It Wasn't Me

It Wasn't Me

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This article is about the song by Shaggy. For the song by George Thorogood & the Destroyers, see Move It On Over (album).
"It Wasn't Me"
Shaggy-wasn't-me.jpg
Single by Shaggy
from the album Hot Shot
B-side "Dance & Shout"
Released September 11, 2000[1]
Format
  • 7"
  • 12"
  • cassette
  • CD
Recorded 1999
Genre
  • Reggae fusion
Length 3:47
Label
  • Big Yard
  • DreamWorks
Songwriter(s)
  • Shaggy
Producer(s)
  • Shaun Pizzonia
  • Raul "RAZ" Zeballos
Shaggy singles chronology
"Luv Me, Luv Me"
(1998)
"It Wasn't Me"
(2000)
"Angel"
(2001)
"Luv Me, Luv Me"
(1998)
"It Wasn't Me"
(2000)
"Angel"
(2001)

"It Wasn't Me" is the first single from Jamaican-American reggae artist Shaggy's multi-Platinum studio album Hot Shot (2000). The song features vocals from English-Jamaican singer Rikrok.

The lyrics of the song depict one man asking his friend what to do after his girlfriend caught him having sex with another woman. His friend's advice is to deny everything, despite clear evidence to the contrary, with the phrase "It wasn't me."

"It Wasn't Me" has been regarded as Shaggy's breakthrough in the pop market, and is his highest-charting song to date, topping the charts in Australia, Austria, France, Ireland, the United States, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It was the best-selling single of 2001 in the United Kingdom, selling over 1.15 million copies that year[2] and over 1.42 million as of 2017. The song was also featured on the 2001 compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 6.

Contents

 [hide]
  • 1 Background
  • 2 Chart performance
  • 3 Music video
  • 4 Legacy
  • 5 Track listings
  • 6 Charts and sales
    • 6.1 Weekly charts
    • 6.2 Year-end charts
    • 6.3 Certifications
    • 6.4 Chart successions
  • 7 See also
  • 8 References
  • 9 External links

Background[edit]

The lyrics of "It Wasn't Me" depict one man asking his friend what to do after his girlfriend catches him having sex with another woman. His friend's advice is to deny everything, despite clear evidence to the contrary, with the phrase "It wasn't me." Ultimately, the narrator says that the advice "makes no sense at all". The song was inspired by a bit called "No Loyal Men," performed by Eddie Murphy in his 1987 comedy special Raw.[3] In a 2016 interview, Shaggy acknowledged similarities with the War song "Smile Happy".[4] The connection is further supported by Liam Payne's 2017 debut single "Strip That Down", itself based on "It Wasn't Me", which credited both Shaggy (as Orville Burrell) and members of War as co-songwriters.[5][6]

The clean version of the song replaces the lyric "Picture this: we were both butt-naked banging on the bathroom floor" with "Picture this: we were both caught making love on the bathroom floor" and "Saw me banging on the sofa" with "Saw me kissing on the sofa". "It Wasn't Me" was originally never intended to be released as a single.

Before the original version of Hot Shot was released in August 2000, Hawaiian DJ Pablo Sato downloaded the album from "a Napster-like MP3 site he won't name" and discovered that "It Wasn't Me" was "the album's standout cut." He played the song on American radio the next day, and in an interview, claimed, "The phone lines lit up right away. Within a couple of days, it was our number-one requested song."[7] The song was then released as the album's first single in September 2000, following its radio success. The song is written in the key of C, in the Mixolydian mode.

The song was spoofed by Bob Rivers, as Shaggy One Handed, making a reference to the Scooby-Doo character, Shaggy Rogers. The video focused on him being caught masturbating (about the girl next door) by his mother.[8] The song was also spoofed on Svengoolie. On The Chris Moyles Show, the song was used as a prank call with Shaggy trying to book a taxi, with the final line being "Can you drop me off at The Chris Moyles Show on BBC Radio 1?, 97 to 99 FM".[9]

Chart performance[edit]

"It Wasn't Me" was Shaggy's first number-one hit in the United States. The song peaked at number two for two weeks from December 16, 2000[10] to December 23, 2000.[11] On December 30, 2000, it was bumped down one position to number three.[12] It moved back up to the number two spot on January 4, 2001.[13]

The song also reached number one on the UK Singles Chart on March 4, 2001, selling 345,000 copies, making the song a transatlantic chart-topper.[14] It also reached number one in Australia on April 1, 2001. It is also the 11th biggest selling single of the 21st century in the United Kingdom,[15] with sales of over 1.42 million as of September 2017.[15]

As of August 2014, it is the 49th best-selling single of the 21st century in France, with 399,500 units sold.[16]

Music video[edit]

The music video was directed by Stephen Scott.

It starts out with Rikrok running to Shaggy's mansion to explain to him what has just happened. Rikrok tells him that he cheated on his girlfriend and got caught. Shaggy tells him to tell her that "It wasn't me." The video then cuts into a flashback to earlier that day. Rikrok has been caught sleeping with another woman, and his girlfriend is outside the apartment in her convertible when two women pull up next to her on their motorcycles (sport bikes).

Then, the three women go into the building. He then sneaks out the window, takes the motorcycle of one of his girlfriends accomplices and leaves. The women come out and the girlfriend and one of the accomplices get in the convertible and the other gets on her motorcycle and they chase after him. From his mansion, Shaggy, using his futuristic technology, tracks down where Rikrok is going and prepares an escape for him. Rikrok then gets on a bridge over the highway when the accomplice rode on the bridge in front of him.

He then hits the brakes to stop while she stops her motorcycle. Rikrok then hears a noise behind him and it's the other accomplices and the girlfriend driving the convertible on the other side of the bridge with the highway down below. An eighteen-wheeler drives by, and Shaggy leaves Rikrok a text message telling him to look behind and he notices the truck and jumps off the side of overhead and lands on the truck. He is then dropped off at Shaggy's mansion, showing the same scene from the start of the video.

