome images and it is possible to binarize the separate color components of a color image. In addition, the present invention is not limited to processing two-dimensional images and can be applied to block labeling of three-dimensional images and in such case, as described above, the pixel blocks that are the basic units are composed of eight pixels that are adjacent to one another.
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G
| 60G06
| 163G06K
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9
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34
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|||
11965480
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US20090166430A1-20090702
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TRANSACTION PRODUCT WITH ELECTRICAL PLUG
|
ACCEPTED
|
20090617
|
20090702
|
[]
|
G06K1906
|
["G06K1906"]
|
7810736
|
20071227
|
20101012
|
235
|
491000
|
93066.0
|
MARSHALL
|
CHRISTLE
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "SMITH", "inventor_name_first": "David B.", "inventor_city": "Falcon Heights", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "ROBERTSON", "inventor_name_first": "Travis M.", "inventor_city": "Minnetonka", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "HALBUR", "inventor_name_first": "Ted C.", "inventor_city": "Lino Lakes", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "BORKOWSKI", "inventor_name_first": "Erin M.", "inventor_city": "Andover", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "REYNOLDS", "inventor_name_first": "Adam W.", "inventor_city": "Minneapolis", "inventor_state": "MN", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "CLEGG", "inventor_name_first": "Timothy P.", "inventor_city": "Manhatten Beach", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}, {"inventor_name_last": "SAMARDZIJA", "inventor_name_first": "Primoz", "inventor_city": "Marina del Ray", "inventor_state": "CA", "inventor_country": "US"}]
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A transaction product, which is configured to interface with and receive electrical power from an electrical socket, includes a support member, an electrical circuit and an account identifier. The electrical circuit is coupled to the support member and includes an electrical plug and an electrically driven device electrically coupled with the electrical plug. The electrical plug includes at least two blades extending from the support member. The at least two blades are configured to interface with the electrical socket such that electrical power from the electrical socket is transferred to the electrically driven device via the electrical plug. The account identifier links the transaction product to an account or record, wherein the account identifier is machine readable. Other cards, products, assemblies and methods of using such cards, products and assemblies are also disclosed.
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1. A transaction product configured to interface with and receive electrical power from an electrical socket, the transaction product comprising: a support member; an electrical circuit coupled to the support member, the electrical circuit including an electrical plug and an electrically driven device electrically coupled with the electrical plug, wherein the electrical plug includes at least two blades extending from the support member, and the at least two blades are configured to interface with the electrical socket such that electrical power from the electrical socket is transferred to the electrically driven device via the electrical plug; and an account identifier linking the transaction product to an account or a record, wherein the account identifier is machine readable. 2. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the account identifier is a bar code connected to the support member. 3. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the account identifier includes at least one of a bar code, a magnetic strip, a smart chip and a radio frequency identification (RFID) device. 4. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the base defines at least two apertures, each of the at least two blades extends out of the base through a different corresponding one of the at least two apertures, and each of the at least two blades extends parallel to an extension of the other of the at least two blades. 5. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein one of the at least two blades is live and one of the at least two blades is neutral. 6. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the electrically driven device includes an electroluminescent (EL) light plate. 7. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the electrically driven device includes a light. 8. The transaction product of claim 7, wherein the support member is a housing, which substantially encloses the electrical circuit other than the electrical plug, and the housing defines an aperture aligned with the light to allow illumination from the light to escape the housing via the aperture. 9. The transaction product of claim 8, further comprising a window covering the aperture and extending between the aperture and the light, the window being substantially one of translucent and transparent. 10. The transaction product of claim 8, wherein the housing includes a base and a cover, the base defines openings through which the at least two blades of the electrical plug extend from the housing, and the cover defines the aperture aligned with the light. 11. The transaction product of claim 10, wherein the base defines a first primary panel, the cover defines a second primary panel spaced from the first primary panel, and the housing includes a side wall extending around and between perimeters of the first primary panel and the second primary panel. 12. The transaction product of claim 1, further comprising a pad coupled to the support member, wherein the electrically driven device is positioned on the pad opposite the support member such that the pad cushions the coupling of the electrically driven device to the support member. 13. The transaction product of claim 1, wherein the support member includes a primary panel and a plurality of protrusions extending therefrom to define a reception area for receiving the electrically driven device. 14. The transaction product of claim 1, in combination with a carrier releasably coupled to the support member. 15. The combination of claim 14, wherein the carrier is substantially planar and the electrical plug extends through a hole in the carrier. 16. A light product comprising: a housing defining an aperture; means for providing luminescence from an electroluminescent display through the aperture of the housing; means for powering the electroluminescent display such that the electroluminescent display is able to provide luminescence; and means for linking the housing with at least one of an account and a record having a value associated therewith such that the light product can be used as payment toward a purchase of one or more of goods and services. 17. The light product of claim 16, wherein the means for powering the electroluminescent display extends out of the housing and is configured to interact with a power source external to the light product. 18. The light product of claim 17, wherein the means for powering is configured to be repeatedly coupled and uncoupled with the power source. 19. The light product of claim 16, further comprising means for altering an appearance of luminescence from the electroluminescent display as the luminescence is viewed from a vantage point external to the housing. 20. The light product of claim 16, wherein the electroluminescent display is substantially planar. 21. A method of encouraging purchase and facilitating use of a stored-value card linked to a record or account, the method comprising: displaying the stored-value card to a potential consumer, wherein the stored-value card includes a male connector in electrical communication with a light panel, wherein the male connector is configured to selectively interface with an electrical outlet such that, when the male connector is coupled with the electrical outlet, electricity from the electrical outlet is transferred via the male connector to the light panel to cause illumination of the light panel; and activating the record or account linked to the stored-value card to permit subsequent deductions from a value associated with the record or account for application toward one of a purchase and a use of one or more of goods and services. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the male connector includes at least two pins of an alternating current plug. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the stored-value card is configured to function as a night light, and displaying the stored-value card includes promoting that the stored-value card functions as the night light. 24. A method of assembling a transaction card, the method comprising: positioning a circuit, which includes an electrical device coupled with an alternating current electrical plug, relative to a first member; coupling a second member to the first member to collectively define an enclosure substantially enclosing the circuit therebetween such that at least a portion of the alternating current electrical plug extends out of the enclosure; and coupling an account identifier to the enclosure, wherein the account identifier links the transaction card to an account or record such that the transaction card can be used during a purchase to apply at least a portion of a value of the account or record toward a price of the purchase.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Stored-value cards and other transaction cards come in many forms. A gift card, for example, is a type of stored-value card that includes a pre-loaded or selectively loaded monetary value. In one example, a consumer buys a gift card having a specified value for presentation as a gift to another person. In another example, a consumer is offered a gift card as an incentive to make a purchase. A gift card, like other stored-value cards, can be “recharged” or “reloaded” at the direction of the bearer. The balance associated with the gift card declines as the gift card is used, encouraging repeat visits to the retailer or other provider issuing the gift card. Additionally, the gift card generally remains in the user's purse or wallet, serving as an advertisement or reminder to revisit the associated retailer. Gift cards and other transaction cards provide a number of advantages to both the consumer and the retailer.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One aspect of the present invention relates to a transaction product configured to interface with and receive electrical power from an electrical socket. The transaction product includes a support member, an electrical circuit and an account identifier. The electrical circuit is coupled to the support member and includes an electrical plug and an electrically driven device electrically coupled with the electrical plug. The electrical plug includes at least two blades extending from the support member. The at least two blades are configured to interface with the electrical socket such that electrical power from the electrical socket is transferred to the electrically driven device via the electrical plug. The account identifier links the transaction product to an account or record, wherein the account identifier is machine readable. Other related products and methods are also disclosed and provide additional advantages.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Stored-value cards and other transaction cards come in many forms. A gift card, for example, is a type of stored-value card that includes a pre-loaded or selectively loaded monetary value. In one example, a consumer buys a gift card having a specified value for presentation as a gift to another person. In another example, a consumer is offered a gift card as an incentive to make a purchase. A gift card, like other stored-value cards, can be “recharged” or “reloaded” at the direction of the bearer. The balance associated with the gift card declines as the gift card is used, encouraging repeat visits to the retailer or other provider issuing the gift card. Additionally, the gift card generally remains in the user's purse or wallet, serving as an advertisement or reminder to revisit the associated retailer. Gift cards and other transaction cards provide a number of advantages to both the consumer and the retailer. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One aspect of the present invention relates to a transaction product configured to interface with and receive electrical power from an electrical socket. The transaction product includes a support member, an electrical circuit and an account identifier. The electrical circuit is coupled to the support member and includes an electrical plug and an electrically driven device electrically coupled with the electrical plug. The electrical plug includes at least two blades extending from the support member. The at least two blades are configured to interface with the electrical socket such that electrical power from the electrical socket is transferred to the electrically driven device via the electrical plug. The account identifier links the transaction product to an account or record, wherein the account identifier is machine readable. Other related products and methods are also disclosed and provide additional advantages. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention will be described with respect to the figures, in which like reference numerals denote like elements, and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustration of a transaction product, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a front view illustration of the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a rear view illustration of the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a right side view illustration of the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention, wherein the left side view is a mirror image thereof. FIG. 5 is a top view illustration of the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention, wherein the bottom view is a mirror image thereof. FIG. 6 is an exploded, perspective view illustration of the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a rear view illustration of a cover and a window of the transaction product of FIG. 6, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a rear view illustration of a light panel of FIG. 6, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a front view illustration of a base, a light panel and plug members of the transaction product of FIG. 6, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a front view illustration of a transaction product assembly including a backer and the transaction product of FIG. 1, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a side view illustration of the transaction product assembly of FIG. 10, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating a method of assembling the transaction product, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating a method of encouraging purchase and facilitating use of a transaction product, according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating a method of using a transaction product, according to one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following detailed description merely provides examples of the invention and is not intended to limit the invention or the application and uses of the invention. Furthermore, there is no intention to be bound by any theory presented in the preceding background of the invention or the following detailed description of the invention. A gift card or other transaction product is adapted for making purchases of goods and/or services from e.g., a retail store or website. According to one embodiment, an original consumer buys the transaction product to give a recipient who in turn is able to use the transaction product at a retail store or setting to pay for goods and/or services. The transaction product, according to embodiments of the present invention, provides the consumer and recipient with extra functionality in addition to the ability to pay for goods and/or services with the transaction product. In particular, the transaction product presents the original consumer and/or other bearer of the transaction product with non-transactional functionality. More specifically, in one example, the transaction product includes an electrical plug and is configured to be selectively illuminated, for example, to serve as a night light, or to otherwise be selectively powered. The electrical plug is configured to selectively interface with an electrical socket such that electricity from the electrical socket powers the transaction product, more specifically, the light included therein. In one embodiment, the light is an electroluminescence (EL) light panel and is configured to turn on (i.e., to be illuminated) when the electrical plug is positioned within an electrical socket and to turn off when the electrical plug is removed from the electrical socket. In one embodiment, the additional, non-transactional functionality of the transaction product promotes sale and gifting of the transaction product. Turning to the figures, FIGS. 1-5 illustrate one embodiment of a transaction product 10 such as a stored-value product (e.g., gift card, phone card, etc.), credit product, etc. according to the present invention. Transaction product 10 is configured to be used toward the purchase and/or use of goods and/or services and includes an enclosure or housing 12 and an electrical circuit or assembly 14 (FIG. 6). In one embodiment, electrical assembly 14 is at least partially enclosed within housing 12. In one example, electrical assembly 14 includes an electrical plug 16 (or male connector) configured to interface with an electrical socket (e.g., an alternating current socket or electrical outlet) such that transaction product 10 receives electrical power from the electrical socket. Electrical assembly 14 further includes an electrically driven device 18 (FIG. 6), for example, a light, configured to be turned on (e.g., illuminated) when electrical plug 16 interfaces with the electrical socket as will be further described below. Transaction product 10 includes an account identifier 20 (FIG. 3) such as a bar code, magnetic strip, a smart chip or other electronic device, a radio frequency identification (RFID) device or other suitable identifier readily machine readable by a point-of-sale terminal or other account access station or kiosk. Account identifier 20 indicates an account or record to which transaction product 10 is linked. The account or record of the monetary or other balance on transaction product 10 optionally is maintained on a database, other electronic or manual record-keeping system or, in the case of “smart” cards for example, on a chip or other electronic device(s) on transaction product 10 itself. Accordingly, by scanning account identifier 20, the account or record linked to transaction product 10 is identified and can subsequently be activated, have amounts debited therefrom and/or have amounts added thereto. In one embodiment, account identifier 20 includes a character string or code 22 (e.g., a number and/or letter string) configured to provide additional security to the user of transaction product 10 and/or configured to be read by a bearer of transaction product 10 to facilitate use of transaction product 10 for web site or other purchases outside of brick-and-mortar type retail establishments. With the above in mind, account identifier 20 is one example of means for linking transaction product 10 with an account or record, and scanning of account identifier 20 is one example of means for activating or loading value on transaction product 10. Referring to the exploded perspective view of FIG. 6, in one embodiment, transaction product 10 includes housing 12, electrical assembly 14 and an overlay or window 32. In one embodiment, housing 12 includes a first member 40 and a second member 42, for example, where first member 40 is a base and second member 42 is a cover. In one embodiment, base 40, as described with reference to FIGS. 3 and 6, generally includes a primary panel 50 and a side wall 52. Primary panel 50 is substantially planar and defines an outside surface 54 (FIG. 3) and an inside surface 56 (FIG. 6) opposite outside surface 54. In one embodiment, primary panel 50 is generally rectangular or is otherwise shaped as a square, circle, oval, star or any other suitable shape. Side wall 52 extends from inside surface 56 away from outside surface 54 and, in one example, substantially about an entire perimeter of primary panel 50. In one embodiment, side wall 52 extends with a generally perpendicular orientation relative to primary panel 50. Side wall 52 extends from primary panel 50 to define an inside edge 60 opposite primary panel 50. In one example, inside edge 60 is formed as a stepped edge including a first portion 62 and a second portion 64. First portion 62 extends from primary panel 50 a further distance than second portion 64 extends from primary panel 50, as illustrated with reference to FIG. 6. In one example, first portion 62 extends generally about a perimeter of second portion 64. In this respect, inside edge 60 is formed as a stepped edge with the lower, second portion 64 being positioned just inside higher, first portion 62. In one embodiment, at least first portion 62 forms curved or chamfered corners at each corner, if any, defined by side wall 52. In one embodiment, primary panel 50 defines apertures 66, which extend entirely through primary panel 50. Each aperture 66 is configured to receive a plug member 68 of electrical plug 16 included in electrical assembly 14. For example, where electrical plug 16 is a type A plug (e.g., a North American/Japanese 2-pin plug), primary panel 50 defines two substantially rectangular apertures 66 each sized and positioned to receive one of the two plug members 68 of electrical plug 16 as will be further described below. Other electrical plug types may also be used and the number, shape, size and position of apertures 66 can be adjusted accordingly to receive each member of a particular plug type. For example, three apertures 66 may be formed to each receive a different one of the three plug members of a type B plug (e.g., an American 3-pin or U-ground plug). In one example, protrusions 69 extend from inside surface 56 of primary panel 50 in a direction substantially parallel to side wall 52. In one example, each protrusion 69 is positioned to facilitate assembly of transaction product 10, for instance, to facilitate positioning of portions of electrical assembly 14 relative to base 40. Such protrusions 69 may be positioned adjacent or near to apertures 66 to facilitate positioning of electrical plug 16 relative to base 40 and/or may be positioned to facilitate positioning of other portions of electrical assembly 14 such as electrically driven device 18. Other features configured to facilitate alignment and coupling of base 40 and cover 42 are also contemplated and will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading the present application. One embodiment of cover 42 is illustrated with reference to FIGS. 1, 2, 6 and 7. Cover 42 generally includes a primary panel 70 and a side wall 72. Primary panel 70 is substantially planar, but may be formed with a curved or other suitable contour, for example, as illustrated in FIGS. 1-5. Primary panel 70 defines an outside surface 74 (FIGS. 1, 2 and 6) and an inside surface 76 (FIG. 7) opposite outside surface 74. In one embodiment, primary panel 70 is generally sized similarly to primary panel 50 of base 40. Side wall 72 extends from inside surface 76 about a substantial entirety of a perimeter of primary panel 70. For example, side wall 72 extends with a generally perpendicular orientation relative to primary panel 70. Side wall 72 extends from primary panel 70 to collectively form an inside edge 80 opposite primary panel 70. In one embodiment, inside edge 80 is a stepped edge including a first portion 82 and a second portion 84. In one embodiment, first portion 82 extends from primary panel 70 a smaller distance than second portion 84 extends from primary panel 70 and extends around the perimeter of second portion 84. In this respect, inside edge 80 is formed as a stepped edge with higher, second portion 84 being positioned just inside lower, first portion 82. In one embodiment, the corners of inside edge 80 formed at corners of side wall 72, if any, are rounded or chamfered. In one example, cover 42 or, more specifically, primary panel 70 defines an opening or aperture 86 extending through primary panel 70. Aperture 86 is sized and shaped as desired to allow access or viewing of at least a portion of electrical assembly 14. In one embodiment, aperture 86 is sized similarly to and shaped slightly smaller than the size and shape of electrically driven device 18. In one example, aperture 86 is substantially rectangular, circular or oval and/or is generally centered laterally and/or longitudinally on primary panel 70. In one embodiment, cover 42 includes a plurality of protrusions 88 extending from inside surface 76 of primary panel 70 in a direction substantially parallel to side wall 72. The plurality of protrusions 88 are configured to facilitate alignment and coupling of components of electrical assembly 14 therewith, as will be further described below. In one embodiment, primary panel 70 includes an internal wall 90 (see, e.g., FIG. 7 where a portion of window 32 is cut away for illustrative purposes to show internal wall 90) extending away from inside surface 76 of cover 42 with an orientation that, in one embodiment, is substantially parallel to the extension of side wall 72 from inside surface 76. Internal wall 90 extends from inside surface 76 to define an edge 92 opposite primary panel 70. In one example, internal wall 90 is positioned adjacent to and extends around a substantial entirety of aperture 86. In one example, internal wall 90 is angled radially inwardly from a perimeter of aperture 86. In one embodiment, each of base 40 and cover 42 is formed by injection molding plastic (e.g., polycarbonate, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), teslin, polyactide (PLA) or acrylic) or other suitable material to define the various attributes of base 40 and cover 42. In one example, the material used to form one or more of base 40 and cover 42 of housing 12 is substantially opaque to limit the amount of light emitted from electrical assembly 14 that passes through base 40 and/or cover 42 except where aperture 86 is positioned. Other methods of forming base 40 and cover 42 are also contemplated. In one embodiment, redemption indicia 100, which are generally indicated with a dashed line box in FIG. 3, are included on transaction product 10, for example, on one or both of outside surface 54 of base 40 and outside surface 74 of cover 42. Redemption indicia 100 indicate that transaction product 10 is redeemable for the purchase of goods and/or services and that, upon use, a value of the purchased goods and/or services will be deducted from the financial account or record linked to transaction product 10. In one embodiment, redemption indicia 100 include phrases such as “<NAME OF STORE> GiftCard” and “This GiftCard is redeemable for merchandise or services at any of our stores or at our web site,” and/or provides help or phone line information in case of a lost, stolen or damaged stored-value card, etc. In one embodiment, in which housing 12 is formed by injection molding, account identifier 20, redemption indicia 100 and one or more of any other indicia or information on transaction product 10 are printed on outside surface 54 or outside surface 74 of housing 12. Other indicia, for example, decorative indicia 102 and/or brand indicia 104 may also be included on housing 12, for instance, on outside surface 54 and/or outside surface 74. Decorative indicia 102 are any suitable indicia configured to increase the aesthetic appeal of transaction product 10 and/or to otherwise promote transaction product 10 for a particular purpose, holiday, event, etc. Brand indicia 104 identify a store, brand, department, etc. and/or services associated with transaction product 10. Additional information/indicia besides that specifically described and illustrated herein may also be included on transaction product 10. In one example, window 32 is sized and shaped to substantially cover (i.e., to extend over/under) aperture 86 defined by cover 42. As such, window 32 is sized at least slightly larger than aperture 86. In one embodiment, window 32 is formed of a transparent or translucent material (e.g., clear acetate) and, in one example, is printed or otherwise formed to include indicia 106 thereon. Indicia 106 may be translucent and/or opaque and are configured to alter the appearance of light from electrically driven device 18 as viewed from a vantage point external to housing 12 and window 32. In one example, indicia 106 correspond with decorative indicia 102 of housing 12. Window 32 is one example of means for altering the appearance of luminescence from electrically driven device 18. Referring to FIG. 6, in one embodiment, electrical assembly 14 includes electrical plug 16 and electrically driven device 18. Electrical plug 16 is any suitable connector for interfacing with an electrical power source such as an electrical socket (not shown). In one example, electrical plug 16 is a male portion of an electrical connection and includes two flat parallel pins, blades or plug members 68 wherein one plug member 68 serves as a live pin and the other serves as a neutral pin. In one example, electrical plug 16 includes two plug members 68 that are each serve as a live pin. In one embodiment, each plug member 68 is formed of or is plated with one of brass, tin, nickel or other suitable material. In one example, each plug member 68 is formed separately from and is separately electrically coupled to electrically driven device 18. Use of electrical plugs having more than two plug members 68, for example, including a third or ground plug member, is also contemplated. Electrically driven device 18 is any suitable device configured to be powered via electricity or electrical power received from the electrical socket (not shown) via electrical plug 16. In one embodiment, electrically driven device 18 includes one or more of a light, an audio device, etc. For example, electrically driven device 18 is a light configured to provide a low level of illumination appropriate to serve as a night light when electrically driven device 18 is suitably powered. In one embodiment, electrically driven device 18 includes an electroluminescent (EL) light in the form of a light panel or plate 110. Light plate 110 may be formed in any suitable manner. In one embodiment, light plate 110 includes an EL display, which emits light in response to an electrical current being passed through it or in response to exposure to a strong electric field generally without generating a substantial amount of thermal energy. The EL display includes a luminescent phosphor layer interposed between electrodes, which form an X-Y matrix having substantially transparent front layers. When a charge is applied to the electrodes the luminescent material emits light at the intersections defined by the X-Y matrix as will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading the present application. In one embodiment, the color of light emitted from light plate 110 depends upon the particular luminescent phosphor layer used. For example, for an emission of yellow light, a phosphor material of zinc sulfide (ZnS) doped with manganese (Mn) may be used. For an emission of red light, a phosphor material of calcium sulfide selenium (CaSSe) doped with europium (Eu) may be used. For an emission of green light, one of a material of zinc sulfide (ZnS) doped with terbium oxygen fluoride (TbOF) and a material of strontium sulfide (SrS) doped with cerium (Ce) may be used. For an emission of blue light, one of a material formed of strontium sulfide (SrS) doped with cerium (Ce), a material formed of strontium digallium tetrasulfide (SrGa2S4) doped with cerium (Ce), a material formed of calcium digallium tetrasulfide (CaGa2S4) doped with cerium (Ce) and a material formed of strontium sulfide (SrS) doped with copper (Cu) may be used. For an emission of white light, one of a material formed of strontium sulfide (SrS) doped with cerium (Ce) combined with a material formed of zinc sulfide (ZnS) doped with manganese (Mn) and a material formed of strontium sulfide (SrS) doped with copper (Cu) combined with a material formed of zinc sulfide (ZnS) doped with manganese (Mn) may be used. In one embodiment, a light plate 110 configured to emit yellow or white light is used in conjunction with a colored filter (e.g., as an alternative to or in addition to window 32) to achieve a desired color for emission of light from transaction product 10. The above-described elements along with insulators and/or other components are layered on one another and positioned on one or more substrates such that a solid-state device is formed, for example, in the form of light plate 110, as will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading the present application. In view of the above, light plate 110 is one example of means for providing luminescence from an electroluminescent display. In one embodiment, electrical contacts 112, for example, two electrical contacts 112, extend from light plate 110 and are configured to power electrodes of light plate 110, which thereby causes illumination of light plate 110. In one embodiment, each electrical contact 112 (e.g., electrically conductive wire) extends from light plate 110 and wraps around or otherwise interacts with one of plug members 68. For example, referring to FIG. 6, in one embodiment, each plug member 68 is substantially L-shaped or otherwise defines a main portion 114 and a lip or flange 116 extending transversely from main portion 114, which is substantially planar. One of electrical contacts 112 wraps around the respective flange 116 as generally illustrated with reference to FIG. 9 such that electrical power can be transferred from the respective plug member 68 through electrical contact 112 and to light plate 110. In other embodiments, electrically driven device 18 may be a light configured to be illuminated due to heat (e.g., incandescence) and/or due to the interaction of chemicals (e.g., chemoluminescence), an audio recording and/or playback device, etc. configured to be powered via electrical plug 16 as will become clear to those of skill in the art upon reading the present application. As described above, electrical plug 16 is one example, of means for powering electrically driven device 18. During assembly of electrical assembly 14, light plate 110 is electrically coupled with each plug member 68. More specifically, in one example, electrical contacts 112, which extend from light plate 110, are each positioned to contact and, in one embodiment, to wrap around a portion of each plug member 68 such as flange 116 of each plug member 68. Once assembled to one another, electrical power received via electrical plug 16 from a corresponding electrical socket (not shown) is transferred to light plate 110 via electrical contacts 112. As such, electrical assembly 14 including light plate 110, plug members 68 and electrical contacts 112 is formed. Once assembled, electrical assembly 14 is positioned within housing 12. For example, electrical assembly 14 is positioned relative to base 40 as illustrated with reference to FIGS. 6 and 9. More specifically, electrical assembly 14 is positioned such that each plug member 68 thereof is positioned to extend from electrical contacts 112 through one of apertures 66 formed in primary panel 50 of base 40. In one embodiment, base 40 includes protrusions 69 configured to facilitate positioning of plug members 68 relative to base 40 and apertures 66. Upon placement of electrical assembly 14 relative to base 40, light plate 110 is positioned and aligned with base 40. In one example, at least a portion of the protrusions 69 of base 40 collectively define a plate reception area 120 therebetween. Light plate 110 is placed within plate reception area 120 such that the ones of protrusions 69 forming plate reception area 120 are positioned adjacent various sides of light plate 110 such that protrusions 69 generally decrease undesired movement of light plate 110 within housing 12. In one example, a cushion or pad 122 configured to absorb impact thereto is placed between light plate 110 and primary panel 50 of base 40 to cushion light plate 110 relative to housing 12. In one embodiment, pad 122 is formed of any suitable padding material and/or is sized similarly to light plate 110. As such, pad 122 is positioned within plate reception area 120 prior to positioning of light plate 110 within plate reception area 120 to cushion light plate 110 within housing 12. In one example, pad 122 is adhered to inside surface 56 of primary panel 50 of base 40 within plate reception area 120. Window 32 is positioned over light plate 110 (e.g., opposite pad 122) to protect light plate 110 from being directly contacted through aperture 86 of housing 12. As such, window 32 is positioned within plate reception area 120, and then, cover 42 is placed over base 40 such that light plate 110 is visible through aperture 86 of cover 42 and window 32. Referring to FIG. 7, upon or prior to coupling of cover 42 to base 40, in one embodiment, window 32 and/or a portion of light plate 110 is held in place within housing 12 not only using protrusions 69 of base 40, but also due to protrusions 88 of cover 42. More specifically, housing 12 is formed around electrical assembly 14 by placing base 40 to interface with cover 42 or vice versa. Accordingly, base 40 is placed on cover 42 such that inside edge 60 of base 40 interfaces with inside edge 80 of cover 42. More specifically, first portion 62 and second portion 64 of inside edge 60 interface with first portion 82 and second portion 84 of inside edge 80, respectively. The stepped interface provides for a stable and generally neat coupling of base 40 and cover 42. In one example, adhesive is applied between inside edge 60 and/or inside edge 80 to secure base 40 to cover 42 and/or cover 42 is ultrasonically welded or otherwise coupled with base 40 along inside edges 60 and 80. Other methods of securing base 40 to cover 42 are also contemplated. Upon final assembly, transaction product 10 functions both in a transactional manner and to provide illumination, in the case of light electrically driven device 18, or with other electrically provided functionality or amusement. This at least dual functionality of transaction product 10 serves to entice consumers to purchase transaction product 10. In one example, transaction product 10 additionally includes an on/off or power switch (not shown) configured to turn on and off electrically driven device 18 such that the device is not automatically turned on or off based on whether electrical plug 16 is or is not currently interfacing with a power supplying socket. In one embodiment, in addition or as an alternative to the on/off power switch, transaction product 10 may include a photoelectric eye or light sensor 150 electrically coupled with electrical assembly 14 and configured to turn on and off electrically driven device 18 based on an amount of environmental light detected by light sensor 150. For instance, electrical assembly 14 will turn on electrically driven device 18 when the amount of light detected by light sensor 150 falls below a predetermined level and will turn off electrically driven device 18 when the amount of light detected by light sensor 150 rises above the predetermined level. Other variations of transaction product 10 will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading the present application. FIG. 10 illustrates a carrier or backer 200 supporting transaction product 10. Backer 200 comprises a single layer or multiple layers of paper or plastic material, for example, generally in the form of a relatively stiff but bendable/flexible card. Use of other materials is also contemplated. As such, backer 200 defines an exterior surface 202 (FIG. 10) and an interior surface 204 (FIG. 11) positioned opposite exterior surface 202. Transaction product 10 is readily releasably attached to backer 200, for example, by adhesive, blister packaging, clam shell packaging, overlying skinning material or the like, such that transaction product 10 and backer 200 collectively define a transaction product assembly 206, as will be further described below. In one embodiment, backer 200 includes a window or opening 220 for displaying account identifier 20 of transaction product 10 as illustrated in FIG. 10. As previously described, account identifier 20 is adapted for accessing an account or record associated with transaction product 10 for activating, loading or debiting value from the account or record. Accordingly, in one embodiment, opening 220 allows access to account identifier 20 to activate and/or load transaction product 10 without removing transaction product 10 from backer 200. In one embodiment, backer 200 additionally defines an opening or hole 222 for electrical plug 16 to extend through when transaction product 10 is coupled with backer 200 and/or an opening or aperture 224 (e.g., as generally outlined by a depicted window and curtain in FIG. 10) sized to allow housing 12 or at least a portion thereof extend therethrough when backer 200 is folded. More specifically, in one embodiment, backer 200 includes a fold line 230 dividing backer 200 into a front panel 232 and a rear panel 234. Additionally referring to the fully assembled and folded backer 200 illustrated in FIG. 11, in one embodiment, transaction product 10 is coupled with interior surface 204 of rear panel 234 such that account identifier 20 aligns with opening 220 and electrical plug 16 extends out hole 222, which is defined by rear panel 234. Subsequently, backer 200 is folded about fold line 230 in a manner moving a portion of interior surface 204 defined by front panel 232 toward and eventually into contact with a portion of interior surface 204 defined by rear panel 234. The portion of interior surface 204 defined by front panel 232 is, more particularly, coupled directly to the portion of interior surface 204 defined by rear panel 234. Upon folding, in one embodiment, at least a substantial portion of housing 12 extends through aperture 224 of front panel 232. Accordingly, backer 200 as described allows for viewing of nearly all of transaction product 10 except for portions of outside surface 54 of primary panel 50. In one embodiment, backer 200 defines a hanging aperture 240 configured to receive a support arm or hook, such that transaction product assembly 206 can be hung from a rail or rack within the retail setting or elsewhere to facilitate display of transaction product assembly 206. Other backers, such as foldable backers (not shown) or non-hanging backers, can be used with various sizes and shapes of transaction products 10. In one embodiment, backer 200 displays indicia, graphics or text information including store logo(s), store name(s), slogans, advertising, instructions, directions, brand indicia, promotional information, holiday indicia, seasonal indicia, media format identifiers, characters and/or other information. The various indicia may be included on one or more of exterior surface 202 and internal surface 204. In one example, the indicia include one or more of redemption indicia 208, message field indicia 210, brand indicia 212, decorative indicia 214, etc. Redemption indicia 208, which are generally indicated with a dashed line box in FIG. 10, inform a bearer of transaction product assembly 206 that transaction product 10 is redeemable for the purchase of goods and/or services and that upon use, a value of the purchased goods and/or services will be deducted from the financial account or record linked to transaction product 10. In one embodiment, redemption indicia 208 include phrases such as “<NAME OF STORE> GiftCard” and “This GiftCard is redeemable for merchandise or services at any of our stores or at our website,” and/or provides help or phone line information in case of a lost, stolen or damaged transaction product 10, etc. Message field indicia 210, for example, include “to,” “from” and “amount” fields and are configured to be written to by the bearer of transaction product assembly 206 prior to presenting transaction product assembly 206 to a recipient. As such, message field indicia 210 facilitate the consumer in preparing transaction product assembly 206 for gifting to a recipient. Brand indicia 212 identify a store, brand, department, etc. and/or services associated with transaction product 10. Any decorative indicia 214, which may be similar to or coordinate with indicia of transaction product 10, may also be included on backer 200. Any of indicia 208, 210, 212, 214 or other indicia optionally may appear anywhere on backer 200 or transaction product 10. In one embodiment, at least one of indicia 208, 210, 212, 214 or other indicia include stylized text further contributing to the aesthetics of transaction product assembly 206 as illustrated, for example, in FIG. 10. Additional information besides that specifically described and illustrated herein may also be included. FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating one embodiment of a method 300 of assembling transaction product 10. For example, at 310, pad 122 is placed on and, in one embodiment, is coupled to base 40, more specifically, within plate reception area 120, with adhesive or in any other suitable manner. Then, at 312, light plate 110 is electrically coupled with plug members 68 of electrical plug 16. In one embodiment, light plate 110 is electrically coupled with plug members 68 via electrical contacts 12 that extend between and, in one example, are wrapped around at least plug members 68 to assemble electrical assembly 14. At 314, electrical assembly 14 is positioned relative to base 40. In particular, light plate 110 is placed on pad 122 opposite primary panel 50 of base 40, and each plug member 68 is positioned to extend from an interior portion of base 40 through a corresponding one of apertures 66 defined by base 40 to allow plug members 68 to be accessed even when housing 12 is fully assembled around a remainder of electrical assembly 14. Although primarily described herein as statically extending from base 40, in one embodiment, plug members 68 may be movably coupled with base 40. For example, in one embodiment, plug members 68 are configured to fold at least partially into base 40 during periods of storage or non-use and are configured to fold out or to otherwise extend away from base 40 during periods of use as will be apparent to one of skill in the art upon reading this application. In one embodiment, window 32 or other filter, diffuser, etc. is placed over light plate 110 opposite pad 122. In one example, each of pad 122, light plate 110 and window 32 is similarly sized and shaped such that each of pad 122, light plate 110 and window 32 generally fit within plate reception area 120 and are at least partially maintained therein by base protrusions 69. At 318, base 40 and cover 42 are coupled to one another. In one instance, inside edge 60 of base 40 is positioned to abut and be secured to inside edge 80 of cover 42 as described above. Upon coupling base 40 and cover 42 to one another, aperture 86 of cover 42 is aligned with window 32 and light plate 110 such that light plate 110 is at least partially visible through window 32 and aperture 86. In one example, aperture 86 is sized similarly to, but slightly smaller than window 32 and light plate 110. In this manner, light from light plate 110 passes through window 32, and therefore, through and/or around indicia 106 of window 32 to escape housing 12. In one embodiment, given the slight biasing and resiliency of pad 122, pad 122 slightly pushes light plate 110 toward window 32 and, in turn, pushes window 32 toward cover 40. As such, window 32 interfaces with edge 92 of internal wall 90, which extends around aperture 86, in a manner substantially sealing aperture 86 of housing 12 to decrease an amount of undesired contaminants that may otherwise enter housing 12 through aperture 86. Other methods of coupling base 40 and cover 42 are also contemplated and/or one or more of base 40 and cover 42 or similar members are used to fully support electrical assembly 14 without substantially enclosing electrical assembly 14 therein. At 320, account identifier 20 is added to housing 12, if account identifier is not already part of transaction product 10. Although illustrated in FIG. 12 as occurring after all of operations 310, 312, 314, 316 and 318, it should be understood that account identifier 20 may be applied to housing 12 or any portion thereof at any suitable time during manufacturing and assembly thereof. For example, account identifier 20 may be molded into or otherwise integrally formed as part of housing 12, may be enclosed within housing 12 and/or may be printed or otherwise applied to housing 12 before or after one or more of operations 310, 312, 314, 316 and 318 as will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this application. At 322, transaction product 10 is coupled with backer 200 as generally illustrated with additional reference to FIGS. 10 and 11 to form transaction product assembly 206. As described above, transaction product 10 may be adhered, skinned to, blister packed with or otherwise suitably coupled with backer 200. In one embodiment, account identifier 20 of transaction product 10 is accessible for scanning while transaction product 10 is coupled with backer 200, for example, through opening 220 in backer 200. FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating one embodiment of a method 330 of encouraging purchase and facilitating use of transaction product 10 by consumers and/or recipients. At 332, transaction product 10 is placed on or hung from a rack, shelf or other similar device to display transaction product 10 for sale to potential consumers. In one embodiment, a depiction of transaction product 10 is placed on a web site for viewing and purchase by potential consumers. In one example, display of transaction product 10 includes advertising the electrical functionality of transaction product 10 to encourage consumer purchase of transaction product 10, for example, in the form of indicia 208, 210, 212, 214, etc. At 334, a consumer who has decided to purchase transaction product 10 presents transaction product 10 on backer 200 to a retail store employee, retail store kiosk, remote terminal or other person or device to scan account identifier 20 to access an account or record linked to account identifier 20. In particular, account identifier 20 is scanned or otherwise accessed, for example through opening 220 of backer 200 to activate transaction product 10. Upon accessing the account or record, then, at 336, value is added to the account or record in the form of monetary value, points, minutes, etc. Thus, transaction product 10 is activated and loaded. In one example, a predetermined value is associated with transaction product 10 (i.e., associated with the account or record linked to transaction product 10 via account identifier 20) prior to activation and display, but such predetermined value is not initially available for use toward the purchase or use of goods and/or services. In such an embodiment, at 334, transaction product 10 is activated to permit subsequent access to the predetermined value (e.g., subsequent loading on and debiting from the account or record) and no additional value is added during activation such that operation 336 may be eliminated. Once transaction product 10 is activated and loaded, transaction product 10 can be used by the consumer or any other bearer of transaction product 10 to purchase goods and/or services at the affiliated retail setting (e.g., a retail store or web site) or can be used in exchange for calling minutes, etc. In one embodiment, where transaction product 10 is displayed on a web site at 332, then, at 334, transaction product 10 may be activated in any suitable method and may not require the physical scanning of account identifier 20 to be activated or to otherwise access the associated account or record such as at 336. In one example, at 338, the retail store or other affiliated retail setting or web site accepts transaction product 10 as payment toward the purchase of goods and/or services made by the current bearer of transaction product 10. In particular, the value currently loaded on transaction product 10 (i.e., stored or recorded in the account or record linked to account identifier 20) is applied toward the purchase of goods and/or services. At 340, additional value is optionally loaded on transaction product 10 at a point-of-sale terminal, kiosk or other area of the retail store, retail web site, or other related setting. Upon accepting transaction product 10 as payment at 338, the retail store or related setting can subsequently perform either operation 338 again or operation 340 as requested by a current bearer of transaction product 10. Similarly, upon loading additional value on transaction product 10 at 340, the retail store or related setting can subsequently perform either operation 340 again or operation 338. In one example, the ability to accept transaction product 10 as payment for goods and/or services is limited by whether the account or record associated with transaction product 10 has any value stored or recorded therein at the time of attempted redemption. FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating one embodiment of a method 360 of using transaction product 10 (e.g., FIGS. 1-6). At 362, a potential consumer of transaction product 10, which is displayed in a retail store or viewed on a web site, decides to and does purchase transaction product 10 from the retail store or web site. It should be understood that transaction product 10 can be displayed and purchased alone or as part of transaction product assembly 206. Upon purchasing transaction product 10, a retail store employee, a retail store kiosk or other person or device scans account identifier 20 (FIG. 3), for example, through opening 220 of backer 200 or otherwise reads or accesses account identifier 20. Upon accessing account identifier 20, the account or record linked to account identifier 20 is accessed and activated to load value onto transaction product 10 (i.e., to load value to the account or record associated with transaction product 10). In one embodiment, such as where transaction product 10 is purchased at 362 via a web site, actual scanning or other mechanical detection of account identifier 20 may be eliminated and/or manual input of code 22 may be added. At 364, the consumer optionally gives transaction product 10 to a recipient, such as a graduate, relative, friend, expectant parents, one having a recent or impending birthday, a couple having a recent or impending anniversary, etc. In one embodiment, a plurality of transaction products 10 are purchased and given to party goers such as at a birthday party, etc. as party favors or gifts. As an alternative, the consumer can keep transaction product 10 for his or her own use thereby eliminating operation 364. At 366, the consumer, recipient or other current bearer of transaction product 10 interacts with transaction product 10 to use transaction product 10 in its non-transactional capacity. For example, electrical plug 16 of transaction product 10 is placed into an electrical socket and, consequently, electrically driven device 18 is activated to illuminate, play or record an audio message, etc. In one embodiment, upon placement of electrical plug 16 into an electrical socket, electrical power is transferred from the electrical socket to the light plate 110, which, in turn, illuminates light plate 110 such that transaction product 10 functions as a light (e.g., a night light). At 368, the consumer or recipient redeems transaction product 10 for goods and/or services from the retail store or web site. At 370, the consumer or recipient of transaction product 10 optionally adds value to transaction product 10, more particularly, to the account or record associated with account identifier 20 included therewith, at the retail store or over the Internet (i.e., via the web site). Upon plugging in transaction product 10 at 366, redeeming transaction product 10 at 368 or adding value to transaction product 10 at 370, the consumer or recipient of transaction product 10 subsequently can perform either of operations 366, 368 or 370 as desired. In one embodiment, the ability of the consumer or recipient to repeat redeeming transaction product 10 at 370 is limited by whether the account or record linked with transaction product 10 has any remaining value stored or recorded therein at the time of attempted redemption. Although primarily described above as occurring at a single retail store or web site, in one embodiment, purchasing transaction product 10 at 362, redeeming transaction product 10 at 368 and adding value to transaction product 10 at 370, can each be performed at any one of a number of stores adapted to accept transaction product 10 or over the Internet. In one example, each of the number of stores is part of a chain or a group of similarly branded stores. In one example, a number of stores include at least one web site and/or at least one conventional brick and mortar store. Transaction products come in many forms, according to embodiments of the invention. The gift card, like other transaction products, can be “re-charged” or “re-loaded” at the direction of the original consumer, the gift recipient or a third party. The term “loading on” or “loaded on” herein should be interpreted to include adding to the balance of an account or record associated with a transaction product. The balance associated with the transaction product declines as the transaction product is used, encouraging repeat visits or use. The transaction product remains in the user's purse or wallet, serving as an advertisement or a reminder to revisit the associated merchant. Gift cards according to embodiments of the invention provide a number of advantages to both the consumer and the merchant. Other transaction products according to embodiments of the invention include loyalty cards, merchandise return cards, electronic gift certificates, calling cards, employee cards, frequency cards, prepaid cards and other types of cards associated with or representing purchasing power, monetary value, etc. Although the invention has been described with respect to particular embodiments, such embodiments are for illustrative purposes only and should not be considered to limit the invention. Various alternatives and other modifications within the scope of the invention in its various embodiments will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading this application.
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G
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19
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06
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12003475
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US20080123935A1-20080529
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Mask data creation method
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ACCEPTED
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20080514
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20080529
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[]
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G06K900
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["G06K900"]
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7625678
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20071226
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20091201
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430
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005000
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60381.0
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ROSASCO
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STEPHEN
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Misaka", "inventor_name_first": "Akio", "inventor_city": "Osaka", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "JP"}]
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The photomask of this invention includes, on a transparent substrate, a semi-shielding portion having a transmitting property against exposing light, a transparent portion having a transmitting property against the exposing light and surrounded with the semi-shielding portion, and an auxiliary pattern surrounded with the semi-shielding portion and provided around the transparent portion. The semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion transmit the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to each other. The auxiliary pattern transmits the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to the semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion and is not transferred through exposure.