Legacy[edit]

The lyrics of "It Wasn't Me" inspired Slate writer Josh Levin to coin the term the "Shaggy defense" to describe R. Kelly's defence at his child pornography trial stemming from the production of a sex tape: "I predict that in the decades to come, law schools will teach this as the 'Shaggy defense'. You allege that I was caught on camera, butt naked, banging on the log cabin floor? It wasn't me."[17]

Levin repeated the term on NPR.[18] The term describes a strategy of flatly denying guilt and refusing to engage with the evidence against the defendant, no matter how overwhelming. R. Kelly was ultimately found not guilty on all charges.[19]

The song is referenced by Trevor Noah on an episode of The Daily Show with Trevor Noah when he covered the vice-presidential debate between Mike Pence and Tim Kaine, as Pence vehemently kept denying his running mate Donald Trump's claims, despite the fact that the claims have been proved to be said by Trump on camera or through his Twitter account.[20]

Track listings[edit]

  • UK

CD Single

  1. "It Wasn't Me" (Radio Edit) – 3:43
  2. "It Wasn't Me" (Vocal 12" Mix) – 3:49
  3. "Dance & Shout" (Pussy 2000 Club Mix Edit) – 8:07
  4. "It Wasn't Me" (Enhanced Video) – 3:43

Cassette single

  1. "It Wasn't Me" (Radio Edit) – 3:43
  2. "It Wasn't Me" – 3:47
  • U.S.
  1. "It Wasn't Me" – 3:47
  2. "It Wasn't Me" (Squeaky Remix) – 4:25
  3. "It Wasn't Me" (Instrumental) – 3:47
  4. "It Wasn't Me" (Sports Remix) – 3:27
  • Australia
  1. "It Wasn't Me" (Radio Edit) – 3:43
  2. "It Wasn't Me" (Vocal 12" Mix) – 3:49
  3. "Dance & Shout" (Pussy 2000 Club Mix Edit) – 8:07
  4. "Dance & Shout" (Dancehall Version) – 3:46
  5. "It Wasn't Me" (Enhanced Video) – 3:43

Charts and sales[edit]

Weekly charts[edit]

Chart (2000–01) Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[21] 1
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[22] 3
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[23] 1
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[24] 2
Canada (Nielsen SoundScan) 18
Denmark (Tracklisten)[25] 2
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)[26] 1
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[27] 11
France (SNEP)[28] 1
Germany (Official German Charts)[29] 4
Ireland (IRMA)[30] 1
Italy (FIMI)[31] 2
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[32] 1
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[33] 6
Norway (VG-lista)[34] 2
Poland (Polish Singles Chart)[35] 1
Spain (PROMUSICAE)[36] 13
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[37] 2
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[38] 2
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[39] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[40] 1
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[41] 1
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[42] 3

Year-end charts[edit]

Chart (2001) Position
Australian Singles Chart[43] 2
Austrian Singles Chart[44] 25
Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart[45] 6
Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart[46] 6
Dutch Top 40[47] 7
French Singles Chart[48] 7
Irish Singles Chart[49] 2
Swiss Singles Chart[50] 17
UK Singles Chart[2] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[51] 12

Certifications[edit]

Region Certification Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[52] 3× Platinum 210,000^
Austria (IFPI Austria)[53] Gold 20,000*
France (SNEP)[54] Platinum 500,000*
Germany (BVMI)[55] Gold 250,000^
Netherlands (NVPI)[56] Platinum 60,000^
Norway (IFPI Norway)[57] Platinum 10,000*
Switzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[58] Gold 20,000^
United Kingdom (BPI)[59] 2× Platinum 1,428,204[15]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone

Chart successions[edit]

hideOrder of precedence
Preceded by
"Independent Women Part I" by Destiny's Child
Billboard Hot 100 number-one single
February 3, 2001 – February 10, 2001 (2 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Ms. Jackson" by OutKast
Preceded by
"Puf / Schudden" by Def Rhymz
Dutch number-one single
March 3, 2001 – April 7, 2001 (6 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Damn (I Think I Love You)" by Starmaker
Preceded by
"Always Come Back to Your Love"
by Samantha Mumba
Irish (IRMA) number-one single
March 3, 2001 (1 week)
Succeeded by
"Uptown Girl" by Westlife
Preceded by
"Whole Again" by Atomic Kitten
UK number-one single
March 4, 2001 (1 week)
Preceded by
"La Passion" by Gigi D'Agostino
Belgian (Flanders) number-one single
March 24, 2001 – April 14, 2001 (4 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Teenage Dirtbag" by Wheatus
Preceded by
"Seul" by Garou
French SNEP number-one single
March 31, 2001 – June 2, 2001 (10 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Hasta la Vista" by MC Solaar
Preceded by
"Ms. Jackson" by OutKast
Eurochart Hot 100 number-one single
March 31, 2001 – June 2, 2001 (10 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Whole Again" by Atomic Kitten
Preceded by
"Case of the Ex" by Mýa
Australian ARIA number-one single
April 1, 2001 – April 22, 2001 (4 weeks)
Succeeded by
"Me, Myself and I" by Scandal'us

See also[edit]

  • List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2001
  • List of best-selling singles and albums of 2001 in Ireland
  • List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom
  • List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (century) in the United Kingdom
  • List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom
  • List of 2000s UK Singles Chart number ones
  • Shaggy defense