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1-38. (canceled) 39. A mask data creation method for creating mask data for a photomask including a mask pattern formed on a transparent substrate and a transparent portion of said transparent substrate where said mask pattern is not formed, comprising the steps of: (a) arranging a pattern corresponding to a desired exposed region of a resist formed by irradiating said resist with exposing light through said photomask; (b) determining a distance between outline shifters forming a pair and sandwiching said pattern and a width of each of said outline shifters in accordance with said pattern; (c) providing said transparent portion inside said outline shifters; (d) after the step (c), setting said transparent portion as a CD adjustment pattern; (e) providing a semi-shielding portion for transmitting the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to said transparent portion in such a manner that said transparent portion and said outline shifters are surrounded with said semi-shielding portion; (f) setting said outline shifters as phase shifters that transmit the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to said transparent portion; (g) predicting, through simulation, a dimension of a resist pattern formed by using said mask pattern including said phase shifters and said semi-shielding portion; and (h) when said predicted dimension of said resist pattern does not accord with a desired dimension, deforming said mask pattern by deforming said CD adjustment pattern. 40. The mask data creation method of claim 39, wherein the step (b) includes a sub-step of changing said width of said outline shifters in accordance with said distance between said outline shifters. 41. The mask data creation method of claim 39, wherein the step (b) includes a sub-step of changing said internal distance between said outline shifters in accordance with a close relationship between desired exposed regions. 42. The mask data creation method of claim 39, wherein said phase shifters are provided around said transparent portion with part of said semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween. 43. The mask data creation method of claim 40, wherein said phase shifters are provided around said transparent portion with part of said semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween. 44. The mask data creation method of claim 41, wherein said phase shifters are provided around said transparent portion with part of said semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween. 45. The mask data creation method of claim 39, wherein each of said phase shifters is disposed in parallel to each side of said transparent portion having a rectangular shape. 46. The mask data creation method of claim 45, wherein said phase shifters consists of four rectangular patterns. 47. The mask data creation method of claim 40, wherein each of said phase shifters is disposed in parallel to each side of said transparent portion having a rectangular shape. 48. The mask data creation method of claim 47, wherein said phase shifters consists of four rectangular patterns. 49. The mask data creation method of claim 41, wherein each of said phase shifters is disposed in parallel to each side of said transparent portion having a rectangular shape. 50. The mask data creation method of claim 49, wherein said phase shifters consists of four rectangular patterns. 51. The mask data creation method of claim 39, wherein the step (a) includes a sub-step of setting transmittances of said phase shifters and said semi-shielding portion. 52. The mask data creation method of claim 40, wherein the step (a) includes a sub-step of setting transmittances of said phase shifters and said semi-shielding portion. 53. The mask data creation method of claim 41, wherein the step (a) includes a sub-step of setting transmittances of said phase shifters and said semi-shielding portion.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a photomask for use in fine pattern formation in the fabrication of a semiconductor integrated circuit device, a pattern formation method using the photomask and a method for creating mask data for the photomask. Recently, there are increasing demands for thinning of circuit patterns in order to further increase the degree of integration of a large scale integrated circuit device (hereinafter referred to as the LSI) realized by using semiconductors. Accordingly, thinning of an interconnect pattern used in a circuit or thinning of a contact hole pattern (hereinafter referred to as the contact pattern) for mutually connecting multilayered interconnects having an insulating layer therebetween has become very significant. Now, the thinning of an interconnect pattern using a conventional optical exposure system will be described on the assumption that the positive resist process is employed. In the positive resist process, a line pattern corresponds to a line-shaped resist film (a resist pattern) remaining correspondingly to an unexposed region of a resist after exposure using a photomask and subsequent development. Also, a space pattern corresponds to a resist removal portion (a resist removal pattern) corresponding to an exposed region of the resist. Furthermore, a contact pattern corresponds to a hole-shaped resist removal portion and can be regarded as a particularly fine space pattern. It is noted that when the negative resist process is employed instead of the positive resist process, the above-described definitions of a line pattern and a space pattern are replaced with each other. In general, a fine pattern formation method using oblique incident exposure (off-axis illumination) designated as super-resolution exposure has been introduced for the thinning of an interconnect pattern. This method is good for thinning a resist pattern corresponding to an unexposed region of a resist and has an effect to improve the depth of focus of dense patterns periodically and densely arranged. However, this oblique incident exposure has substantially no effect to thin an isolated resist removal portion, and on the contrary, the contrast and the depth of focus of an image (optical image) are degraded when it is employed for an isolated resist removal portion. Therefore, the oblique incident exposure has been positively employed in pattern formation in which a resist removal portion has a larger dimension than a resist pattern, such as gate pattern formation. On the other hand, it is known that a small light source including no oblique incident component and having a low degree of coherence is effectively used for forming an isolated fine resist removal portion like a fine contact pattern. In this case, the pattern can be more effectively formed by using an attenuated phase-shifting mask. In an attenuated phase-shifting mask, a phase shifter is used instead of a completely shielding portion as a shielding pattern for surrounding a transparent portion (an opening) corresponding to a contact pattern. The phase shifter has very low transmittance of approximately 3 through 6% against exposing light, and causes phase inversion of 180 degrees in the exposing light with respect to light passing through the opening. Herein, the transmittance is effective transmittance obtained by assuming that a transparent substrate has transmittance of 100% unless otherwise mentioned. Also, a completely shielding film (a completely shielding portion) means a shielding film (a shielding portion) having effective transmittance lower than 1%. Now, the principle of a conventional pattern formation method using an attenuated phase-shifting mask will be described with reference to FIGS. 32A through 32G . FIG. 32A is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a chromium film formed on the mask surface as a completely shielding portion, and FIG. 32B shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32A . FIG. 32C is a plan view of a photomask in which a chromium film corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a phase shifter formed on the mask surface, and FIG. 32D shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32C . FIG. 32E is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a phase shifter formed on the mask surface (namely, an attenuated phase-shifting mask), and FIGS. 32F and 32G respectively show the amplitude intensity and the light intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32E . As shown in FIGS. 32B , 32 D and 32 F, the amplitude intensity of the light having passed through the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E is a sum of the amplitude intensities of the lights having passed through the photomasks of FIGS. 32A and 32C . In other words, in the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E , the phase shifter working as a shielding portion is formed not only so as to transmit light at low transmittance but also so as to cause an optical path difference (a phase difference) of 180 degrees in the light passing through the opening with respect to the light passing through the phase shifter. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 32B and 32D , the light passing through the phase shifter has an amplitude intensity distribution in the opposite phase with respect to the light passing through the opening. Accordingly, when the amplitude intensity distribution of FIG. 32B and the amplitude intensity distribution of FIG. 32D are synthesized with each other, a phase boundary having amplitude intensity of 0 (zero) is obtained as a result of the phase change as shown in FIG. 32F . As a result, as shown in FIG. 32G , at an end of the opening corresponding to the phase boundary (hereinafter referred to as the phase end), the light intensity, which is expressed as a square of the amplitude intensity, is 0 (zero), and thus, a strongly dark part is formed. Therefore, in an image of the light having passed through the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E , very high contrast can be realized around the opening. However, this improved contrast is obtained in light vertically entering the mask, and more specifically, light entering the mask from a small light source region with a low degree of coherence. On the other hand, such improved contrast cannot be obtained even around the opening (namely, in the vicinity of the phase boundary where the phase change is caused) in employing the oblique incident exposure, such as exposure designated as annular illumination excluding a vertical incident component (an illumination component entering from the center of the light source (along the normal direction of the mask)). Furthermore, as compared with the case where the exposure is performed by using small light source with a low degree of coherence, the depth of focus is disadvantageously smaller when the oblique incident exposure is employed. Moreover, in order to compensate the disadvantage of the attenuated phase-shifting mask in the oblique incident exposure such as the annular illumination, a method in which a small opening that is not resolved, namely, an auxiliary pattern, is formed around an opening (corresponding to an isolated contact pattern) of the attenuated phase-shifting mask has been proposed (for example, see Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 5-165194). Thus, a periodic light intensity distribution can be obtained, thereby improving the depth of focus. As described above, in the case where a fine resist removal pattern such as a contact pattern is to be formed by the positive resist process, it is necessary to perform the exposure by using a combination of an attenuated phase-shifting mask and a small light source with a degree of coherence of approximately 0.5 or less, that is, illumination having a vertical incident component alone. This method is very effective for forming a fine isolated contact pattern. In accordance with recent increase of the degree of integration of semiconductor devices, it has become necessary to form, as not only interconnect patterns but also contact patterns, isolated patterns and patterns densely arranged at a pitch corresponding to the wavelength. In such a case, in order to realize a large depth of focus in the formation of densely arranged contact patterns, the oblique incident exposure is effectively employed as in the formation of densely arranged interconnect patterns. In other words, the oblique incident exposure is indispensable for the formation of dense interconnect patterns and dense contact patterns, but when the oblique incident exposure is employed, the contrast and the depth of focus of isolated contact patterns and isolated space patterns between interconnects are largely degraded. This degradation of the contrast and the depth of focus is more serious when an attenuated phase-shifting mask is used for improving the resolution. On the contrary, when a small light source with a low degree of coherence is used for forming isolated fine contact patterns and isolated fine space patterns between interconnects, it is disadvantageously difficult to form dense patterns and fine line patterns. Accordingly, there is a reciprocal relationship between the optimum illumination conditions for isolated fine space patterns and the optimum illumination conditions for densely arranged patterns or fine line patterns. Therefore, in order to simultaneously form fine resist patterns and fine isolated resist removal patterns, trade-off is considered between the effect of a vertical incident component and the effect of an oblique incident component of the light source. As a result, a light source with an intermediate degree of coherence (of approximately 0.5 through 0.6) is used. In this case, however, both the effects of the vertical incident component and the oblique incident component are cancelled, and therefore, it is difficult to realize a higher degree of integration of semiconductor devices by simultaneously thinning isolated line patterns or dense patterns and isolated space patterns. It is noted that the aforementioned auxiliary pattern need to provide needs to be provided in a position away from an opening corresponding to a contact pattern at least by a distance corresponding to the wavelength of a light source (exposing light). Therefore, in the case where openings are arranged at a pitch ranging from the wavelength to a double of the wavelength, the auxiliary pattern cannot be used. In other words, the aforementioned method using the auxiliary pattern is not applicable to all arrangements ranging from the case where openings are arranged at a pitch substantially corresponding to the wavelength to the case where an opening is isolated.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In consideration of the aforementioned conventional disadvantages, an object of the invention is simultaneously thinning isolated space patterns and isolated line patterns or dense patterns. In order to achieve the object, the photomask of this invention includes, on a transparent substrate, a semi-shielding portion having a transmitting property against exposing light; a transparent portion surrounded with the semi-shielding portion and having a transmitting property against the exposing light; and an auxiliary pattern surrounded with the semi-shielding portion and provided around the transparent portion. The semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion transmit the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to each other, and the auxiliary pattern transmits the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to the semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion and is not transferred through exposure. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In this case, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.3×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.5×λ×M)/NA. Furthermore, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.05×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ) and not more than (0.2×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. Alternatively, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.365×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.435×λ×M)/NA. In this case, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.1×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ) and not more than (0.15×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In this case, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.25×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.45×λ×M)/NA. Furthermore, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.05×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ) and not more than (0.2×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. Alternatively, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.275×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.425×λ×M)/NA. In this case, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.1×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ) and not more than (0.15×λ×M)/(NA×T 0.5 ), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern that is adjacent to a different auxiliary pattern spaced by a given or smaller distance with the semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween and a second auxiliary pattern that is not adjacent to a different auxiliary pattern spaced by the given or smaller distance with the semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller width than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the first auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first pattern that is away from the adjacent different auxiliary pattern by a distance G 1 and a second pattern that is away from the adjacent different auxiliary pattern by a distance G 2 , and in the case where (0.5×λ×M)/NA>G 1 >G 2 , the second pattern preferably has a smaller width than the first pattern, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. Furthermore, in this case, a difference between the width of the first pattern and the width of the second pattern is preferably in proportion to a difference between the distance G 1 and the distance G 2 . In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller area than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.3×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller width than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller area than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably farther from the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (1.15×λ×M)/NA to (1.45×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably closer to the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (0.85×λ×M)/NA to (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably farther from the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (1.0×λ×M)/NA to (1.3×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably closer to the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (0.7×λ×M)/NA to (1.0×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line, the auxiliary pattern is preferably disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along a line direction of the transparent portion, and the transparent portion preferably has a line end protruded beyond the auxiliary pattern by a given or larger dimension along the line direction. In this case, the given dimension is preferably (0.03×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a pair of first auxiliary patterns disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along a line direction of the transparent portion and sandwiching a line center part of the transparent portion and a pair of second auxiliary patterns disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along the line direction and sandwiching a line end part of the transparent portion, and a distance between the pair of second auxiliary patterns is preferably larger by a given or larger dimension than a distance between the pair of first auxiliary patterns. In this case, each of the pair of second auxiliary patterns preferably has a length along the line direction of (0.03×λ×M)/NA or more, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. Also, the given degree is preferably (0.03×λ×M)/NA or more. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a first phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the first phase shift film, a second phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the first phase shift film. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a semi-shielding film that transmits the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a metal thin film that transmits the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the transparent portion is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the auxiliary pattern, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the auxiliary pattern. The pattern formation method of this invention uses a photomask of this invention, and the pattern formation method includes the steps of forming a resist film on a substrate; irradiating the resist film with the exposing light through the photomask, and forming a resist pattern by developing the resist film after irradiation with the exposing light. The mask data creation method of this invention is employed for creating mask data for a photomask including a mask pattern formed on a transparent substrate and a transparent portion of the transparent substrate where the mask pattern is not formed. Specifically, the mask data creation method includes the steps of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters on the basis of a desired exposed region of a resist formed by irradiating the resist with exposing light through the photomask; providing the transparent portion inside the outline shifters; setting the transparent portion as a CD adjustment pattern; providing a semi-shielding portion for transmitting the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion in such a manner that the transparent portion and the outline shifters are surrounded with the semi-shielding portion; setting the outline shifters as phase shifters that transmit the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion; predicting, through simulation, a dimension of a resist pattern formed by using the mask pattern including the phase shifters and the semi-shielding portion; and when the predicted dimension of the resist pattern does not accord with a desired dimension, deforming the mask pattern by deforming the CD adjustment pattern. In this method, the step of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters preferably includes a sub-step of changing the width of the outline shifters in accordance with a distance between the outline shifters. Furthermore, the step of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters preferably includes a sub-step of changing the internal distance of the outline shifters in accordance with a close relationship between desired exposed regions. According to this invention, contrast of a light intensity distribution between a transparent portion and an auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through the transparent portion and light passing through the auxiliary pattern. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Herein, having a transmitting property against exposing light means having transmittance sufficiently high for sensitizing a resist, and having a shielding property against exposing light means having too low transmittance to sensitize a resist. Furthermore, an identical phase means a phase difference not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees, and an opposite phase means a phase difference not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer).
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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/824,529, filed Apr. 15, 2004, claiming priority of Japanese application Ser. No. 10/824,529, filed Jun. 24, 2003, the entire contents of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a photomask for use in fine pattern formation in the fabrication of a semiconductor integrated circuit device, a pattern formation method using the photomask and a method for creating mask data for the photomask. Recently, there are increasing demands for thinning of circuit patterns in order to further increase the degree of integration of a large scale integrated circuit device (hereinafter referred to as the LSI) realized by using semiconductors. Accordingly, thinning of an interconnect pattern used in a circuit or thinning of a contact hole pattern (hereinafter referred to as the contact pattern) for mutually connecting multilayered interconnects having an insulating layer therebetween has become very significant. Now, the thinning of an interconnect pattern using a conventional optical exposure system will be described on the assumption that the positive resist process is employed. In the positive resist process, a line pattern corresponds to a line-shaped resist film (a resist pattern) remaining correspondingly to an unexposed region of a resist after exposure using a photomask and subsequent development. Also, a space pattern corresponds to a resist removal portion (a resist removal pattern) corresponding to an exposed region of the resist. Furthermore, a contact pattern corresponds to a hole-shaped resist removal portion and can be regarded as a particularly fine space pattern. It is noted that when the negative resist process is employed instead of the positive resist process, the above-described definitions of a line pattern and a space pattern are replaced with each other. In general, a fine pattern formation method using oblique incident exposure (off-axis illumination) designated as super-resolution exposure has been introduced for the thinning of an interconnect pattern. This method is good for thinning a resist pattern corresponding to an unexposed region of a resist and has an effect to improve the depth of focus of dense patterns periodically and densely arranged. However, this oblique incident exposure has substantially no effect to thin an isolated resist removal portion, and on the contrary, the contrast and the depth of focus of an image (optical image) are degraded when it is employed for an isolated resist removal portion. Therefore, the oblique incident exposure has been positively employed in pattern formation in which a resist removal portion has a larger dimension than a resist pattern, such as gate pattern formation. On the other hand, it is known that a small light source including no oblique incident component and having a low degree of coherence is effectively used for forming an isolated fine resist removal portion like a fine contact pattern. In this case, the pattern can be more effectively formed by using an attenuated phase-shifting mask. In an attenuated phase-shifting mask, a phase shifter is used instead of a completely shielding portion as a shielding pattern for surrounding a transparent portion (an opening) corresponding to a contact pattern. The phase shifter has very low transmittance of approximately 3 through 6% against exposing light, and causes phase inversion of 180 degrees in the exposing light with respect to light passing through the opening. Herein, the transmittance is effective transmittance obtained by assuming that a transparent substrate has transmittance of 100% unless otherwise mentioned. Also, a completely shielding film (a completely shielding portion) means a shielding film (a shielding portion) having effective transmittance lower than 1%. Now, the principle of a conventional pattern formation method using an attenuated phase-shifting mask will be described with reference to FIGS. 32A through 32G. FIG. 32A is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a chromium film formed on the mask surface as a completely shielding portion, and FIG. 32B shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32A. FIG. 32C is a plan view of a photomask in which a chromium film corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a phase shifter formed on the mask surface, and FIG. 32D shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32C. FIG. 32E is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening corresponding to a contact pattern is formed in a phase shifter formed on the mask surface (namely, an attenuated phase-shifting mask), and FIGS. 32F and 32G respectively show the amplitude intensity and the light intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AA′ of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 32E. As shown in FIGS. 32B, 32D and 32F, the amplitude intensity of the light having passed through the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E is a sum of the amplitude intensities of the lights having passed through the photomasks of FIGS. 32A and 32C. In other words, in the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E, the phase shifter working as a shielding portion is formed not only so as to transmit light at low transmittance but also so as to cause an optical path difference (a phase difference) of 180 degrees in the light passing through the opening with respect to the light passing through the phase shifter. Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 32B and 32D, the light passing through the phase shifter has an amplitude intensity distribution in the opposite phase with respect to the light passing through the opening. Accordingly, when the amplitude intensity distribution of FIG. 32B and the amplitude intensity distribution of FIG. 32D are synthesized with each other, a phase boundary having amplitude intensity of 0 (zero) is obtained as a result of the phase change as shown in FIG. 32F. As a result, as shown in FIG. 32G, at an end of the opening corresponding to the phase boundary (hereinafter referred to as the phase end), the light intensity, which is expressed as a square of the amplitude intensity, is 0 (zero), and thus, a strongly dark part is formed. Therefore, in an image of the light having passed through the attenuated phase-shifting mask of FIG. 32E, very high contrast can be realized around the opening. However, this improved contrast is obtained in light vertically entering the mask, and more specifically, light entering the mask from a small light source region with a low degree of coherence. On the other hand, such improved contrast cannot be obtained even around the opening (namely, in the vicinity of the phase boundary where the phase change is caused) in employing the oblique incident exposure, such as exposure designated as annular illumination excluding a vertical incident component (an illumination component entering from the center of the light source (along the normal direction of the mask)). Furthermore, as compared with the case where the exposure is performed by using small light source with a low degree of coherence, the depth of focus is disadvantageously smaller when the oblique incident exposure is employed. Moreover, in order to compensate the disadvantage of the attenuated phase-shifting mask in the oblique incident exposure such as the annular illumination, a method in which a small opening that is not resolved, namely, an auxiliary pattern, is formed around an opening (corresponding to an isolated contact pattern) of the attenuated phase-shifting mask has been proposed (for example, see Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 5-165194). Thus, a periodic light intensity distribution can be obtained, thereby improving the depth of focus. As described above, in the case where a fine resist removal pattern such as a contact pattern is to be formed by the positive resist process, it is necessary to perform the exposure by using a combination of an attenuated phase-shifting mask and a small light source with a degree of coherence of approximately 0.5 or less, that is, illumination having a vertical incident component alone. This method is very effective for forming a fine isolated contact pattern. In accordance with recent increase of the degree of integration of semiconductor devices, it has become necessary to form, as not only interconnect patterns but also contact patterns, isolated patterns and patterns densely arranged at a pitch corresponding to the wavelength. In such a case, in order to realize a large depth of focus in the formation of densely arranged contact patterns, the oblique incident exposure is effectively employed as in the formation of densely arranged interconnect patterns. In other words, the oblique incident exposure is indispensable for the formation of dense interconnect patterns and dense contact patterns, but when the oblique incident exposure is employed, the contrast and the depth of focus of isolated contact patterns and isolated space patterns between interconnects are largely degraded. This degradation of the contrast and the depth of focus is more serious when an attenuated phase-shifting mask is used for improving the resolution. On the contrary, when a small light source with a low degree of coherence is used for forming isolated fine contact patterns and isolated fine space patterns between interconnects, it is disadvantageously difficult to form dense patterns and fine line patterns. Accordingly, there is a reciprocal relationship between the optimum illumination conditions for isolated fine space patterns and the optimum illumination conditions for densely arranged patterns or fine line patterns. Therefore, in order to simultaneously form fine resist patterns and fine isolated resist removal patterns, trade-off is considered between the effect of a vertical incident component and the effect of an oblique incident component of the light source. As a result, a light source with an intermediate degree of coherence (of approximately 0.5 through 0.6) is used. In this case, however, both the effects of the vertical incident component and the oblique incident component are cancelled, and therefore, it is difficult to realize a higher degree of integration of semiconductor devices by simultaneously thinning isolated line patterns or dense patterns and isolated space patterns. It is noted that the aforementioned auxiliary pattern need to provide needs to be provided in a position away from an opening corresponding to a contact pattern at least by a distance corresponding to the wavelength of a light source (exposing light). Therefore, in the case where openings are arranged at a pitch ranging from the wavelength to a double of the wavelength, the auxiliary pattern cannot be used. In other words, the aforementioned method using the auxiliary pattern is not applicable to all arrangements ranging from the case where openings are arranged at a pitch substantially corresponding to the wavelength to the case where an opening is isolated. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In consideration of the aforementioned conventional disadvantages, an object of the invention is simultaneously thinning isolated space patterns and isolated line patterns or dense patterns. In order to achieve the object, the photomask of this invention includes, on a transparent substrate, a semi-shielding portion having a transmitting property against exposing light; a transparent portion surrounded with the semi-shielding portion and having a transmitting property against the exposing light; and an auxiliary pattern surrounded with the semi-shielding portion and provided around the transparent portion. The semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion transmit the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to each other, and the auxiliary pattern transmits the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to the semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion and is not transferred through exposure. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In this case, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.3×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.5×λ×M)/NA. Furthermore, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.05×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.2×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. Alternatively, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.365×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.435×λ×M)/NA. In this case, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.1×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.15×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In this case, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.25×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.45×λ×M)/NA. Furthermore, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.05×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.2×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. Alternatively, the auxiliary pattern is preferably a line-shaped pattern and has a center line thereof in a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance not less than (0.275×λ×M)/NA and not more than (0.425×λ×M)/NA. In this case, the auxiliary pattern preferably has a width not less than (0.1×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.15×λ×M)/(NA×T0.5), wherein T indicates relative transmittance of the auxiliary pattern to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern that is adjacent to a different auxiliary pattern spaced by a given or smaller distance with the semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween and a second auxiliary pattern that is not adjacent to a different auxiliary pattern spaced by the given or smaller distance with the semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller width than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the first auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first pattern that is away from the adjacent different auxiliary pattern by a distance G1 and a second pattern that is away from the adjacent different auxiliary pattern by a distance G2, and in the case where (0.5×λ×M)/NA>G1>G2, the second pattern preferably has a smaller width than the first pattern, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. Furthermore, in this case, a difference between the width of the first pattern and the width of the second pattern is preferably in proportion to a difference between the distance G1 and the distance G2. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller area than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.3×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller width than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the photomask preferably further includes, on the transparent substrate, a second transparent portion adjacent to the transparent portion and spaced by a given or smaller distance, and the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed in an area sandwiched between the transparent portion and the second transparent portion and a second auxiliary pattern disposed in the other area, and the first auxiliary pattern preferably has a smaller area than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given distance is preferably (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably farther from the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (1.15×λ×M)/NA to (1.45×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a rectangle with a side smaller than (0.8×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably closer to the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (0.85×λ×M)/NA to (1.15×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably farther from the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (1.0×λ×M)/NA to (1.3×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, in the case where the transparent portion is in the shape of a line with a width smaller than (0.65×λ×M)/NA, the transparent portion is preferably close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of a given range at least along a first direction and is not close to a different transparent portion spaced by a distance of the given range at least along a second direction, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a first auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the first direction and a second auxiliary pattern disposed around the transparent portion along the second direction, and the first auxiliary pattern is preferably closer to the transparent portion than the second auxiliary pattern. In this case, the given range is preferably from (0.7×λ×M)/NA to (1.0×λ×M)/NA. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line, the auxiliary pattern is preferably disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along a line direction of the transparent portion, and the transparent portion preferably has a line end protruded beyond the auxiliary pattern by a given or larger dimension along the line direction. In this case, the given dimension is preferably (0.03×λ×M)/NA, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably in the shape of a line, the auxiliary pattern preferably includes a pair of first auxiliary patterns disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along a line direction of the transparent portion and sandwiching a line center part of the transparent portion and a pair of second auxiliary patterns disposed in parallel to the transparent portion along the line direction and sandwiching a line end part of the transparent portion, and a distance between the pair of second auxiliary patterns is preferably larger by a given or larger dimension than a distance between the pair of first auxiliary patterns. In this case, each of the pair of second auxiliary patterns preferably has a length along the line direction of (0.03×λ×M)/NA or more, wherein λ indicates a wavelength of the exposing light, and M and NA respectively indicate magnification and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of a projection aligner. Also, the given degree is preferably (0.03×λ×M)/NA or more. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a first phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the first phase shift film, a second phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the first phase shift film. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a semi-shielding film that transmits the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the transparent portion is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a metal thin film that transmits the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion. In the photomask of this invention, the auxiliary pattern is preferably formed by exposing the transparent substrate, the transparent portion is preferably formed by trenching the transparent substrate by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the auxiliary pattern, and the semi-shielding portion is preferably formed by depositing, on the transparent substrate, a phase shift film that causes, in the exposing light, a phase difference in an opposite phase with respect to the auxiliary pattern. The pattern formation method of this invention uses a photomask of this invention, and the pattern formation method includes the steps of forming a resist film on a substrate; irradiating the resist film with the exposing light through the photomask, and forming a resist pattern by developing the resist film after irradiation with the exposing light. The mask data creation method of this invention is employed for creating mask data for a photomask including a mask pattern formed on a transparent substrate and a transparent portion of the transparent substrate where the mask pattern is not formed. Specifically, the mask data creation method includes the steps of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters on the basis of a desired exposed region of a resist formed by irradiating the resist with exposing light through the photomask; providing the transparent portion inside the outline shifters; setting the transparent portion as a CD adjustment pattern; providing a semi-shielding portion for transmitting the exposing light in an identical phase with respect to the transparent portion in such a manner that the transparent portion and the outline shifters are surrounded with the semi-shielding portion; setting the outline shifters as phase shifters that transmit the exposing light in an opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion; predicting, through simulation, a dimension of a resist pattern formed by using the mask pattern including the phase shifters and the semi-shielding portion; and when the predicted dimension of the resist pattern does not accord with a desired dimension, deforming the mask pattern by deforming the CD adjustment pattern. In this method, the step of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters preferably includes a sub-step of changing the width of the outline shifters in accordance with a distance between the outline shifters. Furthermore, the step of determining an internal distance and a width of outline shifters preferably includes a sub-step of changing the internal distance of the outline shifters in accordance with a close relationship between desired exposed regions. According to this invention, contrast of a light intensity distribution between a transparent portion and an auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through the transparent portion and light passing through the auxiliary pattern. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Herein, having a transmitting property against exposing light means having transmittance sufficiently high for sensitizing a resist, and having a shielding property against exposing light means having too low transmittance to sensitize a resist. Furthermore, an identical phase means a phase difference not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees, and an opposite phase means a phase difference not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F and 1G are diagrams for explaining the principle of an outline enhancement method of this invention; FIG. 2A is a plan view of a photomask according to Embodiment 1 of the invention and FIG. 2B is a diagram of a light intensity distribution formed on a wafer through exposure using the photomask of FIG. 2A; FIG. 3A is a graph of a result of simulation performed for obtaining a combination of a dimension W, a distance PW and a width d for attaining peak intensity Io of 0.25 in the photomask of FIG. 2A, FIG. 3B is a diagram of a result of simulation for a depth of focus in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the dimension W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 3A, and FIG. 3C is a diagram of a result of simulation for an exposure margin in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using the mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the dimension W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 3A; FIGS. 4A, 4C and 4E are diagrams of results of simulation for a depth of focus in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using the photomask of Embodiment 1 of the invention, and FIGS. 4B, 4D and 4F are diagrams of results of simulation for an exposure margin in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using the photomask of Embodiment 1 of the invention; FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5C and 5D are diagrams for showing variations of the plane structure of the photomask of Embodiment 1; FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C and 6D are diagrams for showing variations of the cross-sectional structure of the photomask of Embodiment 1; FIG. 7A is a plan view of a photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 1 and FIG. 7B is a diagram of a light intensity distribution formed on a wafer through exposure using the photomask of FIG. 7A; FIG. 8A is a graph of a result of simulation performed for obtaining a mask structure for attaining the peak intensity Io of 0.25 in the photomask of the modification of Embodiment 1, FIG. 8B is a diagram of a result of simulation for a depth of focus in which a space pattern with a width of 100 nm is formed by using a photomask having the mask structure shown in the graph of FIG. 8A, and FIG. 8C is a diagram of a result of simulation for an exposure margin in which a space pattern with a width of 100 nm is formed by using the photomask having the mask structure shown in the graph of FIG. 8A; FIG. 9 is a plan view of a photomask according to Embodiment 2 of the invention; FIG. 10A is a plan view of a photomask used in simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask according to Embodiment 2 or 3 of the invention, and FIG. 10B is a diagram of a profile of a light intensity distribution formed through exposure using the photomask of FIG. 10A; FIGS. 11A, 11B and 11C are diagrams of results of simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask of Embodiment 2; FIGS. 12A and 12B are diagrams for explaining the reason why the width of a phase shifter provided between transparent portions is preferably reduced in the photomask of Embodiment 2 in forming dense holes in which a distance between the centers of the transparent portions is 1.3×λ/NA or less; FIGS. 13A, 13B and 13C are diagrams of variations of the plane structure of the photomask of Embodiment 2; FIGS. 14A and 14B are diagrams of other variations of the plane structure of the photomask of Embodiment 2; FIG. 15 is a plan view of a photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 2; FIGS. 16A, 16B and 16C are diagrams of variations of the plane structure of the photomask of the modification of Embodiment 2; FIG. 17 is a plan view of a photomask according to Embodiment 3 of the invention; FIGS. 18A, 18B, 18C and 18D are diagrams of results of simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask of Embodiment 3; FIG. 19 is a plan view of a photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 3; FIGS. 20A and 20B are diagrams of results of simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask of the modification of Embodiment 3; FIG. 21A is a plan view of a photomask according to Embodiment 4 of the invention and FIG. 21B is a diagram of a result of pattern formation simulation using the photomask of FIG. 21A; FIGS. 22A, 22B and 22C are diagrams of results of simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask of Embodiment 4; FIG. 23A is a plan view of a photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 4 and FIG. 23B is a diagram of a result of pattern formation simulation using the photomask of FIG. 23A; FIGS. 24A, 24B and 24C are diagrams of results of simulation performed for confirming the effect of the photomask of the modification of Embodiment 4; FIGS. 25A, 25B, 25C and 25D are cross-sectional views for showing procedures in a pattern formation method according to Embodiment 5 of the invention; FIG. 26A is a diagram for showing the shape of a general exposure light source and FIGS. 26B, 26C and 26D are diagrams for showing the shapes of oblique incident exposure light sources; FIGS. 27A, 27B, 27C, 27D and 27E are diagrams for explaining a result of simulation performed for obtaining the dependency of an exposure characteristic of the photomask of this invention on the diameter of annular illumination; FIG. 28 is a plan view of a photomask used in explanation of a mask data creation method according to Embodiment 6 of the invention; FIG. 29 is a flowchart of the mask data creation method of Embodiment 6; FIGS. 30A, 30B and 30C are diagrams for showing specific examples of mask patterns obtained in respective procedures in the mask data creation method of Embodiment 6; FIGS. 31A and 31B are diagrams for showing specific examples of mask patterns obtained in respective procedures in the mask data creation method of Embodiment 6; and FIGS. 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E, 32F and 32G are diagrams for explaining the principle of a conventional pattern formation method using an attenuated phase-shifting mask. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION (Prerequisites) Prerequisites for describing preferred embodiments of the invention will be first described. Since a photomask is generally used in a reduction projection type aligner, it is necessary to consider a reduction ratio in arguing a pattern dimension on the mask. However, in order to avoid confusion, in the description of each embodiment below, when a pattern dimension on a mask is mentioned in correspondence to a desired pattern to be formed (such as a resist pattern), a value obtained by converting the pattern dimension by using a reduction ratio (magnification) is used unless otherwise mentioned. Specifically, also in the case where a resist pattern with a width of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern with a width of M×100 nm in a 1/M reduction projection system, the width of the mask pattern and the width of the resist pattern are both described as 100 nm. Also, in each embodiment of the invention, M and NA respectively indicate a reduction ratio and numerical aperture of a reduction projection optical system of an aligner and λ indicates the wavelength of exposing light unless otherwise mentioned. Moreover, pattern formation is described in each embodiment on the assumption that the positive resist process for forming a resist pattern correspondingly to an unexposed region of a resist is employed. In the case where the negative resist process is employed instead of the positive resist process, since an unexposed region of a resist is removed in the negative resist process, a resist pattern of the positive resist process is replaced with a space pattern. Moreover, a photomask described in each embodiment is assumed to be a transmission mask. In the case where the photomask is applied to a reflection mask, since a transparent region and a shielding region of a transmission mask respectively correspond to a reflection region and a non-reflection region, the transmission phenomenon of the transmission mask is replaced with the reflection phenomenon. Specifically, a transparent portion or a transparent region of a transmission mask is replaced with a reflection portion or a reflection region, and a shielding portion is replaced with a non-reflection portion. Furthermore, a region partially transmitting light in a transmission mask is replaced with a portion partially reflecting light, and the transmittance is replaced with reflectance. (Outline Enhancement Method) First, a resolution improving method by using a photomask devised by the present inventor for realizing the present invention, that is, an “outline enhancement method” for improving the resolution of an isolated space pattern, will be described. The following description is given in assuming formation of a space pattern by the positive resist process. It is noted that the “outline enhancement method” has the principle holding good regardless of the shape of a pattern as far as the pattern is a fine space pattern formed by the positive resist process. Also, the “outline enhancement method” is similarly applicable to the negative resist process by replacing a fine space pattern (resist removal pattern) of the positive resist process with a fine pattern (resist pattern). FIGS. 1A through 1G are diagrams for explaining the principle for emphasizing the contrast of a transferred image of light in exposure performed for forming a space pattern. FIG. 1A is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening (i.e., a transparent portion) corresponding to a space pattern is surrounded with a semi-shielding portion with given transmittance against exposing light, and FIG. 1B shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AB of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 1A. FIG. 1C is a plan view of a photomask in which a phase shifter is provided around an opening and a completely shielding portion is provided in the remaining area, and FIG. 1D shows the amplitude intensity obtained in a position corresponding to line AB of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 1C. Since the amplitude intensity shown in FIG. 1D is obtained with respect to the light passing through the phase shifter, it is in the opposite phase to the light amplitude intensity shown in FIG. 1B. FIG. 1E is a plan view of a photomask in which an opening corresponding to a space pattern and a phase shifter provided around the opening are surrounded with a semi-shielding portion with given transmittance against exposing light, and FIGS. 1F and 1G respectively show the amplitude intensity and the light intensity (which is a square of the amplitude intensity) obtained in a position corresponding to line AB of light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 1E. The photomask of FIG. 1E is obtained by providing a phase shifter around the opening of the photomask of FIG. 1A. Among these photomasks, the photomask of FIG. 1E is an example of a photomask according to the present invention for realizing the “outline enhancement method” (hereinafter referred to as the outline enhancement mask). In the photomask of FIG. 1A or 1E, there is a relationship of an identical phase between light passing through the semi-shielding portion and light passing through the opening (specifically, a relationship that a phase difference between these lights is not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)). Also, in the photomask of FIG. 1E, there is a relationship of the opposite phases between light passing through the phase shifter and light passing through the opening (specifically, a relationship that a phase difference between these lights is not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)). A transferred image of the light having passed through the outline enhancement mask of FIG. 1E is emphasized through the following principle: The structure of the photomask of FIG. 1E is obtained by combining the photomasks of FIGS. 1A and 1C. Accordingly, as shown in FIGS. 1B, 1D and 1F, the amplitude intensity of the light having passed through the photomask of FIG. 1E has a distribution obtained by combining the amplitude intensities of the lights respectively having passed through the photomasks of FIGS. 1A and 1C. At this point, as is understood from FIG. 1F, the light having passed through the phase shifter provided around the opening in the photomask of FIG. 1E can partially cancel the lights respectively having passed through the opening and the semi-shielding portion. Accordingly, when the intensity of the light passing through the phase shifter is adjusted so as to cancel light passing through a periphery of the opening in the photomask of FIG. 1E, a dark part in which the light intensity obtained in the periphery of the opening is reduced to approximately 0 (zero) can be formed in the light intensity distribution as shown in FIG. 1G. In the photomask of FIG. 1E, the light passing through the phase shifter strongly cancels the light passing through the periphery of the opening and weakly cancels light passing through the center of the opening. As a result, as shown in FIG. 1G, it is possible to attain an effect that the gradient of the profile of the light intensity distribution changing from the center of the opening to the periphery of the opening can be increased. Accordingly, the intensity distribution of the light passing through the photomask of FIG. 1E achieves a sharp profile, resulting in forming an image with high contrast. This is the principle of the emphasis of an optical image (an image of light intensity) according to the present invention. Specifically, since the phase shifter is provided along the outline of the opening in the mask composed of the semi-shielding portion with low transmittance, a very dark part corresponding to the outline of the opening can be formed in the light intensity image formed by using the photomask of FIG. 1A. Accordingly, a light intensity distribution in which contrast between the light intensity obtained in the opening and the light intensity obtained in the periphery of the opening is emphasized can be attained. Herein, a method for emphasizing an image through this principle is designated as the “outline enhancement method”, and a photomask for realizing this principle is designated as the “outline enhancement mask”. When the outline enhancement method is compared with the conventional principle of an attenuated phase shifter (see FIGS. 32A through 32G), the outline enhancement method is different from the conventional principle in mechanism for forming the dark part in the periphery of the opening in the light intensity distribution. As is understood from comparison between FIG. 1F and FIG. 32F, the dark part in the amplitude intensity distribution is formed by the phase boundary in the conventional attenuated phase shifter. In contrast, in the outline enhancement method, the dark part in the amplitude intensity distribution is formed as a result of periodical change of the amplitude intensity in the identical phase. Also, the dark part formed by the phase boundary in the conventional attenuated phase shifter cannot be sufficiently emphasized through the oblique incident exposure, and therefore, the conventional attenuated phase shifter should be combined with exposure using a small light source with a low degree of coherence. In contrast, the dark part formed through the periodical change of the amplitude intensity in the identical phase in the outline enhancement method is equivalent to a dark part formed by using a general pattern in which general transparent portions and shielding portions are periodically arranged, and therefore, the contrast of the light intensity distribution can be emphasized by combining the outline enhancement method and the oblique incident exposure. In other words, the effect of the outline enhancement method can be more remarkably exhibited when combined with the oblique incident exposure. In the outline enhancement mask, the maximum transmittance of the semi-shielding portion is preferably approximately 15% for preventing the thickness of a resist film from reducing in pattern formation or for optimizing the resist sensitivity. In other words, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion is preferably approximately 15% or less in the outline enhancement mask. Furthermore, the semi-shielding portion needs to have a property to partially transmit light, and in order to sufficiently attain the effect to substantially transmit light, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion is preferably at least 3% or more and more preferably 6% or more. Accordingly, the optimum transmittance of the semi-shielding portion of the outline enhancement mask is not less than 6% and not more than 15%. Although the outline enhancement method has been described on the assumption that the phase shifter is provided on the boundary between the semi-shielding portion and the transparent portion (i.e., the opening) surrounded with the semi-shielding portion, it is not always necessary to provide the phase shifter on the boundary. Specifically, as far as the phase shifter is provided in a position for enabling interference with light passing through the transparent portion through the principle of the outline enhancement method, the light having passed through the periphery of the transparent portion can be cancelled. Accordingly, the phase shifter may be provided in a position away from, for example, each side of a rectangular opening disposed in the semi-shielding portion as a pattern parallel to each side. However, in order to effectively utilize the outline enhancement method, the phase shifter is preferably provided in a position away from the opening by a distance not more than 0.5×λ/NA, which is a distance for causing light interference. Furthermore, when the semi-shielding portion with a sufficient width (i.e., a width not less than λ/NA) is provided outside the phase shifter surrounding the transparent portion, a completely shielding portion may be provided outside the semi-shielding portion. Now, preferred embodiments each for realizing a desired pattern by using a mask obtained on the basis of the principle of the outline enhancement method will be described. Embodiment 1 A photomask according to Embodiment 1 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 2A is a plan view of the photomask of Embodiment 1 (whereas a transparent substrate is perspectively shown, and this applies to similar drawings mentioned below). The photomask of this embodiment is used for forming a fine contact pattern. As shown in FIG. 2A, a semi-shielding portion 101 covering a sufficiently large area is formed on a transparent substrate 100. Also, an opening pattern corresponding to a transparent portion 102 is formed in the semi-shielding portion 101 in a position corresponding to a desired contact pattern to be formed on a wafer through exposure. Furthermore, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 103 are provided around the transparent portion 102 with the semi-shielding portion 101 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of the transparent portion 102 in a square shape or a rectangular shape. In other words, the phase shifters 103 are provided so as to surround the transparent portion 102. In this embodiment, the semi-shielding portion 101 partially transmits light, and there is a relationship of the identical phase between light passing through the semi-shielding portion 101 and light passing through the transparent portion 102 (more specifically, a relationship that a phase difference between these lights is not less than (−30 +360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)). Also, the semi-shielding portion 101 preferably has transmittance sufficiently low not to sensitize a resist, and specifically, the semi-shielding portion 101 has transmittance of 15% or less. On the other hand, in order to allow the semi-shielding portion 101 to have a different property from the transparent portion 102, the semi-shielding portion 101 has transmittance preferably not less than 3% and more preferably not less than 6%. In particular, in forming a contact hole, the optimum transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 101 is approximately 9%. On the other hand, the phase shifter 103 transmits light, and there is a relationship of the opposite phase between light passing through the phase shifter 103 and light passing through the transparent portion 102 (specifically, a relationship that a phase difference between these lights is not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)). It is noted that in all embodiments mentioned below and including this embodiment, the phase shifter is regarded to have transmittance equivalent to that of the transparent portion (the transparent substrate) unless otherwise mentioned but the transmittance of the phase shifter is not herein particularly specified. However, in order to utilize the characteristic of the phase shifter to transmit light in the opposite phase, the transmittance of the phase shifter is preferably larger than at least the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion. Also, in order to efficiently realize the principle of the outline enhancement method, the transmittance of the phase shifter is preferably 50% or more. Furthermore, assuming that an optical system using the photomask of FIG. 2A has exposure wavelength λ and numerical aperture NA, in the most preferable structure for forming a fine contact hole, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 103 opposing each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween is 0.8×λ/NA as described in detail later. In other words, each phase shifter 103 is optimally provided in a position where the center line of the phase shifter 103 is away from the center of the transparent portion 102 by a distance of 0.4×λ/NA. Furthermore, when the transmittance of the phase shifter 103 is set to be the same as the transmittance of the transparent portion 102, the width of the phase shifter 103 is optimally set to 0.15×λ/NA. Also, in each of all the embodiments described below, the aforementioned description is applied to a semi-shielding portion, a transparent portion and a phase shifter (an auxiliary pattern). Now, a good pattern formation characteristic of the photomask with the aforementioned structure exhibited in forming a fine contact hole, and more particularly, in forming a pattern with a dimension of 0.4×λ/NA or less will be described on the basis of a result of simulation. It is assumed in the simulation that the transparent portion 102 is in the shape of a square having a side dimension W, that each phase shifter 103 is a rectangular pattern with a width d and that the center line of each phase shifter 103 is disposed in a position away from the center of the transparent portion 102 by a distance PW in the photomask of FIG. 2A. In other words, a distance between a pair of opposing phase shifters 103 provided with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween is 2×PW. Also, it is assumed that the semi-shielding portion 101 working as the background has transmittance of 9%. Under these conditions, the light intensity is simulated with respect to various combinations of the dimension W, the distance PW and the width d. In this simulation, optical calculation is carried out on the assumption that the exposure is carried out with a wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.7. Furthermore, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. FIG. 2B shows a light intensity distribution formed on a wafer (in a position corresponding to line AB of FIG. 2A) through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 2A. The light intensity distribution of FIG. 2B has a profile with a peak in a position corresponding to the center of the transparent portion 102. In this case, it is necessary for the peak intensity Io to be not less than a given value in order to sensitize a resist corresponding to the center of the transparent portion 102. The peak intensity Io necessary for sensitizing the resist depends upon the used resist material, and it has been experimentally found that the peak intensity Io necessary for forming a fine contact hole with a size of 0.4×λ/NA or less is approximately 0.25. It is noted that light intensity mentioned herein is expressed as relative light intensity obtained by assuming that the light intensity of the exposing light is 1 unless otherwise mentioned. FIG. 3A shows the combinations of the dimension W, the distance PW and the width d for attaining the peak intensity Io of 0.25 in the photomask of FIG. 2A obtained as a result of the simulation. Specifically, FIG. 3A is obtained by plotting the dimension W of the transparent portion 102 for attaining the peak intensity Io of 0.25 against the distance 2×PW between the center lines of the pair of opposing phase shifters 103 provided with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween (hereinafter simply referred to as the shifter center line distance). Also, FIG. 3A shows the relationships between the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the dimension W respectively obtained when the width d of the phase shifter 103 is 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm and 60 nm. In other words, the light intensity distribution having the peak intensity Io of 0.25 can be formed by employing any of all the combinations of the distance PW, the dimension W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 3A. Furthermore, among these combinations, one having the maximum depth of focus or the maximum exposure margin corresponds to a mask structure having a good pattern formation characteristic. FIG. 3B shows a result of simulation for the depth of focus in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the dimension W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 3A. In FIG. 3B, the abscissa indicates the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the value of the depth of focus is plotted by using the width d as a parameter on the ordinate. As shown in FIG. 3B, with respect to all the values of the width d, the depth of focus has the maximum value when the shifter center line distance 2×PW has a value in the vicinity of 0.8×λ/NA (=approximately 220 nm). At this point, the depth of focus means the width of a range of a focus position for attaining, in forming a contact hole with a target size of 100 nm, dimension variation of 10% or less of the target size. Similarly, FIG. 3C shows a result of simulation for the exposure margin in which a contact hole with a size of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the dimension W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 3A. In FIG. 3C, the abscissa indicates the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the value of the exposure margin is plotted by using the width d as a parameter on the ordinate. As shown in FIG. 3C, regardless of the value of the width d, the exposure margin has the maximum value when the shifter center line distance 2×PW has a value in the vicinity of 0.8×λ/NA (=approximately 220 nm). At this point, the exposure margin means a ratio in percentage of the width of a range of exposure energy for attaining, in forming a contact hole with a target size of 100 nm, dimension variation of 10% or less of the target size to the value of exposure energy for realizing a contact hole with a size of 100 nm. Specifically, in the photomask of FIG. 2A, no matter what value the width d of the phase shifter has, the shifter center line distance 2×PW is approximately 0.8×λ/NA when the depth of focus for forming a fine contact pattern is optimized. Also when the exposure margin is optimized, the shifter center line distance 2×PW is approximately 0.8×λ/NA. At this point, that the optimum value of the shifter center line distance 2×PW does not depend upon the width d of the phase shifter means that the optimum value does not depend upon the transmittance of the phase shifter either. In phase shifters having the shifter center line distance 2×PW of 0.8×λ/NA, both of the depth of focus and the exposure margin have large values when the width d of each phase shifter is approximately 0.15×λ/NA (=40 nm). On the basis of these results, it is found that a mask structure in which the phase shifters 103 are provided to oppose each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween, each phase shifter 103 has a width of 0.15×λ/NA and the shifter center line distance is 0.8×λ/NA is good at fine contact hole formation. Furthermore, referring to the graphs of FIGS. 3B and 3C in detail, it is understood that a large depth of focus and a large exposure margin can be attained as far as the width d of the phase shifter is not less than 0.05×λ/NA and not more than 0.2×λ/NA. Also, it is understood that a large depth of focus and a large exposure margin can be attained as far as the shifter center line distance is not less than 0.6×λ/NA and not more than λ/NA (namely, the distance between the center line of the phase shifter and the center of the transparent portion is not less than 0.3×λ/NA and not more than 0.5×λ/NA). Furthermore, in order to attain a depth of focus and an exposure margin approximate to their maximum values, the width d of the phase shifter is preferably not less than 0.1×λ/NA and not more than 0.15×λ/NA, and the shifter center line distance is preferably not less than 0.73×λ/NA and not more than 0.87×λ/NA (namely, the distance between the center line of the phase shifter and the center of the transparent portion is preferably not less than 0.365×λ/NA and not more than 0.435×λ/NA). The results shown in FIGS. 3B and 3C are described as data obtained in the exemplified case where the numerical aperture NA is 0.7, and results obtained through simulation where the numerical aperture NA is 0.6 and 0.8 are shown in FIGS. 4A through 4D. FIGS. 4A and 4B show the results of the simulation where the numerical aperture NA is 0.6, and as shown in these graphs, the depth of focus and the exposure margin both have the maximum values when the shifter center line distance 2×PW is approximately 0.8×λ/NA (=approximately 250 nm). Also, FIGS. 4C and 4D show the results of the simulation where the numerical aperture NA is 0.8, and as shown in these graphs, the depth of focus and the exposure margin both have the maximum values when the shifter center line distance 2×PW is approximately 0.8×λ/NA (=approximately 190 nm). Thus, the aforementioned optimum mask structure does not depend upon the value of the numerical aperture NA. Furthermore, the results shown in FIGS. 3B and 3C are obtained through the simulation where the semi-shielding portion has transmittance of 9%, and results of simulation where the semi-shielding portion has transmittance of 6% are shown in FIGS. 4E and 4F. As shown in FIGS. 4E and 4F, similarly to the case where the semi-shielding portion has transmittance of 9%, the depth of focus and the exposure margin both have the maximum values when the shifter center line distance 2×PW is approximately 0.8×λ/NA (=approximately 250 nm). Thus, the aforementioned optimum mask structure does not depend upon the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion. As described so far, assuming that the exposure wavelength is λ and the numerical aperture of the exposure system is NA, a photomask usable for forming a fine contact hole pattern with the maximum depth of focus and the maximum exposure margin can be obtained in the structure in which an opening corresponding to a transparent portion is provided in a semi-shielding portion, each of phase shifters surrounding the opening has a width d of 0.15×λ/NA and each phase shifter is provided so as to have its center line away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance of 0.4×λ/NA. It is noted that the phase shifter has equivalent transmittance to the transparent portion and the maximum value of the width d of the phase shifter is 0.15×λ/NA in this embodiment. In the case where the phase shifter has transmittance different from that of the transparent portion, namely, in the case where the effective relative transmittance of the phase shifter (the auxiliary pattern) to the transparent portion is not 1, the width of the phase shifter is changed in accordance with the relative transmittance for realizing an equivalent transmitting property. Specifically, assuming that the relative transmittance is T, the width d of the phase shifter is optimally set to (0.15×λ)/(NA×T0.5). However, the optimum distance from the center of the transparent portion to the center line of the phase shifter is 0.4×λ/NA regardless of the transmittance and the width of the phase shifter. Furthermore, the width d of the phase shifter is preferably not less than (0.05×λ)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.2×λ)/(NA×T0.5), and more preferably not less than (0.1×λ)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.15×λ)/(NA×T0.5). In this manner, the optimum position of the phase shifter provided as the auxiliary pattern (i.e., the optimum position of its center line) on the basis of the outline enhancement method is a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance with a value not more than the wavelength λ of the exposing light in this embodiment. Accordingly, differently from the conventional technique where an auxiliary pattern should be provided in a position away from the center of a transparent portion by a distance with a value not less than the wavelength λ, an auxiliary pattern can be provided also between densely arranged transparent portions (corresponding to contact patterns) by utilizing the outline enhancement method. In other words, according to this embodiment, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion 102 and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between the light passing through the transparent portion 102 and the light passing through the phase shifter 103, namely, the auxiliary pattern. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion 102 is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. In this embodiment, the transparent portion 102 is in a square shape or a rectangular shape and the phase shifters 103 each in a rectangular shape (namely, line-shaped patterns) are formed around the transparent portion 102 to be parallel to the respective sides of the transparent portion 102 as shown in FIG. 2A. However, the phase shifter 103 may be in a closed loop shape surrounding the whole transparent portion 102 as shown in FIG. 5A. Also in this case, a distance 2×PW between the center lines of portions of the phase shifter opposing each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween (hereinafter, the center line distance between such portions of a phase shifter is also designated as the shifter center line distance) and the width d of the phase shifter satisfy the aforementioned conditions for attaining the good pattern formation characteristic. Also in this embodiment, the transparent portion 102 need not always be in a rectangular shape, but may be, for example, in a polygonal or circular shape as shown in FIG. 5B or 5C. Furthermore, the phase shifter(s) 103 surrounding the transparent portion 102 need not always be in an analogous shape to that of the transparent portion 102 but may be in any shape as far as the shifter center line distance satisfies the aforementioned condition. Moreover, in the case where a plurality of phase shifters 103 are individually provided, there is no need to provide each phase shifter 103 in parallel to each side of the transparent portion 102 but the phase shifters 103 may be provided, for example, as shown in FIG. 5C, in any manner as far as they surround the transparent portion 102 so as to satisfy the aforementioned condition of the shifter center line distance. The semi-shielding portion 101 is preferably sandwiched between the transparent portion 102 and the phase shifter 103, but the transparent portion 102 may be in contact with the phase shifter 103, for example, as shown in FIG. 5D as far as the shifter center line distance satisfies the aforementioned condition. However, in any of these mask structures described above, the phase shifter 103 corresponding to the auxiliary pattern is optimally provided so as to have its center line away from the center of the transparent portion 102 by the distance of 0.4×λ/NA, and therefore, the transparent portion 102 preferably used for forming a fine contact pattern is always smaller than a square or a rectangle with a side dimension of 0.8×λ/NA. Next, the cross-sectional structure of the photomask of this embodiment will be described. FIGS. 6A through 6D show variations of the cross-sectional structure of the photomask taken along line AB of FIG. 2A. Specifically, the photomask having the plane structure composed of the transparent portion 102, the semi-shielding portion 101 corresponding to a shielding pattern and the phase shifter 103 corresponding to the auxiliary pattern has four basic types of the cross-sectional structure as shown in FIGS. 6A through 6D. Now, the basic types of the cross-sectional structure of FIGS. 6A through 6D will be described. First, in the photomask having the cross-sectional structure of the type shown in FIG. 6A, on a transparent substrate 100 of, for example, quartz, a first phase shift film 104 for causing, in exposing light, a phase difference in the opposite phase (namely, a phase difference not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)) with respect to the transparent portion 102 is formed. Hereinafter, to cause a phase difference in the opposite phase means to cause a phase difference not less than (150+360×n) degrees and not more than (210+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer). Furthermore, on the first phase shift film 104, a second phase shift film 105 for causing a phase difference in the opposite phase with respect to the first phase shift film 104 is formed. The first and second phase shift films 104 and 105 have openings in a transparent portion forming region, and the second phase shift film 105 has an opening in a phase shifter forming region. Thus, the semi-shielding portion 101 composed of a multilayer structure of the second phase shift film 105 and the first phase shift film 104 is formed, and the phase shifter 103 composed of a single layer structure of the first phase shift film 104 is formed. Also, an exposed portion of the transparent substrate 100 corresponds to the transparent portion 102. Next, in the photomask having the cross-sectional structure of the type shown in FIG. 6B, on a transparent substrate 100 of, for example, quartz, a semi-shielding film 106 for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in the identical phase (namely, a phase difference not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer)) with respect to the transparent portion 102 is formed. Hereinafter, to cause a phase difference in the identical phase means to cause a phase difference not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer). The semi-shielding film 106 has openings respectively in a transparent portion forming region and a phase shifter forming region. Also, a portion in the phase shifter forming region of the transparent substrate 100 is trenched by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in the opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion 102. Thus, the phase shifter 103 is formed by the trench portion 100a of the transparent substrate 100. Specifically, in the photomask of FIG. 6B, the semi-shielding film 106 that is formed on the quartz and minimally causes a phase difference with respect to the transparent portion 102 is processed, so that the semi-shielding portion 101 can be formed as a portion where the semi-shielding film 106 is formed, the phase shifter 103 can be formed as the trench portion 100a of the transparent substrate 100 where the semi-shielding film 106 has an opening, and the transparent portion 102 can be formed as another opening of the semi-shielding film 106 (i.e., an exposed portion of the transparent substrate 100). Next, in the photomask having the cross-sectional structure of the type shown in FIG. 6C, on a transparent substrate 100 of, for example, quartz, a thin film 107 that minimally changes the phase of the exposing light on the basis of the transparent portion 102 is formed. In other words, the photomask of FIG. 6C is a special one of photomasks belonging to the type of FIG. 6B. Specifically, a metal thin film with a thickness of, for example, 30 nm or less can be used for forming the thin film 107 that causes, with respect to the transparent portion 102, a phase difference not less than (−30+360×n) degrees and not more than (30+360×n) degrees (wherein n is an integer) and has transmittance of 15% or less. The thin film 107 has openings respectively in a transparent portion forming region and a phase shifter forming region. Furthermore, a portion in the phase shifter forming region of the transparent substrate 100 is trenched by a depth for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in the opposite phase with respect to the transparent portion 102. Thus, similarly to the photomask of FIG. 6B, the phase shifter 103 is formed by the trench portion 100a of the transparent substrate 100. In the photomask of the type shown in FIG. 6A or 6B, the phase shift film for causing a phase difference in the opposite phase or the semi-shielding film for causing a phase difference in the identical phase should have a thickness approximately several hundreds nm for adjusting the phase. On the contrary, in the photomask of the type of FIG. 6C, the thin film 107 with a thickness of several tens nm at most is used, and therefore, refinement processing for patterning in the mask process can be easily performed. Examples of the metal material usable as the thin film 107 are metals such as Cr (chromium), Ta (tantalum), Zr (zirconium), Mo (molybdenum) and Ti (titanium), and alloy of any of these metals. Specific examples of the alloy are Ta—Cr alloy, Zr—Si alloy, Mo—Si alloy and Ti—Si alloy. When the photomask of the type of FIG. 6C is employed, since the film to be processed is the thin film 107, the refinement processing in the mask process can be easily performed. Therefore, in the case where it is necessary to provide a very fine pattern between the transparent portion 102 and the phase shifter 103 for realizing the outline enhancement method, the photomask of the type shown in FIG. 6C has a very good mask structure. Ultimately, in the photomask with the cross-sectional structure of the type shown in FIG. 6D, on a transparent substrate 100 of, for example, quartz, a phase shift film 108 for causing, in the exposing light, a phase difference in the opposite phase with respect to the phase shifter 103 is formed. The phase shift film 108 has openings respectively in a transparent portion forming region and a phase shifter forming region. Furthermore, in order to accord the phase of light passing through the transparent portion 102 with the phase of light passing through the semi-shielding portion 101, a portion in the transparent portion forming region of the transparent substrate 100 is trenched by a depth for causing a phase difference in the opposite phase with respect to the phase shifter 103. Specifically, in the photomask of FIG. 6D, the quartz corresponding to the transparent substrate 100 and the phase shift film 108 for causing a phase difference in the opposite phase are respectively processed, so that the semi-shielding portion 101 can be formed as the portion where the phase shift film 108 is formed, the transparent portion 102 can be formed as the trench portion 100a of the transparent substrate 100 where the phase shifter film 108 has an opening, and the phase shifter 103 can be formed as an opening of the phase shift film 108 (i.e., an exposed portion of the transparent substrate 100). In the photomask of FIG. 6D, the phase shifter 103 that is formed as a fine pattern on the mask is formed as a simple opening of the phase shift film 108, and the transparent portion 102 corresponding to a comparatively large opening is an etched portion of the quartz. Therefore, the depth of the etched portion of the quartz can be easily controlled. Accordingly, the photomask of the type of FIG. 6C has a particularly good mask structure for realizing the outline enhancement method. It is noted that although each of the semi-shielding film, the phase shift film and the like is shown as a single-layered film in FIGS. 6A through 6D, it goes without saying that each film may be formed as a multilayer film. MODIFICATION OF EMBODIMENT 1 A photomask according to a modification of Embodiment I will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 7A is a plan view of the photomask of this modification. The photomask of this modification is used for forming a fine space pattern. Specifically, a desired pattern to be formed in this modification is a line-shaped fine space pattern differently from Embodiment 1 in which a desired pattern is a contact hole pattern. Herein, a line-shaped pattern means a pattern having an optically sufficiently large longitudinal dimension and more specifically means a pattern with a longitudinal dimension of 2×λ/NA or more. As shown in FIG. 7A, on a transparent substrate 100, a semi-shielding portion 101 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area in the same manner as in the photomask of Embodiment 1 shown in FIG. 2A. Also, in a position in the semi-shielding portion 101 corresponding to a desired space pattern to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, an opening pattern corresponding to a transparent portion 102 is provided. Furthermore, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 103 are provided around the transparent portion 102 with the semi-shielding portion 101 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to the respective long sides of the line-shaped transparent portion 102. In other words, the phase shifters 103 are provided so as to sandwich the transparent portion 102. It is assumed in this modification that the semi-shielding portion 101 has transmittance of, for example, 6%. Specifically, in forming a line-shaped space pattern, the quantity of light passing through the transparent portion 102 is larger than in forming a contact hole pattern, and therefore, the preferable transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 101 is lower than in forming a contact hole pattern, and thus, the preferable transmittance is approximately 6%. Assuming that the exposure wavelength and the numerical aperture of an optical system using the photomask of FIG. 7A are λ and NA, respectively, the most preferable structure for forming a fine space pattern is a structure in which a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 103 paring and opposing each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween is 0.65×λ/NA as described below. In other words, each phase shifter 103 is optimally provided so as to have its center line in a position away from the center of the transparent portion 102 by a distance of 0.325×λ/NA. Furthermore, in the case where the transmittance of the phase shifter 103 is set to be the same as that of the transparent portion 102, the width of the phase shifter 103 is optimally set to 0.10×λ/NA. Now, a good pattern formation characteristic of the photomask with the aforementioned structure exhibited in forming a fine space pattern, and more particularly, in forming a line-shaped space pattern with a width of 0.4×λ/NA or less will be described on the basis of a result of simulation. It is assumed in the simulation that the transparent portion 102 is a line-shaped pattern having a width W, that each phase shifter 103 provided in parallel to each long side of the transparent portion 102 is a rectangular pattern (a line-shaped pattern) with a width d and that the center line of each phase shifter 103 is disposed in a position away from the center of the transparent portion 102 by a distance PW in the photomask of FIG. 7A. In other words, a distance between the center lines of a pair of phase shifters 103 opposing each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween is 2×PW. Also, it is assumed that the semi-shielding portion 101 working as the background has transmittance of 6%. Under these conditions, the light intensity is simulated with respect to various combinations of the width W, the distance PW and the width d. In this simulation, optical calculation is carried out on the assumption that the exposure is carried out with the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.7. Furthermore, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. FIG. 7B shows a light intensity distribution formed on a wafer (in a position corresponding to line AB of FIG. 7A) through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 7A. The light intensity distribution of FIG. 7B has a profile with a peak in a position corresponding to the center of the transparent portion 102. In this case, it is necessary for the peak intensity Io to be not less than a given value in order to sensitize a resist corresponding to the center of the transparent portion 102. The peak intensity Io necessary for sensitizing the resist depends upon the used resist material, and it has been experimentally found that the peak intensity Io necessary for forming a fine space pattern with a width of 0.4×λ/NA or less is approximately 0.25. Results of analysis of the photomask of this modification performed similarly to obtain the results shown in FIGS. 3A through 3C in Embodiment 1 are shown in FIGS. 8A through 8C. FIG. 8A shows the combinations of the width W, the distance PW and the width d for attaining the peak intensity Io of 0.25 in the photomask of FIG. 7A obtained as a result of the simulation. Specifically, FIG. 8A shows the width W of the transparent portion 102 for attaining the peak intensity Io of 0.25 plotted against the shifter center line distance 2×PW. Also, FIG. 8A shows the relationships between the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the width W obtained when the width d of the phase shifter 103 is 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm and 50 nm. In other words, the light intensity distribution having the peak intensity Io of 0.25 can be formed by employing any of all the combinations of the distance PW, the width W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 8A. Furthermore, among these combinations, one having the maximum depth of focus or the maximum exposure margin corresponds to a mask structure having a good pattern formation characteristic. FIG. 8B shows a result of simulation for the depth of focus in which a space pattern with a width of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the width W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 8A. In FIG. 8B, the abscissa indicates the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the value of the depth of focus is plotted by using the width d as a parameter on the ordinate. Similarly, FIG. 8C shows a result of simulation for the exposure margin in which a space pattern with a width of 100 nm is formed by using a mask pattern having the combination of the distance PW, the width W and the width d shown in the graph of FIG. 8A. In FIG. 8C, the abscissa indicates the shifter center line distance 2×PW and the value of the exposure margin is plotted by using the width d as a parameter on the ordinate. As shown in FIGS. 8B and 8C, regardless of the value of the width d of the phase shifter, both the depth of focus and the exposure margin have the maximum values when the shifter center line distance 2×PW has a value in the vicinity of 0.65×λ/NA (=approximately 180 nm). That the optimum value of the shifter center line distance 2×PW does not depend upon the width d of the phase shifter means that the optimum value does not depend upon the transmittance of the phase shifter, either. Furthermore, in phase shifters having the center line distance 2×PW of approximately 0.65×λ/NA, both the depth of focus and the exposure margin have sufficiently large values when the width d of the phase shifter is approximately 0.10×λ/NA (=30 nm). It is understood from these results that a mask structure in which the phase shifters 103 are provided to be paired each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween, each phase shifter 103 has a width of 0.10×λ/NA and the shifter center line distance is 0.65×λ/NA is good for forming a fine space pattern. As compared with Embodiment 1, since the transparent portion 102 is in the shape of a line in this modification, the light interference effect is large, and hence, the optimum position of each phase shifter 103 is closer to the center of the transparent portion 102. Furthermore, referring to the graphs of FIGS. 8B and 8C in detail, it is understood that a large depth of focus and a large exposure margin can be attained as far as the width d of the phase shifter is not less than 0.05×λ/NA and not more than 0.2×λ/NA similarly to Embodiment 1. Also, it is understood that a large depth of focus and a large exposure margin can be attained as far as the shifter center line distance is not less than 0.5×λ/NA and not more than 0.9×λ/NA (namely, the distance between the center line of the phase shifter and the center of the transparent portion is not less than 0.25×λ/NA and not more than 0.45×λ/NA). Furthermore, in order to attain a depth of focus and an exposure margin approximate to their maximum values, the width of the phase shifter is preferably not less than 0.1×λ/NA and not more than 0.15×λ/NA, and the shifter center line distance is preferably not less than 0.55×λ/NA and not more than 0.85×λ/NA (namely, the distance between the center line of the phase shifter and the center of the transparent portion is preferably not less than 0.275×λ/NA and not more than 0.425×λ/NA). The results shown in FIGS. 8B and 8C are described as data obtained in the exemplified case where the numerical aperture NA is 0.7, and simulation is similarly performed on the assumption that the numerical aperture NA is 0.6 and 0.8. As a result, it is confirmed that the optimum mask structure does not depend upon the value of the numerical aperture NA. In this modification, the optimum value of the width d of the phase shifter is 0.10λ/NA on the assumption that the transmittance of the phase shifter is the same as that of the transparent portion. In the case where the phase shifter has transmittance different from that of the transparent portion, namely, in the case where the effective relative transmittance of the phase shifter (the auxiliary pattern) to the transparent portion is not 1, the width of the phase shifter is changed in accordance with the relative transmittance for realizing an equivalent transmitting property. Specifically, assuming that the relative transmittance is T, the width d of the phase shifter is preferably set to (0.10×λ)/(NA×T0.5). However, the optimum distance from the center of the transparent portion to the center line of the phase shifter is 0.325×λ/NA regardless of the transmittance and the width of the phase shifter. Furthermore, the width d of the phase shifter is preferably not less than (0.05×λ)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.2×λ)/(NA×T0.5), and more preferably not less than (0.1×λ)/(NA×T0.5) and not more than (0.15×λ)/(NA×T0.5). In this manner, the optimum position of the phase shifter provided as the auxiliary pattern on the basis of the outline enhancement method (i.e., the optimum position of its center line) is a position away from the center of the transparent portion by a distance with a value not more than the wavelength λ of the exposing light in this embodiment. Accordingly, differently from the conventional technique where an auxiliary pattern should be provided in a position away from the center of a transparent portion by a distance with a value not less than the wavelength λ, an auxiliary pattern can be provided between densely arranged transparent portions (corresponding to space patterns) by utilizing the outline enhancement method. In other words, according to this modification, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion 102 and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between the light passing through the transparent portion 102 and the light passing through the phase shifter 103, namely, the auxiliary pattern. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion 102 is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. In this modification, the phase shifters 103 are provided in parallel to the transparent portion 102. However, the phase shifters 103 need not be completely parallel to the transparent portion 102. Specifically, even when a desired pattern is, for example, a simple rectangular pattern, the pattern width of a transparent portion for obtaining the desired pattern is sometimes changed on a photomask with respect to each small length unit. In such a case, there is no need to provide the phase shifters so as to completely follow the change of the outline of the transparent portion. In other words, the phase shifters 103 may be provided substantially parallel to the transparent portion 102. However, the optimum value of the shifter center line distance, namely, the distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 103 pairing with each other with the transparent portion 102 sandwiched therebetween, is 0.65×λ/NA, and therefore, the transparent portion 102 preferably used for forming a fine space pattern is always a line pattern with a width smaller than 0.65×λ/NA. Embodiment 2 A photomask according to Embodiment 2 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 9 is a plan view of the photomask of Embodiment 2. The photomask of this embodiment is used for simultaneously forming a plurality of fine contact patterns. As shown in FIG. 9, on a transparent substrate 200, a semi-shielding portion 201 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in positions in the semi-shielding portion 201 corresponding to desired contact patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a transparent portion 202, a pair of transparent portions 203 and 204 and a pair of transparent portions 205 and 206 are provided as opening patterns. In this case, the transparent portion 202 is an opening pattern corresponding to an isolated contact pattern, and each of the transparent portions 203 and 205 is an opening pattern corresponding to a contact pattern having another contact pattern closely disposed. Furthermore, around the transparent portion 202, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 207 are provided with the semi-shielding portion 201 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of the transparent portion 202 in the shape of a square or a rectangle and to surround the transparent portion 202. Similarly, around each of the transparent portions 203 through 206, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 208, 209, 210 or 211 are provided with the semi-shielding portion 201 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of each of the transparent portions 203 through 206 and to surround the transparent portion 203, 204, 205 or 206. The phase shifters 207 provided around the transparent portion 202 are disposed so as to attain a mask structure good for forming an isolated contact pattern, and each phase shifter 207 has a width d0. The transparent portion 203 is close to the different transparent portion 204. In this case, among the phase shifters 208 and 209 respectively provided around the transparent portions 203 and 204, those provided in an area sandwiched between the transparent portions 203 and 204 are referred to as a phase shifter 208a and a phase shifter 209a. Furthermore, the transparent portion 205 is close to the different transparent portion 206. In this case, among the phase shifters 210 and 211 respectively provided around the transparent portions 205 and 206, those provided in an area sandwiched between the transparent portions 205 and 206 are referred to as a phase shifter 210a and a phase shifter 211a. As a characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that the phase shifters 208a and 209a respectively have widths d1 and d2 and that a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 208a and 209a is G1, the photomask has a structure in which a relationship (d1+d2)<2×d0 is satisfied under a condition of the distance G1 being 0.5×λ/NA or less. In other words, when d1=d2, d1<d0 and d2<d0. In this case, among the phase shifters 208 surrounding the transparent portion 203, each of phase shifters 208b provided on sides not close to the different transparent portion 204 has the width d0. Furthermore, as another characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that the phase shifters 210a and 211a respectively have widths d3 and d4 and that a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 210a and 211a is G2, the photomask has a structure in which a relationship (d3+d4)<(d1+d2)<2×d0 is satisfied under a condition of G2<G1<0.5×λ/NA. In other words, when d3=d4 and d1=d2, d3=d4<d1=d2<d0. In this case, among the phase shifters 210 surrounding the transparent portion 205, each of phase shifters 210b provided on sides not close to the different transparent portion 206 has the width do. Specifically, in this embodiment, in the relationship between phase shifters surrounding one transparent portion and phase shifters surrounding another transparent portion, in the case where any phase shifters of these transparent portions are adjacent and close to each other and spaced by a given or smaller distance, these close phase shifters have smaller widths than the other phase shifters having no adjacent and close phase shifter spaced by the given or smaller distance. In this case, the widths of the phase shifters adjacent and close to each other and spaced by the given or smaller distance are preferably in proportion to a distance (a close distance) between these phase shifters. Alternatively, in the case of the photomask of FIG. 9, a difference between the width d1 of the phase shifter 208a (or the width d2 of the phase shifter 209a) and the width d3 of the phase shifter 210a (or the width d4 of the phase shifter 211a) is preferably in proportion to a difference between the distances G1 and G2. According to this embodiment, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through each transparent portion and light passing through the phase shifters, namely, the auxiliary patterns, provided around the transparent portion. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Now, an isolated contact hole and densely arranged contact holes satisfactorily formed by using the photomask of this embodiment will be described in detail on the basis of results of simulation. FIG. 10A is a plan view of a photomask used in the simulation for confirming the effect of this embodiment. As shown in FIG. 10A, on a transparent substrate 250, a semi-shielding portion 251 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in positions in the semi-shielding portion 251 corresponding to desired contact patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a plurality of transparent portions 252 each in the shape of a square with a side dimension W are provided to be adjacent to one another. Also, around each of the transparent portions 252, phase shifters (auxiliary patterns) 253 are provided so as to have their center lines in positions away from the center of each transparent portion 252 by a distance PW0. In this case, each phase shifter 253 is in a rectangular shape with a width d and a length t. Furthermore, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 253 adjacent and close to each other in an area sandwiched between the adjacent transparent portions 252 (hereinafter referred to as the adjacent shifter distance) is assumed to be a distance G. FIG. 10B shows the profile of a light intensity distribution formed through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 10A. In FIG. 10B, the light intensity obtained at the center of the transparent portion 252 is expressed as Ip, the light intensity obtained at the center between the adjacent transparent portions 252 is expressed as Is, and the light intensity obtained in a position where the light intensity is minimum in the periphery of the transparent portion 252 is expressed as Ib. In this case, the center between the adjacent transparent portions 252 corresponds to the center of the adjacent phase shifters 253. Also, the light intensity simulation is performed under conditions of the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.65. Furthermore, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. In addition, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 201 is set to 6%. Furthermore, in the photomask of FIG. 10A, in order that each contact pattern can be satisfactorily formed even in an isolated state, the width d of each phase shifter 253 is set to approximately 0.15×λ/NA (=approximately 44 nm) and the distance PW0 between the phase shifter 253 and the transparent portion 252 is set to approximately 0.4×λ/NA (=approximately 120 nm). Moreover, in order to adjust the contact hole size to a desired size of 100 nm, the side dimension W of the transparent portion 252 and the length t of the phase shifter 253 are set to 160 nm. In the aforementioned mask structure for satisfactorily forming an isolated pattern, dependency of the light intensities Ib and Is on the adjacent shifter distance G calculated through the simulation is shown in a graph of FIG. 11A, wherein the value of the adjacent shifter distance G is normalized by λ/NA. As shown in FIG. 11A, when the adjacent shifter distance G is larger than 0.5×λ/NA, the light intensity Ib is sufficiently low. In other words, a light intensity distribution with high contrast is realized in this case, and therefore, good pattern formation can be realized by using the photomask. However, when the adjacent shifter distance G is not more than 0.5×λ/NA, the light intensity Ib is large. In other words, the contrast is lowered because a sufficient shielding property cannot be attained between the adjacent two contact patterns in the contact pattern formation. In this case, good pattern formation cannot be performed. This phenomenon occurs for the following reason: When a distance between contact holes is small in desired dense contact holes, the width of a semi-shielding portion sandwiched between phase shifters on the mask is so small that the semi-shielding portion cannot transmit sufficient light. Now, this phenomenon will be described in more detail. An opening pattern (a transparent portion) and a semi-shielding portion are regions for transmitting light in the positive phase while a phase shifter is a region for transmitting light in the negative phase. Also, the light intensity Ib in a dark part (in the periphery of the transparent portion) is obtained by canceling the light in the positive phase having passed through the opening pattern and the semi-shielding portion by the light in the negative phase having passed through the phase shifter. The light intensity Ib in the dark part can be sufficiently small when the light in the positive phase is balanced with the light in the negative phase. Specifically, when the adjacent shifter distance G is sufficiently large, the quantity of light passing through the semi-shielding portion is sufficiently large, and hence, the light intensity Is corresponds to the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion. However, when the adjacent shifter distance G is λ/NA or less, the area of the semi-shielding portion sandwiched between the phase shifters is accordingly reduced, and hence, the quantity of the light passing through the semi-shielding portion is reduced. This can be found also based on the value of the light intensity Is being reduced when the adjacent shifter distance G is λ/NA or less in the graph of FIG. 11A. In other words, in the relationship between the light in the positive phase and the light in the negative phase, which are balanced when the semi-shielding portion with a sufficiently large area is sandwiched between the adjacent phase shifters, the light in the negative phase becomes excessive when the area of the semi-shielding portion is reduced. As the light in the negative phase becomes more excessive, the light intensity Ib is also increased, resulting in lowering the contrast in the light intensity distribution. Accordingly, in order to avoid this phenomenon, the quantity of the light passing through the phase shifter is reduced as the area of the semi-shielding portion sandwiched between the adjacent phase shifters is reduced. As one method employed for this purpose, the width of the phase shifter is reduced. The present inventor has found the following through detailed analysis of the simulation result: Assuming that a phase shifter capable of realizing good pattern formation when the adjacent shifter distance G is sufficiently large has a width d0, when the adjacent shifter distance G is 0.5×λ/NA or less, dense contact hole patterns can be also satisfactorily formed by setting the width d of the phase shifter to d0×(0.5+G)/(λ/NA). FIG. 11B shows the result of simulation similar to that performed for obtaining FIG. 10B, and specifically shows the light intensity distribution formed in a position corresponding to line AB of the photomask of FIG. 10A. FIG. 11B shows the results of the light intensity distribution simulation performed by assuming that the adjacent shifter distance G is 0.3×λ/NA with the width d set to the width d0 (approximately 0.15×λ/NA (=approximately 44 nm)) that is an optimum dimension for forming an isolated contact pattern and with the width d of the phase shifter reduced to 0.8×d0. As shown in FIG. 11B, a light intensity distribution with high contrast can be obtained by reducing the width d of the phase shifter. Also, FIG. 11C shows the result of the simulation similar to that performed for obtaining FIG. 10B, and specifically shows the light intensity distribution formed in the position corresponding to line AB in the photomask of FIG. 10A. FIG. 11C shows the results of the light intensity distribution simulation performed by assuming that the adjacent shifter distance G is further reduced to 0.2×λ/NA with the width d of the phase shifter set to the width d0 and with the width d reduced to 0.7×d0. As shown in FIG. 11C, a photomask capable of realizing a light intensity distribution with high contrast can be obtained by reducing the width d of the phase shifter in accordance with the reduction of the adjacent shifter distance G. On the basis of the results of these simulations, it can be understood that when phase shifters (auxiliary patterns) are arranged on the basis of the outline enhancement method, if phase shifters respectively corresponding to adjacent transparent portions are provided in parallel to each other with a semi-shielding portion sandwiched therebetween and with the adjacent shifter distance set to 0.5×λ/NA or less, the width of each phase shifter is preferably reduced in proportion to the adjacent shifter distance. As shown in FIG. 12A, a typical distance (an optimum distance) PW0 between the center of an opening (i.e., a transparent portion 252) to the center line of a phase shifter 253 for forming a fine contact pattern is 0.4×λ/NA (see Embodiment 1). Accordingly, the case where the adjacent shifter distance G is 0.5×λ/NA or less, namely, the case where the width d of a phase shifter 253 disposed between the adjacent transparent portions is preferably reduced, corresponds to the case of forming dense holes in which a desired distance P (=2×PW0+G) between the centers of the transparent portions 252 corresponding to adjacent contact holes is 1.3×λ/NA or less as shown in FIG. 12B. Accordingly, in such a mask structure, assuming that a phase shifter 253 provided in an area sandwiched between the transparent portions 252 (opening patterns) adjacent to each other with the distance P between their centers of 1.3×λ/NA or less has a width d and that another phase shifter 253 provided in the other area (i.e., an area where the distance P is not 1.3×λ/NA or less) has a width d0 as shown in FIG. 13A, these widths d and d0 are set to satisfy d<d0, whereas each phase shifter 253 has a length t regardless of its position. In FIG. 13A, the width of the phase shifter 253 provided in the area sandwiched between the adjacent transparent portions (opening patterns) 252 is reduced in order to reduce the quantity of the light in the negative phase passing through the phase shifter 253. Accordingly, with respect to the phase shifter 253 provided between the adjacent opening patterns, the two phase shifters 253 shown in FIG. 13A may be replaced with one phase shifter 253 shown in FIG. 13B as far as its width d1 satisfies d1<2×d0. Also, in FIG. 13A, the width of the phase shifter 253 sandwiched between the adjacent opening patterns is reduced. Instead, the length of the phase shifter 253 may be reduced as shown in FIG. 13C. Specifically, assuming that the two phase shifters 253 provided between the opening patterns have a width d2 and a length t2, the width and the length are set to satisfy t2×d2<t×d0. Furthermore, a mask structure as shown in FIG. 14A may be employed. Specifically, the phase shifters 253 sandwiched between the adjacent opening patterns is combined to one phase shifter, and assuming that this one phase shifter 253 has a width d3 and a length t3, the area of the phase shifter 253, namely, d3×t3, is set to be smaller than 2×t×d0. Moreover, a mask structure as shown in FIG. 14B may be employed. Specifically, as far as the area of the phase shifter 253 provided between the adjacent opening patterns is smaller than 2×t×d0, the phase shifter 253 may be in an arbitrary shape. In FIG. 14B, two rectangular patterns working as the phase shifter 253 provided between the adjacent opening patterns are arranged so as to extend along a direction along which the opening patterns (transparent portions) 252 are aligned. In this case, assuming that each phase shifter 253 has a width d4 and a length t4, the width and the length are set to satisfy t4×d4<t×d0. Although the two rectangular patterns are arranged as the phase shifters 253 in FIG. 14B, three, four or more rectangular patterns may be arranged instead as far as the total area of the phase shifters 253 provided between the adjacent opening patterns is smaller than 2×d0×t. Furthermore, in each of FIGS. 13B, 14A and 14B, when the area (the total area in FIG. 14B) of the phase shifter(s) 253 provided between the adjacent opening patterns is halved correspondingly to the pair of adjacent transparent portions 252, the halved area is smaller than the area, t×d0, of the other phase shifter 253 provided in the area other than that between the opening patterns. As described so far, according to this embodiment, in the case where dense contact patterns are formed, phase shifters provided between transparent portions corresponding to dense contact holes are deformed so as to reduce the quantity of light in the opposite phase passing through these phase shifters. As a result, a photomask capable of good pattern formation can be realized. Also in this embodiment, the cross-sectional structure of the photomask may be, for example, any of the cross-sectional structures shown in FIGS. 6A through 6D described in Embodiment 1. Modification of Embodiment 2 A photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 2 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 15 is a plan view of the photomask of this modification. The photomask of this modification is used for simultaneously forming a plurality of fine line-shaped space patterns. Specifically, desired patterns to be formed in this modification are fine line-shaped space patterns differently from Embodiment 2 where the desired patterns are the contact hole patterns. As shown in FIG. 15, on a transparent substrate 270, a semi-shielding portion 271 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, a transparent portion 272, a pair of transparent portions 273 and 274 and a pair of transparent portions 275 and 276 are provided in positions in the semi-shielding portion 201 corresponding to the desired space patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure. In this case, the transparent portion 272 is an opening pattern corresponding to an isolated space pattern, and each of the transparent portions 273 and 275 is an opening pattern corresponding to a space pattern having another space pattern closely disposed. Furthermore, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 277 are provided around the transparent portion 272 with the semi-shielding portion 271 sandwiched therebetween so as to be parallel to the respective long sides of the line-shaped transparent portion 272. Similarly, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 278 through 281 are provided respectively around the transparent portions 273 through 276 with the semi-shielding portion 271 sandwiched therebetween so as to be parallel to the respective long sides of the line-shaped transparent portions 273 through 276. The phase shifters 277 provided around the transparent portion 272 are arranged so as to attain a mask structure good for forming an isolated fine space pattern, and each phase shifter 277 has a width d0. The transparent portion 273 is close to the different transparent portion 274. In this case, among the phase shifters 278 and 279 respectively provided around the transparent portions 273 and 274, those provided in an area sandwiched between the transparent portions 273 and 274 are referred to as a phase shifter 278a and a phase shifter 279a. Furthermore, the transparent portion 275 is close to the different transparent portion 276. In this case, among the phase shifters 280 and 281 respectively provided around the transparent portions 275 and 276, those provided in an area sandwiched between the transparent portions 275 and 276 are referred to as a phase shifter 280a and a phase shifter 281a. As a characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that the phase shifters 278a and 279a respectively have widths d1 and d2 and that a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 278a and 279a is G1, the photomask has a structure in which a relationship (d1+d2)<2×d0 is satisfied under a condition of the distance G1 being 0.5×λ/NA or less as in Embodiment 2. In other words, when d1=d2, d1<d0 and d2<d0. In this case, among the phase shifters 278 surrounding the transparent portion 273, each of phase shifters 278b provided on sides not close to the different transparent portion 274 has the width d0 as in Embodiment 2. Furthermore, as another characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that the phase shifters 280a and 281a respectively have widths d3 and d4 and that a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 280a and 281a is G2, the photomask has a structure in which a relationship (d3+d4)<(d1+d2)<2×d0 is satisfied under a condition of G2<G1<0.5×λ/NA as in Embodiment 2. In other words, when d3=d4 and d1=d2, d3=d4<d1=d2<d0. In this case, among the phase shifters 280 surrounding the transparent portion 275, each of phase shifters 280b provided on sides not close to the different transparent portion 276 has the width d0. Specifically, in this modification, similarly to Embodiment 2, in the relationship between phase shifters surrounding one transparent portion and phase shifters surrounding another transparent portion, in the case where any phase shifters of these transparent portions are adjacent and close to each other and spaced by a given or smaller distance, these phase shifters have smaller widths than the other phase shifters having no adjacent and close phase shifter spaced by the given or smaller distance. In this case, the widths of the phase shifters adjacent and close to each other and spaced by the given or smaller distance are preferably in proportion to a distance (a close distance) between these phase shifters. Alternatively, in the case of the photomask of FIG. 15, a difference between the width d1 of the phase shifter 278a (or the width d2 of the phase shifter 279a) and the width d3 of the phase shifter 280a (or the width d4 of the phase shifter 281a) is preferably in proportion to a difference between the distances G1 and G2. According to this modification, similarly to Embodiment 2, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through each transparent portion and light passing through the phase shifters, namely, the auxiliary patterns, provided around the transparent portion. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Accordingly, also in this modification, in the case where a pair of phase shifters are provided to be close to each other and to be sandwiched between adjacent opening patterns (transparent portions) and the adjacent shifter distance G therebetween is smaller than 0.5×λ/NA, a photomask capable of forming a light intensity distribution with high contrast even in forming dense space patterns can be realized by reducing the width of the phase shifters in proportion to the adjacent shifter distance G in the same manner as in Embodiment 2. In the above description, the respective line-shaped transparent portions are independent patterns. However, the mask structure of this modification can be used even when the line-shaped transparent portions are not independent patterns as far as the above-described structure is employed in a specified area. In other words, the respective transparent portions may be connected to one another to form one pattern in areas other than the specified area. A typical distance (an optimum distance) PW0 between the center of an opening pattern and the center line of a phase shifter for forming a fine space pattern is 0.325×λ/NA (see the modification of Embodiment 1). Accordingly, the case where the adjacent shifter distance G is 0.5×λ/NA or less, namely, the case where the width d of a phase shifter disposed between the adjacent transparent portions is preferably reduced, corresponds to the case of dense holes in which a desired distance P (2×PW0+G) between the transparent portions corresponding to adjacent space patterns is 1.15×λ/NA or less. Accordingly, in such a mask structure, assuming that a phase shifter 293 provided in an area sandwiched between transparent portions 292 (opening patterns) adjacent to each other with the distance P between their centers of 1.15×λ/NA or less has a width d and that another phase shifter 293 provided in the other area (i.e., an area where the distance P is not 1.15×λ/NA or less) has a width d0 as shown in FIG. 16A, these widths d and d0 are set to satisfy d<d0. In FIG. 16A, the width of the phase shifter 293 provided in the area sandwiched between the adjacent transparent portions (opening patterns) 292 is reduced in order to reduce the quantity of the light in the negative phase passing through the phase shifter 293. Accordingly, with respect to the phase shifters 293 provided between the adjacent opening patterns, the two phase shifters 293 shown in FIG. 16A may be replaced with one phase shifter 293 shown in FIG. 16B as far as its width d1 satisfies d1<2×d0. Also, in FIG. 16A, the width of the phase shifter 293 sandwiched between the adjacent opening patterns is reduced. Alternatively, the phase shifter 293 sandwiched between the adjacent opening patterns may be divided into a plurality of patterns as shown in FIG. 16C, so as to reduce the area of the phase shifter 293 (that is, the area per unit length along an extending direction of the opening pattern corresponding to the transparent portion 292). Specifically, assuming that the phase shifter 293 sandwiched between the adjacent opening patterns is divided into a plurality of patterns each with a width d2 and a length t and that these plural patterns are arranged along the extending direction of the opening patterns at a cycle TT, d2×t/TT is set to be smaller than 2×d0, whereas TT is preferably (λ/NA)/2 or less. This is for the following reason: In the case where the phase shifter 293 is divided at the cycle TT not more than the resolution limit ((λ/NA)/2) of the exposure system, the quantity of light passing through the phase shifter 293 is reduced in proportion to the area reduction of the phase shifter 293 but the divided shape of the phase shifter 293 does not affect the shape of the light intensity distribution. In each of FIGS. 16A through 16C, a semi-shielding portion 291 is formed on a transparent substrate 290 so as to cover a sufficiently large area, and the pair of line-shaped transparent portions 292 are provided to be adjacent to each other in the semi-shielding portion 291 in positions corresponding to desired space patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure. Furthermore, in each of FIGS. 16B and 16C, when the area of the phase shifters 293 (the total area in FIG. 16C) provided between the opening patterns is halved correspondingly to the pair of transparent portions 292, the halved area is smaller than the area (the area per unit length along the extending direction of the opening patterns corresponding to the transparent portions 292) of the phase shifter 293 provided in the area other than that between the opening patterns. As described so far, according to this modification, in forming dense space patterns, a phase shifter provided between adjacent transparent portions corresponding to the dense space patterns is deformed so as to reduce the quantity of the light in the opposite phase passing through the phase shifter. Thus, a photomask capable of good pattern formation can be realized. Embodiment 3 A photomask according to Embodiment 3 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 17 is a plan view of the photomask of Embodiment 3. The photomask of this embodiment is used for simultaneously forming a plurality of fine contact patterns. As shown in FIG. 17, on a transparent substrate 300, a semi-shielding portion 301 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in positions in the semi-shielding portion 301 corresponding to desired contact patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a transparent portion 302, a pair of transparent portions 303 and 304 and a pair of transparent portions 305 and 306 are provided as opening patterns. In this case, the transparent portion 302 is an opening pattern corresponding to an isolated contact pattern, and each of the transparent portions 303 and 305 is an opening pattern corresponding to a contact pattern having another contact pattern closely disposed. Furthermore, around the transparent portion 302, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 307 are provided with the semi-shielding portion 301 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of the transparent portion 302 in the shape of a square or a rectangle and to surround the transparent portion 302. Similarly, around each of the transparent portions 303 through 306, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 308, 309, 310 or 311 are provided with the semi-shielding portion 301 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of each of the transparent portions 303 through 306 each in the shape of a square or a rectangle and to surround the transparent portion 303, 304, 305 or 306. The phase shifters 307 provided around the transparent portion 302 are disposed so as to attain a mask structure good for forming an isolated contact pattern. In this case, the phase shifter 307 has a width d0 and the center line of the phase shifter 307 is away from the center of the transparent portion 302 by a distance PW0. Also, the transparent portion 303 is close to the different transparent portion 304 in one direction and is close to no transparent portion in the other directions. In this case, one of the phase shifters 308 provided around the transparent portion 303 in this one direction is designated as a phase shifter 308a and the other phase shifters 308 disposed in the other directions are designated as phase shifters 308b. Furthermore, the transparent portion 305 is close to the different transparent portion 306 in one direction and is close to no transparent portion in the other directions. In this case, one of the phase shifters 310 provided around the transparent portion 305 in this one direction is designated as a phase shifter 310a and the other phase shifters 310 disposed in the other directions are designated as phase shifters 310b. As a characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that a distance P1 between the center of the transparent portion 303 and the center of the transparent portion 304 is approximately 1.3×λ/NA, a distance PW1 between the center of the phase shifter 308a and the center of the transparent portion 303 is set to satisfy PW1>PW0. In this case, a distance between the center of the phase shifter 308b to the center of the transparent portion 303 is set to the distance PW0. Furthermore, as another characteristic of this embodiment, assuming that a distance P2 between the center of the transparent portion 305 and the center of the transparent portion 306 is approximately 1.0×λ/NA, a distance PW2 between the center of the phase shifter 310a and the center of the transparent portion 305 is set to satisfy PW2<PW0. In this case, a distance between the center of the phase shifter 310b and the center of the transparent portion 305 is set to the distance PW0. Specifically, in this embodiment, in the arrangement of phase shifters (auxiliary patterns) seen from the center of an opening pattern (a transparent portion), in the case where any different opening pattern is close to this opening pattern, the position of a phase shifter preferable for forming an isolated fine contact hole is changed in accordance with the distance (close distance) between the close opening patterns. According to this embodiment, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through each transparent portion and light passing through the phase shifters, namely, the auxiliary patterns, provided around the transparent portion. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Now, the photomask of this embodiment capable of satisfactorily forming an isolated contact hole and densely arranged contact holes will be described in detail on the basis of results of simulation. The plane structure of a photomask used in the simulation performed for confirming the effect of this embodiment is the same as that (of Embodiment 2) shown in FIG. 10A. As shown in FIG. 10A, on a transparent substrate 250, a semi-shielding portion 251 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in positions in the semi-shielding portion 251 corresponding to desired contact patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a plurality of transparent portions 252 each in the shape of a square with a side dimension W are provided to be adjacent to one another. Also, around each of the transparent portions 252, phase shifters (auxiliary patterns) 253 are provided so as to have their center lines in positions away from the center of each transparent portion 252 by a distance PW0. In this case, each phase shifter 253 is in a rectangular shape with a width d and a length t. Furthermore, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 253 adjacent and close to each other in an area between the adjacent transparent portions 252 (hereinafter referred to as the adjacent shifter distance) is assumed to be a distance G. FIG. 10B shows the profile of a light intensity distribution formed through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 10A. In FIG. 10B, the light intensity obtained at the center of the transparent portion 252 is expressed as Ip, the light intensity obtained at the center between the adjacent transparent portions 252 is expressed as Is, and the light intensity obtained in a position where the light intensity is minimum in the periphery of the transparent portion 252 is expressed as Ib. In this case, the center between the adjacent transparent portions 252 corresponds to the center between the adjacent phase shifters 253. Also, the light intensity simulation is performed under conditions of the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.65. Furthermore, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. In addition, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 201 is set to 6%. Furthermore, in the photomask of FIG. 10A, in order that each contact pattern can be satisfactorily formed even in an isolated state, the width d of each phase shifter 253 is set to approximately 0.15×λ/NA (=approximately 44 nm) and the distance PW0 between the phase shifter 253 and the transparent portion 252 is set to approximately 0.4×λ/NA (=approximately 120 nm). Moreover, in order to adjust the contact hole size to a desired size of 100 nm, the side dimension W of the transparent portion 252 and the length t of the phase shifter 253 are set to 160 nm. The change, calculated through the simulation, of the light intensity Ip (namely, the light intensity obtained at the center of the transparent portion 252) of FIG. 10B in accordance with the change of a distance P (=G+2×PW0) between the centers of the opening patterns (transparent portions) 252 in the aforementioned mask structure is shown in a graph of FIG. 18A, wherein the value of the distance P is normalized by λ/NA. As shown in FIG. 18A, when the distance P between the centers of the opening patterns is 1.5×λ/NA or less, the light intensity Ip is abruptly lowered and becomes the minimum when the distance P is approximately 1.3×λ/NA. Furthermore, when the distance P is 1.3×λ/NA or less, the light intensity Ip starts to abruptly increase and becomes higher than that obtained when the transparent portion 252 is isolated (namely, when the distance P is infinite) when the distance P is approximately λ/NA. As described also in Embodiment 2, when opening patterns (transparent portions) are close to each other, the width of the semi-shielding portion sandwiched between adjacent phase shifters provided in an area between these opening patterns is so small that the quantity of light in the positive phase passing through the photomask is reduced. Also, the light intensity peak Ip obtained at the center of the opening pattern is formed by the light in the positive phase, and therefore, when the quantity of the light in the positive phase is reduced as described above, the light intensity Ip is lowered. Furthermore, since such a phenomenon is serious when the distance G between the adjacent phase shifters is 0.5×λ/NA (see Embodiment 2), the phenomenon is serious when the distance P between the centers of opening patterns close to each other (hereinafter referred to as close opening center distance) is G+2×PW0=0.5×λ/NA+2×0.4×λ/NA=1.3×λ/NA. Furthermore, when one transparent portion is close to a different transparent portion, the quantity of the light in the positive phase passing through the photomask is increased again owing to light in the positive phase passing through the different transparent portion. In this case, the influence of the different transparent portion is remarkable when the distance P between the centers of these transparent portions (i.e., the close opening center distance) is λ/NA. As described so far, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.3×λ/NA, the light intensity Ip obtained at the center of the transparent portion is lowered, but when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of λ/NA, the light intensity Ip obtained at the center of the transparent portion is increased. It is noted that when the light intensity Ip is lowered, the contrast is lowered, resulting in preventing good pattern formation. Furthermore, when the light intensity Ip is increased, the size of a contact hole to be formed is increased, resulting in preventing fine pattern formation. FIG. 18B shows the result of simulation similar to that performed for obtaining FIG. 10B, and specifically shows the light intensity distribution formed in a position corresponding to line AB of the photomask of FIG. 10A. FIG. 18B shows the results of the simulation for the light intensity distribution profile obtained by respectively setting the close opening center distance P to 450 nm (=approximately 1.5×λ/NA), 390 nm (=approximately 1.3×λ/NA) and 300 nm (=approximately 1.0×λ/NA). As shown in FIG. 18B, when the close opening center distances P are different, namely, when the closeness of adjacent opening patterns are different, the profiles of the light intensity distributions corresponding to the centers of the respective opening patterns do not accord with each other, and hence, fine contact patterns cannot be uniformly formed. In contrast, the present inventor has found as a result of detailed simulation that the light intensity profiles corresponding to the centers of opening patterns can be made uniform regardless of the close opening center distance P by changing the position of a phase shifter seen from the center of each opening pattern in accordance with the close opening center distance P. Specifically, when the position of a phase shifter against the close opening center distance P for making uniform the light intensity profiles corresponding to the centers of the opening patterns is expressed as PW(P), ΔPW(P) defined as (PW(P)−PW0)/PW0 (i.e., PW(P)=PW0+ΔPW(P)×PW0) is expressed as shown in a graph of FIG. 18C. Specifically, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.3×λ/NA, the optimum position PW(P) of a phase shifter against each close opening center distance P is preferably set to be larger by approximately 10% than a position PW0 of the phase shifter for satisfactorily forming an isolated contact pattern. Also, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of λ/NA, the position PW(P) is preferably set to be smaller by approximately 10% than the position PW0. Also, FIG. 18D shows the result of the simulation similar to that performed for obtaining FIG. 10B, and specifically shows the light intensity distribution formed in the position corresponding to line AB in the photomask of FIG. 10A. FIG. 18D shows the results of the simulation for the light intensity distribution profile obtained by using the photomask in which a phase shifter is disposed in the position shown in FIG. 18C respectively when the close opening center distance P is 450 nm (=approximately 1.5×λ/NA), 390 nm (=approximately 1.3×λ/NA) and 300 nm (=approximately 1.0×λ/NA). As shown in FIG. 18D, when the phase shifter is disposed in the position shown in the graph of FIG. 18C, the profiles of the light intensity distributions corresponding to the centers of the opening patterns can be made to accord with each other with respect to all the aforementioned values of the close center line distance P. On the basis of the results of these simulations, it can be understood that when there are a plurality of opening patterns (transparent portions) close to one another and each surrounded with phase shifters, the position PW seen from the center of the transparent portion of each phase shifter is preferably set as follows in accordance with the close center line distance P: First, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.3×λ/NA, and more specifically, when 1.15×λ/NA<P<1.45×λ/NA, assuming that a phase shifter provided on a side of an opening pattern close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PW1 seen from the center of the opening pattern and a phase shifter provided on another side of the opening pattern not close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PW0 seen from the center of the opening pattern, the position PW1 is preferably larger than the position PW0, and more preferably, the position PW1 is larger than the position PW0 by 5% or more. Next, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of λ/NA, and more specifically, when 0.85×λ/NA<P<1.15×λ/NA, assuming that a phase shifter provided on a side of one opening pattern close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PW2 seen from the center of the opening pattern and a phase shifter provided on another side of the opening pattern not close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PW0 seen from the center of the opening pattern, the position PW2 is preferably smaller than the position PW0, and more preferably, the position PW2 is smaller than the position PW0 by 5% or more. As described so far, according to this embodiment, in the case where dense contact patterns are formed, the position of a phase shifter provided in an area corresponding to the dense contact holes (namely, the distance of the phase shifter from the center of a transparent portion) is changed in accordance with the close distance of contact patterns (namely, the close opening center distance P). As a result, a photomask capable of forming a uniform light intensity distribution profile in forming contact patterns with an arbitrary density can be realized. Accordingly, fine contact hole patterns arbitrarily arranged can be satisfactorily formed. Also in this embodiment, the cross-sectional structure of the photomask may be, for example, any of the cross-sectional structures shown in FIGS. 6A through 6D described in Embodiment 1. MODIFICATION OF EMBODIMENT 3 A photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 3 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 19 is a plan view of the photomask of this modification. The photomask of this modification is used for simultaneously forming a plurality of fine line-shaped space patterns. Specifically, desired patterns to be formed in this modification are fine line-shaped space patterns differently from Embodiment 3 where the desired patterns are the contact hole patterns. As shown in FIG. 19, on a transparent substrate 350, a semi-shielding portion 351 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in the semi-shielding portion 351, a transparent portion 352, a pair of transparent portions 353 and 354 and a pair of transparent portions 355 and 356 are provided in positions corresponding to the desired space patterns to be formed on a wafer through the exposure. In this case, the transparent portion 352 is an opening pattern corresponding to an isolated space pattern, and each of the transparent portions 353 and 355 is an opening pattern corresponding to a space pattern having another space pattern closely disposed. Furthermore, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 357 are provided around the transparent portion 352 with the semi-shielding portion 351 sandwiched therebetween so as to be parallel to the respective long sides of the line-shaped transparent portion 352. Similarly, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 358 through 361 are provided respectively around the transparent portions 353 through 356 with the semi-shielding portion 351 sandwiched therebetween so as to be parallel to the respective long sides of the line-shaped transparent portions 353 through 356. The phase shifters 357 provided around the transparent portion 352 are arranged so as to attain a mask structure good for forming an isolated space pattern, and each phase shifter 357 has a width d0 and a distance between the center line of the phase shifter 357 and the center of the transparent portion 352 is a distance PG0. The transparent portion 353 is close to the different transparent portion 354 in one direction and is not close to another transparent portion in the other directions. In this case, one of the phase shifters 358 provided around the transparent portion 353 in this one direction is designated as a phase shifter 358a and the other phase shifters 358 provided around the transparent portion 353 in the other directions are designated as phase shifters 358b. Furthermore, the transparent portion 355 is close to the different transparent portion 356 in one direction and is not close to another transparent portion in the other directions. In this case, one of the phase shifters 360 provided around the transparent portion 355 in this one direction is designated as a phase shifter 360a and the other phase shifters provided around the transparent portion 355 in the other directions are designated as phase shifters 360b. As a characteristic of this embodiment, when a distance P1 between the center of the transparent portion 353 and the center of the transparent portion 354 is approximately 1.15×λ/NA, a distance PG1 from the center of the phase shifter 358a to the center of the transparent portion 353 is set to satisfy PG6>PG0. In this case, a distance from the center of the phase shifter 358b to the center of the transparent portion 353 is set to the distance PG0. Furthermore, as another characteristic of this embodiment, when a distance P2 between the center of the transparent portion 355 and the center of the transparent portion 356 is approximately 0.85×λ/NA, a distance PG2 from the center of the phase shifter 360a to the center of the transparent portion 355 is set to satisfy PG2<PG0. In this case, a distance from the center of the phase shifter 360b to the center of the transparent portion 355 is set to the distance PG0. Specifically, in this modification, with respect to the position of a phase shifter (auxiliary pattern) seen from the center of an opening pattern (transparent portion), when another opening pattern is close to the opening pattern, the position of a phase shifter preferred for forming an isolated fine space pattern is changed in the same manner as in Embodiment 3 in accordance with the distance between these opening patterns (the close opening center distance). According to this modification, the contrast of the light intensity distribution between the transparent portion and the auxiliary pattern can be emphasized by utilizing mutual interference between light passing through each transparent portion and light passing through the phase shifters, namely, the auxiliary patterns, provided around the transparent portion. Also, this effect to emphasize the contrast can be attained also in the case where a fine isolated space pattern corresponding to the transparent portion is formed by, for example, the positive resist process using the oblique incident exposure. Accordingly, an isolated space pattern and an isolated line pattern or dense patterns can be simultaneously thinned by employing the oblique incident exposure. Furthermore, even in the case where complicated and fine space patterns are close to each other, a pattern with a desired dimension can be satisfactorily formed. Also in this modification, the profile of a light intensity distribution corresponding to the center of an opening pattern (transparent portion) is changed in accordance with the close opening center distance due to the influence of another opening pattern close to this opening pattern as described in Embodiment 3. However, in this embodiment, since the opening pattern does not correspond to a contact pattern but corresponds to a line-shaped space pattern, the relationship between the close opening center distance and the profile of the light intensity distribution is different from that described in Embodiment 3. FIG. 20A shows the dependency of the light intensity Ip obtained at the center of an opening pattern (a transparent portion) on the close opening center distance P obtained through the same calculation carried out for obtaining FIG. 18A of Embodiment 3. In FIG. 20A, the value of the close opening center distance P is normalized by λ/NA. As shown in FIG. 20A, differently from Embodiment 3, the light intensity Ip is the minimum when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.15×λ/NA. Also, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 0.85×λ/NA, the light intensity Ip has a value larger than that obtained when the transparent portion is isolated (i.e., when the close opening center distance P is infinite). In other words, when the close opening center distances P are different, namely, when the closeness of adjacent opening patterns are different, the profiles of the light intensity distributions corresponding to the centers of the respective opening patterns do not accord with each other, and hence, fine contact patterns cannot be uniformly formed. In contrast, the present inventor has found that the light intensity profiles corresponding to the centers of opening patterns can be made uniform regardless of the close opening center distance P by changing the position of a phase shifter seen from the center of the opening pattern in accordance with the close opening center distance P. Specifically, when the position of a phase shifter against each close opening center distance P for making uniform the light intensity profiles corresponding to the centers of the opening patterns is expressed as PW(P), ΔPW(P) defined as (PW(P)−PW0)/PW0 (i.e., PW(P)=PW0+ΔPW(P)×PW0) is expressed as shown in a graph of FIG. 20B. Specifically, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.15×λ/NA, the optimum position PW(P) of a phase shifter against each close opening center distance P is preferably set to be larger by approximately 10% than a position PW0 of the phase shifter for satisfactorily forming an isolated contact pattern. Also, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 0.85×λ/NA, the position PW(P) is preferably set to be smaller by approximately 10% than the position PW0. On the basis of the above description, it is found that when there are a plurality of line-shaped opening patterns close to one another, the position PW of each phase shifter provided around the opening pattern (transparent portion) seen from the center of the transparent portion is preferably set as follows in accordance with the close opening center distance P: First, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 1.15×λ/NA, and more specifically, when 1.0×λ/NA<P<1.3×λ/NA, assuming that a phase shifter provided on a side of an opening pattern close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PG1 seen from the center of the opening pattern and that a phase shifter provided on another side of the opening pattern not close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PG0 seen from the center of the opening pattern, the position PG1 is preferably larger than the position PG0, and more preferably, the position PG1 is larger than the position PG0 by 5% or more. Next, when the close opening center distance P is in the vicinity of 0.85×λ/NA, and more specifically, when 0.7×λ/NA<P<1.0×λ/NA, assuming that a phase shifter provided on one side of one opening pattern close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PG2 seen from the center of the opening pattern and that a phase shifter provided on another side of the opening pattern not close to another opening pattern is disposed in a position PG0 seen from the center of the opening pattern, the position PG2 is preferably smaller than the position PG0, and more preferably, the position PG2 is smaller than the position PG0 by 5% or more. As described so far, according to this modification, in the case where dense space patterns are formed, the position of a phase shifter provided in an area corresponding to the dense space patterns (namely, the distance of the phase shifter from the center of a transparent portion) is changed in accordance with the close distance of contact patterns (namely, the close opening center distance P). As a result, a photomask capable of forming a uniform light intensity distribution profile in forming space patterns with an arbitrary density can be realized. Accordingly, fine space patterns arbitrarily arranged can be satisfactorily formed. Embodiment 4 A photomask according to Embodiment 4 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 21A is a plan view of the photomask of Embodiment 4. The photomask of this embodiment is used for forming a fine line-shaped space pattern. As shown in FIG. 21A, on a transparent substrate 400, a semi-shielding portion 401 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in the semi-shielding portion 401, in a position corresponding to a desired space pattern to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a line-shaped opening pattern is formed as a transparent portion 402. Furthermore, around the transparent portion 402, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 403 and 404 are provided so as to surround the transparent portion 402 with the semi-shielding portion 401 sandwiched therebetween. Specifically, one pair of phase shifters 403 are provided so as to sandwich the transparent portion 402 and to be parallel to the transparent portion 402 along the lengthwise direction (line direction) of the transparent portion 402, and another pair of phase shifters 404 are provided so as to sandwich the transparent portion 402 and to be parallel to the transparent portion 402 along the width direction of the transparent portion 402. In this case, the pair of phase shifters 403 are arranged, for obtaining a mask structure good for forming an isolated space pattern, in such a manner that a distance between the phase shifters 403 with the transparent portion 402 sandwiched therebetween (more precisely, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 403) is a distance PW0×2. As a characteristic of this embodiment, the phase shifters 403 are shorter than the transparent portion 402 along the line direction of the transparent portion 402, namely, the ends (line ends) along the longitudinal direction of the transparent portion 402 are protruded beyond the line ends of the phase shifters 403. The phase shifters 404 opposing the line ends of the transparent portion 402 may be longer or shorter than the width (line width) of the transparent portion 402. According to Embodiment 4, the following effect can be attained in addition to the effects of Embodiments 1 through 3 above: In general, in forming a line-shaped pattern by using an opening pattern (transparent portion), the quantity of light passing through a line end of the pattern is reduced, and hence, the line end of the pattern formed after the exposure is receded, resulting in reducing the length of the line. In contrast, in this embodiment, parts of the phase shifters surrounding the line ends of the opening pattern are removed, so as to increase the quantity of light passing through the opening pattern. As a result, the line end of a pattern formed after the exposure (hereinafter referred to as a transferred pattern) can be prevented from receding. FIG. 21B shows results of pattern formation simulation performed by using the photomask of FIG. 21A in which the line ends of the transparent portion 402 are protruded beyond the line ends of the phase shifters 403 by a dimension Z set to 0 nm and 100 nm. On the abscissa of FIG. 21B, a position with the scale of 0 (zero) corresponds to the end of the transparent portion (opening pattern) 402. Also, in FIG. 21B, a pattern shape obtained when the dimension Z is 100 nm is shown with a solid line and a pattern shape obtained when the dimension Z is 0 nm is shown with a broken line. As shown in FIG. 21B, in the phase shifters provided in parallel to the opening pattern, when the parts thereof disposed in the vicinity of the line ends of the opening pattern are removed, the line ends of the transferred pattern (resist pattern) can be prevented from receding. Now, a result of simulation performed for quantifying the part of the phase shifter to be removed in the vicinity of the line end of the opening pattern for preventing the line end of the transferred pattern from receding will be described. FIG. 22A is a plan view of a photomask used in the simulation. In FIG. 22A, like reference numerals are used to refer to like elements shown in FIG. 21A so as to omit the description. As shown in FIG. 22A, with respect to each of a pair of line-shaped transparent portions (opening patterns) 402 having a width L and opposing each other at their line ends, a pair of phase shifters 403 with a width d are provided along the line direction of the transparent portion 402 so as to sandwich each transparent portion 402 therebetween. In this case, it is assumed that a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 403 sandwiching the transparent portion 402 is a distance 2×PW. Also, it is assumed that a part of the phase shifter 403 removed in the vicinity of the line end of the transparent portion 402 has a dimension Z. FIG. 22B shows a pattern shape resulting from the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 22A. In FIG. 22B, it is assumed that a distance between line ends of a pair of transferred patterns (resist patterns) corresponding the pair of transparent portions 402 is a distance V. FIG. 22C shows a result of light intensity simulation carried out for calculating the distance V between the line ends of the transferred patterns (hereinafter referred to as a pattern distance) with the dimension Z (hereinafter referred to as the shifter removal dimension) variously set in the photomask of FIG. 22A with the width L set to 110 nm, the distance 2×PW set to 180 nm and the width d set to 30 nm. In this light intensity simulation, the exposure is performed with the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.7. Also, as the illumination, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. Furthermore, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 401 is 6%. In FIG. 22C, the abscissa indicates the shifter removal dimension Z and the value of the shifter removal dimension Z is normalized by λ/NA. Also, in FIG. 22C, the ordinate indicates the pattern distance V. As shown in FIG. 22C, when the shifter removal dimension Z is 0 (zero), the pattern distance V is approximately 160 nm, and as the shifter removal dimension Z is increased, the pattern distance V is reduced, namely, the recession of the line end of the transferred pattern is reduced. In this case, when the shifter removal dimension Z exceeds 0.1×λ/NA, the pattern distance V is approximately 120 nm and is not further reduced. Furthermore, when the shifter removal dimension Z is 0.03×λ/NA, the pattern distance V is reduced to approximately 140 nm. This reveals that the effect of this embodiment can be attained also when the shifter removal dimension Z is approximately 0.03×λ/NA. Accordingly, in this embodiment, in order to prevent the line end of the transferred pattern from receding, a mask structure in which the line end of the line-shaped opening pattern is protruded beyond the phase shifter provided in parallel to the opening pattern by a given or larger dimension is preferably used. Specifically, the given dimension is preferably approximately 0.1×λ/NA but this effect can be attained even when the given dimension is approximately 0.03×λ/NA. In other words, the line end of the line-shaped opening pattern is preferably protruded beyond the phase shifter by a dimension of approximately 0.03×λ/NA or more. However, in order to effectively utilize the principle of the outline enhancement method, the dimension Z of the protruded part of the opening pattern is preferably approximately 0.5×λ/NA or less. This is for the following reason: Since a phase shifter is preferably provided in a position away from an opening pattern by a distance of approximately 0.5×λ/NA or less, which corresponds to light interference distance, the dimension of the protruded part of the line end of the opening pattern, namely, the length of the part where the phase shifter is not provided in parallel to the opening pattern, is preferably 0.5×λ/NA or less. As described so far, according to this embodiment, in the case where a line-shaped space pattern is formed, in the relationship between a line-shaped opening pattern and phase shifters provided around the opening pattern, the line end of the opening pattern is protruded beyond the line end of a phase shifter disposed in parallel to the opening pattern along the line direction, so that the line end of the line-shaped space pattern can be prevented from receding. Also in this embodiment, the photomask may have, for example, any of the cross-sectional structures shown in FIGS. 6A through 6D described in Embodiment 1. MODIFICATION OF EMBODIMENT 4 A photomask according to a modification of Embodiment 4 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 23A is a plan view of the photomask of the modification of Embodiment 4. The photomask of this modification is used for forming a fine line-shaped space pattern. As shown in FIG. 23A, on a transparent substrate 400, a semi-shielding portion 401 is formed so as to cover a sufficiently large area. Also, in the semi-shielding portion 401, in a position corresponding to a desired space pattern to be formed on a wafer through the exposure, a line-shaped opening pattern is formed as a transparent portion 402. Furthermore, around the transparent portion 402, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 403 and 404 are provided so as to surround the transparent portion 402 with the semi-shielding portion 401 sandwiched therebetween. Specifically, one pair of phase shifters 403 are provided so as to sandwich the transparent portion 402 and to be parallel to the transparent portion 402 along the lengthwise direction (line direction) of the transparent portion 402, and another pair of phase shifters 404 are provided so as to sandwich the transparent portion 402 and to be parallel to the transparent portion 402 along the width direction of the transparent portion 402. As a characteristic of this modification, each phase shifter 403 extending along the line direction is composed of a phase shifter 403a provided in parallel to a line center part (more precisely, a part other than a line end part described below) of the transparent portion 402 and a phase shifter 403b provided in parallel to the line end part (more precisely, a part with a dimension Z of 0.1×λ/NA from the line end) of the transparent portion 402. In this case, a pair of phase shifters 403a sandwiching the line center part of the transparent portion 402 are arranged, for obtaining a mask structure good for forming an isolated space pattern, in such a manner that a distance between the phase shifters 403a with the transparent portion 402 sandwiched therebetween (more precisely, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 403a) is a distance PW0×2. On the other hand, a pair of phase shifters 403b sandwiching the line end part of the transparent portion 402 are arranged in such a manner that a distance between the phase shifters 403b with the transparent portion 402 sandwiched therebetween (more precisely, a distance between the center lines of the phase shifters 403b) is a distance PWZ×2, whereas PWZ×2>PW0×2. Also, each phase shifter 404 opposing the line end of the transparent portion 402 may be longer or shorter than the width (line width) of the transparent portion 402. In Embodiment 4, the parts of the phase shifters 403 surrounding the line ends of the transparent portion 402 are removed, so as to increase the quantity of light passing through the transparent portion 402 (see FIG. 21A). In contrast, in this modification, parts of the phase shifters 403 surrounding the line ends of the transparent portion 402, namely, the phase shifters 403b, are disposed in positions farther from the transparent portion 402 (opening pattern), so as to increase the quantity of light passing through the opening pattern, thereby preventing the line ends of a transferred pattern from receding. Thus, this modification can attain the same effect as that of Embodiment 4. FIG. 23B shows a shape of a resist pattern formed through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 23A obtained through simulation. On the abscissa of FIG. 23B, a position with the scale of 0 (zero) corresponds to the end of the transparent portion (open pattern) 402. Also, in FIG. 23B, a pattern shape obtained when the distance PWZ is equal to the distance PW0 (namely, when the phase shifter 403b is not farther from the transparent portion 402) is shown with a broken line and a pattern shape obtained when the distance PWZ is set to 1.2×PW0 (namely, when the phase shifter 403b is farther from the transparent portion 402) is shown with a solid line. The dimension Z of the phase shifter 403b is set to 0.1×λ/NA (=approximately 270 nm). As shown in FIG. 23B, in the phase shifters provided in parallel to the opening pattern, when the parts disposed in the vicinity of the line ends of the opening pattern are disposed to be farther from the opening pattern, the line ends of the transferred pattern (resist pattern) can be prevented from receding. Now, a result of simulation performed for quantifying the part, in the vicinity of the line end of the opening pattern, of the phase shifter to be disposed farther from the opening pattern for preventing the line end of the transferred pattern from receding will be described. FIG. 24A is a plan view of a photomask used in the simulation. In FIG. 24A, like reference numerals are used to refer to like elements shown in FIG. 23A so as to omit the description. The photomask of FIG. 24A has a similar structure to the photomask of Embodiment 4 shown in FIG. 22A except that each phase shifter 403b is provided in parallel to a part with the dimension Z from the line end of the opening pattern (transparent portion) 402. In this case, a distance between the center lines of the pair of phase shifters 403b sandwiching the line end part of the transparent portion 402 is a distance 2×PWZ. Also, a distance between the center lines of the pair of phase shifters 403a sandwiching the line center part of the transparent portion 402 is a distance 2×PW. FIG. 24B shows a pattern shape resulting from the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 24A. In FIG. 24B, it is assumed that a distance between line ends of a pair of transferred patterns (resist patterns) corresponding to the pair of transparent portions 402 is a distance V. FIG. 24C shows a result of light intensity simulation carried out for calculating the distance (pattern distance) V between the line ends of the transferred patterns with the distance 2×PWZ (hereinafter referred to as the shifter distance) variously set in the photomask of FIG. 24A with the width L set to 110 nm, the distance 2×PW set to 180 nm, the width d set to 30 nm and the dimension Z set to 270 nm. In this light intensity simulation, the exposure is performed with the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.7. Also, as the illumination, ⅔ annular illumination having the outer diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.8 and the inner diameter with a degree of coherence of 0.53 is assumed to be used. Furthermore, the transmittance of the semi-shielding portion 401 is 6%. In FIG. 24C, the abscissa indicates 2×(PWZ−PW), that is, increment of the shifter distance 2×PWZ, normalized by λ/NA, and the ordinate indicates the pattern distance V. As shown in FIG. 24C, when 2×(PWZ−PW) is 0 (zero), the pattern distance V is approximately 160 nm, and as 2×(PWZ−PW) is increased, the pattern distance V is reduced, namely, the recession of the line end of the transferred pattern is reduced. In this case, when the value of 2×(PWZ−PW) exceeds 0.1×λ/NA, the pattern distance V is approximately 120 nm and is not further reduced. Furthermore, when the value of 2×(PWZ−PW) is 0.03×λ/NA, the pattern distance V is reduced to approximately 140 nm. This reveals that the effect of this modification can be attained also when 2×(PWZ−PW) is approximately 0.03×λ/NA. Accordingly, in this modification, in order to prevent the line end of a transferred pattern from receding, a mask structure in which a distance 2×PWZ between a pair of phase shifters provided in parallel to the line end part of a line-shaped opening pattern is larger than a distance 2×PW between a pair of phase shifters provided in parallel to the line center part of the opening pattern by a given or larger dimension is preferably used. Specifically, the given dimension is preferably approximately 0.1×λ/NA but this effect can be attained even when the given dimension is approximately 0.03×λ/NA. In other words, 2×(PWZ−PW) is preferably approximately 0.03×λ/NA or more. However, in order to effectively utilize the principle of the outline enhancement method, PWZ−L/2 is preferably approximately 0.5×λ/NA or less. This is for the following reason: Since a phase shifter is preferably provided in a position away from an opening pattern by a distance of approximately 0.5×λ/NA or less, which corresponds to light interference distance, PWZ−L/2, namely, the distance of the phase shifter from the opening pattern, is preferably 0.5×λ/NA or less. In this modification, similarly to Embodiment 4, the dimension Z (namely, the length of the phase shifter 403b) is preferably not less than approximately 0.03×λ/NA and not more than approximately 0.5×λ/NA. Embodiment 5 A pattern formation method according to Embodiment 5 of the invention, and more specifically, a pattern formation method using a photomask according to any of Embodiments 1 through 4 (and modifications of these embodiments) (hereinafter referred to as the present photomask), will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIGS. 25A through 25D are cross-sectional views for showing procedures in the pattern formation method of this embodiment. First, as shown in FIG. 25A, a target film 501 of, for example, a metal film or an insulating film is formed on a substrate 500. Thereafter, as shown in FIG. 25B, for example, a positive resist film 502 is formed on the target film 501. Next, as shown in FIG. 25C, the resist film 502 is irradiated with exposing light 503 through the present photomask, such as the photomask according to Embodiment 1 shown in FIG. 2A (more specifically, the photomask having the cross-sectional structure of FIG. 6C). Thus, the resist film 502 is exposed to the exposing light 503 having passed through the photomask. On the transparent substrate 100 of the photomask used in the procedure shown in FIG. 25C, the semi-shielding film (thin film) 107 corresponding to the semi-shielding portion is formed, and in the semi-shielding film 107, the opening corresponding to a contact pattern to be transferred through the exposure is formed. Furthermore, in the semi-shielding film 107 around the opening, other openings corresponding to phase shifter forming regions are provided, and the transparent substrate 100 below (above in the drawings) each of these other openings is trenched, so as to form the phase shifters corresponding to auxiliary patterns. In this embodiment, in the exposure performed in FIG. 25C, the resist film 502 is subjected to the exposure by using an oblique incident exposure light source. In this case, since the semi-shielding portion having low transmittance is used as the shielding pattern, the entire resist film 502 is exposed at weak energy. However, as shown in FIG. 25C, it is only a latent image portion 502a of the resist film 502 corresponding to the contact pattern, namely, the opening (transparent portion) of the photomask, that is irradiated at exposure energy sufficiently high for allowing the resist to dissolve in subsequent development. Next, as shown in FIG. 25D, the resist film 502 is developed so as to remove the latent image portion 502a. Thus, a resist pattern 504 having a fine contact pattern is formed. According to Embodiment 5, since the pattern formation method is carried out by using the present photomask (specifically, the photomask according to Embodiment 1), the same effects as those described in Embodiment 1 can be attained. Specifically, the substrate (wafer) on which the resist is applied is subjected to the oblique incident exposure through the present photomask. At this point, since the phase shifters are arranged on the photomask so as to maximize the depth of focus and the exposure margin, a fine contact pattern with a large depth of focus and a large exposure margin can be formed. Although the photomask according to Embodiment 1 is used in Embodiment 5, in the case where a photomask according to any of Embodiments 2 through 4 is used instead, the same effects as those described in the corresponding embodiment can be attained. Although the positive resist process is employed in Embodiment 5, the same effects can be attained by employing the negative resist process instead. In Embodiment 5, oblique incident illumination (off-axis illumination) is preferably used in the procedure shown in FIG. 25C for irradiating the resist film. Thus, the exposure margin and the focus margin in the pattern formation can be improved. In other words, a fine pattern can be formed with a good defocus characteristic. Furthermore, herein, the oblique incident light source means a light source as shown in any of FIGS. 26B through 26D obtained by removing a vertical incident component from a general exposure light source of FIG. 26A. Typical examples of the oblique incident light source are an annular exposure light source of FIG. 26B and a quadrupole exposure light source of FIG. 26C. In the case where a contact pattern is formed, the annular exposure light source is preferably used. Alternatively, in the case where a line-shaped space pattern is formed, the quadrupole exposure light source is preferably used. Furthermore, in the case where a contact pattern and a line-shaped space pattern are both formed, an annular/quadrupole exposure light source of FIG. 26D is preferably used. As a characteristic of this annular/quadrupole exposure light source, assuming the XY coordinate system with the center of the light source (the center of a general exposure light source) corresponding to the origin, the annular/quadrupole exposure light source has a characteristic of the quadrupole exposure light source when portions at the center and on the X and Y axes of the light source are removed, and has a characteristic of the annular exposure light source when the outline of the light source is in a circular shape. In the case where the annular exposure light source, namely, annular illumination, is employed, the light source preferably has an outer diameter of 0.7 or more. Herein, the illumination radius of a reduction projection aligner is indicated by using a unit normalized by the numerical aperture NA. This is a value corresponding to interference in the general illumination (the general exposure light source). Now, the reason why the light source with the outer diameter of 0.7 or more is preferably used will be described in detail. FIGS. 27A through 27E are diagrams for explaining the dependency, obtained through simulation, of an exposure characteristic of the present photomask on the diameter of the annular illumination. FIG. 27A is a plan view of a photomask used in the simulation. As shown in FIG. 27A, a semi-shielding portion 511 is formed on a transparent substrate 510 so as to cover a sufficiently large area. In the semi-shielding portion 511, an opening pattern corresponding to a transparent portion 512 is formed in a position corresponding to a desired contact pattern to be formed on a wafer through the exposure. Also, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 513 are provided around the transparent portion 512, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of the transparent portion 512 in a square shape or a rectangular shape. It is assumed that the transparent portion 512 has a side dimension W of 130 nm, that each phase shifter 513 has a width d of 40 nm and that a distance PG between a pair of phase shifters 513 sandwiching the transparent portion 512 is 220 nm. Also, the exposure is performed in the simulation under conditions of the exposure wavelength λ of 193 nm and the numerical aperture NA of 0.7. In other words, various values are set in the simulation so as to obtain an optimum photomask for the illumination system. FIG. 27B shows the annular illumination (annular exposure light source) used in the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 27A. As shown in FIG. 27B, the inner diameter of the annular illumination is indicated by S1 and the outer diameter thereof is indicated by S2, whereas the diameters S1 and S2 are expressed by using values normalized by the numerical aperture NA. FIG. 27C shows a light intensity distribution formed on a wafer (in a position corresponding to line AA′ of FIG. 27A) through the exposure using the photomask of FIG. 27A performed by using the annular illumination of FIG. 27B. As shown in FIG. 27C, a peak value of the light intensity obtained in a position corresponding to the opening (transparent portion 512) of the photomask of FIG. 27A is indicated by Io. As the peak intensity Io is higher, an optical image with higher contrast can be formed. FIG. 27D is a graph obtained by plotting the values of the peak intensity Io obtained through simulation in which a value S2−S1 is fixed to 0.01 and a value (S1+S2)/2 is changed from 0.4 to 0.95 in the annular illumination of FIG. 27B. As shown in FIG. 27D, in the present photomask, as an illumination region (light source region) of the annular illumination is distributed in an area farther from the center of the illumination system (light source), the contrast is higher. FIG. 27E is a graph obtained by plotting the values of the depth of focus (DOF) obtained through simulation in which a contact hole pattern with a dimension of 100 nm is formed by using the photomask of FIG. 27A with the value (S2−S1) fixed to 0.01 and the value (S1+S2)/2 changed from 0.4 to 0.95 in the annular illumination of FIG. 27B. As shown in FIG. 27E, in the present photomask, when the illumination region of the annular illumination is distributed in an area away from the center of the illumination system by 0.7 or more, the depth of focus is the maximum. Specifically, it is understood from the results shown in the graphs of FIGS. 27D and 27E that the illumination region of the annular illumination preferably includes a region away from the center of the illumination system by 0.7 or more in order to simultaneously attain high contrast and a large depth of focus. Embodiment 6 A mask data creation method according to Embodiment 6 of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In this embodiment, mask data for a photomask according to any of Embodiments 1 through 4 (hereinafter referred to as the present photomask) is created. Before describing a specific flow of the mask data creation method, conditions for realizing highly accurate pattern dimension control by using the present photomask will be described. In the present photomask, a dimension of a pattern to be formed after exposure, namely, a CD (critical dimension), depends upon both a phase shifter (auxiliary pattern) and a transparent portion. However, when either of the transparent portion and the phase shifter is fixed, a possible pattern dimension is determined. The following description is given by exemplifying a photomask shown in FIG. 28. As shown in FIG. 28, a semi-shielding portion 601 is formed on a transparent substrate 600 so as to cover a sufficiently large area. An opening pattern corresponding to a transparent portion 602 is provided in a position in the semi-shielding portion 601 corresponding to a desired contact pattern to be formed on a wafer through the exposure. Also, auxiliary patterns corresponding to phase shifters 603 are provided around the transparent portion 602 with the semi-shielding portion 601 sandwiched therebetween, for example, so as to be parallel to respective sides of the transparent portion 602 in a square shape or a rectangular shape. It is assumed that the transparent portion 602 has a width W. Also, in this embodiment, among the phase shifters 603 surrounding the transparent portion 602, phase shifters 603 paring with each other with the transparent portion 603 sandwiched therebetween are designated as outline shifters, and a distance (between the inner sides) of the outline shifters is designated as an internal distance PG of the outline shifters. In such a photomask, when the internal distance PG is fixed to a value PGC, the maximum CD realizable by this photomask is determined. In this photomask, the CD is changed in proportion to the width W, and the width W never exceeds the value PGC. Accordingly, a CD attained when the width W is the value PGC is the possible maximum CD. Herein, the maximum CD determined when the internal distance PG of the outline shifters is determined is designated as the allowable maximum CD. On the contrary, when the width W is fixed to a value WC in the photomask, the minimum CD realizable by the photomask is determined. In this photomask, the CD is changed in proportion to the internal distance PG, and the internal distance PG never becomes smaller than the value WC. Accordingly, a CD attained when the internal distance PG is the value WC is the possible minimum CD. Herein, the minimum CD determined when the width W is determined is designated as the allowable minimum CD. Accordingly, in this embodiment, the internal distance PG is determined at the first stage so that the maximum allowable CD obtained based on a desired CD can be larger than the desired CD, and thereafter, the width W for realizing the desired CD is highly accurately calculated in consideration of an accurate close relationship between patterns. In this manner, it is possible to realize a mask data creation method in which a pattern dimension can be highly accurately controlled. Now, the flow of the mask data creation method of this embodiment will be described in detail. FIG. 29 is a basic flowchart for the mask data creation method of this embodiment. Also, FIGS. 30A through 30C, 31A and 31B are diagrams of exemplified mask patterns formed in respective procedures of the mask data creation method of this embodiment. FIG. 30A shows a desired pattern to be formed by the present photomask, and more specifically, shows an example of a design pattern corresponding to transparent portions (openings) of the present photomask. Specifically, patterns 701 through 703 shown in FIG. 30A are patterns corresponding to regions of a resist to be sensitized through the exposure using the present photomask. It is noted that the positive resist process is assumed to be employed in the pattern formation of this embodiment unless otherwise mentioned. In other words, the description is given on the assumption that an exposed region of a resist is removed through development and an unexposed region of the resist remains as a resist pattern. Accordingly, when the negative resist process is employed instead of the positive resist process, the description can be similarly applied by assuming that an exposed region of a resist remains as a resist pattern and an unexposed region is removed. First, in step S1, the desired patterns 701 through 703 of FIG. 30A are input to a computer used for the mask data creation. At this point, the transmittances of a phase shifter and a semi-shielding portion used in the mask pattern are respectively set. Next, in step S2, the internal distance of outline shifters necessary for each of the desired patterns 701 through 703 is estimated on the basis of exposure conditions and mask parameters such as the transmittances of the phase shifter and the semi-shielding portion. At this point, the internal distance of each pair of outline shifters is preferably set with respect to each pattern (i.e., each desired exposed region in the resist) in consideration of the close relationship between the respective patterns (hereinafter referred to as the pattern close relationship). However, the necessary condition is that the allowable maximum CD determined correspondingly to the internal distance of the outline shifters is larger than the desired CD and therefore, the internal distance of the outline shifters can be set, for example, by uniformly increasing the desired CD, whereas the desired CD should be increased by a value exceeding the CD that changes depending upon the pattern close relationship. Next, in step S3, the outline shifters are created. At this point, the internal distance PG of the outline shifters is one determined in step S2. Also, at this point, the width of each outline shifter is preferably changed in accordance with the pattern close relationship, but the width may be uniformly set if the margin of a pattern formation characteristic falls within an allowable range. However, in the case where a distance between outline shifters (i.e., phase shifters) respectively corresponding to adjacent patterns is as small as an allowable value or less of a mask processing characteristic, these outline shifters may be combined to create one phase shifter. Specifically, as shown in, for example, FIG. 30B, outline shifters 711 through 714 are created correspondingly to the desired patterns 701 through 703. In this case, the outline shifters 711 through 713 are outline shifters respectively peculiar to and corresponding to the desired patterns 701 through 703. Also, the outline shifter 714 is created by combining outline shifters respectively corresponding to the desired patterns 702 and 703. In other words, the outline shifter 714 is an outline shifter shared between the desired patterns 702 and 703. Next, in step S4, preparation is made for processing for adjusting the dimension of the mask pattern so that a pattern with a desired dimension can be formed correspondingly to the opening pattern (the transparent portion) of the photomask through the exposure using the present photomask (namely, OPC processing). In this embodiment, since the phase shifters (outline shifters) have been determined in step S3, the dimensions of the transparent portions alone are adjusted in the OPC processing, thereby creating photomask data for realizing the desired CD. Therefore, for example, as shown in FIG. 30C, opening patterns 721 through 723 corresponding to the transparent portions are set on the insides of the outline shifters 711 through 714 created in step S3, and the opening patterns 721 through 723 are set as CD adjustment patterns. At this point, the desired patterns 701 through 703 are set as target patterns to be formed. Also, the outline shifters 711 through 714 are not deformed for the CD adjustment but are set as patterns present on the mask and as reference patterns to be referred to in CD prediction. Next, in step S5, as shown in FIG. 31A, a semi-shielding portion 750 for partially transmitting exposing light in the identical phase with respect to the opening patterns 721 through 723 is set as the background of the photomask, namely, on the outsides of the opening patterns 721 through 723 and the outline shifters 711 through 714. It is noted that the outline shifters 711 through 714 are set as phase shifters for transmitting the exposing light in the opposite phase with respect to the opening patterns 721 through 723. Subsequently, in steps S6, S7 and S8, the OPC processing (such as model base OPC processing) is carried out. Specifically, in step S6, a dimension of a resist pattern (more strictly, a dimension of an exposed region of the resist) formed by using the present photomask is predicted through simulation performed in consideration of the optical principle, a resist development characteristic, and an etching characteristic or the like if necessary. Subsequently, in step S7, it is determined whether or not the predicted dimension of the pattern accords with the dimension of the desired target pattern. When the predicted dimension does not accord with the desired dimension, the CD adjustment pattern is deformed in step S8 on the basis of a difference between the predicted dimension and the desired dimension, so as to deform the mask pattern. As a characteristic of this embodiment, the outline shifters for realizing the desired CD are previously determined in step S3, and the CD adjustment patterns set in step S4 alone are deformed in steps S6 through S8, so as to obtain the mask pattern for forming the pattern with the desired dimension. Specifically, the procedures in steps S6 through S8 are repeated until the predicted dimension of the pattern accords with the desired dimension, so that the mask pattern for forming the pattern with the desired dimension can be ultimately output in step S9. FIG. 31B shows an example of the mask pattern output in step S9. When the present photomask having the mask pattern created by the mask data creation method of Embodiment 6 is used in the exposure of a wafer on which a resist has been applied, contrast of light passing through the opening patterns is emphasized by the outline shifters provided around the opening patterns. Therefore, fine space patterns can be formed in regions of the resist corresponding to the opening patterns. Furthermore, since an outline enhancement mask that can definitely realize a desired CD can be created in Embodiment 6, a fine space pattern can be accurately formed in a desired dimension. In step S2 of this embodiment, the internal distance of the outline shifters is set by uniformly increasing the desired CD. However, as described in Embodiment 3, in order to attain a good pattern formation characteristic, a distance from the center of an opening pattern to a phase shifter is preferably changed in accordance with the pattern close relationship. Specifically, in Embodiment 3, the preferable position of a phase shifter is defined by using a distance from the center of the opening pattern to the center line of the phase shifter. Accordingly, in this embodiment, when the internal distance of the outline shifters is calculated on the basis of this distance, mask pattern data of a photomask exhibiting a better fine pattern formation characteristic can be created. Furthermore, in step S3 of this embodiment, the widths of the outline shifters provided around the respective desired patterns are uniformly set. However, as described in Embodiment 2, the widths of the outline shifters are more preferably changed in accordance with the pattern close relationship. Specifically, also in this embodiment, when the width of each outline shifter, namely, each phase shifter, is changed in accordance with the distance to an adjacent outline shifter as described in Embodiment 2, mask pattern data of a photomask exhibiting a better fine pattern formation characteristic can be created. Although the width of the phase shifter is determined after determining the internal distance of the outline shifters in Embodiment 6, the internal distance of the outline shifters may be determined after determining the width of the phase shifter instead. Moreover, in Embodiment 6, the description is given with respect to a transmission photomask, which does not limit the invention. The present invention is applicable to a reflection mask by replacing the transmission phenomenon of exposing light with the reflection phenomenon by, for example, replacing the transmittance with reflectance.