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ "VH1 - Top 100 Greatest Songs of 2000's". Retrieved April 24, 2014.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b "Shaggy's single is UK's best-seller". BBC News. 27 December 2001. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
  3. Jump up ^ "How I Wrote That Song: Shaggy "It Wasn't Me"". YouTube. April 23, 2015. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  4. Jump up ^ [1]
  5. Jump up ^ Mench, Chris (May 19, 2017). "Liam Payne Interpolates A Shaggy Classic On His New Single "Strip That Down" Featuring Quavo". Genius. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  6. Jump up ^ Rainbird, Ashleigh (September 1, 2017). "Liam Payne insists he did not 'rip off' Shaggy song for new track as he gave singer credit". Daily Mirror. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  7. Jump up ^ Paiva, Derek (January 18, 2001). "Isle deejay takes credit for Shaggy hit". The Honolulu Advertiser. Gannett Co., Inc. Archived from the original on February 22, 2001. Retrieved February 22, 2001.
  8. Jump up ^ "Caught Me One-Handed". YouTube. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  9. Jump up ^ "Shaggy - Taxi". April 28, 2015.
  10. Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media, Inc (2000-12-16). Billboard. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  11. Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media, Inc (2000-12-23). Billboard. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  12. Jump up ^ Paoletta, Michael (2000-12-30). 2000: The Year In Music. Billboard. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  13. Jump up ^ "'Independent' Stays On Top". Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  14. Jump up ^ "SHAGGY RETURNS IN STYLE". NME. 4 March 2000. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b c Copsey, Rob (September 19, 2017). "The UK's Official Chart 'millionaires' revealed". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
  16. Jump up ^ "Top 100 des singles les plus vendus du millénaire en France, épisode 6 (50-41)". Chartsinfrance. 16 August 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2014.
  17. Jump up ^ Josh Levin. May 21, 2008. "Dispatches From the R. Kelly Trial".
  18. Jump up ^ NPR. May 23, 2008. "Trapped in a Courtroom: The R. Kelly Trial".
  19. Jump up ^ R. Kelly Found Not Guilty!
  20. Jump up ^ Trevor Noah, October 4, 2016. Vice Presidential Debate Wrap-Up
  21. Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  22. Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  23. Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  24. Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  25. Jump up ^ "Danishcharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". Tracklisten. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  26. Jump up ^ "Hits of the World: Eurochart Hot 100 (IFPI/Nielsen Marketing Research) 04/07/01". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media. 113 (14): 73. April 7, 2001. ISSN 0006-2510.
  27. Jump up ^ "Shaggy feat. Rikrok: It Wasn't Me" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland.
  28. Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  29. Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – Shaggy feat. Rikrok Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
  30. Jump up ^ Irish Single Chart Irishcharts.ie Archived 2010-01-05 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved July 26, 2008)
  31. Jump up ^ "Italiancharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". Top Digital Download. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  32. Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – Shaggy feat. Rikrok" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  33. Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  34. Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". VG-lista. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  35. Jump up ^ "Nielsen Music Control". Archived from the original on October 17, 2007.
  36. Jump up ^ "Spanishcharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me" Canciones Top 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  37. Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  38. Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Shaggy feat. Rikrok – It Wasn't Me". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  39. Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  40. Jump up ^ "Shaggy Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  41. Jump up ^ "Shaggy Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  42. Jump up ^ "Shaggy Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
  43. Jump up ^ 2001 Australian Singles Chart aria.com (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  44. Jump up ^ 2001 Austrian Singles Chart Austriancharts.at Archived August 1, 2012, at WebCite (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  45. Jump up ^ 2001 Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  46. Jump up ^ 2001 Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  47. Jump up ^ "Single top 100 over 2001" (PDF) (in Dutch). Top40. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
  48. Jump up ^ 2001 French Singles Chart Disqueenfrance.com Archived 2012-04-04 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  49. Jump up ^ 2001 Irish Singles Chart Irma.ie (Retrieved December 11, 2008)
  50. Jump up ^ 2001 Swiss Singles Chart Hitparade.ch Archived 2012-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 12, 2008)
  51. Jump up ^ "2001". Longbored Surfer. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
  52. Jump up ^ "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2001 Singles". Australian Recording Industry Association.
  53. Jump up ^ "Austrian single certifications – Shaggy – It Wasn't Me" (in German). IFPI Austria.  Enter Shaggy in the field Interpret. Enter It Wasn't Me in the field Titel. Select single in the field Format. Click Suchen
  54. Jump up ^ "French single certifications – Shaggy – It Wasn't Me" (in French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique.
  55. Jump up ^ "Gold-/Platin-Datenbank (Shaggy; 'It Wasn't Me')" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie.
  56. Jump up ^ "Dutch single certifications – Shaggy – It Wasn't Me" (in Dutch). Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld- en geluidsdragers.
  57. Jump up ^ "IFPI Norsk platebransje Trofeer 1993–2011" (in Norwegian). IFPI Norway.
  58. Jump up ^ "The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards (Shaggy; 'It Wasn't Me')". IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien.
  59. Jump up ^ "British single certifications – Shaggy – It Wasn't Me". British Phonographic Industry.  Enter It Wasn't Me in the search field and then press Enter.
  • The Billboard Book of Number One Hits, fifth edition

External links[edit]

  • Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
  • Everything Is A Remix Shaggy is inspired by Eddie Murphy
[show]
  • v
  • t
  • e
Shaggy
  • Discography
Studio albums
  • Pure Pleasure
  • Original Doberman
  • Boombastic
  • Midnite Lover
  • Hot Shot
  • Lucky Day
  • Clothes Drop
  • Intoxication
  • Shaggy & Friends
  • Summer in Kingston
  • Rise
Compilation albums
  • Hot Shot Ultramix
  • Mr. Lover Lover: The Best of Shaggy...part 1
  • Boombastic Hits
  • The Best of Shaggy
  • Best of Shaggy: The Boombastic Collection
Singles
  • "Oh Carolina"
  • "Nice and Lovely"
  • "Soon Be Done"
  • "Big Up"
  • "In the Summertime"
  • "Boombastic"
  • "It Wasn't Me"
  • "Angel"
  • "Luv Me, Luv Me"
  • "Dance & Shout" / "Hope"
  • "Me Julie"
  • "Hey Sexy Lady"
  • "Wild 2nite"
  • "Church Heathen"
  • "Bonafide Girl"
  • "What's Love"
  • "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun"
  • "Remain in Our Hearts"
  • "Habibi (I Need Your Love)"
  • "Only Love"
Featured singles
  • "I Got You Babe"
  • "Christmas in Jamaica"
  • "I Wanna"
  • "Don't You Need Somebody"
  • "Let Me Love You"
Related articles
  • Shaggy defense
  • Major Lazer
  • Sean Paul
[show]
  • v
  • t
  • e
Best-selling singles by year in the United Kingdom
1952–1969
  • 1952: "Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart" – Vera Lynn (UK)
  • 1953: "I Believe" – Frankie Laine
  • 1954: "Secret Love" – Doris Day
  • 1955: "Rose Marie" – Slim Whitman
  • 1956: "I'll Be Home" – Pat Boone
  • 1957: "Diana" – Paul Anka
  • 1958: "Jailhouse Rock" – Elvis Presley
  • 1959: "Living Doll" – Cliff Richard (UK)
  • 1960: "It's Now or Never" – Elvis Presley
  • 1961: "Wooden Heart" – Elvis Presley
  • 1962: "I Remember You" – Frank Ifield (UK)
  • 1963: "She Loves You" – The Beatles (UK)
  • 1964: "Can't Buy Me Love" – The Beatles (UK)
  • 1965: "Tears" – Ken Dodd (UK)
  • 1966: "Green, Green Grass of Home" – Tom Jones (UK)
  • 1967: "Release Me" – Engelbert Humperdinck (UK)
  • 1968: "Hey Jude" – The Beatles (UK)
  • 1969: "Sugar, Sugar" – The Archies
1970–1989
  • 1970: "The Wonder of You" – Elvis Presley
  • 1971: "My Sweet Lord" – George Harrison (UK)
  • 1972: "Amazing Grace" – The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Band (UK)
  • 1973: "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree" – Tony Orlando and Dawn
  • 1974: "Tiger Feet" – Mud (UK)
  • 1975: "Bye Bye Baby" – Bay City Rollers (UK)
  • 1976: "Save Your Kisses for Me" – Brotherhood of Man (UK)
  • 1977: "Mull of Kintyre" / "Girls' School" – Wings (UK)
  • 1978: "Rivers of Babylon" / "Brown Girl in the Ring" – Boney M.
  • 1979: "Bright Eyes" – Art Garfunkel
  • 1980: "Don't Stand So Close to Me" – The Police (UK)
  • 1981: "Don't You Want Me" – The Human League (UK)
  • 1982: "Come On Eileen" – Dexys Midnight Runners (UK)
  • 1983: "Karma Chameleon" – Culture Club (UK)
  • 1984: "Do They Know It's Christmas?" – Band Aid (UK)
  • 1985: "The Power of Love" – Jennifer Rush
  • 1986: "Don't Leave Me This Way" – The Communards (UK)
  • 1987: "Never Gonna Give You Up" – Rick Astley (UK)
  • 1988: "Mistletoe and Wine" – Cliff Richard (UK)
  • 1989: "Ride on Time" – Black Box
1990–2009
  • 1990: "Unchained Melody" – The Righteous Brothers
  • 1991: "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" – Bryan Adams
  • 1992: "I Will Always Love You" – Whitney Houston
  • 1993: "I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)" – Meat Loaf
  • 1994: "Love Is All Around" – Wet Wet Wet (UK)
  • 1995: "Unchained Melody" – Robson & Jerome (UK)
  • 1996: "Killing Me Softly" – Fugees
  • 1997: "Something About the Way You Look Tonight" / "Candle in the Wind 1997" – Elton John (UK)
  • 1998: "Believe" – Cher
  • 1999: "...Baby One More Time" – Britney Spears
  • 2000: "Can We Fix It?" – Bob the Builder (UK)
  • 2001: "It Wasn't Me" – Shaggy featuring Rikrok (UK)
  • 2002: "Anything Is Possible" / "Evergreen" – Will Young (UK)
  • 2003: "Where Is the Love?" – The Black Eyed Peas
  • 2004: "Do They Know It's Christmas?" – Band Aid 20 (UK)
  • 2005: "Is This the Way to Amarillo" – Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay (UK)
  • 2006: "Crazy" – Gnarls Barkley
  • 2007: "Bleeding Love" – Leona Lewis (UK)
  • 2008: "Hallelujah" – Alexandra Burke (UK)
  • 2009: "Poker Face" – Lady Gaga
2010–present
  • 2010: "Just the Way You Are" – Bruno Mars
  • 2011: "Someone Like You" – Adele (UK)
  • 2012: "Somebody That I Used to Know" – Gotye featuring Kimbra
  • 2013: "Blurred Lines" – Robin Thicke featuring T.I. & Pharrell Williams
  • 2014: "Happy" – Pharrell Williams
  • 2015: "Uptown Funk" – Mark Ronson (UK) featuring Bruno Mars
  • 2016: "One Dance" – Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla (UK)
  • 2017: "Shape of You" - Ed Sheeran (UK)
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Cat o' nine tails

Cat o' nine tails

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For other uses, see Cat o' nine tails (disambiguation).
A leather cat o' nine tails pictured with a U.S. dollar bill for size comparison. A U.S. dollar bill is about 6 inches (about 15 cm) long, so the total length would be about 30 inches (75 cm).
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The cat o' nine tails, commonly shortened to the cat, is a type of multi-tailed whip that originated as an implement for severe physical punishment, notably in the Royal Navy and Army of the United Kingdom, and also as a judicial punishment in Britain and some other countries.