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G
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9
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00
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11907462
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US20080044094A1-20080221
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Method of determining motion vectors and a reference picture index for a current block in a picture to be decoded
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ACCEPTED
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20080206
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20080221
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[]
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G06K936
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["G06K936", "H04B166"]
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8467621
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20071012
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20130618
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382
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236000
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59745.0
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AHMED
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SAMIR
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[{"inventor_name_last": "Jeon", "inventor_name_first": "Byeong", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Soh", "inventor_name_first": "Yoon", "inventor_city": "Seoul", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "KR"}]
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In one embodiment, the method includes obtaining first and second motion vectors and a reference picture index of blocks other than the current block. The other blocks neighbor the current block. First and second motion vectors of the current block are determined using the first and second motion vectors of the other blocks. This determining includes applying a median operation to the first motion vectors of the other blocks and applying a median operation to the second motion vectors of the other blocks. A reference picture index of the current block is determined using the reference picture indices of the other blocks.
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1. A method of determining motion vectors and a reference picture index for a current block in a picture to be decoded, comprising: obtaining first and second motion vectors and a reference picture index of blocks other than the current block, the other blocks neighboring the current block; determining first and second motion vectors of the current block using the first and second motion vectors of the other blocks, the determining including applying a median operation to the first motion vectors of the other blocks and applying a median operation to the second motion vectors of the other blocks; and determining a reference picture index of the current block using the reference picture indices of the other blocks.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a moving picture coding system, and more particularly to a prediction motion vector calculation method by defining a motion vector to be used in a median operation when a neighboring block around a block to be coded has a plurality of motion vectors, so as to obtain a prediction motion vector (PMV) of the block to be coded; using motion vector information of neighboring blocks, and improve a coding efficiency. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, in order to reduce the amount of bits to be used for the transfer of motion information, an encoder, instead of sending a motion vector MV directly to a decoder, selects a median value of motion vectors of three neighboring blocks through a median operation, determines the selected median value as a prediction motion vector PMV, obtains a difference MVD between the MV and the PMV (i.e., MVD=MV-PMV), and sends the obtained difference MVD to the decoder. Then, the decoder obtains the motion vector MV by obtaining the prediction motion vector PMV in the same manner as the encoder and adding the sent MVD to the obtained PMV. In FIG. 1 , a block E is a block to be coded (or decoded), and blocks A, B and C are neighboring blocks of the block E. Defining motion vectors of the neighboring blocks A, B and C, respectively, as MV A , MV B and MV C , a prediction motion vector PMV of the block E can be obtained through a median operation as follows: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? PMV=median {MV A ,MV B ,MV C } in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? A block D in FIG. 1 is a block which is used instead of the block C when the block C exists outside of a picture. Provided that only one of the three blocks A, B and C, or A, B and D refers to the same reference picture as that referred to by the block E, a motion vector MV of that block will be used as the prediction motion vector PMV. This motion information sending method is, applied to all pictures irrespective of their types. On the other hand, a B picture has five types of predictive modes such as forward mode, backward mode, bi-predictive mode, direct mode and intra mode. Generally, a neighboring block in the forward mode has one motion vector MVFW obtained from a forward reference picture with an index ref_idx_fwd, and a neighboring block in the backward mode has one motion vector MVBW obtained from a backward reference picture with an index ref_idx_bwd. In the bi-predictive mode of the B picture, the prediction is allowed from different directions and the same directions, such as forward/forward, backward/backward, and forward/backward. Each reference picture uses the index ref_idx_fwd or ref_idx_bwd regardless of its direction (forward or backward), and each motion vector is also represented as MVFW or MVBW regardless of its direction (The reason is that the predefined ‘syntaxes’ are used as they are. For expression of the syntaxes, ‘ref_idx — 10’ or ‘ref_idx — 11’ may be used for each index and ‘mv_list0’ or ‘mv_list1’ may be used for each motion vector.). The direct mode of the B picture is a predictive mode where motion information is not sent to the decoder and motion vectors MVf and MVb and reference pictures are derived from the inside of the decoder. The fact that the derived motion vectors are represented as MVf and MVb irrespective of their directions is the same as that in the bi-predictive mode. In a conventional method for calculating a prediction motion vector PMV of the B picture, a forward prediction motion vector of the block E is obtained by extracting only forward motion vectors of the neighboring blocks and performing a median operation with respect to the extracted forward motion vectors. If one of the neighboring blocks has no forward motion vector, its motion vector is set to 0 and the median operation is performed under such a condition. This method is similarly applied to a backward prediction motion vector of the block E, so as to use only backward motion vectors of the neighboring blocks. If one of the neighboring blocks is in the intra mode, its motion vector is set to 0, the neighboring block is considered to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block E, and the prediction motion vector PMV is obtained under such a condition. However, as stated above, in the bi-predictive mode of the B picture, the prediction is allowed from different directions and the same directions, such as forward/forward, backward/backward, and forward/backward, each reference picture uses the index ref_idx_fwd or ref_idx_bwd regardless of its direction (forward or backward), and each motion vector is also represented as MVFW or MVBW regardless of its direction. As a result, there is a need to define a method for calculating a prediction motion vector PMV when a neighboring block having two motion vectors exists. Provided that a neighboring block is in the bi-predictive mode (or the direct mode), motion vectors MVFW and MVBW (or MVf and MVb) thereof may have the same directions such as forward/forward or backward/backward, or different directions such as forward/backward. This direction information of the motion vectors cannot be determined from only the motion vector syntaxes ‘MVFW’ and ‘MVBW’ or the reference picture indexes ‘ref_idx_fwd’ and ‘ref_idx_bwd’. The conventional method for calculating the PMV of the B picture gives no accurate description of such a problem, resulting in great confusion. For example, in the case where a neighboring block is in the bi-predictive mode having two motion vectors in the forward/forward directions, the conventional PMV calculation method gives no clearly defined determination as to whether both or any one of the two motion vectors must be used for the calculation of the forward prediction motion vector PMV of the block E.
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a method for assigning direction information to reference pictures and a method for determining the directions of the reference pictures, wherein unique information enabling the acquisition of direction information of motion vectors is assigned to each reference picture, so that information regarding a direction from each neighboring block to each reference picture can be acquired. The present invention relates to providing a prediction motion vector calculation method by defining a motion vector to be used in a median operation when a neighboring block of a block to be coded has a plurality of motion vectors, so as to obtain a prediction motion vector (PMV) of the block to be coded, using motion vector information of neighboring blocks, and improve a coding efficiency. In one embodiment, direction information is assigned to a reference picture as a feature of the reference picture, so as to give the direction information of the reference picture pointed by reference picture index. The direction information may be indicative of the display order of each reference picture may be represented by a picture order count (POC) value. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for determining directions of reference pictures pointed to, respectively, by reference picture indexes, comprising the step of acquiring display order information of each reference picture, comparing display order information with display order information of a block to be currently coded, and determining a direction (forward or backward) of each reference picture against the block to be currently coded. The display order information of each reference picture may be acquired from a POC value. In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for calculating a prediction motion vector (PMV) of a block to be coded, by performing a median operation using motion vectors of neighboring blocks, comprising the steps of a), if the neighboring blocks have the motion vectors, acquiring direction information of reference pictures pointed by the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks; and b) selecting ones of the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks with reference to the acquired direction information and performing the median operation including the selected motion vectors to obtain the prediction motion vector of the block to be coded. The step a) may include the step of determining the direction information of the motion vectors by comparing display order information of the reference pictures pointed by the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks with display order information of the block to be coded. The step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors with different directions, selecting one of the two motion vectors having the same direction as that of the prediction motion vector and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors with the same directions, which are different from that of the prediction motion vector, setting the two motion vectors to 0, considering the neighboring block to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the zero motion to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of b-1), if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, and both the two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 refer to the same reference picture, selecting one of the two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. The step b-1) may include the step of b-2) selecting one of the two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 to be earlier decoded or having the same mode (MV 1 mode or MV 2 mode) as that of the prediction motion vector, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Here, the motion vector having the same mode signifies a motion vector having the same transcription as that indicative of the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, and only one of the motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 refers to a reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, selecting one of the motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 referring to the reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, neither of the motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 refers to a reference picture referred to by the block to be coded and they refer to different reference pictures, selecting one of the motion vectors MV 1 and MV 2 referring to a reference picture closest to the reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, or a reference picture closest to a picture to be currently coded, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has one motion vector with a direction different from that of the prediction motion vector, setting the motion vector of the neighboring block to 0, considering the neighboring block to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the zero motion of the neighboring block to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has one motion vector with the same direction as that of the prediction motion vector, performing the median operation including the motion vector of the neighboring block to obtain the prediction motion vector. The present invention still further relates to a method of determining motion vectors and a reference picture index for a current block in a picture to be decoded. In one embodiment, the method includes obtaining first and second motion vectors and a reference picture index of blocks other than the current block. The other blocks neighbor the current block. First and second motion vectors of the current block are determined using the first and second motion vectors of the other blocks. This determining includes applying a median operation to the first motion vectors of the other blocks and applying a median operation to the second motion vectors of the other blocks. A reference picture index of the current block is determined using the reference picture indices of the other blocks.
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FOREIGN PRIORITY INFORMATION The present invention claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119 on Korean Application Nos. 2002-42204 and 2002-44162 which were filed on Jul. 18, 2002 and Jul. 26, 2002, respectively; the contents of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. DOMESTIC PRIORITY INFORMATION This is a divisional of, and claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 to, U.S. application Ser. No. 10/337,808, filed Jan. 6, 2003, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a moving picture coding system, and more particularly to a prediction motion vector calculation method by defining a motion vector to be used in a median operation when a neighboring block around a block to be coded has a plurality of motion vectors, so as to obtain a prediction motion vector (PMV) of the block to be coded; using motion vector information of neighboring blocks, and improve a coding efficiency. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, in order to reduce the amount of bits to be used for the transfer of motion information, an encoder, instead of sending a motion vector MV directly to a decoder, selects a median value of motion vectors of three neighboring blocks through a median operation, determines the selected median value as a prediction motion vector PMV, obtains a difference MVD between the MV and the PMV (i.e., MVD=MV-PMV), and sends the obtained difference MVD to the decoder. Then, the decoder obtains the motion vector MV by obtaining the prediction motion vector PMV in the same manner as the encoder and adding the sent MVD to the obtained PMV. In FIG. 1, a block E is a block to be coded (or decoded), and blocks A, B and C are neighboring blocks of the block E. Defining motion vectors of the neighboring blocks A, B and C, respectively, as MVA, MVB and MVC, a prediction motion vector PMV of the block E can be obtained through a median operation as follows: PMV=median {MVA,MVB,MVC} A block D in FIG. 1 is a block which is used instead of the block C when the block C exists outside of a picture. Provided that only one of the three blocks A, B and C, or A, B and D refers to the same reference picture as that referred to by the block E, a motion vector MV of that block will be used as the prediction motion vector PMV. This motion information sending method is, applied to all pictures irrespective of their types. On the other hand, a B picture has five types of predictive modes such as forward mode, backward mode, bi-predictive mode, direct mode and intra mode. Generally, a neighboring block in the forward mode has one motion vector MVFW obtained from a forward reference picture with an index ref_idx_fwd, and a neighboring block in the backward mode has one motion vector MVBW obtained from a backward reference picture with an index ref_idx_bwd. In the bi-predictive mode of the B picture, the prediction is allowed from different directions and the same directions, such as forward/forward, backward/backward, and forward/backward. Each reference picture uses the index ref_idx_fwd or ref_idx_bwd regardless of its direction (forward or backward), and each motion vector is also represented as MVFW or MVBW regardless of its direction (The reason is that the predefined ‘syntaxes’ are used as they are. For expression of the syntaxes, ‘ref_idx—10’ or ‘ref_idx—11’ may be used for each index and ‘mv_list0’ or ‘mv_list1’ may be used for each motion vector.). The direct mode of the B picture is a predictive mode where motion information is not sent to the decoder and motion vectors MVf and MVb and reference pictures are derived from the inside of the decoder. The fact that the derived motion vectors are represented as MVf and MVb irrespective of their directions is the same as that in the bi-predictive mode. In a conventional method for calculating a prediction motion vector PMV of the B picture, a forward prediction motion vector of the block E is obtained by extracting only forward motion vectors of the neighboring blocks and performing a median operation with respect to the extracted forward motion vectors. If one of the neighboring blocks has no forward motion vector, its motion vector is set to 0 and the median operation is performed under such a condition. This method is similarly applied to a backward prediction motion vector of the block E, so as to use only backward motion vectors of the neighboring blocks. If one of the neighboring blocks is in the intra mode, its motion vector is set to 0, the neighboring block is considered to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block E, and the prediction motion vector PMV is obtained under such a condition. However, as stated above, in the bi-predictive mode of the B picture, the prediction is allowed from different directions and the same directions, such as forward/forward, backward/backward, and forward/backward, each reference picture uses the index ref_idx_fwd or ref_idx_bwd regardless of its direction (forward or backward), and each motion vector is also represented as MVFW or MVBW regardless of its direction. As a result, there is a need to define a method for calculating a prediction motion vector PMV when a neighboring block having two motion vectors exists. Provided that a neighboring block is in the bi-predictive mode (or the direct mode), motion vectors MVFW and MVBW (or MVf and MVb) thereof may have the same directions such as forward/forward or backward/backward, or different directions such as forward/backward. This direction information of the motion vectors cannot be determined from only the motion vector syntaxes ‘MVFW’ and ‘MVBW’ or the reference picture indexes ‘ref_idx_fwd’ and ‘ref_idx_bwd’. The conventional method for calculating the PMV of the B picture gives no accurate description of such a problem, resulting in great confusion. For example, in the case where a neighboring block is in the bi-predictive mode having two motion vectors in the forward/forward directions, the conventional PMV calculation method gives no clearly defined determination as to whether both or any one of the two motion vectors must be used for the calculation of the forward prediction motion vector PMV of the block E. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method for assigning direction information to reference pictures and a method for determining the directions of the reference pictures, wherein unique information enabling the acquisition of direction information of motion vectors is assigned to each reference picture, so that information regarding a direction from each neighboring block to each reference picture can be acquired. The present invention relates to providing a prediction motion vector calculation method by defining a motion vector to be used in a median operation when a neighboring block of a block to be coded has a plurality of motion vectors, so as to obtain a prediction motion vector (PMV) of the block to be coded, using motion vector information of neighboring blocks, and improve a coding efficiency. In one embodiment, direction information is assigned to a reference picture as a feature of the reference picture, so as to give the direction information of the reference picture pointed by reference picture index. The direction information may be indicative of the display order of each reference picture may be represented by a picture order count (POC) value. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for determining directions of reference pictures pointed to, respectively, by reference picture indexes, comprising the step of acquiring display order information of each reference picture, comparing display order information with display order information of a block to be currently coded, and determining a direction (forward or backward) of each reference picture against the block to be currently coded. The display order information of each reference picture may be acquired from a POC value. In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for calculating a prediction motion vector (PMV) of a block to be coded, by performing a median operation using motion vectors of neighboring blocks, comprising the steps of a), if the neighboring blocks have the motion vectors, acquiring direction information of reference pictures pointed by the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks; and b) selecting ones of the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks with reference to the acquired direction information and performing the median operation including the selected motion vectors to obtain the prediction motion vector of the block to be coded. The step a) may include the step of determining the direction information of the motion vectors by comparing display order information of the reference pictures pointed by the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks with display order information of the block to be coded. The step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors with different directions, selecting one of the two motion vectors having the same direction as that of the prediction motion vector and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors with the same directions, which are different from that of the prediction motion vector, setting the two motion vectors to 0, considering the neighboring block to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the zero motion to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of b-1), if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, and both the two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refer to the same reference picture, selecting one of the two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. The step b-1) may include the step of b-2) selecting one of the two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 to be earlier decoded or having the same mode (MV1 mode or MV2 mode) as that of the prediction motion vector, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Here, the motion vector having the same mode signifies a motion vector having the same transcription as that indicative of the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, and only one of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refers to a reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, selecting one of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 referring to the reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 with the same directions, which are the same as that of the prediction motion vector, neither of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refers to a reference picture referred to by the block to be coded and they refer to different reference pictures, selecting one of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 referring to a reference picture closest to the reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, or a reference picture closest to a picture to be currently coded, and performing the median operation including the selected motion vector to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has one motion vector with a direction different from that of the prediction motion vector, setting the motion vector of the neighboring block to 0, considering the neighboring block to refer to a reference picture different from that referred to by the block to be coded, and performing the median operation including the zero motion of the neighboring block to obtain the prediction motion vector. Alternatively, the step b) may include the step of, if one of the neighboring blocks has one motion vector with the same direction as that of the prediction motion vector, performing the median operation including the motion vector of the neighboring block to obtain the prediction motion vector. The present invention still further relates to a method of determining motion vectors and a reference picture index for a current block in a picture to be decoded. In one embodiment, the method includes obtaining first and second motion vectors and a reference picture index of blocks other than the current block. The other blocks neighbor the current block. First and second motion vectors of the current block are determined using the first and second motion vectors of the other blocks. This determining includes applying a median operation to the first motion vectors of the other blocks and applying a median operation to the second motion vectors of the other blocks. A reference picture index of the current block is determined using the reference picture indices of the other blocks. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by describing in detail example embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a view illustrating the calculation of a prediction motion vector of a block E using motion vectors of neighboring blocks A, B and C. FIG. 2 illustrates a process of determining a direction of a motion vector for a current block in a picture to be decoded according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have different directions according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have the same directions, which are the same as that of a prediction motion vector, according to another example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have the same directions, which are different from that of a prediction motion vector, according to another example embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS If a neighboring block of a block to be coded is in a bi-predictive mode (or a direct mode), motion vectors MVFW and MVBW (or MVf and MVb) thereof may have the same directions such as forward/forward and backward/backward, or different directions such as forward/backward. This direction information of the motion vectors cannot be determined from only motion vector syntaxes ‘MVFW’ and ‘MVBW’ or reference picture indexes ‘ref_idx_fwd’ and ‘ref_idx_bwd’. For this reason, there is a need to acquire the direction information by referring to different unique information held by reference pictures. This invention proposes a method for acquiring direction information of motion vectors by comparing the display orders of reference pictures, and calculating a prediction motion vector PMV on the basis of the acquired direction information. Now, example embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the annexed drawing. 1. Recognition of Motion Vector Directions Through. Display Order Comparison Direction information of motion vectors of neighboring blocks must be acquired before calculation of a prediction motion vector PMV of a block to be coded. Then, through the direction information of the motion vectors of the respective neighboring blocks, determinations are made as to whether the motion vectors of the neighboring blocks must be included in the median operation. In general, if a neighboring block is in a forward mode or backward mode having one motion vector, the direction of that motion vector can be determined from a reference picture index. However, in the case where a neighboring block is in a bi-predictive mode or direct mode having two motion vectors, it is impossible to recognize actual directions of reference pictures pointed to by two reference picture indexes. The reason is as follows. A decoder of a moving picture coding system which allows multiple reference pictures and a B picture to be used as references cannot estimate direction information only with reference picture indexes because it cannot accurately acquire the number of forward reference pictures and backward reference pictures of the B picture to be currently decoded, even though it can recognize the relation between a default forward/backward indexing order and a relative forward/backward indexing order from re-mapping information sent from an encoder. In the present invention, it is proposed that a reference picture pointed to by a reference picture index will include unique information indicative of its display order for recognition of its direction. This display order is represented by a picture order count (POC) value. FIG. 2 illustrates a process of determining a direction of a motion vector for a current block in a picture to be decoded according to an example embodiment of the present invention. In the example embodiment of FIG. 2, the direction of each motion vector can be easily recognized (step S125) by comparing, in step S115, a display order of each reference picture pointed to by each reference picture index with a display order picture of the B picture to be currently coded, the display orders of which are obtained in step S100. As is well-known in the art, the comparison may be based on an inequality determination, or alternatively by taking a difference between the two POC values and assessing the difference. Accordingly, the motion vector(s) for the current block are predicted based upon the operations described below with respect to scenarios 2.1, 2.2 or 2.3, based upon the determined direction for each motion vector. 2. Median Operation for Calculation of Prediction Motion Vector PMV When Neighboring Block is in Bi-Predictive Mode or Direct Mode If a neighboring block of a block to be coded is in the bi-predictive mode or direct mode, it has two motion vectors. Of these motion vectors, one having the same direction as that of a prediction motion vector PMV of the block to be coded will have to be used for the median operation. A detailed description will hereinafter be given of the efficient prediction motion vector PMV calculation method proposed by the present invention. For the convenience of description, assume that a block to be coded is E, neighboring blocks are A, B, C and D, and two motion vectors of each neighboring block are MV1 and MV2, as shown in FIG. 1. 2.1 Case Where Two Motion Vectors of Neighboring Block Have Different Directions FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have different directions according to an example embodiment of the present invention. A motion vector having the same direction as that of a prediction motion vector PMV of a block to be coded is selected and the prediction motion vector PMV is then calculated through the median operation. In other words, referring to the example embodiment of FIG. 3, a forward motion vector is selected for calculation of the PMV with respect to a forward prediction motion vector of the block E in step S200, and a backward motion vector is selected for calculation of the PMV with respect to a backward prediction motion vector of the block E in step S205. Then, the prediction motion vector PMV of each direction is obtained through the median operation in step S210. 2.2 Case Where Two Motion Vectors of Neighboring Block Have the Same Directions, Which are the Same as That of Prediction Motion Vector PMV FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have the same directions, which are the same as that of a prediction motion vector, according to another example embodiment of the present invention. In the example embodiment of FIG. 4, in step S300, a determination is made as to whether two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 of a neighboring block refer to a reference picture referred to by the block E to be coded. If both the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refer to the same reference picture (as determined in step S305), one of them (for example, a motion vector to be earlier decoded, or a motion vector having the same mode (MV1 mode or MV2 mode) as that of a prediction motion vector) is selected in step S315 and included in the median operation for calculation of the prediction motion vector PMV in step S330. Here, the motion vector having the same mode signifies a motion vector having the same transcription as that indicative of the prediction motion vector. Also, the reference picture referred to by the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 may be the same as or different from the reference picture referred to by the block E to be coded. Alternatively, if only one of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refers to the reference picture referred to by the block E (as determined in step S305), it is included in the median operation for calculation of the prediction motion vector PMV in steps S320 and S330. If neither of the motion vectors MV1 and MV2 refers to the reference picture of the block E and they refer to different reference pictures (as determined in step S305), one thereof referring to a reference picture closest to the reference picture referred to by the block E, or a reference picture closest to a picture to be currently coded is selected in step S325 and included in the median operation for calculation of the prediction motion vector PMV in step S330. 2.3 Case Where Two Motion Vectors of Neighboring Block Have the same Directions, Which are Different from That of Prediction Motion Vector PMV FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating a motion vector calculation for a case where two motion vectors of a neighboring block have the same directions, which are different from that of a prediction motion vector, according to another example embodiment of the present invention. Two motion vectors MV1 and MV2 of a neighboring block are set to 0, the neighboring block is considered to refer to a reference picture different from the reference picture referred to by the block E, and the prediction motion vector PMV of the block to be coded is obtained through the median operation including the zero motion. In this manner, when a neighboring block has two motion vectors (as determined in step S400), the directions of the motion vectors are recognized from display orders of associated reference pictures in step S410 and determinations are made as to whether they are the same as the direction of the prediction motion vector PMV, thereby making it possible to obtain a PMV more approximating an MV in step S430. This results in a reduction in the magnitude of a motion vector difference MVD (=MV-PMV) to be sent to the decoder and, in turn, a reduction in the amount of bits to be sent to the decoder. Accordingly, the entire coding efficiency can be raised. On the other hand, in the case where a neighboring block has one motion vector (as determined in step S400), direction information of the motion vector is acquired from a display order of an associated reference picture in step S405. If the direction of the motion vector is not the same as that of the prediction motion vector (as determined in step S415), the motion vector is set to 0 in step S420, the neighboring block is considered to refer to a reference picture different from the reference picture referred to by the block to be coded, and the prediction motion vector is obtained through the median operation including zero motion in steps S425 and S430. Further, in the case where a neighboring block has one motion vector (as determined in step S400), direction information of the motion vector is acquired from a display order of an associated reference picture in step S405. If the direction of the motion vector is the same as that of the prediction motion vector (as determined in step S415), the motion vector is included in the median operation for calculation of the prediction motion vector in steps S425 and S430. As apparent from the above description, the present invention provides a method for assigning direction information to reference pictures and a method for determining the directions of the reference pictures, wherein display order information enabling the acquisition of direction information of motion vectors is assigned to each reference picture. Therefore, information regarding a direction from a block to be currently coded to each reference picture can be acquired. Further, the present invention provides a prediction motion vector calculation method by defining a motion vector to be used in a median operation when a neighboring block around a block to be coded has two motion vectors due to a bi-predictive mode or direct mode of a B picture. As a result, a prediction motion vector (PMV) of the block to be coded can be predicted using motion vector information of neighboring blocks, and a coding efficiency can be improved. Although the example embodiments of the present invention have been disclosed for illustrative purposes, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications, additions and substitutions are possible, without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as disclosed in the accompanying claims.
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G
| 60G06
| 163G06K
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9
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36
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11863258
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US20100025478A1-20100204
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Printing Currency Documents
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ACCEPTED
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20100120
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20100204
|
[]
|
G06K1906
|
["G06K1906", "B41F3300"]
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7854386
|
20070928
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20101221
|
235
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487000
|
85010.0
|
FRECH
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KARL
|
[{"inventor_name_last": "Silverbrook", "inventor_name_first": "Kia", "inventor_city": "Balmain", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}, {"inventor_name_last": "Lapstun", "inventor_name_first": "Paul", "inventor_city": "Balmain", "inventor_state": "", "inventor_country": "AU"}]
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A method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including, receiving the security document, and encrypted identity data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document. The identity is decrypting using a secret key associated with the public key, allowing a signature to be generated using the determined identity. The signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity. The signature is used in generating coded data at least partially indicative of the identity of the security document and at least part of the signature. The coded data is then printed on the security document.
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1. A method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes overprinting the coded data on the visible information. 3. A method according to claim 1, wherein a secure data store is used for storing document data and where the method includes generating the signature using the data stored in the data store. 4. A method according to claim 1, wherein the method includes encoding the entire signature within a plurality of coded data portions. 5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the method includes: determining a layout, the layout being at least one of: a coded data layout, the layout being indicative of the position of each coded data portion on the security document; and, a document description, the document description being indicative of the position of the visible information on the packaging; and, prints, using the layout, at least one of the coded data and the visible information. 6. A method according to claim 1, wherein a communication system is used for communicating with a database, the database storing data relating the security, including at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. 7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the method includes, at least one of: updating at least some of the data relating to the security document; and, generating the coded data using at least some of the data relating to the security. 8. A method according to claim 1, wherein the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. 9. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. 12. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. 13. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. 15. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key. 17. A method according to claim 1, wherein the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. 18. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. 19. A method according to claim 1, wherein the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. 20. A printer for printing a security document having a security feature, the printer being for: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document.
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<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>
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<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In a first broad form the invention provides a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the tracking information is indicative of at least one of: the current owner of the security document; one or more transactions performed using the security document; a location of the security document; and, a location of the sensing device. Optionally, the method includes determining the tracking information using at least one of: the indicating data; and, user inputs. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device, sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. In a second broad form the invention provides a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the sensing device further includes an indicator for indicating the sensed identity of the security document. Optionally, the each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, at least one sensed signature part; and, determines if the security document is a counterfeit document using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the processor: accesses a data store, using the sensed identity, to determine a stored signature part; compares the stored signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the processor: generates, using the sensed identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; compares the generated signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the processor: determines, from a plurality of sensed coded data portions, a plurality of sensed signature parts representing the entire signature; generates, using the plurality of sensed signature parts and a key, a generated identity; compares the generated identity to the sensed identity; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the processor: accesses, using the sensed identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing security documents: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, at least one of: determines, using the tracking information, if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents; and, updates the tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes a communications system, and wherein the processor includes a first processor part provided in the sensing device and a second remote processor part coupled to the first processor part via the communications system, and wherein the first processor part: generates indicating data indicative of at least one of: the sensed identity; and, at least one sensed signature part; transfers the indicating data to a second processor part via the communications system, and wherein the second processor part is responsive to the indicating data to perform at least one of: determination of a value associated with the security document; and, determination of whether the security document is a counterfeit document. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the sensing device is uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a computer system including a set of instructions for causing the computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a currency counter including a set of instructions for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the sensing device is used with a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the sensing device is used with a security document including anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a third broad form the invention provides a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: accessing a data store, using the determined identity, to determine a stored signature part; comparing the stored signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: generating, using the determined identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; comparing the generated signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes: in the sensing device: sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature; and, generating the indicating data using the sensed coded data portions; and, in the processor: determining, from the indicating data, a plurality of determined signature parts representing the entire signature; generating, using the plurality of determined signature parts and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the processor forms part of the sensing device. Optionally, the processor forms part of a computer system, and wherein the method includes, transferring the indicating data to the computer system via a communications system. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing security documents: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device, generating the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a fourth broad form the invention provides a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the tracking data is indicative of tracking information for each of a number of existing security documents, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system, determining if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the indicating data, a current location of the security document; comparing the current location to the tacking information; and, determining the security document to be a possible duplicate if the current location is inconsistent with the tracking information. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, determining if the current location is inconsistent with the tracking information using predetermined rules. Optionally, each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: receiving indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document and at least one signature part; determining, from the indicating data: the determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: accessing a data store, using the determined identity, to determine a stored signature part; comparing the stored signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: generating, using the determined identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; comparing the generated signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a plurality of determined signature parts representing the entire signature; generating, using the plurality of determined signature parts and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of determining a duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity; access, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determine, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device: sensing a plurality of coded data portions to thereby determine: a determined identity; and, a determined entire signature; generating, using the determined entire and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. In a fifth broad form the invention provides a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path, a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the counter further includes a number of outputs, and wherein the processor controls the feed mechanism to thereby transport currency documents to the outputs using the determined value for the currency document. Optionally, the each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, at least one sensed signature part; and, determines if the currency document is a counterfeit document using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the currency counter includes a second output, and wherein the processor controls the feed mechanism to thereby transport counterfeit currency documents to the second output. Optionally, the processor: accesses a data store, using the sensed identity, to determine a stored signature part; compares the stored signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the processor: generates, using the sensed identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; compares the generated signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the processor: determines, from a plurality of sensed coded data portions, a plurality of sensed signature parts representing the entire signature; generates, using the plurality of sensed signature parts and a key, a generated identity; compares the generated identity to the sensed identity; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. 8. A currency counter according to claim 3 , wherein the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the processor: accesses, using the sensed identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing currency documents: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the currency document; at least one of: determines, using the tracking information, if the currency document is a duplicate of one of the existing currency documents; and, updates the tracking information. Optionally, the counter includes a communications system, and wherein the processor includes a first processor part provided in a counter housing and a second remote processor part coupled to the first processor part via the communications system, and wherein the first processor part: generates indicating data indicative of at least one of: the sensed identity; and, at least one sensed signature part; transfers the indicating data to a second processor part via the communications system, and wherein the second processor part is responsive to the indicating data to perform at least one of: determination of a value associated with the currency document; and, determination of whether the currency document is a counterfeit document. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the currency document is at least one of: a currency note; and, a check, and wherein the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; and, a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the currency counter further uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further includes A set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, at least one currency document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, at least one currency document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a sixth broad form the invention provides a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method includes generating the signature using a secret key, the secret key being known only to authorised document producers. Optionally, the method includes printing the coded data using a printer, the printer including a processor and a secure data store, and wherein the method includes causing the processor to generate the signature using a secret key stored in the data store. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes: determining a layout; and, printing the coded data using the layout, at least some of the coded data being substantially coincident with at least some of the visible information. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes: determining a layout; and, printing the coded data and the visible information using the layout. Optionally, the method includes updating tracking data stored in a data store, the tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information indicative of at least one of: a date of creation of the security document; a creator of the security document; a current location of the security document; an intended destination for the security document; and, a date of expiry for the security document. Optionally, the method includes: receiving the security document; scanning the security document to determine information indicative of at least one of: a source of the security document; a security document type; and, a value associated with the security document; and, determining the identity using the determined information. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the method includes encoding the entire signature within a plurality of coded data portions. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a seventh broad form the invention provides a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes overprinting the coded data on the visible information. Optionally, a secure data store is used for storing document data and where the method includes generating the signature using the data stored in the data store. Optionally, the method includes encoding the entire signature within a plurality of coded data portions. Optionally, the method includes: determining a layout, the layout being at least one of: a coded data layout, the layout being indicative of the position of each coded data portion on the security document; and, a document description, the document description being indicative of the position of the visible information on the packaging; and, prints, using the layout, at least one of the coded data and the visible information. Optionally, a communication system is used for communicating with a database, the database storing data relating the security, including at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the method includes, at least one of: updating at least some of the data relating to the security document; and, generating the coded data using at least some of the data relating to the security. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a printer for printing a security document having a security feature, the printer being for: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. In an eighth broad form the invention provides a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the transaction data is indicative of at least one of: a transaction type including at least one of: point of sale transaction; deposit transaction; and, withdrawal transaction; transaction details; identities of parties involved in the transaction; a transaction amount; a location of the transaction; and, a location of the sensing device. Optionally, the computer system is configured to: approve the transaction; and, in response to a successful approval: cause the transaction to be performed; and, update the transaction data. Optionally, the computer system is configured to approve the transaction by at least one of: authenticating the security document using the indicating data; and, comparing the transaction to at least one predetermined criterion. Optionally, the computer system includes a display for displaying at least one of: an indication of approval of the transaction; results of authentication of the security document; results of a comparison of the transaction to at least one predetermined criterion; and, transaction data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the system is configured to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the system is further includes a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the system is further includes a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the system is further used for a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the system uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the system is further includes a set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the system is further includes a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further used for a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the system is further used for a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a sensing device for: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update transaction data stored in a data store, transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. In a ninth broad form the invention provides a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the comparison is performed using at least one of: Data mining detection; and, Neural network detection. Optionally, each predetermined pattern is at least partially related to at least one of: a predetermined transaction value; a predetermined number of transactions performed in a predetermined timeframe; an identity of a particular party; a sequence of transactions related to one or more security documents; a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the method includes displaying, using the display device, at least one of: the comparison data; and, the transaction data. Optionally, the method includes generating, using the transaction data, at least one of: a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a sensing device and following a transaction involving a security document: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update tracking data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions, and comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. In an tenth broad form the invention provides a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of the identity, and wherein the action includes the computer system authenticating the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of a transaction status, and wherein the action includes allowing the computer system to perform at least one of: verifying the transaction status of the security document; and, updating the transaction status of the security document. Optionally, the transaction status is at least partially indicative of whether the security document is at least one of: a copied security document; a stolen security document; and, a counterfeit security document. Optionally, the database can be queried in order to determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the database stores a key pair for each security document, the key pair being indexed in the database by the identity associated with the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of at least one: a transaction history data representing transactions related to the security document including: a transaction type including at least one of: transaction details; identities of parties involved in the transaction; a transaction amount; a location of the transaction; and, a location of the sensing device; a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the system is configured to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document database is used by currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document database is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document database is used by set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document database is used by a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used by a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a eleventh broad form the invention provides a set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; update, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions causes the computer system to compare the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions causes comparison data to be output by the computer system, the comparison data being indicative of the results of the comparison. Optionally, each predetermined pattern is at least partially related to at least one of: a predetermined transaction threshold; a predetermined number of transactions performed in a predetermined timeframe; an identity of a particular party; a sequence of transactions related to one or more security documents; a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, cause the computer system to display, using the display device, at least one of: the comparison data; and, the transaction data. Optionally, the transaction data includes a transaction status indicative of whether the security document is at least one of: a copied security document; a stolen security document; and, a counterfeit security document. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, cause the computer system to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of tracking the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the computer system is a currency counter and the security document is a currency document, and where the set of instructions, when executed in the currency counter, causes the currency counter to count currency documents, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of printing the security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further records a transaction relating to the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving the security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further operate as a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the computer system is a currency counter and the security document is a currency document, and where the set of instructions, when executed in the currency counter cause the currency counter to count currency documents, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to the computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a twelfth broad form the invention provides a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the set of instructions cause the processor to cause authentication of the currency documents, using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the authentication is performed by at least one of: the processor; and, a computer system, wherein the processor: generates indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; and, transfers the indicating data to the computer system. Optionally, the indicating data is transmitted to the computer system at least one of: after the currency counter scans: each currency document; a predetermined number of currency documents; and, the currency documents provided in the input; and, periodically. Optionally, the currency counter includes a display device, the executed set of instructions causing the processor to display, using the display device at least one of: results of an authentication; at least one currency document value; and, a count total. Optionally, the currency counter includes a data store for storing at least one: a key for authenticating the currency documents; and, padding for determining the signature; where the processor performs authentication using data cached in the data store. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to: for each currency document, generate indicating data further indicative of at least one of: the time the currency counter scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, the location of the currency counter when the currency document was scanned. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the currency document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of tracking the currency document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a counterfeit currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the currency document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated currency document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the currency document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the currency document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the currency document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of providing a currency document having a currency feature, the method including: creating the currency document; determining an identity associated with the currency document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of printing the currency document having a currency feature, the method including: receiving the currency document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further records a transaction relating to the currency document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving the currency document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving the currency document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of currency documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further operate as a currency document database, the database storing currency document data including, for each of a number of currency documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the currency document; wherein, in use, the currency document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the currency document data to perform an action associated with the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions cause the processor to monitor transactions involving currency documents including: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in a processor for use in a device for authenticating currency documents, cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the currency document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to the computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the currency document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective currency document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the currency document to be determined. Optionally, the currency document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid currency documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the currency document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of recovering a stolen currency document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a currency document status; determining, using the currency document status, if the currency document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the currency document to be recovered. In a thirteenth broad form the invention provides a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the processor: determines, using the determined identity and a secret key, a determined signature; compares the determined signature to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison. Optionally, the processor stores a number of secret keys in a data store. Optionally, the device includes a display device coupled to the processor and where the processor causes the display device to display the results of the authentication. Optionally, the processor includes an internal memory forming the data store, and where the processor and internal memory are provided as a monolithic chip. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the processor is used in at least one of the following devices: an automatic teller machine; a currency counter; a cash register; a hand held scanner; a vending machine; and, a mobile phone. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in the processor: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the processor is used in a sensing device for use with a security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, the processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in the processor: determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a processor: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the processor is further used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, the processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document and where the processor is further used for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in the processor and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the processor is further used to access a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows the processor to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used to execute a set of instructions for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the processor is further used to execute a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, the processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a fourteenth broad form the invention provides a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of at least one of: a signature; a time the sensing device scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, a location of the sensing device when the currency document was sensed. Optionally, the method includes transmitting the indicating data to the computer system at least one of: after the sensing device scans: each currency document; and, a predetermined number of currency documents; and, periodically. Optionally, the sensing device includes an indicator, where the method includes causing the indicator to provide at least one of: an indication related to the success of sensing the at least one coded data portions; a count indicative of the number of sensed currency documents; the value of the sensed currency document; and, an incremental value of the sensed currency documents. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein method includes the sensing device generating the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device adapted to sense at least one coded data portion for each currency document, and generate, using the sensed coded data portion, the indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determining, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. In a fifteenth broad form the invention provides a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of: a time the sensing device scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, a location of the sensing device when the currency document was sensed. Optionally, the method includes transmitting the indicating data to the computer system at least one of: after the sensing device senses: each currency document; and, a predetermined number of currency documents; and, periodically. Optionally, the sensing device includes an indicator, where the method includes causing the indicator to provide at least one of: an indication of the success of sensing the at least one coded data portion; an indication of an authenticity of the currency document; a count indicative of the number of sensed currency documents; the value of the sensed currency document; and, an incremental value of the sensed currency documents. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded in a plurality of data portions and wherein the method includes causing the indicator to indicate if the entire signature can be determined from the sensed coded data portions. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being adapted to: sense at least one coded data portion; generate, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; determining, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticating the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determining, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. In a sixteenth broad form the invention provides a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of an identity corresponding to each part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity. Optionally, the coded data can be sensed using a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to: generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: a sensed identity; and a sensed at least part of the signature; and, transfer the indicating data to a computer system to determine whether a duplication of the sensed security document has occurred. Optionally, the signature is encoded using at least one of: a private key from a public/private key pair, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the corresponding public key; a secret key, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the same secret key; and, a public key from a public/private key pair, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the corresponding private key. Optionally, the sensed identity is compared to at least one of: location data indicative of where a security document having an identical identity has been sensed; and, time data indicative of when a security document having an identical identity has been sensed; in order to determine whether duplication of a security document has occurred. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of a position of the coded data on or in the security document. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the sensing device determines, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part, and where the computer system determines whether a duplication of the security document has occurred using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the sensing device is configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, a sensing device is used for sensing the coded data disposed on or in the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and where a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document data relating to the security document is stored in a security document database, the security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a transaction and a set of instructions is used for causing a computer system to monitor the transaction, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter executing a set of instructions, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is authenticated using a processor for use in a device, the coded data being further at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document further includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a seventeenth broad form the invention provides a security document including anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the private key is associated with at least one of: a security document type; a value; a creator of the security document; a location that the security document was issued; and, a time when the document was created. Optionally, the coded data on the security document is printed using a printer, wherein the printer includes the private key in order to encode the coded data. Optionally, at least some of the coded data can be sensed using a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to the sensing to: determine, using the sensed coded data, the signature; and, attempt to decode, using one of a number of public keys, the signature. Optionally, the sensing device generates, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the at least part of a signature. Optionally, if the sensing device determines that none of the plurality of public keys decode the signature, the sensing device performs at least one of: a retrieval at least one additional public key on demand from a computer system; and, a determination that the security document is invalid. Optionally, in order to confirm the validity of the security document, the sensing device performs at least one of: a comparison of the indicating data and stored data located in the sensing device's store; and a transfer of the indicating data to a computer system, wherein the computer system compares the indicating data to stored data located in the computer system. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally; the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, a sensing device is used for sensing the coded data disposed on or in the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and where a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document data relating to the security document is stored in a security document database, the security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a transaction and a set of instructions is used for causing a computer system to monitor the transaction, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter executing a set of instructions, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is authenticated using a processor for use in a device, the coded data being further at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document further includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a eighteenth broad form the invention provides a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, recording in the data store, the security document status as being stolen, in response to when the security document is stolen. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, updating in the data store, the security document status as being recovered in response to a successful recovery of the security document. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the method includes displaying, using the display device, recovery data for use in recovering the stolen security document. Optionally, each coded data portion further encodes a signature, wherein the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the method including: receiving indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of the signature; and, determining, using the indicating data, the determined identity. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of a location of the sensing device and where the method includes causing the security document to be recovered in relation to the determined location. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. In another broad form the invention provides a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a sensing device: sensing at least some of the coded data portions; generating indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity; access, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determine, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, cause the security document to be recovered. In a nineteenth broad form the present invention provides a method of verifying an object, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving a verification request, the request being at least partially indicative of: an identity of the object; at least one signature fragment, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; determining, using the verification request, a determined identity; determining, using the determined identity, and from a database, at least one criterion relating to verification; and, comparing the received verification request to the at least one criterion; and causing the object to be verified if the at least one criterion is satisfied. Optionally the at least one criterion relates to a limit on at least one of: a number of received verification requests; a rate of received verification requests; and, timing of received verification requests. Optionally the limit is defined in respect of at least one of: the identity of the object; the signature; the signature fragment; a verification request source; and, the object. Optionally the limit is proportional to a size of the signature fragment. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the verification request: a request history indicative of a number of previously received verification requests; and, a corresponding limit; determining, using the verification request and the request history, a request number; and, causing the object to be verified if the request number does not exceed the corresponding limit. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, and in response to a verification request, updating the request history. Optionally the request history is indicative of the timing of the received verification request. Optionally the request history is associated with: the identity of the object; the signature; the signature fragment; a verification request source; and, the object. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, verifying the object by authenticating the object using the identity of the object and the at least one signature fragment. Optionally the verification request is at least partially indicative of an identity of the signature fragment. Optionally the object is associated with a surface having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least the identity and a signature fragment, and wherein, in response to sensing of at least one coded data portion, a sensing device generates the verification request. Optionally the verification request is at least partially indicative of an identity of the signature fragment, the fragment identity being based on at least one of: a number encoded within the at least one sensed coded data portion; and, a position of the at least one sensed coded data portion on the surface. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, only comparing the received verification request to the at least one criterion after a failed verification. Optionally the method includes, in a computer system: receiving a verification request, the request being at least partially indicative of: an identity of the object; a concatenation of: a signature fragment, the signature fragment being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and a random signature; determining, using the verification request, a determined identity; determining, using the concatenation, the signature fragment; and, verifying the object using the determined identity and the signature fragment. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the determined identity, a key; generating, using the determined identity and the key, a generated signature; comparing the generated signature to the concatenation to thereby identify and authenticate the signature fragment. In another broad form the present invention provides coded data for disposal on or in a surface, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion encoding: an identity; and, a fragment of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and a random signature. In another broad form the present invention provides coded data for disposal on or in a surface, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of: an identity; at least fragment of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, a position of the coded data on the surface. Optionally each coded data portion is at least partially indicative of a data portion identity, the data portion identity being unique for each coded data portion, the data portion identity being indicative of the position. Optionally the coded data is disposed on or in the surface using a layout, the layout being indicative of, for each data portion identity, the position of the corresponding coded data portion. Optionally the signature is generated using RSA encryption.