Contents

 [hide]
  • 1 Etymology
  • 2 Description
    • 2.1 Variations
  • 3 Historical punishments
    • 3.1 Naval types and use
      • 3.1.1 Flogging round the fleet
    • 3.2 British Army
    • 3.3 Prison usage
    • 3.4 Penal colonies in Australia
      • 3.4.1 Slavery
  • 4 Modern uses and types
  • 5 See also
  • 6 References
  • 7 Further reading

Etymology[edit]

The term first appears in 1695,[1] although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its "claws", which inflict parallel wounds. There are equivalent terms in many languages, usually strictly translating, and also some analogous terms referring to a similar instrument's number of tails (cord or leather), such as the Dutch zevenstaart (seven tail[s]), negenstaart (nine tail[s]), the Spanish gato de nueve colas or the Italian gatto a nove code.

Description[edit]

The cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about 2 1⁄2 feet or 76 cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain.

It traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the manner in which rope is plaited. Thinner rope is made from three strands of yarn plaited together, and thicker rope from three strands of thinner rope plaited together. To make a cat o' nine tails, a rope is unravelled into three small ropes, each of which is unravelled again.

Variations[edit]

Variations exist, either named cat (of x tails) or not, such as the whip used on adult Egyptian prisoners which had a cord on a cudgel branching into seven tails, each with six knots, used only on adult men, with boys being subject to caning, until Egypt banned the use of the device in 2001.[2]

Sometimes the term "cat" is used incorrectly to describe various other punitive flogging devices with multiple tails in any number, even one made from 80 twigs (so rather a limp birch) to flog a drunk or other offender instead of 80 lashes normally applicable under shariah law. The closed cat, one without tails, was called a starter.

Historical punishments[edit]

Naval types and use[edit]

The naval cat, also known as the "captain's daughter" (which in principle was used under his authority) weighed about 13 ounces (370 grams) and was composed of a handle connected to nine thinner pieces of line, with each line knotted several times along its length.[3] Formal floggings — those ordered by captain or court martial — were administered ceremonially on deck, the crew being summoned to "witness punishment" and the prisoner being brought forward by marines with fixed bayonets.[3]

During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the naval cat's handle was made of rope about 2 feet (0.61 m) long and about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter, and was traditionally covered with red baize cloth. The tails were made of cord about a quarter inch (6 mm) in diameter and typically 2 feet long.[citation needed] Drunkenness or striking an officer might incur a dozen lashes, which could be administered on the authority of the ship's captain. Greater punishments were generally administered following a formal court martial, with Royal Navy records reflecting some standard penalties of two hundred lashes for desertion, three hundred for mutiny, and up to five hundred for theft. The offence of sodomy generally drew the death penalty, though one eighteenth century court martial awarded a punishment of one thousand lashes - a roughly equivalent sentence as there was no likelihood of survival.[4]

A new cat was made for each flogging by a bosun's mate and kept in a red baize bag until use. If several dozen lashes were awarded, each could be administered by a fresh bosun's mate—a left-handed one could be included to assure extra painful crisscrossing of the wounds. One dozen was usually awarded as a highly sensitizing prelude to running the gauntlet.[citation needed]

For summary punishment of Royal Navy boys, a lighter model was made, the reduced cat, also known as boy's cat, boy's pussy or just pussy, that had only five tails of smooth whip cord. If formally convicted by a court martial, however, even boys would suffer the punishment of the adult cat. While adult sailors received their lashes on the back, they were administered to boys on the bare posterior, usually while "kissing the gunner's daughter" (bending over a gun barrel), just as boys' lighter "daily" chastisement was usually over their (often naked) rear-end (mainly with a cane – this could be applied to the hand, but captains generally refused such impractical disablement – or a rope's end). Bare-bottom discipline was a tradition of the English upper and middle classes, who frequented public schools,[5] so midshipmen (trainee officers, usually from 'good families', getting a cheaper equivalent education by enlisting) were not spared, at best sometimes allowed to receive their lashes inside a cabin. Still, it is reported that the 'infantile' embarrassment of bare-bottom punishment was believed essential for optimal deterrence; cocky miscreants might brave the pain of the adult cat in the macho spirit of "taking it like a man" or even as a "badge of honour".

On board training ships, where most of the crew were boys, the cat was never introduced, but their bare bottoms risked, as in other naval establishments on land, "the sting of the birch", another favourite in public schools.

Flogging round the fleet[edit]

"The severest form of flogging was a flogging round the fleet. The number of lashes was divided by the number of ships in port and the offender was rowed between ships for each ship's company to witness the punishment."[6] Penalties of hundreds of lashes were imposed for the gravest offences, including sedition and mutiny. The prisoner was rowed around the fleet in an open boat and received a number of his lashes at each ship in turn, for as long as the surgeon allowed. Sentences often took months or years to complete, depending on how much a man was expected to bear at a time. Normally 250–500 lashes would kill a man, as infections would spread."[7] After the flogging was completed, the sailor's lacerated back was frequently rinsed with brine or seawater, which was thought to serve as a crude antiseptic (now known not to be the case). Although the purpose was to control infection, it caused the sailor to endure additional pain, and gave rise to the expression, "rubbing salt into his wounds," which came to mean vindictively or gratuitously increasing a punishment or injury already imposed.

British Army[edit]

The British Army had a similar multiple whip, though much lighter in construction, made of a drumstick with attached strings. The flogger was usually a drummer rather than a strong bosun's mate. Flogging with the cat o' nine tails fell into disuse around 1870.

Whereas the British naval cat rarely cut (contrary to graphic films) but rather abraded the skin, the falls (tresses) of the British Army cat were lighter (around 1/8th of an inch) and the string was in fact codline - a very dense material akin to tarred string. Although the total whip would weigh only a fraction of a naval rope cat, the thin, dense codline tresses were far more likely to cut the skin.

It was also used elsewhere in the empire, notably at the penal colonies in Australia, and also in Canada (a dominion in 1867) where it was used until 1881. An 1812 drawing[8] shows a drummer apparently lashing the buttocks of a naked soldier who is tied with spread legs on an A-frame made from sergeants' half pikes. In many places, soldiers were generally flogged stripped to the waist.