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CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/041,649 filed on Jan. 25, 2005, the entire contents of which are now incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention broadly relates to a method and apparatus for the protection of products and security documents using machine readable tags disposed on or in a surface of the product or security document. CROSS REFERENCE TO OTHER RELATED APPLICATIONS The following applications have been filed by the Applicant simultaneously with this application: HYN006US HYN007US HYN008US HYN010US HYP006US HYP007US HYP008US HYP009US HYP010US HYS006US HYS007US HYS008US HYS009US HYS010US The disclosures of these co-pending applications are incorporated herein by reference. The above applications have been identified by their filing docket number, which will be substituted with the corresponding application number, once assigned. The following applications were filed by the Applicant simultaneously with the parent application, application Ser. No. 11/041,649: 11/041,556 11/041,580 11/041,723 11/041,698 11/041,648 11/041,609 11/041,626 11/041,627 11/041,624 11/041,625 11/041,650 11/041,651 11/041,652 11/041,610 The disclosures of these co-pending applications are incorporated herein by reference. CROSS-REFERENCES Various methods, systems and apparatus relating to the present invention are disclosed in the following co-pending applications and granted patents filed by the applicant or assignee of the present invention. The disclosures of all of these co-pending applications and granted patents are incorporated herein by cross-reference. 6,795,215 10/884,881 10/296,522 09/575,109 10/296,535 6,859,289 6,805,419 09/607,985 6,398,332 6,394,573 6,622,923 6,747,760 10/189,459 10/943,941 10/949,294 10/727,181 10/727,162 10/727,163 10/727,245 10/727,204 10/727,233 10/727,280 10/727,157 10/727,178 10/727,210 10/727,257 10/727,238 10/727,251 10/727,159 10/727,180 10/727,179 10/727,192 10/727,274 10/727,164 10/727,161 10/727,198 10/727,158 10/754,536 10/754,938 10/727,227 10/727,160 10/934,720 10/854,521 10/854,522 10/854,488 10/854,487 10/854,503 10/854,504 10/854,509 10/854,510 10/854,496 10/854,497 10/854,495 10/854,498 10/854,511 10/854,512 10/854,525 10/854,526 10/854,516 10/854,508 10/854,507 10/854,515 10/854,506 10/854,505 10/854,493 10/854,494 10/854,489 10/854,490 10/854,492 10/854,491 10/854,528 10/854,523 10/854,527 10/854,524 10/854,520 10/854,514 10/854,519 10/854,513 10/854,499 10/854,501 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10/943,875 10/943,938 10/943,874 10/943,872 10/944,044 10/943,942 10/944,043 10/949,293 10/943,877 10/965,913 10/954,170 10/981,773 10/981,626 10/981,616 10/981,627 10/974,730 10/986,337 10/992,713 11/006,536 11/020,256 11/020,106 11/020,260 11/020,321 11/020,319 11/026,045 09/575,193 09/575,156 09/609,232 09/607,844 6,457,883 09/693,593 10/743,671 11/033,379 09/928,055 09/927,684 09/928,108 09/927,685 09/927,809 09/575,183 6,789,194 09/575,150 6,789,191 10/900,129 10/900,127 10/913,328 10/913,350 10/982,975 10/983,029 6,644,642 6,502,614 6,622,999 6,669,385 6,827,116 10/933,285 10/949,307 6,549,935 09/575,187 6,727,996 6,591,884 6,439,706 6,760,119 09/575,198 09/722,148 09/722,146 6,826,547 6,290,349 6,428,155 6,785,016 6,831,682 6,741,871 09/722,171 09/721,858 09/722,142 6,840,606 10/202,021 10/291,724 10/291,512 10/291,554 10/659,027 10/659,026 10/831,242 10/884,885 10/884,883 10/901,154 10/932,044 10/962,412 10/962,510 10/962,552 10/965,733 10/965,933 10/974,742 10/982,974 10/983,019 10/986,375 09/693,301 6,870,966 6,822,639 6,474,888 6,627,870 6,724,374 6,788,982 09/722,141 6,788,293 09/722,147 6,737,591 09/722,172 09/693,514 6,792,165 09/722,088 6,795,593 10/291,823 6,768,821 10/291,366 10/291,503 6,797,895 10/274,817 10/782,894 10/782,895 10/778,056 10/778,058 10/778,060 10/778,059 10/778,063 10/778,062 10/778,061 10/778,057 10/846,895 10/917,468 10/917,467 10/917,466 10/917,465 10/917,356 10/948,169 10/948,253 10/948,157 10/917,436 10/943,856 10/919,379 10/943,843 10/943,878 10/943,849 10/965,751 09/575,154 09/575,129 6,830,196 6,832,717 09/721,862 10/473,747 10/120,441 6,843,420 10/291,718 6,789,731 10/291,543 6,766,944 6,766,945 10/291,715 10/291,559 10/291,660 10/409,864 10/309,358 10/410,484 10/884,884 10/853,379 10/786,631 10/853,782 10/893,372 10/893,381 10/893,382 10/893,383 10/893,384 10/971,051 10/971,145 10/971,146 10/986,403 10/986,404 10/986,459 10/492,169 10/492,152 10/492,168 10/492,161 10/492,154 10/502,575 10/683,151 10/683,040 10/510,391 10/919,260 10/510,392 10/919,261 10/778,090 09/575,189 09/575,162 09/575,172 09/575,170 09/575,171 09/575,161 10/291,716 10/291,547 10/291,538 6,786,397 10/291,827 10/291,548 10/291,714 10/291,544 10/291,541 6,839,053 10/291,579 10/291,824 10/291,713 10/291,545 10/291,546 10/917,355 10/913,340 10/940,668 11/020,160 6,593,166 10/428,823 10/849,931 10/815,621 10/815,612 10/815,630 10/815,637 10/815,638 10/815,640 10/815,642 10/815,643 10/815,644 10/815,618 10/815,639 10/815,635 10/815,647 10/815,634 10/815,632 10/815,631 10/815,648 10/815,614 10/815,645 10/815,646 10/815,617 10/815,620 10/815,615 10/815,613 10/815,633 10/815,619 10/815,616 10/815,614 10/815,636 10/815,649 10/815,609 10/815,627 10/815,626 10/815,610 10/815,611 10/815,623 10/815,622 10/815,629 6,454,482 6,808,330 6,527,365 6,474,773 6,550,997 10/181,496 10/274,119 10/309,185 10/309,066 10/949,288 10/962,400 10/969,121 BACKGROUND Security Document Counterfeiting Counterfeiting of security documents, such as money, is an increasing problem that now poses a real threat to the strength of global monetary systems. Software and high quality photographic and printing technology are making it easier for criminals to produce and pass counterfeit notes into the monetary system. Counterfeit currency can be used to support the underground, untaxed economy, and it is a global threat that could erode financial systems. The main reason that counterfeiting remains a major concern is the ease and speed with which large quantities of counterfeit currency can be produced using counterfeit software combined with high quality photographic and printing equipment. The occurrence of counterfeiting is likely to increase because these technologies are more readily available, and the techniques are more easily understood by an increasingly larger segment of the criminal population. Whilst, these technologies do not reproduce the watermarks, color shifting, embedded security threads, microprinting, and the general feel of the note, or the slightly raised print produced by engraved plates, in day-to-day transactions these features are often overlooked so that counterfeit notes are often accepted as legal tender. Counterfeit money can move through banks, money exchanges, casinos, and is even carried overseas, and there are growing opportunities for counterfeit currency to be passed into the monetary system. Most of the large economies around the world are therefore now committed to introducing new technologies, as well as additional regulations and processes to make identification of counterfeit notes easier, to thereby reduce the incidence of counterfeit notes entering the monetary system. Another concern is that there are governments who knowingly support counterfeiters, and some are complicit in producing counterfeit currency. A related problem is that all of the major U.S. and European banks have established multiple correspondent relationships throughout the world so they may engage in international financial transactions for themselves and their clients in places where they do not have a physical presence. Many of these do not meet current regulatory or reporting requirements, and therefore make it difficult to gain sufficient information to actively combat counterfeiting. In addition to the growing problem of currency counterfeiting, the risks associated with money laundering are also a major concern for many governments for two reasons: 1. Deregulation of global financial systems means that it is now harder to combat money laundering; and 2. The funds involved in money laundering are increasing rapidly. There are two stages involved in money laundering: placement and layering, and integration. Placement is the movement of cash from its source and placing it into circulation through financial institutions, casinos, shops, bureau de change and other businesses, both local and abroad. Placement can be carried out through many processes including currency smuggling, bank complicity, deregulated currency exchanges, blending to enable funds from illicit activities to be obscured in legal transactions, and using the proceeds to purchase less conspicuous assets. The purpose of layering is to make it more difficult for law enforcement agencies to detect the trail of illegal proceeds. Layering methods can include converting cash to other monetary instruments such as banker's drafts and money orders, or selling assets bought with illicit funds. The final stage of integration is the movement of previously laundered money into the economy, mainly through the banking system, to make transactions appear to be normal business earnings. The first thing to note about money laundering is that criminals prefer to deal in cash because of its anonymity. In most financial transactions, there is a financial paper trail to link the person involved. Physical cash, however, has disadvantages. It is bulky and difficult to move. For example, 44 pounds of cocaine worth $1 million is equivalent to 256 pounds of street cash. The street cash is more than six times the weight of the drugs. The existing payment systems and cash are both problems for criminals, even more so for large transnational crime groups. This is where criminals and terrorists are often most vulnerable. By limiting the opportunity for counterfeit notes, and funds from illicit activities to enter the economy at the money placement and layering phases, it becomes possible to restrict a wide range of money laundering activities. To do this requires a detailed knowledge of cash flow movements that can only be gained by introducing the ability to track and trace the flow of individual notes within the monetary system, and the ability to link large reportable cash transactions to an individual's identity. As a consequence, governments have endeavored to: Improve international co-operation through governments to address money laundering and counterfeiting concerns; and, Establish additional national controls for the distribution and supply of currency within a country. Concerted efforts by governments to fight money laundering have been going on for the past fifteen years. The main international agreements addressing counterfeit and money laundering include: the United Nations Vienna Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (the Vienna Convention) and the 1990 Council of Europe Convention on Laundering (Adopted in November 1990, the Council of Europe Convention establishes a common criminal policy on money laundering. The convention lays down the principles for international co-operation among the contracting parties.). The role of financial institutions in preventing and detecting money laundering has been the subject of pronouncements by the Basic Committee on Banking Supervision, the European Union, and the International Organization of Securities Commissions. In December 1988, the G-10's Basle Committee on Banking Supervision issued a “statement of principles” with which the international banks of member states are expected to comply. These principles cover identifying customers, avoiding suspicious transactions, and co-operating with law enforcement agencies. In issuing these principles, the committee noted the risk to public confidence in banks, and thus to their stability, that can arise if they inadvertently become associated with money laundering. The “United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime” was tabled for signing in December 2000. The Convention urges governments to cooperate with one another in the detection, investigation and prosecution of money laundering. Signatories are obliged to reinforce requirements for customer identification, record-keeping and the reporting of suspicious transactions. Signatories are also recommended to set up financial intelligence units to collect, analyze and disseminate information. Since the events of Sep. 11, 2001, UN Member States have emphasized the links between terrorism, transnational organized crime, the international drug trade and money laundering. The UN Security Council adopted resolution 1373 (2001) and it established the Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC), which is mandated to monitor the implementation of the resolution urging States to prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts. Other potential macroeconomic consequences of unchecked money laundering that have been noted by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are inexplicable changes in money demand, contamination effects on legal financial transactions, and increased volatility of international capital flow and exchange rates as a consequence of unanticipated cross-border asset transfers. The latter point is especially important and poses a significant risk to the EU financial system as money laundering has a direct effect on the Foreign Exchange Market (FOREX) of an economy, which is vulnerable to the volume of cash involved in the trade. Banks are susceptible to risks from money launderers on several fronts. There is a thin line between a financial institution suspecting that it is being used to launder money and the institution becoming criminally involved with the activity. Banks that are exposed as laundering money are likely to face costs associated with the subsequent loss of business on top of vast legal costs. At the very least, the discovery of a bank laundering money for an organised crime syndicate is likely to generate adverse publicity for the bank. Banks passing counterfeit notes to customers will also result in declining business as clients take business elsewhere. However, a much graver risk that banks face is that of criminal prosecution for laundering money. EU laws and directives state that if a financial institution in the EU is found to be assisting a money launderer and failed to follow the appropriate procedures as laid out by EU directives, the individual employee and respective supervisors, including company directors, are personally liable to imprisonment or fines. This is the reason why the EU directives on money laundering include the “know your customer” initiative. As a result due diligence measures have been implemented by financial service providers under regulatory supervision to ensure the integrity of those conducting business with the institution. These consist of four sub-categories: 1) identification; 2) know your customer; 3) record keeping; and 4) suspicious activity reporting. These are all time consuming and difficult to manage. In addition to international efforts to combat counterfeiting and money laundering, most OECD governments have introduced a wide range of domestic statutes governing the distribution, and management of currency. Some of these are needed to support international approaches, and others have been introduced to reduce local opportunities for terrorists or criminals to derive benefit from counterfeiting or money laundering activities. While it is not possible to consider all of these, a few U.S. statutory requirements are considered here to highlight the emerging requirements that any new currency validation and tracking system might be required to meet to support national and international objectives. Within the U.S., national distribution and supply of U.S. currency is regulated by the U.S. Monetary Policy, and implemented by the Federal Reserve and the Department of Treasury, and monitored by the Secret Service. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP), which is a division of the U.S. Department of Treasury, serves as the United States' security printer. It produces the Nation's currency, most of its postage stamps, and other security documents (The first important distinction is that while the Federal Reserve issues Federal Reserve notes, the Treasury issues coins. Consequently, the Federal Reserve determines the amount of new currency of each denomination to be printed annually by the US Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP)). In the case of currency, the Federal Reserve Banks verify all notes deposited with them by the banking industry on a note-by-note basis. During this verification, deposited currency is counted for accuracy, counterfeit notes are identified, and unfit notes are destroyed. The BEP, in conjunction with the Department of Treasury, Federal Reserve and Secret Service, are continuously working on changes that are required to protect the integrity of the monetary system. Additionally, the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) requires anyone involved in a trade or business, except financial institutions, to report currency received for goods or services in excess of $10,000. The Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) mandates the reporting of certain currency transactions conducted by financial institutions, the disclosure of foreign bank accounts, and the reporting of the transportation of currency exceeding $10,000 across United States borders. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is one of the key agencies involved in money laundering investigations. Tax evasion, public corruption, health care fraud, money laundering and drug trafficking are all examples of the types of crimes that revolve around cash. A financial investigation often becomes the key to a conviction. In addition to providing physical protection to the leaders of the United States of America, the Secret Service has set as its highest investigative priority the identification and suppression of counterfeit currency production and distribution networks. With 60% of genuine U.S. currency circulating outside of the U.S., the dollar continues to be a target for transnational counterfeiting activity. The main objective of the U.S. Patriot Act 2001 is to amend certain laws within the constitution of the United States of America to assist with the national and global fight against terrorism. These laws relate to reporting requirements for currency received in non-financial trade or business. These include the name, address, and identification information of the person from whom the currency was received, the amount of currency received, the date and nature of the transaction, and the identification of the person filing the report. In their effort to avoid using traditional financial institutions, many criminals are forced to move large quantities of currency in bulk form through airports, border crossings, and other ports of entry where the currency can be smuggled out of the United States and placed in a foreign financial institution or sold on the black market. The transportation and smuggling of cash in bulk form may now be one of the most common forms of money laundering, and the movement of large sums of cash is one of the most reliable warning signs of drug trafficking, terrorism, money laundering, racketeering, tax evasion and similar crimes. To support the above international and national initiatives, the technology industry has also initiated a number of programs. For example, IBM and Searchspace have joined forces to launch the IBM Anti-Money Laundering Service, a hosted computer service to help meet new U.S. Patriot Act requirements, which requires firms to implement new technologies to detect and prevent money laundering schemes by terrorists and other criminals. Unisys also provides anti-money laundering and fraud detection services. These services have been provided to police forces and leading financial institutions. Given the wide range of approaches adopted to support international co-operative efforts to limit terrorist and criminal activity, there is a growing recognition that organized crime is increasingly operating through more fluid network structures rather than more formal hierarchies. This therefore requires the use of new methods and technologies in order to comply with the wide range of regulations and recommendations needed to combat laundering and counterfeiting. These new methods and technologies should make it easy to validate notes, automate many of the statutory cash transaction reporting requirements, and provide the capability for security agencies to detect crime patterns through cash flow tracking. An existing solution to the problem involves the use of note tracking using RFID chips. Due to the Euro's broad cross-border reach, the European Central Bank (ECB) and criminal investigators in Europe are concerned about increases in counterfeiting, as well as a possible increase in money laundering. There are now over 10 billion bank notes in circulation, with 4.5 billion being held in reserve to accommodate potential leaps in demand. Last year, Greek authorities were confronted with 2,411 counterfeiting cases while authorities in Poland arrested a gang suspected of making and putting over a million fake euros into circulation. Because of these concerns, the application of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology to paper currency is currently being investigated by the European Central Bank and Hitachi. Hitachi Ltd. announced plans in July 2003 for a chip designed for high denomination currency notes that would pack RF circuitry and ROM in a 0.4-mm square circuit that is only 60 microns thick. The Hitachi “mu-chip” will be capable of wirelessly transmitting a 128-bit number when radio signals are beamed at it. Besides acting as a digital watermark, such RFID chips could speed up routine bank processes such as counting. A stack of notes can be passed through a reader with the sum determined automatically, similar to the way that inventory is tracked in an RFID-based system. However there are a number of difficulties that associated with such a solution. First, there are concerns about the high costs associated with producing and integrating each chip into a note. Manufacturing processes are also considered a major hurdle to embedding a low-cost antenna and chip in bank notes. There are also concerns about the robustness of a chip solution. Bank notes have a thickness of only about 80 microns. Once a 60 micron thick RFID chip is connected to its antenna, it is likely to be well over 100 microns thick. They will therefore be at risk of snagging on an object or surface, and being torn out of the note paper. Notes rubbing against each other in a wallet may cause the RFID chips to tear out of the notes. Another major concern is the robustness of the chip itself. Bank notes undergo repeated folding, they are accidentally put through washing machines, and they may receive large electrostatic shocks. All of these will make it difficult for the issuers to guarantee that chips will continue to function properly for the expected life of the note. People are unlikely to accept that their notes are invalid simply because the RFID chips have been torn out or damaged, so there will not be an expectation that all notes must have RFID chips. So, a forger can pass off notes which never had chips simply by tearing small holes where the chips have purportedly ‘snagged on something and been torn out’. There are also concerns about privacy. With the potential to track and trace cash, individuals may become concerned that cash will lose its anonymity when buying goods. There are also concerns by privacy advocates that a scanner in the hands of criminals could be used to remotely determine the amount of cash being carried by an individual without their knowledge. This could place them at risk of attack. Thus, there are many factors that suggest that an RFID solution may not be feasible for validating and tracking currency. Surface Coding Background The Netpage surface coding consists of a dense planar tiling of tags. Each tag encodes its own location in the plane. Each tag also encodes, in conjunction with adjacent tags, an identifier of the region containing the tag. This region ID is unique among all regions. In the Netpage system the region typically corresponds to the entire extent of the tagged surface, such as one side of a sheet of paper. The surface coding is designed so that an acquisition field of view large enough to guarantee acquisition of an entire tag is large enough to guarantee acquisition of the ID of the region containing the tag. Acquisition of the tag itself guarantees acquisition of the tag's two-dimensional position within the region, as well as other tag-specific data. The surface coding therefore allows a sensing device to acquire a region ID and a tag position during a purely local interaction with a coded surface, e.g. during a “click” or tap on a coded surface with a pen. The use of netpage surface coding is described in more detail in the following copending patent applications, U.S. Ser. No. 10/815,647 (docket number HYG001US), entitled “Obtaining Product Assistance” filed on 2 Apr. 2004; and U.S. Ser. No. 10/815,609 (docket number HYT001US), entitled “Laser Scanner Device for Printed Product Identification Cod” filed on 2 Apr. 2004. Cryptography Background Cryptography is used to protect sensitive information, both in storage and in transit, and to authenticate parties to a transaction. There are two classes of cryptography in widespread use: secret-key cryptography and public-key cryptography. Secret-key cryptography, also referred to as symmetric cryptography, uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt a message. Two parties wishing to exchange messages must first arrange to securely exchange the secret key. Public-key cryptography, also referred to as asymmetric cryptography, uses two encryption keys. The two keys are mathematically related in such a way that any message encrypted using one key can only be decrypted using the other key. One of these keys is then published, while the other is kept private. They are referred to as the public and private key respectively. The public key is used to encrypt any message intended for the holder of the private key. Once encrypted using the public key, a message can only be decrypted using the private key. Thus two parties can securely exchange messages without first having to exchange a secret key. To ensure that the private key is secure, it is normal for the holder of the private key to generate the public-private key pair. Public-key cryptography can be used to create a digital signature. If the holder of the private key creates a known hash of a message and then encrypts the hash using the private key, then anyone can verify that the encrypted hash constitutes the “signature” of the holder of the private key with respect to that particular message, simply by decrypting the encrypted hash using the public key and verifying the hash against the message. If the signature is appended to the message, then the recipient of the message can verify both that the message is genuine and that it has not been altered in transit. Secret-key can also be used to create a digital signature, but has the disadvantage that signature verification can also be performed by a party privy to the secret key. To make public-key cryptography work, there has to be a way to distribute public keys which prevents impersonation. This is normally done using certificates and certificate authorities. A certificate authority is a trusted third party which authenticates the association between a public key and a person's or other entity's identity. The certificate authority verifies the identity by examining identity documents etc., and then creates and signs a digital certificate containing the identity details and public key. Anyone who trusts the certificate authority can use the public key in the certificate with a high degree of certainty that it is genuine. They just have to verify that the certificate has indeed been signed by the certificate authority, whose public key is well-known. To achieve comparable security to secret-key cryptography, public-key cryptography utilises key lengths an order of magnitude larger, i.e. a few thousand bits compared with a few hundred bits. Schneier B. (Applied Cryptography, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons 1996) provides a detailed discussion of cryptographic techniques. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a first broad form the invention provides a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the tracking information is indicative of at least one of: the current owner of the security document; one or more transactions performed using the security document; a location of the security document; and, a location of the sensing device. Optionally, the method includes determining the tracking information using at least one of: the indicating data; and, user inputs. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device, sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. In a second broad form the invention provides a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the sensing device further includes an indicator for indicating the sensed identity of the security document. Optionally, the each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, at least one sensed signature part; and, determines if the security document is a counterfeit document using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the processor: accesses a data store, using the sensed identity, to determine a stored signature part; compares the stored signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the processor: generates, using the sensed identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; compares the generated signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the processor: determines, from a plurality of sensed coded data portions, a plurality of sensed signature parts representing the entire signature; generates, using the plurality of sensed signature parts and a key, a generated identity; compares the generated identity to the sensed identity; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the processor: accesses, using the sensed identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing security documents: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, at least one of: determines, using the tracking information, if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents; and, updates the tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes a communications system, and wherein the processor includes a first processor part provided in the sensing device and a second remote processor part coupled to the first processor part via the communications system, and wherein the first processor part: generates indicating data indicative of at least one of: the sensed identity; and, at least one sensed signature part; transfers the indicating data to a second processor part via the communications system, and wherein the second processor part is responsive to the indicating data to perform at least one of: determination of a value associated with the security document; and, determination of whether the security document is a counterfeit document. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the sensing device generates the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from the sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the sensing device is uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a computer system including a set of instructions for causing the computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a currency counter including a set of instructions for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in the sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the sensing device is used with a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the sensing device is used with a security document including anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the sensing device is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a third broad form the invention provides a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: accessing a data store, using the determined identity, to determine a stored signature part; comparing the stored signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: generating, using the determined identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; comparing the generated signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes: in the sensing device: sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature; and, generating the indicating data using the sensed coded data portions; and, in the processor: determining, from the indicating data, a plurality of determined signature parts representing the entire signature; generating, using the plurality of determined signature parts and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the processor forms part of the sensing device. Optionally, the processor forms part of a computer system, and wherein the method includes, transferring the indicating data to the computer system via a communications system. Optionally, the method includes, in the processor: accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing security documents: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device, generating the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a fourth broad form the invention provides a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the tracking data is indicative of tracking information for each of a number of existing security documents, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system, determining if the security document is a duplicate of one of the existing security documents. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the indicating data, a current location of the security document; comparing the current location to the tacking information; and, determining the security document to be a possible duplicate if the current location is inconsistent with the tracking information. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, determining if the current location is inconsistent with the tracking information using predetermined rules. Optionally, each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: receiving indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document and at least one signature part; determining, from the indicating data: the determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: accessing a data store, using the determined identity, to determine a stored signature part; comparing the stored signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system: generating, using the determined identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; comparing the generated signature part to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a plurality of determined signature parts representing the entire signature; generating, using the plurality of determined signature parts and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of determining a duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity; access, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determine, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the method includes, in the sensing device: sensing a plurality of coded data portions to thereby determine: a determined identity; and, a determined entire signature; generating, using the determined entire and a key, a generated identity; comparing the generated identity to the determined identity; and, authenticating the security document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. In a fifth broad form the invention provides a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path, a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the counter further includes a number of outputs, and wherein the processor controls the feed mechanism to thereby transport currency documents to the outputs using the determined value for the currency document. Optionally, the each coded data portion is indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, at least one sensed signature part; and, determines if the currency document is a counterfeit document using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the currency counter includes a second output, and wherein the processor controls the feed mechanism to thereby transport counterfeit currency documents to the second output. Optionally, the processor: accesses a data store, using the sensed identity, to determine a stored signature part; compares the stored signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the processor: generates, using the sensed identity and a key, at least a generated signature part; compares the generated signature part to the at least one sensed signature part; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions, and wherein the processor: determines, from a plurality of sensed coded data portions, a plurality of sensed signature parts representing the entire signature; generates, using the plurality of sensed signature parts and a key, a generated identity; compares the generated identity to the sensed identity; and, authenticates the currency document using the results of the comparison to thereby determine if the document is a counterfeit. 8. A currency counter according to claim 3, wherein the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the processor: accesses, using the sensed identity, tracking data indicative of, for each of a number of existing currency documents: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the currency document; at least one of: determines, using the tracking information, if the currency document is a duplicate of one of the existing currency documents; and, updates the tracking information. Optionally, the counter includes a communications system, and wherein the processor includes a first processor part provided in a counter housing and a second remote processor part coupled to the first processor part via the communications system, and wherein the first processor part: generates indicating data indicative of at least one of: the sensed identity; and, at least one sensed signature part; transfers the indicating data to a second processor part via the communications system, and wherein the second processor part is responsive to the indicating data to perform at least one of: determination of a value associated with the currency document; and, determination of whether the currency document is a counterfeit document. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the currency document is at least one of: a currency note; and, a check, and wherein the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; and, a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the currency counter further uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the currency counter further includes A set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency counter further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, at least one currency document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, at least one currency document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the currency counter further performs a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a sixth broad form the invention provides a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method includes generating the signature using a secret key, the secret key being known only to authorised document producers. Optionally, the method includes printing the coded data using a printer, the printer including a processor and a secure data store, and wherein the method includes causing the processor to generate the signature using a secret key stored in the data store. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes: determining a layout; and, printing the coded data using the layout, at least some of the coded data being substantially coincident with at least some of the visible information. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes: determining a layout; and, printing the coded data and the visible information using the layout. Optionally, the method includes updating tracking data stored in a data store, the tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information indicative of at least one of: a date of creation of the security document; a creator of the security document; a current location of the security document; an intended destination for the security document; and, a date of expiry for the security document. Optionally, the method includes: receiving the security document; scanning the security document to determine information indicative of at least one of: a source of the security document; a security document type; and, a value associated with the security document; and, determining the identity using the determined information. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the method includes encoding the entire signature within a plurality of coded data portions. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a seventh broad form the invention provides a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document includes visible information, and wherein the method includes overprinting the coded data on the visible information. Optionally, a secure data store is used for storing document data and where the method includes generating the signature using the data stored in the data store. Optionally, the method includes encoding the entire signature within a plurality of coded data portions. Optionally, the method includes: determining a layout, the layout being at least one of: a coded data layout, the layout being indicative of the position of each coded data portion on the security document; and, a document description, the document description being indicative of the position of the visible information on the packaging; and, prints, using the layout, at least one of the coded data and the visible information. Optionally, a communication system is used for communicating with a database, the database storing data relating the security, including at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the method includes, at least one of: updating at least some of the data relating to the security document; and, generating the coded data using at least some of the data relating to the security. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a printer for printing a security document having a security feature, the printer being for: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. In an eighth broad form the invention provides a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the transaction data is indicative of at least one of: a transaction type including at least one of: point of sale transaction; deposit transaction; and, withdrawal transaction; transaction details; identities of parties involved in the transaction; a transaction amount; a location of the transaction; and, a location of the sensing device. Optionally, the computer system is configured to: approve the transaction; and, in response to a successful approval: cause the transaction to be performed; and, update the transaction data. Optionally, the computer system is configured to approve the transaction by at least one of: authenticating the security document using the indicating data; and, comparing the transaction to at least one predetermined criterion. Optionally, the computer system includes a display for displaying at least one of: an indication of approval of the transaction; results of authentication of the security document; results of a comparison of the transaction to at least one predetermined criterion; and, transaction data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the system is configured to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the system is further includes a sensing device for use with a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the system is further includes a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the system is further used for a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the system uses a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the system is further includes a set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the system is further includes a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further includes a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the system is further used for a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the system is further used for a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the system is further used for a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a sensing device for: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update transaction data stored in a data store, transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. In a ninth broad form the invention provides a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the comparison is performed using at least one of: Data mining detection; and, Neural network detection. Optionally, each predetermined pattern is at least partially related to at least one of: a predetermined transaction value; a predetermined number of transactions performed in a predetermined timeframe; an identity of a particular party; a sequence of transactions related to one or more security documents; a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the method includes displaying, using the display device, at least one of: the comparison data; and, the transaction data. Optionally, the method includes generating, using the transaction data, at least one of: a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes, in the computer system: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a sensing device and following a transaction involving a security document: sensing at least one coded data portion; determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to update tracking data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions, and comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. In an tenth broad form the invention provides a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of the identity, and wherein the action includes the computer system authenticating the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of a transaction status, and wherein the action includes allowing the computer system to perform at least one of: verifying the transaction status of the security document; and, updating the transaction status of the security document. Optionally, the transaction status is at least partially indicative of whether the security document is at least one of: a copied security document; a stolen security document; and, a counterfeit security document. Optionally, the database can be queried in order to determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the database stores a key pair for each security document, the key pair being indexed in the database by the identity associated with the security document. Optionally, the attribute data is at least partially indicative of at least one: a transaction history data representing transactions related to the security document including: a transaction type including at least one of: transaction details; identities of parties involved in the transaction; a transaction amount; a location of the transaction; and, a location of the sensing device; a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the system is configured to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of tracking a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, and wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document database is used by currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document database is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document database is used by set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document database is used by a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used by a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the security document database is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a eleventh broad form the invention provides a set of instructions for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; update, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions causes the computer system to compare the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions causes comparison data to be output by the computer system, the comparison data being indicative of the results of the comparison. Optionally, each predetermined pattern is at least partially related to at least one of: a predetermined transaction threshold; a predetermined number of transactions performed in a predetermined timeframe; an identity of a particular party; a sequence of transactions related to one or more security documents; a cash flow demand forecast; and, a geographic trend. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, cause the computer system to display, using the display device, at least one of: the comparison data; and, the transaction data. Optionally, the transaction data includes a transaction status indicative of whether the security document is at least one of: a copied security document; a stolen security document; and, a counterfeit security document. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, cause the computer system to: determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of tracking the security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a counterfeit security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the computer system is a currency counter and the security document is a currency document, and where the set of instructions, when executed in the currency counter, causes the currency counter to count currency documents, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of printing the security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further records a transaction relating to the security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving the security document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving the security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further operate as a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the computer system is a currency counter and the security document is a currency document, and where the set of instructions, when executed in the currency counter cause the currency counter to count currency documents, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to the computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a twelfth broad form the invention provides a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the set of instructions cause the processor to cause authentication of the currency documents, using the sensed identity and the at least one sensed signature part. Optionally, the authentication is performed by at least one of: the processor; and, a computer system, wherein the processor: generates indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; and, transfers the indicating data to the computer system. Optionally, the indicating data is transmitted to the computer system at least one of: after the currency counter scans: each currency document; a predetermined number of currency documents; and, the currency documents provided in the input; and, periodically. Optionally, the currency counter includes a display device, the executed set of instructions causing the processor to display, using the display device at least one of: results of an authentication; at least one currency document value; and, a count total. Optionally, the currency counter includes a data store for storing at least one: a key for authenticating the currency documents; and, padding for determining the signature; where the processor performs authentication using data cached in the data store. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to: for each currency document, generate indicating data further indicative of at least one of: the time the currency counter scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, the location of the currency counter when the currency document was scanned. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the currency document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of tracking the currency document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a counterfeit currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and, at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the currency document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of determining a possible duplicated currency document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the currency document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the currency document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the currency document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of providing a currency document having a currency feature, the method including: creating the currency document; determining an identity associated with the currency document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of printing the currency document having a currency feature, the method including: receiving the currency document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further records a transaction relating to the currency document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for monitoring transactions involving the currency document, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving the currency document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of currency documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further operate as a currency document database, the database storing currency document data including, for each of a number of currency documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the currency document; wherein, in use, the currency document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the currency document data to perform an action associated with the currency document. Optionally, the set of instructions cause the processor to monitor transactions involving currency documents including: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the currency document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in a processor for use in a device for authenticating currency documents, cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the currency document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the currency document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to the computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the currency document is a currency document and where the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the currency document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective currency document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the currency document to be determined. Optionally, the currency document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid currency documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the currency document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the set of instructions, when executed in the computer system further performs a method of recovering a stolen currency document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a currency document status; determining, using the currency document status, if the currency document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the currency document to be recovered. In a thirteenth broad form the invention provides a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document and a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the processor: determines, using the determined identity and a secret key, a determined signature; compares the determined signature to the at least one determined signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the results of the comparison. Optionally, the processor stores a number of secret keys in a data store. Optionally, the device includes a display device coupled to the processor and where the processor causes the display device to display the results of the authentication. Optionally, the processor includes an internal memory forming the data store, and where the processor and internal memory are provided as a monolithic chip. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the processor: determines, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticates the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the system includes the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the processor is used in at least one of the following devices: an automatic teller machine; a currency counter; a cash register; a hand held scanner; a vending machine; and, a mobile phone. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in the processor: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information. Optionally, the processor is used in a sensing device for use with a security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, the processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in the processor: determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a processor: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the processor is further used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, the processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document and where the processor is further used for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in the processor and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the processor is further used to access a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows the processor to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the processor is further used to execute a set of instructions for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor cause the processor to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the processor is further used to execute a set of instructions for a currency counter, the currency counter being used for counting currency documents where each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, the processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the processor is further used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a fourteenth broad form the invention provides a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of at least one of: a signature; a time the sensing device scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, a location of the sensing device when the currency document was sensed. Optionally, the method includes transmitting the indicating data to the computer system at least one of: after the sensing device scans: each currency document; and, a predetermined number of currency documents; and, periodically. Optionally, the sensing device includes an indicator, where the method includes causing the indicator to provide at least one of: an indication related to the success of sensing the at least one coded data portions; a count indicative of the number of sensed currency documents; the value of the sensed currency document; and, an incremental value of the sensed currency documents. Optionally, the sensing device stores data indicative of at least one of an identity of the sensing device and an identity of a user, and wherein method includes the sensing device generating the indicating data using the stored data. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method of counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device adapted to sense at least one coded data portion for each currency document, and generate, using the sensed coded data portion, the indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determining, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. In a fifteenth broad form the invention provides a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of: a time the sensing device scanned the currency document; currency document attributes; and, a location of the sensing device when the currency document was sensed. Optionally, the method includes transmitting the indicating data to the computer system at least one of: after the sensing device senses: each currency document; and, a predetermined number of currency documents; and, periodically. Optionally, the sensing device includes an indicator, where the method includes causing the indicator to provide at least one of: an indication of the success of sensing the at least one coded data portion; an indication of an authenticity of the currency document; a count indicative of the number of sensed currency documents; the value of the sensed currency document; and, an incremental value of the sensed currency documents. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded in a plurality of data portions and wherein the method includes causing the indicator to indicate if the entire signature can be determined from the sensed coded data portions. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the method includes: determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticating the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the method is further used for recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In another broad form the invention provides a method for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being adapted to: sense at least one coded data portion; generate, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; determining, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticating the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determining, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. In a sixteenth broad form the invention provides a security document including anti-copy protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of an identity corresponding to each part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity. Optionally, the coded data can be sensed using a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to: generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: a sensed identity; and a sensed at least part of the signature; and, transfer the indicating data to a computer system to determine whether a duplication of the sensed security document has occurred. Optionally, the signature is encoded using at least one of: a private key from a public/private key pair, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the corresponding public key; a secret key, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the same secret key; and, a public key from a public/private key pair, and where the sensing device decodes the signature using the corresponding private key. Optionally, the sensed identity is compared to at least one of: location data indicative of where a security document having an identical identity has been sensed; and, time data indicative of when a security document having an identical identity has been sensed; in order to determine whether duplication of a security document has occurred. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of a position of the coded data on or in the security document. Optionally, each coded data portion is further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, and wherein the sensing device determines, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part, and where the computer system determines whether a duplication of the security document has occurred using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the sensing device is configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, a sensing device is used for sensing the coded data disposed on or in the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and where a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document data relating to the security document is stored in a security document database, the security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a transaction and a set of instructions is used for causing a computer system to monitor the transaction, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter executing a set of instructions, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is authenticated using a processor for use in a device, the coded data being further at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document further includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a seventeenth broad form the invention provides a security document including anti-forgery protection, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: an identity of the security document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. Optionally, the private key is associated with at least one of: a security document type; a value; a creator of the security document; a location that the security document was issued; and, a time when the document was created. Optionally, the coded data on the security document is printed using a printer, wherein the printer includes the private key in order to encode the coded data. Optionally, at least some of the coded data can be sensed using a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to the sensing to: determine, using the sensed coded data, the signature; and, attempt to decode, using one of a number of public keys, the signature. Optionally, the sensing device generates, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the at least part of a signature. Optionally, if the sensing device determines that none of the plurality of public keys decode the signature, the sensing device performs at least one of: a retrieval at least one additional public key on demand from a computer system; and, a determination that the security document is invalid. Optionally, in order to confirm the validity of the security document, the sensing device performs at least one of: a comparison of the indicating data and stored data located in the sensing device's store; and a transfer of the indicating data to a computer system, wherein the computer system compares the indicating data to stored data located in the computer system. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally; the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the sensing device configured to sense a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, a sensing device is used for sensing the coded data disposed on or in the security document, the sensing device including: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method includes: in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; and, generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and where a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of providing a security document having a security feature, the method including: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of printing a security document having a security feature, the method including: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is used in a method for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the security document data relating to the security document is stored in a security document database, the security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the security document is used in a transaction and a set of instructions is used for causing a computer system to monitor the transaction, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the security document is a currency document, and a plurality of currency documents are counted using a currency counter executing a set of instructions, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is authenticated using a processor for use in a device, the coded data being further at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method of counting currency documents, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document is a currency document and is used in a method for authenticating and evaluating the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document further includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document is used in a method of recovering a stolen security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. In a eighteenth broad form the invention provides a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; determining, using the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determining, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, causing the security document to be recovered. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, recording in the data store, the security document status as being stolen, in response to when the security document is stolen. Optionally, the method includes, in the computer system, updating in the data store, the security document status as being recovered in response to a successful recovery of the security document. Optionally, the computer system includes a display device, wherein the method includes displaying, using the display device, recovery data for use in recovering the stolen security document. Optionally, each coded data portion further encodes a signature, wherein the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the method including: receiving indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of the signature; and, determining, using the indicating data, the determined identity. Optionally, the indicating data is further indicative of a location of the sensing device and where the method includes causing the security document to be recovered in relation to the determined location. Optionally, the signature is a digital signature of at least part of the identity and at least part of predetermined padding, the padding being at least one of: a predetermined number; and, a random number. Optionally, the entire signature is encoded within a plurality of coded data portions and wherein the method includes the sensing device sensing a number of coded data portions to thereby determine the entire signature. Optionally, the coded data includes a plurality of layouts, each layout defining the position of a plurality of first symbols encoding the identity, and a plurality of second symbols defining at least part of the signature. Optionally, the coded data is substantially invisible to an unaided human. Optionally, the coded data is printed on the surface using at least one of: an invisible ink; and, an infrared-absorptive ink. Optionally, the coded data is provided substantially coincident with visible human-readable information. Optionally at least one coded data portion encodes the entire signature. Optionally the entire signature is formed from a plurality of signature parts, and wherein each coded data portion encodes a respective signature part. Optionally, at least some of the coded data portions encode at least one of: a location of the respective coded data portion; a position of the respective coded data portion on the surface; a size of the coded data portions; a size of a signature; an identity of a signature part; and, units of indicated locations. Optionally, the coded data includes at least one of: redundant data; data allowing error correction; Reed-Solomon data; and, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) data. Optionally, the digital signature includes at least one of: a random number associated with the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity; a keyed hash of at least the identity produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity; cipher-text produced by encrypting at least the identity and a random number; and, cipher-text produced using a private key, and verifiable using a corresponding public key; and, cipher-text produced using RSA encryption. Optionally, the security document is at least one of: a currency note; a check; a credit or debit card; a redeemable ticket, voucher, or coupon; a lottery ticket or instant win ticket; and, an identity card or document, such as a driver's license or passport. Optionally, the identity is indicative of at least one of: a currency note attribute including at least one of: currency; issue country; denomination; note side; printing works; and serial number; a check attribute including at least one of: currency; issuing institution; account number; serial number; expiry date; check value; and limit; a card attribute including at least one of: card type; issuing institution; account number; issue date; expiry date; and limit. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout including n identical sub-layouts rotated 1/n revolutions apart about a centre of rotation, at least one sub-layout including rotation-indicating data that distinguishes that sub-layout from each other sub-layout. Optionally, the coded data is arranged in accordance with at least one layout having n-fold rotational symmetry, where n is at least two, the layout encoding orientation-indicating data comprising a sequence of an integer multiple m of n symbols, where m is one or more, each encoded symbol being distributed at n locations about a centre of rotational symmetry of the layout such that decoding the symbols at each of the n orientations of the layout produces n representations of the orientation-indicating data, each representation comprising a different cyclic shift of the orientation-indicating data and being indicative of the degree of rotation of the layout. Optionally, the method is further used for tracking a security document, the method including, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the product item; and, updating, using the received indicating data, tracking data stored in a data store, tracking data being indicative of: the identity of the product item; and, tracking information. Optionally, the sensing device includes: a housing adapted to be held by a user in use; a radiation source for exposing at least one coded data portion; a sensor for sensing the at least one exposed coded data portion; and, a processor for determining, using the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a counterfeit security document, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, wherein the method further includes: in a sensing device: generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data indicative of: the identity; and, at least one signature part; and, in a processor: determining, from the indicating data: a determined identity; and, at least one determined signature part; and, determining if the security document is a counterfeit document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for determining a possible duplicated security document, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data indicative of the identity of the security document; determining, from the indicating data, a determined identity; accessing, using the determined identity, tracking data indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, tracking information indicative of the location of the security document; and, determining, using the tracking information, if the security document is a possible duplicate. Optionally, the method is used in a currency counter for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of an identity of the currency document, the counter including: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor for: determining, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determining, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, counting the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the security document having a security feature, wherein the method of providing the security document includes: creating the security document; determining an identity associated with the security document; generating a signature using the identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the security document being printed with a security feature, wherein the method of printing the security document includes: receiving the security document; receiving identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document, the identity data being encrypted using a public key; determining the identity by decrypting the received identity data using a secret key associated with the public key; generating a signature using the determined identity, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; generating coded data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, at least part of the signature; and, printing the coded data on the security document. Optionally, the method is used in a system for recording a transaction relating to a security document, the system including a computer system for: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; and, updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for monitoring transactions involving security documents, the method including, in a computer system and following a transaction involving a security document: receiving indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of, for each of a number of security documents, performed transactions; comparing the transaction data to one or more predetermined patterns to thereby determine the presence or absence of a cash flow anomaly. Optionally, the method includes using a security document database, the database storing security document data including, for each of a number of security documents: identity data, the identity data being at least partially indicative of an identity of the security document; attribute data, the attribute data being at least partially indicative of one or more attributes of the security document; wherein, in use, the security document database allows a computer system to: receive, from a sensing device, indicating data at least partially indicative of at least one of: the identity; and one or more attributes; use the received indicating data and the security document data to perform an action associated with the security document. Optionally, the method is further used for causing a computer system to monitor transactions involving security documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the set of instructions, when executed by the computer system, causing the computer system to: receive indicating data from a sensing device, the sensing device being responsive to sensing of coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction; updating, using the received indicating data, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of: the identity of the security document; and, the transaction. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, the method being performed using a set of instructions, each currency document having disposed therein or thereon at least one coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the currency document, the currency counter having: an input for receiving a number of currency documents to be counted; an output for providing counted currency documents; a feed mechanism for transporting currency documents from the input to the output along a feed path; a sensor for sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document transported along the feed path; and, a processor, the set of instructions, when executed by the processor, causing the processor to: determine, from the at least one sensed coded data portion, a sensed identity for each currency document; determine, from the sensed identity, a determined value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method is used in a processor for use in a device for authenticating security documents, the coded data further being at least partially indicative of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity, the processor being adapted to: receive indicating data from a sensor in the device, the sensor being responsive to sensing of the coded data to generate indicating data at least partially indicative of: the identity; and, at least part of the signature; determine, from the indicating data, a determined identity and at least one determined signature part; and, authenticate the security document using the determined identity and the at least one determined signature part. Optionally, the method is further used for counting currency documents, each currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of an identity of the currency document, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion for each currency document; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity of each currency document; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity for each currency document; determine, using each determined identity, a value for each currency document; and, count the currency documents using the determined values. Optionally, the method further being used for authenticating and evaluating a currency document, the currency document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a plurality of coded data portions, the method including, in a sensing device: sensing at least one coded data portion; generating, using the sensed coded data portion, indicating data at least partially indicative of: an identity of the currency document; and at least part of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to the indicating data to: determine, from the indicating data, a received identity, and a received signature part; authenticate the currency document using the received identity and the received signature part; and, in response to a successful authentication, determine, using the received identity, a value associated with the currency document. Optionally, the security document includes anti-copy protection, the identity being uniquely indicative of the respective security document and being stored in a data store to allow for duplication of the security document to be determined. Optionally, the security document includes anti-forgery protection, each coded data portion being further indicative of at least part of a signature, the signature being formed by encrypting at least part of the identity using a private key of public/private key pair, such that: valid security documents can only be created using the private key; and, validity of the security document can be confirmed using the corresponding public key. In another broad form the invention provides a method of recovering a stolen security document, the security document having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least an identity of the security document, the method including in a sensing device: sensing at least some of the coded data portions; generating indicating data at least partially indicative of the identity; transferring the indicating data to a computer system, the computer system being responsive to indicating data to: determine, using the indicating data, a determined identity; access, using the determined identity, transaction data stored in a data store, the transaction data being indicative of a security document status; determine, using the security document status, if the security document is stolen; and, in response to a positive determination, cause the security document to be recovered. In a nineteenth broad form the present invention provides a method of verifying an object, wherein the method includes, in a computer system: receiving a verification request, the request being at least partially indicative of: an identity of the object; at least one signature fragment, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; determining, using the verification request, a determined identity; determining, using the determined identity, and from a database, at least one criterion relating to verification; and, comparing the received verification request to the at least one criterion; and causing the object to be verified if the at least one criterion is satisfied. Optionally the at least one criterion relates to a limit on at least one of: a number of received verification requests; a rate of received verification requests; and, timing of received verification requests. Optionally the limit is defined in respect of at least one of: the identity of the object; the signature; the signature fragment; a verification request source; and, the object. Optionally the limit is proportional to a size of the signature fragment. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the verification request: a request history indicative of a number of previously received verification requests; and, a corresponding limit; determining, using the verification request and the request history, a request number; and, causing the object to be verified if the request number does not exceed the corresponding limit. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, and in response to a verification request, updating the request history. Optionally the request history is indicative of the timing of the received verification request. Optionally the request history is associated with: the identity of the object; the signature; the signature fragment; a verification request source; and, the object. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, verifying the object by authenticating the object using the identity of the object and the at least one signature fragment. Optionally the verification request is at least partially indicative of an identity of the signature fragment. Optionally the object is associated with a surface having disposed thereon or therein coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being indicative of at least the identity and a signature fragment, and wherein, in response to sensing of at least one coded data portion, a sensing device generates the verification request. Optionally the verification request is at least partially indicative of an identity of the signature fragment, the fragment identity being based on at least one of: a number encoded within the at least one sensed coded data portion; and, a position of the at least one sensed coded data portion on the surface. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system, only comparing the received verification request to the at least one criterion after a failed verification. Optionally the method includes, in a computer system: receiving a verification request, the request being at least partially indicative of: an identity of the object; a concatenation of: a signature fragment, the signature fragment being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and a random signature; determining, using the verification request, a determined identity; determining, using the concatenation, the signature fragment; and, verifying the object using the determined identity and the signature fragment. Optionally the method includes, in the computer system: determining, using the determined identity, a key; generating, using the determined identity and the key, a generated signature; comparing the generated signature to the concatenation to thereby identify and authenticate the signature fragment. In another broad form the present invention provides coded data for disposal on or in a surface, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion encoding: an identity; and, a fragment of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and a random signature. In another broad form the present invention provides coded data for disposal on or in a surface, the coded data including a number of coded data portions, each coded data portion being at least partially indicative of: an identity; at least fragment of a signature, the signature being a digital signature of at least part of the identity; and, a position of the coded data on the surface. Optionally each coded data portion is at least partially indicative of a data portion identity, the data portion identity being unique for each coded data portion, the data portion identity being indicative of the position. Optionally the coded data is disposed on or in the surface using a layout, the layout being indicative of, for each data portion identity, the position of the corresponding coded data portion. Optionally the signature is generated using RSA encryption. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS An example of the present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:— FIG. 1 is an example of a document including Hyperlabel encoding; FIG. 2 is an example of a system for interacting with the Hyperlabel document of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a further example of system for interacting with the Hyperlabel document of FIG. 1; FIG. 4. is a first example of a tag structure; FIG. 5. is an example of a symbol unit cell for the tag structure of FIG. 4; FIG. 6. is an example of an array of the symbol unit cells of FIG. 5; FIG. 7. is an example of symbol bit ordering in the unit cells of FIG. 5; FIG. 8. is an example of the tag structure of FIG. 4 with every bit set; FIG. 9. is an example of tag types within a tag group for the tag structure of FIG. 4; FIG. 10. is an example of continuous tiling of the tag groups of FIG. 9; FIG. 11. is an example of the orientation-indicating cyclic position codeword R for the tag group of FIG. 4; FIG. 12. is an example of a local codeword A for the tag group of FIG. 4; FIG. 13. is an example of distributed codewords B, C, D and E, for the tag group of FIG. 4; FIG. 14. is an example of a layout of complete tag group; FIG. 15. is an example of a code word for the tag group of FIG. 4; FIG. 16. is an example of an alternative tag group for the tag structure of FIG. 4; FIG. 17. is a second example of a tag structure; FIG. 18. is a third example of a tag structure; FIG. 19 is an example of an item signature object model; FIG. 20 is an example of Hyperlabel tags applied to a currency note; FIG. 21 is an example of a note creation and distribution process; FIG. 22. is an example of Scanning at Retailer interactions; FIG. 23. is an example of Online Scanning interaction detail; FIG. 24. is an example of Offline Scanning interaction details; FIG. 25. is an example of netpage Pen Scanning interactions; FIG. 26. is an example of netpage Pen Scanning interaction details; FIG. 27. is an example of a Hyperlabel tag class diagram; FIG. 28. is an example of a note ID class diagram FIG. 29. is an example of an Object Description, ownership and aggregation class diagram; FIG. 30. is an example of an Object Scanning History class diagram; FIG. 31. is an example of scanner class diagram; FIG. 32. is an example of an object ID hot list diagram; FIG. 33. is an example of a valid ID range class diagram; FIG. 34. is an example of Public Key List class diagram; FIG. 35. is an example of a Trusted Authenticator class diagram; FIG. 36. is an example of Tagging and Tracking Object Management; FIG. 37. is an example of use of a currency counter; FIG. 38. is an example of use of an automatic teller machine; FIG. 39. is an example of use of a cash register; FIG. 40. is an example of a Hyperlabel supermarket checkout; FIG. 41. is an example of a handheld validity scanner; FIG. 42. is an example of use of a handheld validity scanner; FIG. 43. is an example of use of a sensing pen; and, FIG. 44 is an example of a vending machine. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The Netpage surface coding consists of a dense planar tiling of tags. Each tag encodes its own location in the plane. Each tag also encodes, in conjunction with adjacent tags, an identifier of the region containing the tag. In the Netpage system, the region typically corresponds to the entire extent of the tagged surface, such as one side of a sheet of paper. Hyperlabel is the adaptation of the Netpage tags for use in unique item identification for a wide variety of applications, including security document protection, object tracking, pharmaceutical security, supermarket automation, interactive product labels, web-browsing from printed surfaces, paper based email, and many others. Using Memjet™ digital printing technology (which is the subject of a number of pending U.S. patent applications including U.S. Ser. No. 10/407,212), Hyperlabel tags are printed over substantially an entire surface, such as a security document, bank note, or pharmaceutical packaging, using infrared (IR) ink. By printing the tags in infrared-absorptive ink on any substrate which is infrared-reflective, the near-infrared wavelengths, and hence the tags are invisible to the human eye but are easily sensed by a solid-state image sensor with an appropriate filter. This allows machine readable information to be encoded over a large portion of the note or other surface, with no visible effect on the original note text or graphics thereon. A scanning laser or image sensor can read the tags on any part of the surface to performs associated actions, such as validating each individual note or item. An example of such a hyperlabel encoded document, is shown in FIG. 1. In this example, the hyperlabel document consists of graphic data 2 printed using visible ink, and coded data 3 formed from hyperlabel tags 4. The document includes an interactive element 6 defined by a zone 7 which corresponds to the spatial extent of a corresponding graphic 8. In use, the tags encode tag data including an ID. By sensing at least one tag, and determining and interpreting the encoded ID using an appropriate system, this allows the associated actions to be performed. In one example, a tag map is used to define a layout of the tags on the hyperlabel document based on the ID encoded within the tag data. The ID can also be used to reference a document description which describes the individual elements of the hyperlabel document, and in particular describes the type and spatial extent (zone) of interactive elements, such as a button or text field. Thus, in this example, the element 6 has a zone 7 which corresponds to the spatial extent of a corresponding graphic 8. This allows a computer system to interpret interactions with the hyperlabel document. In position indicating techniques, the ID encoded within the tag data of each tag allows the exact position of the tag on the hyperlabel document to be determined from the tag map. The position can then be used to determine whether the sensed tag is positioned in a zone of an interactive element from the document description. In object indicating techniques, the ID encoded within the tag data allows the presence of the tag in a region of the document to be determined from the tag map (the relative position of the tag within the region may also be indicated). In this case, the document description can be used to determine whether the region corresponds to the zone of an interactive element. An example of this process will now be described with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3 which show how a sensing device in the form of a netpage or hyperlabel pen 101, which interacts with the coded data on a printed hyperlabel document 1, such as a security document, label, product packaging or the like. The hyperlabel pen 101 senses a tag using an area image sensor and detects tag data. The hyperlabel pen 101 uses the sensed coded data to generate interaction data which is transmitted via a short-range radio link 9 to a relay 44, which may form part of a computer 75 or a printer 601. The relay sends the interaction data, via a network 19, to a document server 10, which uses the ID to access the document description, and interpret the interaction. In appropriate circumstances, the document server sends a corresponding message to an application server 13, which can then perform a corresponding action. In an alternative embodiment, the PC, Web terminal, netpage printer or relay device may communicate directly with local or remote application software, including a local or remote Web server. Relatedly, output is not limited to being printed by the netpage printer. It can also be displayed on the PC or Web terminal, and further interaction can be screen-based rather than paper-based, or a mixture of the two. Typically hyperlabel pen users register with a registration server 11, which associates the user with an identifier stored in the respective hyperlabel pen. By providing the sensing device identifier as part of the interaction data, this allows users to be identified, allowing transactions or the like to be performed. Hyperlabel documents are generated by having an ID server generate an ID which is transferred to the document server 10. The document server 10 determines a document description and then records an association between the document description and the ID, to allow subsequent retrieval of the document description using the ID. The ID is then used to generate the tag data, as will be described in more detail below, before the document is printed by the hyperlabel printer 601, using the page description and the tag map. Each tag is represented by a pattern which contains two kinds of elements. The first kind of element is a target. Targets allow a tag to be located in an image of a coded surface, and allow the perspective distortion of the tag to be inferred. The second kind of element is a macrodot. Each macrodot encodes the value of a bit by its presence or absence. The pattern is represented on the coded surface in such a way as to allow it to be acquired by an optical imaging system, and in particular by an optical system with a narrowband response in the near-infrared. The pattern is typically printed onto the surface using a narrowband near-infrared ink. In the Hyperlabel system the region typically corresponds to the surface of an entire product item, or to a security document, and the region ID corresponds to the unique item ID. For clarity in the following discussion we refer to items and item IDs (or simply IDs), with the understanding that the item ID corresponds to the region ID. The surface coding is designed so that an acquisition field of view large enough to guarantee acquisition of an entire tag is large enough to guarantee acquisition of the ID of the region containing the tag. Acquisition of the tag itself guarantees acquisition of the tag's two-dimensional position within the region, as well as other tag-specific data. The surface coding therefore allows a sensing device to acquire a region ID and a tag position during a purely local interaction with a coded surface, e.g. during a “click” or tap on a coded surface with a pen. A wide range of different tag structures can be used, and some examples will now be described. First Example Tag Structure FIG. 4 shows the structure of a complete tag. Each of the four black circles is a target. The tag, and the overall pattern, has four-fold rotational symmetry at the physical level. Each square region represents a symbol, and each symbol represents four bits of information. FIG. 5 shows the structure of a symbol. It contains four macrodots, each of which represents the value of one bit by its presence (one) or absence (zero). The macrodot spacing is specified by the parameter s throughout this document. It has a nominal value of 143 μm, based on 9 dots printed at a pitch of 1600 dots per inch. However, it is allowed to vary by ±10% according to the capabilities of the device used to produce the pattern. FIG. 6 shows an array of nine adjacent symbols. The macrodot spacing is uniform both within and between symbols. FIG. 7 shows the ordering of the bits within a symbol. Bit zero is the least significant within a symbol; bit three is the most significant. Note that this ordering is relative to the orientation of the symbol. The orientation of a particular symbol within the tag is indicated by the orientation of the label of the symbol in the tag diagrams. In general, the orientation of all symbols within a particular segment of the tag have the same orientation, consistent with the bottom of the symbol being closest to the centre of the tag. Only the macrodots are part of the representation of a symbol in the pattern. The square outline of a symbol is used in this document to more clearly elucidate the structure of a tag. FIG. 8, by way of illustration, shows the actual pattern of a tag with every bit set. Note that, in practice, every bit of a tag can never be set. A macrodot is nominally circular with a nominal diameter of ( 5/9) s. However, it is allowed to vary in size by ±10% according to the capabilities of the device used to produce the pattern. A target is nominally circular with a nominal diameter of ( 17/9) s. However, it is allowed to vary in size by ±10% according to the capabilities of the device used to produce the pattern. The tag pattern is allowed to vary in scale by up to ±10% according to the capabilities of the device used to produce the pattern. Any deviation from the nominal scale is recorded in the tag data to allow accurate generation of position samples. Each symbol shown in the tag structure in FIG. 4 has a unique label. Each label consists an alphabetic prefix and a numeric suffix. Tag Group Tags are arranged into tag groups. Each tag group contains four tags arranged in a square. Each tag therefore has one of four possible tag types according to its location within the tag group square. The tag types are labelled 00, 10, 01 and 11, as shown in FIG. 9. Each tag in the tag group is rotated as shown in the figure, i.e. tag type 00 is rotated 0 degrees, tag type 10 is rotated 90 degrees, tag type 11 is rotated 180 degrees, and tag type 01 is rotated 270 degrees. FIG. 10 shows how tag groups are repeated in a continuous tiling of tags. The tiling guarantees the any set of four adjacent tags contains one tag of each type. Orientation-Indicating Cyclic Position Code The tag contains a 24-ary (4, 1) cyclic position codeword which can be decoded at any of the four possible orientations of the tag to determine the actual orientation of the tag. Symbols which are part of the cyclic position codeword have a prefix of “R” and are numbered 0 to 3 in order of increasing significance. The cyclic position codeword is (0, 7, 9, E16). Note that it only uses four distinct symbol values, even though a four-bit symbol has sixteen possible values. During decoding, any unused symbol value should, if detected, be treated as an erasure. To maximise the probability of low-weight bit error patterns causing erasures rather than symbol errors, the symbol values are chosen to be as evenly spaced on the hypercube as possible. The minimum distance of the cyclic position code is 4, hence its error-correcting capacity is one symbol in the presence of up to one erasure, and no symbols in the presence of two or more erasures. The layout of the orientation-indicating cyclic position codeword is shown in FIG. 11. Local Codeword The tag locally contains one complete codeword which is used to encode information unique to the tag. The codeword is of a punctured 24-ary (13, 7) Reed-Solomon code. The tag therefore encodes up to 28 bits of information unique to the tag. The layout of the local codeword is shown in FIG. 12. Distributed Codewords The tag also contains fragments of four codewords which are distributed across the four adjacent tags in a tag group and which are used to encode information common to a set of contiguous tags. Each codeword is of a 24-ary (15, 11) Reed-Solomon code. Any four adjacent tags therefore together encode up to 176 bits of information common to a set of contiguous tags. The layout of the four complete codewords, distributed across the four adjacent tags in a tag group, is shown in FIG. 13. The order of the four tags in the tag group in FIG. 13 is the order of the four tags in FIG. 9. FIG. 14 shows the layout of a complete tag group. Reed-Solomon Encoding Local Codeword The local codeword is encoded using a punctured 24-ary (13, 7) Reed-Solomon code. The code encodes 28 data bits (i.e. seven symbols) and 24 redundancy bits (i.e. six symbols) in each codeword. Its error-detecting capacity is six symbols. Its error-correcting capacity is three symbols. As shown in FIG. 15, codeword coordinates are indexed in coefficient order, and the data bit ordering follows the codeword bit ordering. The code is a 24-ary (15, 7) Reed-Solomon code with two redundancy coordinates removed. The removed coordinates are the most significant redundancy coordinates. The code has the following primitive polynominal: p(x)=x4+x+1 (EQ 1) The code has the following generator polynominal: g(x)=(x+α)(x+α2) . . . (x+α8) (EQ 2) Distributed Codewords The distributed codewords are encoded using a 24-ary (15, 11) Reed-Solomon code. The code encodes 44 data bits (i.e. eleven symbols) and 16 redundancy bits (i.e. four symbols) in each codeword. Its error-detecting capacity is four symbols. Its error-correcting capacity is two symbols. Codeword coordinates are indexed in coefficient order, and the data bit ordering follows the codeword bit ordering. The code has the same primitive polynominal as the local codeword code. The code has the following generator polynominal: g(x)=(x+α2)(x+α2) . . . (x+α4) (EQ 3) Tag Coordinate Space The tag coordinate space has two orthogonal axes labelled x and y respectively. When the positive x axis points to the right then the positive y axis points down. The surface coding does not specify the location of the tag coordinate space origin on a particular tagged surface, nor the orientation of the tag coordinate space with respect to the surface. This information is application-specific. For example, if the tagged surface is a sheet of paper, then the application which prints the tags onto the paper may record the actual offset and orientation, and these can be used to normalise any digital ink subsequently captured in conjunction with the surface. The position encoded in a tag is defined in units of tags. By convention, the position is taken to be the position of the centre of the target closest to the origin. Tag Information Content Field Definitions Table 1 defines the information fields embedded in the surface coding. Table 2 defines how these fields map to codewords. TABLE 1 Field definitions width field (bits) description per tag x coordinate 9 or 13 The unsigned x coordinate of the tag allows maximum coordinate values of approximately 0.9 m and 14 m respectively. y coordinate 9 or 13 The unsigned y coordinate of the tag allows maximum coordinate values of approximately 0.9 m and 14 m respectively active area flag 1 b′1′ indicates whether the area (the diameter of the area ntered on the tag, is nominally 5 times the diagonal size of the tag) immediately surrounding the tag intersects an active area data fragment flag 1 A flag indicating whether a data fragment is present (see next field). b′1′ indicates the presence of a data fragment. If the data fragment is present then the width of the x and y coordinate fields is 9. If it is absent then the width is 13. data fragment 0 or 8 A fragment of an embedded data stream. per tag group (i.e. per region) encoding format 8 The format of the encoding. 0: the present encoding Other values are reserved. region flags 8 Flags controlling the interpretation of region data. 0: region ID is an EPC 1: region has signature 2: region has embedded data 3: embedded data is signature Other bits are reserved and must be zero. tag size ID 8 The ID of the tag size. 0: the present tag size the nominal tag size is 1.7145 mm, based on 1600 dpi, 9 dots per macrodot, and 12 macrodots per tag Other values are reserved. region ID 96 The ID of the region containing the tags. signature 36 The signature of the region. high-order coordinate 4 The width of the high-order part of the x and y width (w) coordinates of the tag. high-order x coordinate 0 to 15 High-order part of the x coordinate of the tag expands the maximum coordinate values to approximately 2.4 km and 38 km respectively high-order y coordinate 0 to 15 High-order part of the y coordinate of the tag expands the maximum coordinate values to approximately 2.4 km and 38 km respectively. CRC 16 A CRC of tag group data. An active area is an area within which any captured input should be immediately forwarded to the corresponding hyperlabel server for interpretation. This also allows the hyperlabel server to signal to the user that the input has had an immediate effect. Since the server has access to precise region definitions, any active area indication in the surface coding can be imprecise so long as it is inclusive. The width of the high-order coordinate fields, if non-zero, reduces the width of the signature field by a corresponding number of bits. Full coordinates are computed by prepending each high-order coordinate field to its corresponding coordinate field. TABLE 2 Mapping of fields to codewords codeword field codeword bits field width bits A 12:0 x coordinate 13 all 12:9 data fragment 4 3:0 25:13 y coordinate 13 all 25:22 data fragment 4 7:4 26 active area flag 1 all 27 data fragment flag 1 all B 7:0 encoding format 8 all 15:8 region flags 8 all 23:16 tag size ID 8 all 39:24 CRC 16 all 43:40 high-order coordinate 4 3:0 width (w) C 35:0 signature 36 all (35 − w):(36 − 2w) high-order x coordinate w all 35:(36 − w) high-order y coordinate w all 43:36 region ID 8 7:0 D 43:0 region ID 44 51:8 E 43:0 region ID 44 95:52 Embedded Data If the “region has embedded data” flag in the region flags is set then the surface coding contains embedded data. The data is encoded in multiple contiguous tags' data fragments, and is replicated in the surface coding as many times as it will fit. The embedded data is encoded in such a way that a random and partial scan of the surface coding containing the embedded data can be sufficient to retrieve the entire data. The scanning system reassembles the data from retrieved fragments, and reports to the user when sufficient fragments have been retrieved without error. As shown in Table 3, a 200-bit data block encodes 160 bits of data. The block data is encoded in the data fragments of a contiguous group of 25 tags arranged in a 5×5 square. A tag belongs to a block whose integer coordinate is the tag's coordinate divided by 5. Within each block the data is arranged into tags with increasing x coordinate within increasing y coordinate. A data fragment may be missing from a block where an active area map is present. However, the missing data fragment is likely to be recoverable from another copy of the block. Data of arbitrary size is encoded into a superblock consisting of a contiguous set of blocks arranged in a rectangle. The size of the superblock is encoded in each block. A block belongs to a superblock whose integer coordinate is the block's coordinate divided by the superblock size. Within each superblock the data is arranged into blocks with increasing x coordinate within increasing y coordinate. The superblock is replicated in the surface coding as many times as it will fit, including partially along the edges of the surface coding. The data encoded in the superblock may include more precise type information, more precise size information, and more extensive error detection and/or correction data. TABLE 3 Embedded data block field width description data type 8 The type of the data in the superblock. Values include: 0: type is controlled by region flags 1: MIME Other values are TBA. superblock width 8 The width of the superblock, in blocks. superblock height 8 The height of the superblock, in blocks. data 160 The block data. CRC 16 A CRC of the block data. total 200 It will be appreciated that any form of embedded data may be used, including for example, text, image, audio, video data, such as product information, application data, contact data, business card data, and directory data. Region Signatures If the “region has signature” flag in the region flags is set then the signature field contains a signature with a maximum width of 36 bits. The signature is typically a random number associated with the region ID in a secure database. The signature is ideally generated using a truly random process, such as a quantum process, or by distilling randomness from random events. In an online environment the signature can be validated, in conjunction with the region ID, by querying a server with access to the secure database. If the “region has embedded data” and “embedded data is signature” flags in the region flags are set then the surface coding contains a 160-bit cryptographic signature of the region ID. The signature is encoded in a one-block superblock. In an online environment any number of signature fragments can be used, in conjunction with the region ID and optionally the random signature, to validate the signature by querying a server with knowledge of the full signature or the corresponding private key. In an offline (or online) environment the entire signature can be recovered by reading multiple tags, and can then be validated using the corresponding public signature key. Signature verification is discussed in more detail below. MIME Data If the embedded data type is “MIME” then the superblock contains Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) data according to RFC 2045 (Freed, N., and N. Borenstein, “Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)—Part One: Format of Internet Message Bodies”, RFC 2045, November 1996), RFC 2046 (Freed, N., and N. Borenstein, “Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)—Part Two: Media Types”, RFC 2046, November 1996) and related RFCs. The MIME data consists of a header followed by a body. The header is encoded as a variable-length text string preceded by an 8-bit string length. The body is encoded as a variable-length type-specific octet stream preceded by a 16-bit size in big-endian format. The basic top-level media types described in RFC 2046 include text, image, audio, video and application. RFC 2425 (Howes, T., M. Smith and F. Dawson, “A MIME Content-Type for Directory Information”, RFC 2045, September 1998) and RFC 2426 (Dawson, F., and T. Howes, “vCard MIME Directory Profile”, RFC 2046, September 1998) describe a text subtype for directory information suitable, for example, for encoding contact information which might appear on a business card. Encoding and Printing Considerations The Print Engine Controller (PEC) (which is the subject of a number of pending US patent applications, including: Ser. Nos. 09/575,108; 10/727,162; 09/575,110; 09/607,985; U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,398,332; 6,394,573; 6,622,923) supports the encoding of two fixed (per-page) 24-ary (15,7) Reed-Solomon codewords and four variable (per-tag) 24-ary (15,7) Reed-Solomon codewords, although other numbers of codewords can be used for different schemes. Furthermore, PEC supports the rendering of tags via a rectangular unit cell whose layout is constant (per page) but whose variable codeword data may vary from one unit cell to the next. PEC does not allow unit cells to overlap in the direction of page movement. A unit cell compatible with PEC contains a single tag group consisting of four tags. The tag group contains a single A codeword unique to the tag group but replicated four times within the tag group, and four unique B codewords. These can be encoded using five of PEC's six supported variable codewords. The tag group also contains eight fixed C and D codewords. One of these can be encoded using the remaining one of PEC's variable codewords, two more can be encoded using PEC's two fixed codewords, and the remaining five can be encoded and pre-rendered into the Tag Format Structure (TFS) supplied to PEC. PEC imposes a limit of 32 unique bit addresses per TFS row. The contents of the unit cell respect this limit. PEC also imposes a limit of 384 on the width of the TFS. The contents of the unit cell respect this limit. Note that for a reasonable page size, the number of variable coordinate bits in the A codeword is modest, making encoding via a lookup table tractable. Encoding of the B codeword via a lookup table may also be possible. Note that since a Reed-Solomon code is systematic, only the redundancy data needs to appear in the lookup table. Imaging and Decoding Considerations The minimum imaging field of view required to guarantee acquisition of an entire tag has a diameter of 39.6 s, i.e. (2×(12+2))√{square root over (2)}s allowing for arbitrary alignment between the surface coding and the field of view. Given a macrodot spacing of 143 μm, this gives a required field of view of 5.7 mm. Table 4 gives pitch ranges achievable for the present surface coding for different sampling rates, assuming an image sensor size of 128 pixels. TABLE 4 Pitch ranges achievable for present surface coding for different sampling rates, computed using Optimize Hyperlabel Optics; dot pitch = 1600 dpi, macrodot pitch = 9 dots, viewing distance = 30 mm, nib-to-FOV separation = 1 mm, image sensor size = 128 pixels sampling rate pitch range 2 −40 to 49 2.5 −27 to 36 3 −10 to 18 For the surface coding above, the decoding sequence is as follows: locate targets of complete tag infer perspective transform from targets sample cyclic position code decode cyclic position code determine orientation from cyclic position code sample and decode local Reed-Solomon codeword determine tag x-y location infer 3D tag transform from oriented targets determine nib x-y location from tag x-y location and 3D transform determine active area status of nib location with reference to active area map generate local feedback based on nib active area status determine tag type sample distributed Reed-Solomon codewords (modulo window alignment, with reference to tag type) decode distributed Reed-Solomon codewords verify tag group data CRC on decode error flag bad region ID sample determine encoding type, and reject unknown encoding determine region flags determine region ID encode region ID, nib x-y location, nib active area status in digital ink route digital ink based on region flags Region ID decoding need not occur at the same rate as position decoding and decoding of a codeword can be avoided if the codeword is found to be identical to an already-known good codeword. If the high-order coordinate width is non-zero, then special care must be taken on boundaries between tags where the low-order x or y coordinate wraps, otherwise codeword errors may be introduced. If wrapping is detected from the low-order x or y coordinate (i.e. it contains all zero bits or all one bits), then the corresponding high-order coordinate can be adjusted before codeword decoding. In the absence of genuine symbol errors in the high-order coordinate, this will prevent the inadvertent introduction of codeword errors. Alternative Tag Arrangements It will be appreciated that a range of different tag layouts and tag structures can be utilised. For example, the tag group shown in FIG. 9 can be replaced with the tag group shown in FIG. 16, in which the tags are not rotated relative to each other. FIG. 17 shows an arrangement that utilises a six-fold rotational symmetry at the physical level, with each diamond shape representing a respective symbol. FIG. 18 shows a version of the tag in which the tag is expanded to increase its data capacity by adding additional bands of symbols about its circumference. The use of these alternative tag structures, including associated encoding considerations, is described shown in more detail in the copending patent application numbers [we will need to include a docket number here for generic cases], the contents of which is incorporated herein by cross reference. Security Discussion As described above, authentication relies on verifying the correspondence between data and a signature of that data. The greater the difficulty in forging a signature, the greater the trustworthiness of signature-based authentication. The item ID is unique and therefore provides a basis for a signature. If online authentication access is assumed, then the signature may simply be a random number associated with the item ID in an authentication database accessible to the trusted online authenticator. The random number may be generated by any suitable method, such as via a deterministic (pseudo-random) algorithm, or via a stochastic physical process. A keyed hash or encrypted hash may be preferable to a random number since it requires no additional space in the authentication database. However, a random signature of the same length as a keyed signature is more secure than the keyed signature since it is not susceptible to key attacks. Equivalently, a shorter random signature confers the same security as a longer keyed signature. In the limit case no signature is actually required, since the mere presence of the item ID in the database indicates authenticity. However, the use of a signature limits a forger to forging items he has actually sighted. To prevent forgery of a signature for an unsighted ID, the signature must be large enough to make exhaustive search via repeated accesses to the online authenticator intractable. If the signature is generated using a key rather than randomly, then its length must also be large enough to prevent the forger from deducing the key from known ID-signature pairs. Signatures of a few hundred bits are considered secure, whether generated using private or secret keys. While it may be practical to include a reasonably secure random signature in a tag (or local tag group), particularly if the length of the ID is reduced to provide more space for the signature, it may be impractical to include a secure ID-derived signature in a tag. To support a secure ID-derived signature, we can instead distribute fragments of the signature across multiple tags. If each fragment can be verified in isolation against the ID, then the goal of supporting authentication without increasing the sensing device field of view is achieved. The security of the signature can still derive from the full length of the signature rather than from the length of a fragment, since a forger cannot predict which fragment a user will randomly choose to verify. A trusted authenticator can always perform fragment verification since they have access to the key and/or the full stored signature, so fragment verification is always possible when online access to a trusted authenticator is available. Fragment verification requires that we prevent brute force attacks on individual fragments, otherwise a forger can determine the entire signature by attacking each fragment in turn. A brute force attack can be prevented by throttling the authenticator on a per-ID basis. However, if fragments are short, then extreme throttling is required. As an alternative to throttling the authenticator, the authenticator can instead enforce a limit on the number of verification requests it is willing to respond to for a given fragment number. Even if the limit is made quite small, it is unlikely that a normal user will exhaust it for a given fragment, since there will be many fragments available and the actual fragment chosen by the user can vary. Even a limit of one can be practical. More generally, the limit should be proportional to the size of the fragment, i.e. the smaller the fragment the smaller the limit. Thus the experience of the user would be somewhat invariant of fragment size. Both throttling and enforcing fragment verification limits imply serialisation of requests to the authenticator. Enforcing fragment verification limits further requires the authenticator to maintain a per-fragment count of satisfied verification requests. A brute force attack can also be prevented by concatenating the fragment with a random signature encoded in the tag. While the random signature can be thought of as protecting the fragment, the fragment can also be thought of as simply increasing the length of the random signature and hence increasing its security. Fragment verification may be made more secure by requiring the verification of a minimum number of fragments simultaneously. Fragment verification requires fragment identification. Fragments may be explicitly numbered, or may more economically be identified by the two-dimensional coordinate of their tag, modulo the repetition of the signature across a continuous tiling of tags. The limited length of the ID itself introduces a further vulnerability. Ideally it should be at least a few hundred bits. In the Netpage surface coding scheme it is 96 bits or less. To overcome this the ID may be padded. For this to be effective the padding must be variable, i.e. it must vary from one ID to the next. Ideally the padding is simply a random number, and must then be stored in the authentication database indexed by ID. If the padding is deterministically generated from the ID then it is worthless. Offline authentication of secret-key signatures requires the use of a trusted offline authentication device. The QA chip (which is the subject of a number of pending US patent applications, including Ser. Nos. 09/112,763; 09/112,762; 09/112,737; 09/112,761; 09/113,223) provides the basis for such a device, although of limited capacity. The QA chip can be programmed to verify a signature using a secret key securely held in its internal memory. In this scenario, however, it is impractical to support per-ID padding, and it is impractical even to support more than a very few secret keys. Furthermore, a QA chip programmed in this manner is susceptible to a chosen-message attack. These constraints limit the applicability of a QA-chip-based trusted offline authentication device to niche applications. In general, despite the claimed security of any particular trusted offline authentication device, creators of secure items are likely to be reluctant to entrust their secret signature keys to such devices, and this is again likely to limit the applicability of such devices to niche applications. By contrast, offline authentication of public-key signatures (i.e. generated using the corresponding private keys) is highly practical. An offline authentication device utilising public keys can trivially hold any number of public keys, and may be designed to retrieve additional public keys on demand, via a transient online connection, when it encounters an ID for which it knows it has no corresponding public signature key. Untrusted offline authentication is likely to be attractive to most creators of secure items, since they are able to retain exclusive control of their private signature keys. A disadvantage of offline authentication of a public-key signature is that the entire signature must be acquired from the coding, violating our desire to support authentication with a minimal field of view. A corresponding advantage of offline authentication of a public-key signature is that access to the ID padding is no longer required, since decryption of the signature using the public signature key generates both the ID and its padding, and the padding can then be ignored. A forger can not take advantage of the fact that the padding is ignored during offline authentication, since the padding is not ignored during online authentication. Acquisition of an entire distributed signature is not particularly onerous. Any random or linear swipe