Prison usage[edit]

The cat-o'-nine-tails was also used on adult convicts in prisons; a 1951 memorandum[9] (possibly confirming earlier practice) ordered all UK male prisons to use only cat o' nine tails (and birches) from a national stock at Wandsworth prison, where they were to be 'thoroughly' tested before being supplied in triplicate to a prison whenever a flogging was pending for use as prison discipline. In the 20th century, this use was confined to very serious cases involving violence against a prison officer, and each flogging had to be confirmed by central government.

Penal colonies in Australia[edit]

Especially harsh floggings were given with it in secondary penal colonies of early colonial Australia, particularly at such places as Norfolk Island (apparently this had 9 leather thongs, each with a lead weight, meant as the ultimate deterrent for hardened life-convicts), Port Arthur and Moreton Bay (now Brisbane).[citation needed]

Slavery[edit]

It was used on slave trade ships to punish the slaves.[citation needed]

Modern uses and types[edit]

Main article: Judicial corporal punishment

Judicial corporal punishment was removed from the statute book in Great Britain in 1948. The cat was still being used in Australia in 1957 and is still in use in a few Commonwealth countries, although the cane is used in more countries.

Judicial corporal punishment has been abolished or declared unconstitutional since 1997 in Jamaica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Zambia, Uganda (in 2001) and Fiji (in 2002).

However, some former colonies in the Caribbean have reinstated flogging with the cat. Antigua and Barbuda reinstated it in 1990, followed by the Bahamas in 1991 (where, however, it was subsequently banned by law)[10] and Barbados in 1993 (only to be formally declared inhumane and thus unconstitutional by the Barbados Supreme Court).

Trinidad & Tobago never banned the "Cat". Under the Corporal Punishment (Offenders over Sixteen) Act 1953, use of the "Cat" was limited to male offenders over the age of 16. The age limit was raised in 2000 to 18.

The Government of Trinidad & Tobago has been accused of torture and "cruel, inhuman and degrading" treatment of prisoners, and in 2005 was ordered by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights to pay US $50,000 for "moral damages" to a prisoner who had received 15 strokes of the "Cat" plus expenses for his medical and psychological care; it is unclear whether the Court's decisions were implemented. Trinidad & Tobago did not acknowledge the Court's jurisdiction, since it had denounced the American Convention on Human Rights several years before the Court started hearing this case.[11]

See also[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cat o' nine tails.
  • Flagellation
  • Judicial corporal punishment
  • Physical punishment (includes comparison of disciplinary implements)
  • Scourge
  • Tawse
  • Whip

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ William Congreve's love for love and first mention of cat o nine tails see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben.
  2. Jump up ^ Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Egypt: 2001, U.S. State Department.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793-1815. Naval Institute Press. p. 218. ISBN 9781591146124.
  4. Jump up ^ Rodger, N. A. M. (1986). The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 227. ISBN 0870219871.
  5. Jump up ^ Humphries, Stephen (1981). Hooligans or Rebels?: An oral history of working-class childhood and youth 1889–1939. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-12982-0.
  6. Jump up ^ Broadside. Crime and Punishment
  7. Jump up ^ Flogging Round the Fleet[permanent dead link]
  8. Jump up ^ Fort Henry, Canada.
  9. Jump up ^ Memorandum to prisons re: Birches and Cats-o'-nine tails, PRO HO 323/13, National Archives.
  10. Jump up ^ Bahamas Penal Code Archived 2011-06-15 at the Wayback Machine..
  11. Jump up ^ Case of Caesar v. Trinidad and Tobago, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of March 11, 2005.

Further reading[edit]

  • William Congreve's Love for Love and the first mention of cat of nine tails in literature see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben
  • CORporalPUNishment website – here an illustrated example among many other articles, mainly on the adult cat
  • EtymologyOnLine
  • Joseph W. Bean, Flogging, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-27-1.
  • Male Genitorture on Wipipedia, a specialist BDSM wiki.
  • Ecstagony- Dictionary of flogging instruments, with some illustrations
  • Article and downloadable pdf file on corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago by Harvard Law School
  • Inter-American Court of Human Rights orders Trinidad to pay compensation for flogging and humiliation of prisoners in March 2005
  • Amnesty International report on use of the Cat o' nine tails on 6 Oct. 2006 in Bahamas
  • Amnesty International report recording use of Cat o' nine tails on woman and young boy in Trinidad
  • Inter-American Court of Human Rights' decisions and documents
  • Use of Cat o' nine tails on World Corporal Punishment Topics site
  • Judicial caning in Fiji in 1998
  • Review of Lord Invader's calypso album of 1959
  • Play sample of Lord Invader's calypso "Cat o' nine tails" here
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St. Francis Preparatory School

St. Francis Preparatory School

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St. Francis Prep
Francis Prep shady jeh.jpg
Address
6100 Francis Lewis Boulevard
New York City (Fresh Meadows, Queens), New York 11365
United States
Coordinates 40°44′32″N 73°46′34″W / 40.74222°N 73.77611°W / 40.74222; -73.77611
Information
Type Private
Motto Deus Meus et Omnia
(My God and My All)
Religious affiliation(s) Roman Catholic
Established 1858
Oversight Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn
President Leonard Conway
Principal Patrick McLaughlin '73
Faculty 137
Grades 9–12
Gender Coeducational
Enrollment 2750[1] (2008)
Average class size 30
Color(s) Red and Blue
Fight song On For Ol' St Francis
Mascot Terrier
Nickname Prep
Team name Terriers
Rival Holy Cross High School (Flushing) (BOYS) and Mary Louis (GIRLS)
Accreditation Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools[2]
Publication The Little Portion Literary Magazine
Newspaper The Seraph
Yearbook San Fran
Tuition $9,550
Website http://www.sfponline.org/

St. Francis Preparatory School, commonly known as St. Francis Prep, is a private, independent Catholic college preparatory school in the Fresh Meadows neighborhood of the New York City Borough of Queens, in the State of New York. It is the largest non-diocesan Catholic high school in the United States.[3] St. Francis is run by the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn, who maintain a residence on the top floor of the school. The school has a student body of about 2,750 students and graduates between 600 and 700 students annually.