of a hand-held sensing device across a coded surface allows it to quickly acquire all of the fragments of the signature. The sensing device can easily be programmed to signal the user when it has acquired a full set of fragments and has completed authentication. A scanning laser can also easily acquire all of the fragments of the signature. Both kinds of devices may be programmed to only perform authentication when the tags indicate the presence of a signature. Note that a public-key signature may be authenticated online via any of its fragments in the same way as any signature, whether generated randomly or using a secret key. The trusted online authenticator may generate the signature on demand using the private key and ID padding, or may store the signature explicitly in the authentication database. The latter approach obviates the need to store the ID padding. Note also that signature-based authentication may be used in place of fragment-based authentication even when online access to a trusted authenticator is available. Table 5 provides a summary of which signature schemes are workable in light of the foregoing discussion. TABLE 5 Summary of workable signature schemes encoding acquisition signature online offline in tags from tags generation authentication authentication Local full random ok Impractical to store per ID information secret key Signature too Undesirable to short to be store secret secure keys private Signature too key short to be secure Distributed fragment(s) random ok impracticalb secret key ok impracticalc private ok impracticalb key full random ok impracticalb secret key ok impracticalc private ok ok key Security Specification FIG. 19 shows an example item signature object model. An item has an ID (X) and other details (not shown). It optionally has a secret signature (Z). It also optionally has a public-key signature. The public-key signature records the signature (S) explicitly, and/or records the padding (P) used in conjunction with the ID to generate the signature. The public-key signature has an associated public-private key pair (K, L). The key pair is associated with a one or more ranges of item IDs. Typically issuers of security documents and pharmaceuticals will utilise a range of IDs to identify a range of documents or the like. Following this, the issuer will then use these details to generate respective IDs for each item, or document to be marked. Authentication of the product can then be performed online or offline by sensing the tag data encoded within the tag, and performing the authentication using a number of different mechanisms depending on the situation. Examples of the processes involved will now be described for public and private key encryption respectively. Authentication Based on Public-Key Signature Setup per ID range: generate public-private signature key pair (K, L) store key pair (K, L) indexed by ID range Setup per ID: generate ID padding (P) retrieve private signature key (L) by ID (X) generate signature (S) by encrypting ID (X) and padding (P) using private key (L): S←EL(X,P) store signature (S) in database indexed by ID (X) (and/or store padding (P)) encode ID (X) in all tag groups encode signature (S) across multiple tags in repeated fashion Online fragment-based authentication (user): acquire ID (X) from tags acquire position (x, y)i and signature fragment (Ti) from tag generate fragment number (i) from position (x, y)i: i←F[(x, y)i] look up trusted authenticator by ID (X) transmit ID (X), fragment (Si) and fragment number (i) to trusted authenticator Online fragment-based authentication (trusted authenticator): receive ID (X), fragment (Si) and fragment number (i) from user retrieve signature (S) from database by ID (X) (or re-generate signature) compare received fragment (Ti) with corresponding fragment of signature (Si) report authentication result to user Offline signature-based authentication (user): acquire ID from tags (X) acquire positions (x, y)i and signature fragments (Ti) from tag generate fragment numbers (i) from positions (x, y)i: i←F[(x, y)i] S←S0|S1| . . . |Sn-1 generate signature (S) from (n) fragments: retrieve public signature key (K) by ID (X) decrypt signature (S) using public key (K) to obtain ID (X′) and padding (P′): X′|P′←DK(S) compare acquired ID (X) with decrypted ID (X′) report authentication result to user Authentication Based on Secret-Key Signature Setup per ID: generate secret (Z) store secret (Z) in database indexed by ID (X) encode ID (X) and secret (Z) in all tag groups Online secret-based authentication (user): acquire ID (X) from tags acquire secret (Z′) from tags look up trusted authenticator by ID transmit ID (X) and secret (Z) to trusted authenticator Online secret-based authentication (trusted authenticator): receive ID (X) and secret (Z′) from user retrieve secret (Z) from database by ID (X) compared received secret (Z′) with secret (Z) report authentication result to user As discussed earlier, secret-based authentication may be used in conjunction with fragment-based authentication. Cryptographic Algorithms When the public-key signature is authenticated offline, the user's authentication device typically does not have access to the padding used when the signature was originally generated. The signature verification step must therefore decrypt the signature to allow the authentication device to compare the ID in the signature with the ID acquired from the tags. This precludes the use of algorithms which don't perform the signature verification step by decrypting the signature, such as the standard Digital Signature Algorithm U.S. Department of Commerce/National Institute of Standards and Technology, Digital Signature Standard (DSS), FIPS 186-2, 27 Jan. 2000. RSA encryption is described in: Rivest, R. L., A. Shamir, and L. Adleman, “A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 21, No. 2, February 1978, pp. 120-126 Rivest, R. L., A. Shamir, and L. M. Adleman, “Cryptographic communications system and method”, U.S. Pat. No. 4,405,829, issued 20 Sep. 1983 RSA Laboratories, PKCS #1 v2.0: RSA Encryption Standard, Oct. 1, 1998 RSA provides a suitable public-key digital signature algorithm that decrypts the signature. RSA provides the basis for the ANSI X9.31 digital signature standard American National Standards Institute, ANSI X9.31-1998, Digital Signatures Using Reversible Public Key Cryptography for the Financial Services Industry (rDSA), Sep. 8, 1998. If no padding is used, then any public-key signature algorithm can be used. In the hyperlabel surface coding scheme the ID is 96 bits long or less. It is padded to 160 bits prior to being signed. The padding is ideally generated using a truly random process, such as a quantum process [14,15], or by distilling randomness from random events Schneier, B., Applied Cryptography, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons 1996. In the hyperlabel surface coding scheme the random signature, or secret, is 36 bits long or less. It is also ideally generated using a truly random process. Security Tagging and Tracking Currency, checks and other monetary documents can be tagged in order to detect currency counterfeiting and counter money laundering activities. The Hyperlabel tagged currency can be validated, and tracked through the monetary system. Hyperlabel tagged products such as pharmaceuticals can be tagged allowing items to be validated and tracked through the distribution and retail system. A number of examples of the concepts of Hyperlabel security tagging and tracking referring specifically to bank notes and pharmaceuticals, however Hyperlabel tagging can equally be used to securely tag and track other products, for example, traveller's checks, demand deposits, passports, chemicals etc. Hyperlabel tagging, with the Netpage system, provides a mechanism for securely validating and tracking objects. Hyperlabel tags on the surface of an object uniquely identify the object. Each Hyperlabel tag contains information including the object's unique ID, and the tag's location on the Hyperlabel tagged surface. A Hyperlabel tag also contains a signature fragment which can be used to authenticate the object. A scanning laser or image sensor can read the tags on any part of the object to identify the object, validate the object, and allow tracking of the object. Currency Tagging An example of the protection of security documents will now be described with reference to the specific protection of currency, such as bank notes, although it will be appreciated that the techniques may be applied to any security document. Currency may be tagged with Hyperlabels in order to detect counterfeiting and allow tracking of currency movement. Hyperlabel tags can be printed over the entire bank note surface or can be printed in a smaller region of the note. Hyperlabel tagging can be used in addition to other security features such as holograms, foil strips, colour-shifting inks etc. A scanning laser or image sensor can read the tags on any part of the note to validate each individual note. In this example, each hexagonal Hyperlabel currency tag is around 2.5 mm across, and incorporates a variety of data in the form of printed dots of infrared ink. An example of a tag included on a bank note is shown in FIG. 20. A Hyperlabel currency tag identifies the note currency, issue country, and note denomination. It also identifies the note's serial number, the note side (i.e. front or back), and it may contain other information (for example, the exact printing works where the note was printed). There are two note IDs for each physical bank note—one for each side of the note. The tag may also include: Alignment marks (these are the larger dots in the image above) A code indicating that the tag is a currency tag, as opposed to a commercial Hyperlabel or Hyperlabel tag A horizontal position code, specifying where the tag is along the note A vertical position code, specifying where the tag is across the note A cryptographic signature Error detection and correction bits Each tag is unique. That is, of all tags ever to be printed on any note or other document, no two valid tags will ever be the same. The tags are designed to be easily read with low cost scanners that can be built into a variety of validation devices. Hyperlabel currency tags can be read by any Hyperlabel scanner. These scanners can be incorporated into a variety of devices to facilitate authentication and tracking, as will be described in more detail below. Tracking For the purpose of tracking and item validation the manufacturer, or other central authority, maintains a database which tracks the location and status of all currency. This can also be used in authentication of currency. Each time a note is scanned its location is recorded. This location information can be collected in a central database allowing analysis and identification of abnormal money movements and detection of counterfeit notes. This allows the creation of highly accurate intelligence about criminal activity and the real-time detection of the location of stolen or counterfeit notes at many locations within the monetary system. For example, in the case of sophisticated forgeries where Hyperlabel dot patterns are exactly duplicated, there will be multiple copies of exactly forged notes (at a minimum, the original and the forgery). If multiple identical notes appear in different places at the same time, all but one of the notes must be a forgery. All can then be treated as suspect. Thus, when a transaction is performed using currency, the general process is as follows: a transaction is agreed currency is provided relating to the transaction the currency is scanned using an appropriate sensing device the sensing device sense at least one tag and generates predetermined data the predetermined data is transferred to a central government database In this regard, the following predetermined data is automatically sent from the scanners to the central government currency database: The serial number of the note The denomination of the note Note validity data The serial number of the scanner The time and date of the scan The physical location of the scanner at the time the scan was taken (for fixed scanners this is automatic, and for mobile scanners the physical location is determined using a GPS tracker) The network location of the scanner The identity of the person making reportable cash transactions Thus, Hyperlabel technology makes it possible to build databases containing the serial number and history of all notes issued, and it allows them to be tracked through the monetary system. The data collected can be used to build up cash flow maps based on the validation data received, and its presence will provide a powerful tool for law enforcement agencies to combat theft, money laundering and counterfeiting in the global economy. With each note being tracked over its lifetime, from when it is first printed, until it is destroyed. Calculations show that this database will need to store in excess of 50 GBytes per day to track all US Dollar movements. Similar storage is also required for the Euro. This is well within the capabilities of modern database systems. There are also a large number of transactions involved—several hundred million per day. These are within the capability of conventional distributed transaction processing systems. However, the Hyperlabel currency system can be implemented at substantially lower cost by using new generation database systems that perform transactions in semiconductor memory, instead of disk drives. These transactions can then be continually streamed to disk as a background ‘backup’ task. Such systems are likely to be sufficiently mature by the time that a Hyperlabel based currency tracking system comes on-line that they will be a viable choice. As well as basic tracking and validation functions, the database system may have the following additional features: Indication of abnormal money movement patterns within the system (e.g. large cash payments made at different locations within the system by persons of interest) The provision of cash flow demand forecasts Data mining features that could be used to detect and prosecute counterfeiters and money launderers Neural network based fraud detection Geographic trends identification Thus, the central database maintains up-to-date information on valid object IDs, an object ID hotlist (for all suspect object IDs), and a list of public keys corresponding to object IDs. The central server also maintains an object scanning history to track an object's movements. Each time an object is scanned, its timestamped location is recorded. If known, the details of the object owner may also be recorded. This information may be known particularly in the case of large financial transactions e.g. a large cash withdrawal from a bank. This object scanning history data can be used to detect illegal product movements, for example, the illegal import of currency. It can also be used to detect abnormal or suspicious product movements which may be indicative of product counterfeiting. If an object is known to be stolen it can be immediately added to an object ID hotlist on the central server. This hotlist is automatically distributed to (or becomes accessible to) all on-line scanners, and will be downloaded to all off-line scanners on their next update. In this way the stolen status is automatically and rapidly disseminated to a huge number of outlets. Similarly, if an object is in any other way suspect it can be added to the hotlist so that its status is flagged to the person scanning the object. An on-line scanner has instant access to the central server to allow checking of each object ID at the time of scanning. The object scanning history is also updated at the central server at the time the object is scanned. An off-line scanner stores object status data internally to allow validation of a scanned object. The object status data includes valid ID range lists, an object ID hotlist, a public key list, and an object scanning history. Each time an object is scanned the details are recorded in the object scanning history. The object status data is downloaded from the central server, and the object scanning history is uploaded to the central server, each time the scanner connects. A mobile scanner's location can be provided to the application by the scanner, if it is GPS-equipped. Alternatively the scanner's location can be provided by the network through which it communicates. For example, if the hand-held scanner uses the mobile phone network, the scanner's location can be provided by the mobile phone network provider. There are a number of location technologies available. One is Assisted Global Positioning System (A-GPS). This requires a GPS-equipped handset, which receives positioning signals from GPS satellites. The phone network knows the approximate location of the handset (in this case the handset is also the scanner) from the nearest cell site. Based on this, the network tells the handset which GPS satellites to use in its position calculations. Another technology, which does not require the device to be GPS-equipped, is Uplink Time Difference of Arrival (U-TDOA). This determines the location of a wireless handset, using a form of triangulation, by comparing the time it takes a wireless handset's signal to reach several Location Measurement Units (LMUs) installed at the network's cell sites. The handset location is then calculated based on the differences in arrival times of the three (or more) signals. Authentication Each object ID has a signature. Limited space within the Hyperlabel tag structure makes it impractical to include a full cryptographic signature in a tag so signature fragments are distributed across multiple tags. A smaller random signature, or secret, can be included in a tag. To avoid any vulnerability due to the limited length of the object ID, the object ID is padded, ideally with a random number. The padding is stored in an authentication database indexed by object ID. The authentication database may be managed by the manufacturer, or it may be managed by a third-party trusted authenticator. Each Hyperlabel tag contains a signature fragment and each fragment (or a subset of fragments) can be verified, in isolation, against the object ID. The security of the signature still derives from the full length of the signature rather than from the length of the fragment, since a forger cannot predict which fragment a user will randomly choose to verify. Fragment verification requires fragment identification. Fragments may be explicitly numbered, or may by identified by the two-dimensional coordinate of their tag, modulo the repetition of the signature across continuous tiling of tags. Note that a trusted authenticator can always perform fragment verification, so fragment verification is always possible when on-line access to a trusted authenticator is available. Establishing Authentication Database Prior to allocating a new range of IDs, some setup tasks are required to establish the authentication database. For each range of IDs a public-private signature key pair is generated and the key pair is stored in the authentication database, indexed by ID range. For each object ID in the range the following setup is required: generate ID padding and store in authentication database, indexed by object ID retrieve private signature key by object ID generate signature by encrypting object ID and padding, using private key store signature in authentication database indexed by object ID, and/or store the padding, since the signature can be re-generated using the ID, padding and private key encode the signature across multiple tags in repeated fashion This data is required for the Hyperlabel tags therefore the authentication database must be established prior to, or at the time of, printing of the Hyperlabels. Security issues are discussed in more detail above. FIG. 21 summarises note printing and distribution of notes with Hyperlabel tags. Notes are also logged in the database whenever they are scanned in circulation, and also when they are destroyed. While the technology to print commercial Hyperlabel tags will be commercially available, only the authorized currency printing bureaus of a government will be able to print the codes corresponding to that government's currency. These codes are protected by 2048 bit RSA cryptography embedded within the integrated circuits (chips) embedded in the Memjet™ printers used to print Hyperlabel tags. This is a highly secure form of asymmetric cryptography, using private and public keys. The private keys relating to any particular currency would be kept only by authorised national security agencies. Off-Line Public-Key-Based Authentication An off-line authentication device utilises public-key signatures. The authentication device holds a number of public keys. The device may, optionally, retrieve additional public keys on demand, via a transient on-line connection when it encounters an object ID for which it has no corresponding public key signature. For off-line authentication, the entire signature is needed. The authentication device is swiped over the Hyperlabel tagged surface and a number of tags are read. From this, the object ID is acquired, as well as a number of signature fragments and their positions. The signature is then generated from these signature fragments. The public key is looked up, from the scanning device using the object ID. The signature is then decrypted using the public key, to give an object ID and padding. If the object ID obtained from the signature matches the object ID in the Hyperlabel tag then the object is considered authentic. The off-line authentication method can also be used on-line, with the trusted authenticator playing the role of authenticator. On-Line Public-Key-Based Authentication An on-line authentication device uses a trusted authenticator to verify the authenticity of an object. For on-line authentication a single tag can be all that is required to perform authentication. The authentication device scans the object and acquires one or more tags. From this, the object ID is acquired, as well as at least one signature fragment and its position. The fragment number is generated from the fragment position. The appropriate trusted authenticator is looked up by the object ID. The object ID, signature fragment, and fragment number are sent to the trusted authenticator. The trusted authenticator receives the data and retrieves the signature from the authentication database by object ID. This signature is compared with the supplied fragment, and the authentication result is reported to the user. On-Line Secret-Based Authentication Alternatively or additionally, if a random signature or secret is included in each tag (or tag group), then this can be verified with reference to a copy of the secret accessible to a trusted authenticator. Database setup then includes allocating a secret for each object, and storing it in the authentication database, indexed by object ID. The authentication device scans the object and acquires one or more tags. From this, the object ID is acquired, as well as the secret. The appropriate trusted authenticator is looked up by the object ID. The object ID and secret are sent to the trusted authenticator. The trusted authenticator receives the data and retrieves the secret from the authentication database by object ID. This secret is compared with the supplied secret, and the authentication result is reported to the user. Secret-based authentication can be used in conjunction with on-line fragment-based authentication is discussed in more detail above. Product Scanning Interactions Product Scanning at a retailer is illustrated in FIG. 22. When a store operator scans a Hyperlabel tagged product the tag data is sent to the service terminal (A). The service terminal sends the transaction data to the store server (B). The store server sends this data, along with the retailer details, to the manufacturer server (C). The Hyperlabel server knows which manufacturer server to send the message to from the object ID. On receipt of the input, the manufacturer server authenticates the object, if the manufacturer is the trusted authenticator. Alternatively the manufacturer server passes the data on to the authentication server to verify the object ID and signature (D). The authentication server sends the authentication result back to the manufacturer server (E). The manufacturer server checks the status of the object ID (against its valid ID lists and hotlist), and sends the response to the store server (F), which in turn send the result back the store service terminal (G). The store server could also communicate with the relevant authentication server directly. The interaction detail for on-line product scanning at a retailer is shown in FIG. 23. The store operator scans the Hyperlabel tagged product. The scanner sends the scanner ID and tag data to the service terminal. The service terminal sends this data along with the terminal ID and scanner location to the store server. The store server then sends the request on to the manufacturer server, which performs authentication (either itself or via a third party authentication server) and determines the object status. The response is then sent back to the store server, and on to the operator service terminal. The interaction detail for off-line product scanning at a retailer is shown in FIG. 24. The store operator scans the Hyperlabel tagged product. The scanner sends the scanner ID and tag data from multiple tags to the service terminal. The service terminal sends this data, along with the terminal ID and scanner location, to the store server. The store server then performs off-line authentication, as described in Section 3.4.2, and determines the object status through its cached hotlist, valid object ID lists, and public key list. The store server records the scan details in its internal object scanning history. The response is then sent back to the operator service terminal. An alternative for off-line product scanner occurs where the scanner is a hand-held, stand-alone scanner. In this case the cached authentication data is stored within the scanner itself, and the scanner performs the validation internally. The object scanning history is also cached within the scanner. Periodically the scanner connects to the central database, uploads it's object scanning history, and downloads the latest public key list, object ID hotlist and valid ID range list. This connection may be automatic (and invisible to the user), or may be initiated by the user, for example, when the scanner is placed in a docking station/charger. Product scanning with a Netpage pen is illustrated in FIG. 25. When a user scans a Hyperlabel tagged item with their Netpage pen, the input is sent to the Netpage System, from the user's Netpage pen, in the usual way (A). To scan a product rather than interact with it, the pen can be placed in a special mode. This is typically a one-shot mode, and can be initiated by tapping on a <scan> button printed on a Netpage. Alternatively, the pen can have a user-operable button, which, when held down during a tap or swipe, tells the pen to treat the interaction as a product scan rather than a normal interaction. The tag data is transmitted from the pen to the user's Netpage base station. The Netpage base station may be the user's mobile phone or PDA, or it may be some other Netpage device, such as a PC. The input is relayed to the Hyperlabel server (B) and then on to manufacturer server (C) in the usual way. On receipt of the input, the manufacturer server authenticates the object if the manufacturer is the trusted authenticator. Alternatively the manufacturer server passes the data on to the authentication server to verify the object ID and signature (D). The authentication server sends the authentication result back to the manufacturer server (E). The manufacturer server checks the status of the object ID (against its valid ID lists and hotlist), and sends the response to the Hyperlabel server (G). The Hyperlabel server, as part of the Netpage system, can know the identity and devices of the user. The Hyperlabel server will relay the manufacturer server's response to the user's phone (G) or Web browsing device (H) as appropriate. If the user's Netpage pen has LEDs then the Hyperlabel server can send a command to the user's pen to light the appropriate LED(s) (I,J). The interaction detail for scanning with a Netpage pen is shown in FIG. 26. The Netpage pen clicks on the Hyperlabel tagged product. The Netpage pen sends the pen id, the product's tag data and the pen's location to the Hyperlabel server. If the pen ID is not already associated with a scanner, the Hyperlabel server may create a new scanner record for the pen, or may use the pen ID as a scanner ID. The Hyperlabel server sends the scanner ID, tag data, and scanner location (if known) to the manufacturer server, which performs authentication (either itself or via a third party authentication server) and determines the object status. The response is then sent back to the Hyperlabel server, and on to the user's default Web browsing device. Security Tagging and Tracking Object Model The Security Tagging and Tracking object model revolves around Hyperlabel tags, object IDs, and signatures. FIG. 36 illustrates the management and organisation of these objects. As shown in FIG. 27, a Hyperlabel tag comprises a tag type, object ID, two-dimensional position and a signature fragment. The tag type indicates whether this is a tag on a common object, or whether the tag is on a special type of object such as a currency note or a pharmaceutical product. A signature fragment has an optional fragment number which identifies the fragment's place within the full signature. Currency notes are identified by a note ID. The note ID comprises note data and a serial number. The note data identifies the type of currency, the country of issue, the note denomination, the note side (front or back) and other currency-specific information. There are two note IDs for each physical bank note—one for each side of the printed note. The Note ID class diagram is shown in FIG. 28. Object Description, ownership and aggregation class diagram is shown in FIG. 29. This is described in more detail above. The Object Scanning History class diagram is shown in FIG. 30. An object has an object scanning history, recording each time the scanner scans an object. Each object scanned event comprises the scanner ID, the date and time of the scan, and the object status at the time of the scan, and the location of the scanner at the time the object was scanned. The object status may be valid, stolen, counterfeit suspected, etc. If known, the object owner details may also be recorded. A scanner has a unique scanner ID, a network address, owner information and a status (e.g. on-line, off-line). A scanner is either a mobile scanner, whose location may vary, or a fixed scanner, whose location is known and constant. A scanner has a current location, comprising the location details and a timestamp. A scanner may be a Netpage pen, in which case it will be associated with a Netpage Pen record. If a scanner in off-line, it will keep an object scanning history, and will optionally store a public key list, a valid ID range list and an object ID hotlist. The scanner class diagram is shown in FIG. 31. The manufacturer, or other central authority, maintains a number of Object ID Hot Lists, each with a unique list ID, and the time the list was last updated. Each hot list comprises a list of suspect object IDs, comprising the object ID, date, time, status (suspected counterfeit, stolen, etc.) and other information. The Object ID Hot List class diagram is shown in FIG. 32. The manufacturer, or other central authority, maintains a list of valid ID ranges. Each valid object ID range entry in the list comprises the start object ID and end object ID (the valid ID range) and the time the entry was updated. The Valid ID Range List class diagram is shown in FIG. 33. The manufacturer, or other central authority, maintains a public key list. The public key list consists of a number of entries identifying the public key for a range of Object IDs. Each valid object ID range entry comprises the update time for the entry, the start object ID for the range, the end object ID for the range, and the public key applicable to each object ID in the given range. The Public Key List class diagram is shown in FIG. 34. Object authentication may be performed by the manufacturer, or by a third-party trusted authenticator. A trusted authenticator has an authenticator ID, name and details. A trusted authenticator holds a list of public-private key pairs, each associated with one or more ID ranges. This is a list of object ID ranges (identified by the start and end ID) and the corresponding public/private signature key pair. A trusted authenticator also holds a list of secret signatures, and a list of public-key signatures. Each public-key signature identifies the actual signature and/or the padding used to generate the signature. Each secret signature and public-key signature is associated by object ID with a unique object. The Trusted Authenticator class diagram is shown in FIG. 35. Security Document Scanners Hyperlabel scanners can be built into a variety of devices. Scanners may be fixed or mobile. A fixed scanner has a permanent, known location. A mobile scanner has no fixed location. A scanner may be on-line, i.e. have immediate access to the central database, or it may be off-line. Hyperlabel scanners can determine both the validity and the value of currency. Their determination of a note's validity is more definite and more secure than current methods, and can be implemented at lower cost. Scanners may be specific to a particular product application, such as a currency counter, or may be a generic Hyperlabel scanner. Hyperlabel scanners may be embedded in other multi-function devices, for example, a mobile phone or PDA. Such scanners are multi-purpose since they can also be used to scan hyperlabelled consumer goods and printed materials. A small hand-held scanner may also be used to scan and validate currency. When a scanner scans a note it notifies the currency server of the note details, the current date and time, and the scanner location (if known). Optionally the scanner may also send the identity of the person making the cash transaction, if known. This information would be available in respect of bank transactions, currency exchanges and large cash transactions. Accordingly, hyperlabel currency tags can be read using many types of device, including: Currency counters Automated teller machines Cash registers POS checkouts Mobile phone with inbuilt scanner Hyperlabel pens Vending machines The Hyperlabel technology used in these devices can be implemented in a wide range of applications. As a result, the development and deployment costs can be shared by the key stakeholders. Of the seven types of scanner listed, only the currency counters and vending machines are specific to currency. The other five are also used for scanning consumer goods and printed materials. Hyperlabel scanners built into a variety of products will include the following features, currently under development at Silverbrook Research. An infrared image sensor to read the Hyperlabel tags that uniquely identify each note. A 32 bit RISC processor with 20 megabits of secure code space signed using 2048 bit RSA cryptography. A highly secure processor with cryptographic and physical security features for verifying the cryptographic signature on Hyperlabel tags (under development at Silverbrook Research). Infrared optics, including filters tuned to the Hyperlabel ink infrared spectrum. A real-time clock to verify the time of each transaction reported. Software to decode the Hyperlabel tags, record the details of each scan, to validate each note scanned, and to facilitate automatic and secure communications with an online database. Communications systems to create secure network connections to the central currency verification database. Various of the Hyperlabel scanners described below are also planned to include the following units: An inbuilt display and data entry mechanism to indicate to the operator the amount of money counted, notes that are suspected of being counterfeit, and the identity of the person requesting reportable cash transactions. A cache of the serial numbers of all known counterfeit and stolen notes. Other spectral filters tuned to the secure currency ink spectrum (which differs from the commercially available Hyperlabel ink). A GPS tracker to verify the location of the currency counter at the time of use. Currency Counters A Hyperlabel currency counter with an inbuilt infrared scanner can be used to automatically scan, validate, and log each note in the central currency database as it is counted. An example of the implementation of this is shown in FIG. 37. These units could replace existing currency counting machines now in use in banks, in foreign exchange offices, in bill payment agencies accepting cash payments, and in immigration offices at international airports. As a currency scanner has no other obvious application other than currency. It does not need to communicate with any database other than the government currency database. A currency scanner may operate at high speed, requiring excess dataline bandwidth and transaction processing. To overcome this, the banknote validity data can be locally cached, and updated whenever it changes. Information on scanned notes is sent periodically in an encrypted form. Although the banknote location updates may be sent periodically security and timeliness for detection are not compromised. This is because data on any counterfeit or stolen notes could be sent immediately. The time of the scan is locally determined and accurately included in the data packet, and the list of counterfeit and stolen notes is updated as soon as the information is available. Automated Teller Machines An Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) is a relatively simple case, as it is typically not used for depositing cash, only dispensing it. Accordingly, they are not required to validate the notes. Notes can be validated and logged using a currency counter when they are placed into the ATM. ATMs can be equipped with Hyperlabel scanners, which register notes as they are loaded into, as well as taken out of, the ATM. As well as providing currency tracking features, this will also reduce theft of, and from, ATMs. This is because the money taken from the ATM will be tracked, and as soon as the theft is reported, the money will be recorded in the central database as stolen. Thus, as shown in FIG. 38, the ATM can track the details of the account from which the funds were withdrawn. This allows the particular notes dispensed to be logged as stolen if the real account holder notifies the bank of fraudulent transactions involving lost or stolen cards. Cash Registers Cash registers can have an add-on or built-in currency scanner for a small additional cost per unit. The notes are scanned as they are put into, or taken out of, the cash drawer. This also aids verification that the correct amount of money has been tendered, and the correct change given. Tracking currency in and out of cash registers can enhance the safety of shop attendants. Once criminals become aware that stolen cash will be immediately recorded as stolen, then the incidence of theft should be significantly reduced. As shown in FIG. 39, this is typically achieved by having the cash register communicate with a secure currency server, via a Hyperlabel server and a local shop database. Thus, the cash register can transfer information regarding transactions to the local database, which determines if local verification is sufficient, or if global validation or the like is required. Thus, for example, offline authentication may be used for transactions below a certain threshold required for In this latter case, a request for verification or the like can be routed to the Hyperlabel server, which will then determine an associated secure currency, and route the request accordingly, allowing the secure currency server to perform authentication using the online Hyperlabel Supermarket Checkout One of the major applications of Hyperlabel is in consumer packaged goods, where it has the potential of being the ‘next generation bar code’ allowing automatic tracking of individual grocery items. This application requires automatic supermarket checkouts that scan products for Hyperlabels. These checkouts will be able to read currency Hyperlabel tags. This allows the currency to be tracked, but also simplifies payment, as the amount of money tendered is simply determined by passing it through the Hyperlabel scan field. An example of a hyperlabel supermarket checkout is shown in FIG. 40, with examples being described in more detail in our copending application number [cross ref any application describing hyperlabel checkout], the contents of which is incorporated herein by cross reference. Mobile Phone with Inbuilt Scanner A mobile phone that has an inbuilt infrared scanner to scan and validate each note can be used in a range of locations where money counting is not a normal function. It is also used for other inventory management and validity checking applications, such as pharmaceutical security, forensic investigations, policing trademark infringement, and stocktaking, and is intended for wide distribution. Tracking currency in and out of cash registers can enhance the safety of shop attendants as criminal activity should be affected by the realization that all notes taken from a cash register will be immediately registered as stolen, and that the criminal will run the risk of being caught just by using that cash in everyday transactions or by holding the cash. Handheld Validity Scanner Handheld Hyperlabel validity scanners may also be used where currency counters are not required or suitable. These devices are expected to be significantly more common than currency counters, as they have multiple uses, and will be much cheaper. An example of a handheld validity scanner is shown in FIG. 41, and described in more detail in copending application number [cross ref any application describing validity scanner], the contents of which is incorporated herein by cross reference. An example of communications used in implementing a second example of a handheld scanner is shown in FIG. 42. The validity scanner has multiple uses, including pharmaceutical security, brand-name security, stocktaking, forensic investigations, and policing. As it is not a dedicated currency device. It does not communicate directly with the government currency server as otherwise, large numbers of non-currency related messages would need to be routed through that server. Instead, it communicates directly with commercial Hyperlabel servers, and any currency related validation requests are passed on to the government server. To reduce the transaction load on the government server, note related information can be cached at the Hyperlabel server, much as they are cached in the currency counters. The link to the database would typically be relayed over a radio link to allow local mobility. The radio link can be WiFi, GPRS, 3G mobile, Bluetooth, or other IP link, as appropriate. Internet transactions are secured using encrypted packets. Hyperlabel Pen The Hyperlabel pen is a miniature low cost scanner for consumer and business use. It uses an infrared image sensor, instead of a laser scanner, and scans a Hyperlabel tag whenever it is clicked against a surface. Details of Hyperlabel pens are described for example in copending patent application number [cross ref any application describing pen], the contents of which are incorporated herein by cross reference. These pens are intended for high volume consumer use, with intended distribution exceeding 100 million units. While its primary application is a wide range of ‘interactive paper’ and computer peripheral uses, it also allows consumers to verify Hyperlabel tags printed on currency, pharmaceuticals, and other objects. The Hyperlabel network will be managed by dedicated Hyperlabel servers, and any currency scans from Hyperlabel pens will be routed through these servers to a single logical connection to the Currency Servers. Because the costs are borne elsewhere, a huge number of currency validation and logging points can be added to the network at negligible incremental cost. The pens do not have a display device, and are intended to be used in conjunction with a device with a display capability and a network connection, as shown in FIG. 43. As validation is a secondary function of the pens, they do not communicate directly with the currency database, and instead transfer requests via a relay device. Only a small fraction of pen hits (much less than 1%) are expected to be related to currency validation. The pens communicate by radio (typically Bluetooth) to the relay, which may be a computer, a mobile phone, a printer, or other computing device. This relay device communicates, in turn, with the Hyperlabel server. If the Hyperlabel server determines that the pen has clicked on a currency tag, the click is interpreted as a validation query, which is then forwarded to the appropriate currency server. The currency server logs the identity and the network location of the pen that clicked on the note, as well as other data such as the note serial number, the time and the date. The physical location of the pen is typically unknown, as Hyperlabel pens usually do not include a GPS tracker. The currency server passes the validation message back to the Hyperlabel server, which formats the message for the display device that relayed the message from the pen. Vending Machine For a small additional cost, Hyperlabel scanners can also be added to vending machines to securely determine both the validity and the value of a note, as shown in FIG. 44. They also reduce the risk of currency theft from the vending machine. Vending machines are somewhat complimentary to ATMs—they accept notes, but do not dispense them. Hyperlabel scanners send data to a remote secure server for storage and interpretation. A direct wireless or wired link can be established between the server and a scanner for communication. Alternatively, the scanners can communicate with the secure server indirectly through a companion device such as a point of sale (POS) terminal, a mobile phone, or computer. The database can be updated by scanners operating online in real-time, or periodically using batch file downloads. High speed scanners can cache lists of counterfeit and stolen notes locally, to reduce network traffic. The validation messages can go directly to the currency server, or via the server of the company which owns and operates the vending machine. The vending machine can be configured to automatically reject any stolen or counterfeit notes. It is possible to display the status of the note (i.e. stolen or counterfeit) on most vending machines, and it is possible that this would act as a further crime deterrent—for even a humble vending machine can conspicuously identify dubious currency. It should only report this when the certainty is 100%. On lower certainties, it can simply reject the note without stating why, as is the current practice for vending machines. Security Features Hyperlabel currency security features include: Notes can be tracked whenever they are scanned—at banks, supermarket checkouts, vending machines, cash registers, and low cost home scanners. The unique range of currency tag numbers can be printed only by the government printing agency. Currency IR ink with unique spectral properties, can be made available only to government printing agencies. Note serial number printed in tag must match printed serial number. Tags are printed all over both sides of the note. Tags vary across the note—a forger must match the thousands of tags printed on any note. Additional proprietary security features not disclosed in this document. The ability to determine both the validity and the value of currency. Security Requirements For a low risk currency anti-forgery system, it is only necessary to make it uneconomic. That is, all that is required is that the cost of forging a note exceeds the face value of the note, taking into consideration likely advances in technology. A good system should also make it easy to detect and track counterfeiters and money launderers. The Hyperlabel system offers a practical solution that meets these objectives. Table 6 outlines various levels of counterfeiting skill, and the corresponding ability of the Hyperlabel system to detect counterfeit currency. TABLE 6 Scanner reports Counterfeit Counterfeiter probability of level characteristic Note characteristic counterfeit Photocopy Casual forger No Hyperlabel tags 100% certainty Hyperlabel Home forger, using Hyperlabel tags are 100% certainty printer computers and printers present, but they are not valid currency codes. Sophisticated - Skilful forger who creates Tag serial number 100% certainty computer a computer system to does not match systems generate a sequence of cryptographic expert Hyperlabel tags signature in tag Sophisticated No access to special ink Hyperlabel currency 100% certainty using tags printed with currency counters. commercial Some scanner types Hyperlabel IR ink (e.g. Hyperlabel instead of secure pens) do not detect currency IR ink the special ink High level Highly skilled forger who Hyperlabel tags do 100% certainty forgery copies a tag from a note, not vary correctly and replicates it across over the note the note using illegally obtained secure IR ink Perfect Conventional, highly 100,000 copies of an 99.999% certainty on forgery skilled forger who existing note that are any note, as the meticulously copies every perfect in all respects, 100,000 forgeries dot on the whole note, including ink and all- cannot be and prints them with over pattern of valid distinguished from illegally obtained secure tags. All 100,000 the original valid IR ink notes have the same note. The forgeries serial number are easily detected by humans due to repeating serial numbers. Perfect Conventional, highly 100,000 copies of an 100% certainty (with forgery (with skilled forger who existing note that are aid of operator different perfectly copies every dot perfect in all respects, verification of printed serial on the whole note, then but 100,000 notes all serial number) numbers) ensures that the printed have different serial serial numbers increment. numbers Large scale A massive effort, where No more than one 50% certainty on any effort many notes are collected, copy of any existing one note - as the (uneconomic) and each note is note is printed, but single forgery cannot individually analysed and that copy is perfect in be distinguished from duplicated. all respects. The the original. forgers analyse and However, a pattern of copy one note at a duplications would time. be evident if more than one forged note was passed at a time. Benefits of a Hyperlabel Security Document System Theft Hyperlabel scanners report the locations of banknotes to a central secure database. Repositories of cash—banks, ATMs, cash registers, armored trucks, personal safes—that are equipped with Hyperlabel scanners have records of all of the serial numbers of the notes that should be in the repository. Whenever cash is stolen from such a repository, the central database operator can be notified, and the notes carrying the serial numbers will rapidly be registered as stolen. As the records are kept in a remote secure location (i.e. the central database), the records will not be stolen along with the cash. The stolen status is rapidly and automatically disseminated to a huge number of outlets as varied as financial institutions and retailers. Each of those outlets will be able to rapidly, accurately and automatically identify stolen notes as part of their standard cash-handling procedures. The stolen status is also rapidly and automatically disseminated to relevant agencies such as Customs, Immigration and Police, Hence law enforcement officers will be armed with mobile scanners that can accurately and immediately ascertain the status of suspect notes. Once the stolen cash is used anywhere there is a Hyperlabel scanner, the cash will be identified as stolen. This places the thief in high danger of being caught. It would thus be very difficult for a thief to dispose of any significant amount of stolen cash. Hyperlabel scanners can assist in the reduction of theft in many situations, including: Bank and armored truck robbery: all notes would be immediately ‘marked as stolen’ as soon as the thieves left the scene of the crime. Retail shops: late night shops, such as 7-eleven and gas stations—are notoriously victims of small scale armed and unarmed robberies. The reduction of this kind of theft should make these occupations substantially safer. For similar reasons, ATMs, personal and company safes, vending machines, would all become significantly more secure. Drug Dealing Indirectly, this could also limit the activities of drug dealers. At the street level, many notes used to pay for drugs may be registered as stolen. As the number of these stolen notes accumulates, the cash flow pattern will be identified as suspicious. Therefore, drug dealers would want to be able to verify that any money paid to them was not stolen or counterfeit. Ironically, drug dealers will not be able to use Hyperlabel scanners to verify the status of cash they are paid with, without also running the risk of being caught. If a drug dealer was frequently verifying large amounts of cash, where a large percentage of that cash was stolen, they could be investigated for money laundering. Counterfeiting As well as assisting in the apprehension of criminals, the collection of this data also allows the detection of sophisticated forgeries where the Hyperlabel dot patterns are exactly duplicated. This is because there will be multiple copies of exactly forged notes—at least the original and the forgery. For example, if multiple identical notes appear in different places at the same time, all but one of those notes must be a forgery. This applies even if the note is an absolutely perfect forgery, as no two Hyperlabel tags should ever be the same. An heuristic determines whether the appearance of a particular note in different places in quick succession is feasible. If successive appearances of a note are determined to be infeasible, the presence of a forgery is indicated. Money Counting Because the hyperlabel tags encode the denomination of currency, this allows money to be counted solely on the basis of hyperlabel detection. This avoids the need for the detection and interpretation of a visible numeral, which typically requires complex image processing to be performed, especially if the quality of the note is degraded due to extensive use. It will be appreciated that in addition to this, as the denomination is repeated substantially over the entire currency, this ensures that the currency value can be determined even if a large portion of the note is damaged. Money Laundering As discussed in the background, there are two claim stages in money laundering, namely placement and wiring and integration. It will be appreciated that by providing for tracking of each individual note utilising the Hyperlabel system described above, this makes it extremely difficult for placement to be carried out, primarily as each individual note can be tracked throughout its life. Accordingly, large amounts of currency suddenly entering into the circulation will be easily detectable primarily as there will be a break in the history of the note. Thus, the system can utilise Patent detection algorithms to identify when large volumes of currency either exit or enter into circulation thereby identifying potential sources of money laundering. In addition to this however currency in which has a certain times been owned by certain individuals can also be tracked. This allows Patents within an individual's accounts usage to be determined which also helps identify money laundering. Meeting Regulatory Requirements It will be appreciated that by providing a database which can be used to track all currency, this allows banks to ensure regulatory requirements are satisfied. To even further aid with this, rules can be defined which represent the regulatory requirements. In this instance, when a transaction is to be performed, the transaction can be compared to the predetermined rules to determine if the transaction is allowable. This will effectively prevent unallowable transactions occurring thereby ensuring that the banks meet the regulatory requirements. Cross Boarder Controls In order to provide for cross boarder control, it is merely necessary to continuously monitor the location of currency documents. If currency documents on subsequent transactions are provided in different locations this indicates that the currency has been physically moved thereby allowing cross boarder currency movements to be determined. Security Document Transfer It will be appreciated that as the security document can be represented wholly electronically, by use of the identity and correspondence signature, it is possible to electronically transfer security documents. In this instance, specialised transfer machines can be provided which operate to destroy a currency document upon receipt. The document can be converted to an electronic form by identifying the corresponding document layout and tag map used to place the coded data thereon. This information can then be transferred to a corresponding machine in another location allowing the security document to be reproduced. Thus, the security document may transferred to one location to another location in an electronic form by ensuring that only one security document is produced this prevents document duplication whilst allowing secure transfer. Advantages of a Hyperlabel Security Document System The proposed Hyperlabel solution can be implemented to bring many advantages. Some of these include: Unobtrusive to the public Follows existing cash handling processes Reduces reliance on paper trails Provides a strong deterrent for accepting counterfeit currency Provides a strong deterrent for laundering large amounts of cash Efficient way to share resources across national and international agencies Improves confidence in the financial system Limits the possibility of inexplicable changes in money demand Reduces risk to integrity of financial institutions Helps banks implement and automate due diligence methods for cash transactions There are several major advantages of Hyperlabel currency tags over other existing forms of note validation such as RFID, including: Hyperlabel tags are invisible, so they do not affect note design or graphics. Hyperlabel tags can be implemented at very low cost—the tags are just ink and are printed while the notes are still in roll form, directly after the visible inks are printed. Hyperlabel tagged currency is extremely difficult to forge. Hyperlabel tags are printed over the entire note surface in a highly redundant and fault tolerant manner. Hyperlabel tags are very unlikely to become unreadable due to note damage. Hyperlabel tags can be scanned using a variety of scanners. Currency location and reportable cash transaction data are automatically collected. Hyperlabels support omnidirectional reading, they can protect privacy, they can be produced for a low cost, and the ability of the scanners to read the tags is independent of packaging, contents, or environmental conditions. One of the most effective methods to reduce the counterfeit risks considered above, is the introduction of a new form of currency incorporating a machine readable code, and the means to validate notes at key points where cash transactions occur. Counterfeit notes could then be detected at banks, currency exchanges, airports, retailers and bill payment service providers accepting cash payments. That is, the goal would be to identify and reject counterfeit notes before they enter the monetary system. Counterfeit notes can vary in quality—depending on the level of skill of the counterfeiter and the choice of technology. Hyperlabel provides security against the full range of efforts—from casual forgery on a color photocopier, through to multi-million dollar efforts by professional criminals. By implementing a Hyperlabel system, it becomes possible to monitor and forecast national and international cash flow changes, as well as provide alerts for any abnormal patterns that could lead to unwanted macroeconomic outcomes. An automated Hyperlabel system aids with the record keeping, and provides the basis for additional ways to identify ‘suspicious activities’ involving cash that can occur. In comparison, Hyperlabel tags can be produced at a low cost. They can be printed all over the surface of a note (redundancy) and they are easy to read. The IR ink ‘tags’ will not be damaged by folding, washing, physical impact or electrostatic shock, and cannot be torn out of the note. They can be used and read in the presence of radiopaque materials. They support omnidirectional reading, as well as very low cost proximity readers. Hyperlabel tags cannot be read while in the wallets of citizens, so do not present a threat of covert scanning providing information to criminals. This should make Hyperlabel tagged currency acceptable to privacy advocates concerned about the ability to read notes without the knowledge of the owner. They also meet current and anticipated regulations and guidelines for national and international agencies. An overview of the key components of a Hyperlabel system needed to achieve these objectives is provided in the next section. Socioeconomic Consequences Although there are significant advantages in implementing a Hyperlabel solution, there are also socioeconomic consequences that need to be noted. Of primary concern is the consequence of Hyperlabel becoming a pervasive counterfeit detection and cash flow tracking system. This could effectively and materially hamper the activities of organized crime and terrorists relying on counterfeiting or laundering cash and it could prove to be disruptive as criminals find alternative methods to support their activities. In this context, further questions ought to be considered before proceeding with implementation. Some of these include: Will crime move to less regulated and less developed nations causing further decline in their socioeconomic status? Will electronic crime become more sophisticated? How will Hyperlabel alter the structure of criminal and terrorist networks? The cash economy is often used by small businesses as a form of tax evasion—what, if anything, will replace this once cash becomes traceable? Related Applications The Hyperlabel infrastructure can also be used to validate and track other ‘secure documents’ where the value of the document is based upon what it represents, rather than what it contains. Some examples are: Government checks Bank issued checks Bearer bonds Stock certificates Lottery tickets Event tickets Passports Medical certificates Postage stamps Food stamps The Hyperlabel infrastructure is also shared with other applications, such as grocery tracking and interactive documents.
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