Contents

 [hide]
  • 1 History
  • 2 Co-curricular activities and athletics
  • 3 Notable alumni
  • 4 References
  • 5 External links

History[edit]

St. Francis Preparatory originated as St. Francis Academy, a small all-boys high school on 300 Baltic Street in Brooklyn, New York, founded by the Franciscans Brothers of Brooklyn (O.S.F.).[3] The college section became St. Francis College, a private predominantly undergraduate college in Brooklyn Heights. It took its current name in 1935, then moved to a larger facility in Williamsburg, Brooklyn in 1952.[4] The school moved to its current location in Fresh Meadows, Queens in 1974 when it acquired the facility that formerly housed Bishop Reilly High School, a co-educational Catholic high school. The school began admitting female students that same year.[4] A fitness center was added recently and the science labs are being updated.[citation needed] There are currently plans to add a three-story addition to the rear of the existing building.[citation needed] The upgrades to the art rooms will support students in the studio, digital and the performing arts.[5]

Co-curricular activities and athletics[edit]

St. Francis Prep has a rivalry with Holy Cross High School, fueled particularly by their football teams. Known as the "Battle of the Boulevard" due to the two schools being located only 2 miles apart on Francis Lewis Boulevard,[6] the rivalry between the Prep Terriers and the Holy Cross Knights has been called "arguably the greatest rivalry in New York City football."[7]

The St. Francis Prep girls tennis team has been undefeated for 17 consecutive years, making them 17 time CHSAA champions.[citation needed] In 2015 the St. Francis Prep Varsity Handball team won their 13th consecutive CHSAA championship (with an undefeated season).[citation needed]

Notable alumni[edit]

  • Ted Alexandro, stand-up comedian
  • Frank J. Aquila, corporate lawyer
  • Marco Battaglia, NFL football player
  • Michelle Betos, NWSL goalkeeper
  • Des Bishop, stand-up comedian
  • Vincent DePaul Breen, former Bishop of Diocese of Metuchen
  • Patti Ann Browne, news anchor for the Fox News Channel[8]
  • Julie Chen, news anchor for CBS and hostess of reality show Big Brother[9]
  • Carlos Dengler, former bassist of band Interpol
  • Gerry DiNardo, former college football coach and current Big Ten Network commentator
  • James Dooley, Emmy Award-winning composer
  • Sonny Dove (1963), college and NBA basketball player, fourth pick of 1967 NBA draft
  • Peter Facinelli, actor[10]
  • Kyle Flood, Rutgers University head football coach.
  • Eric Gioia, New York City councilman[11]
  • Dan Henning, NFL football player and coach[12]
  • Ed Jenkins, NFL football player
  • Vince Lombardi, former Green Bay Packers coach and namesake of the Lombardi Award and the Vince Lombardi Trophy[13]
  • Glen Mazzara, writer and television producer
  • Bill Pickel, NFL football player and sports broadcaster
  • Frank Serpico, New York police officer known for uncovering corruption[14]
  • Father Robert S. Smith, American Catholic priest, author, and educator
  • Joe Torre, former MLB player, former New York Mets, Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals, New York Yankees and Los Angeles Dodgers manager [15]

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ "St. Francis Preparatory School Online". Sfponline.org. Retrieved 2009-12-04.
  2. Jump up ^ MSA-CSS. "MSA-Commission on Secondary Schools". Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Gustafson, Anna (November 28, 2008). "Students, Faculty Reflect on 150 Years of St. Francis Prep". The New York Daily News.
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b "About St. Francis Preparatory School". SFPonline.org.
  5. Jump up ^ Rhoades, Liz (December 4, 2008). "St. Francis Prep readies building expansion plan". Queens Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-01-13. [dead link]
  6. Jump up ^ Samuel, Ebenezer (October 7, 2008). "St. Francis Prep Cruises Past Holy Cross in Battle of the Boulevard". The New York Daily News.
  7. Jump up ^ "Live Blog: Holy Cross-St. Francis Prep Football". Five Boro Sports.
  8. Jump up ^ "Patti Ann Browne '83". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
  9. Jump up ^ "JackMyersLunchAtMichaels.com - CBS' Julie Chen: Unique Blend of Cultural Influences Motivates Big Brother Host". JackMyers.com. September 21, 2007. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
  10. Jump up ^ "Peter Facinelli's Twitter account". December 16, 2009. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
  11. Jump up ^ "New York City Council: District 26 - Eric N. Gioia". New York City Council. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
  12. Jump up ^ "Dan Henning - Miami Dolphins". Miami Dolphins official site. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
  13. Jump up ^ "Hall of Famers: Vince Lombardi". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
  14. Jump up ^ "Frank Serpico '54". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
  15. Jump up ^ Newell, Kevin. "The Joe Torre Story". Scholastic Corporation. Retrieved 2009-01-07.

External links[edit]

  • School website
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History of the People's Republic of China

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History of the People's
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National emblem of the People's Republic of China
1949–1976
Mao era
  • Revolution
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(Great Chinese Famine)
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  • (Lin Biao
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1976–1989
Restructuring
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1989–2002
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2002–present
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History of China
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BCE
Xia dynasty c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE
Shang dynasty c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE
Zhou dynasty c. 1046 – 256 BCE
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE
Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE
  Western Han
  Xin dynasty
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui dynasty 581–618
Tang dynasty 618–907
  (Second Zhou dynasty 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms

907–960
Liao dynasty
907–1125
Song dynasty
960–1279
  Northern Song Western Xia
  Southern Song Jin
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Ming dynasty 1368–1644
Qing dynasty 1644–1912
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
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The history of the People's Republic of China details the history of mainland China since October 1, 1949, when, after a near complete victory by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the Chinese Civil War, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) from atop Tiananmen. The PRC has for several decades been synonymous with China, but it is only the most recent political entity to govern mainland China, preceded by the Republic of China (ROC) and thousands of years of imperial dynasties.

Contents

 [hide]
  • 1 1949–1976: Socialist transformation under Mao Zedong
  • 2 1976–1989: Rise of Deng Xiaoping and economic reforms
  • 3 1989–2002: Economic growth under the third generation
  • 4 2002–present
  • 5 See also
  • 6 References
  • 7 Further reading
    • 7.1 Historiography
  • 8 External links

1949–1976: Socialist transformation under Mao Zedong[edit]

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)

Following the Chinese Civil War and the victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Mao's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms. China's old system of landlord ownership of farmland and tenant peasants was replaced with a distribution system in favor of poor/landless peasants which significantly reduced economic inequality. Over a million landlords were executed.[1] In Zhangzhuangcun, in the more thoroughly reformed north of the country, most "landlords" and "rich peasants" had lost all their land and often their lives or had fled. All formerly landless workers had received land, which eliminated this category altogether. As a result, "middling peasants," who now accounted for 90 percent of the village population, owned 90.8 percent of the land.[2] Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis on class struggle, and in 1953 began various campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants, including the execution of more powerful landlords. Drug trafficking in the country as well as foreign investment were largely wiped out.

Mao believed that socialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following the First Five-Year Plan based on a Soviet-style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of the Great Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process of collectivization in rural areas. Mao urged the use of communally organized iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilization, the Great Leap Forward.

The implementation of Maoist thought in China may have been responsible for over 40-70 million deaths including famine during peacetime[3], with the Great Leap Forward, Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957-58,[4] and the Cultural Revolution. Millions died from both executions and forced labour. Because of Mao's land reforms during the Great Leap Forward, which resulted in massive famines, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961 the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition.[5] Active campaigns, including party purges and "reeducation" resulted in the imprisonment or execution of those deemed to hold views contrary to Maoist ideals.[6] Mao's failure with the Leap reduced his power in government, whose administrative duties fell to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.

To impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of "old elements", and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Red Guards terrorized the streets as many ordinary citizens were deemed counter-revolutionaries. Education and public transportation came to a nearly complete halt. Daily life involved shouting slogans and reciting Mao quotations. Many prominent political leaders, including Liu and Deng, were purged and deemed "capitalist-roaders". The campaign would not come to a complete end until the death of Mao in 1976.

Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and sovereignty was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, education (only 20% of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5% thirty years later)[7], which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. They also claimed that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and "purifying" its culture. Others[who?] claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate" on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters often also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns, attributing the high death toll to natural disasters, famine, or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai-shek.

1976–1989: Rise of Deng Xiaoping and economic reforms[edit]

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)

Mao Zedong's death was followed by a power struggle between the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, and eventually Deng Xiaoping. Deng would maneuver himself to the top of China's leadership by 1980. At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road to Economic Reforms and Openness (改革开放 Gaige Kaifang), policies that began with the de-collectivization of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a "preliminary assessment" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman Ye Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe" and "the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949]."[8] The Chinese government's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. This stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "cultural revolution", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary."[9]

On the subject of Mao's legacy Deng coined the famous phrase "7 parts good, 3 parts bad" and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. Deng championed the idea of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), areas where foreign investment would be allowed to pour in without strict government restraint and regulations, running on a basically capitalist system. Deng laid emphasis on light industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries.

Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms.

Although standards of living improved significantly in the 1980s, Deng's reforms were not without criticism. Hard-liners asserted that Deng opened China once again to various social evils, and an overall increase in materialistic thinking, while liberals attacked Deng's unrelenting stance on political reform. Liberal forces began gathering in different forms to protest against the Party's authoritarian leadership. In 1989, the death of Hu Yaobang, a liberal figure, triggered weeks of spontaneous protests in the Tiananmen Square. The government imposed martial law and sent in tanks and soldiers to suppress the demonstrations. Western countries and multilateral organizations briefly suspended their formal ties with China's government under Premier Li Peng's leadership, which was directly responsible for the military curfew and bloody crackdown.

Critics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently, they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and even as talismans. However, the path of modernization and market-oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms.

In 1979, the Chinese government instituted a one child policy to try to control its rapidly increasing population. The controversial policy resulted in a dramatic decrease in child poverty. The law currently applies to about a third of mainland Chinese, with plans in place to ease it to a two-child limit.[10][11]

The achievements of Lee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. They made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.[12]

1989–2002: Economic growth under the third generation[edit]

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)

After the events at Tiananmen, Deng Xiaoping retired from public view. While keeping ultimate control, power was passed onto the third generation of leadership led by Jiang Zemin, who was hailed as its "core". Economic growth, despite foreign trade embargoes, returned to a fast pace by the mid-1990s. Jiang's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng's vision for "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics". At the same time, Jiang's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitable SOE's were closed to make way for more competitive ventures, internally and abroad. The ill-equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test. Jiang also laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such as space exploration. To sustain vast human consumption, the Three Gorges Dam was built, attracting supporters and widespread criticism. Environmental pollution became a very serious problem as Beijing was frequently hit by sandstorms as a result of desertification.

The 1990s saw two foreign colonies returned to China, Hong Kong from Britain in 1997, and Macau from Portugal in 1999. Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems.

Jiang and President Clinton exchanged state visits, but Sino-American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade. On May 7, 1999, during the Kosovo War, US aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The U.S. government claimed the strike was due to bad intelligence and false target identification.

Inside the US, the Cox Report stated that China had been stealing various top US military secrets.

In 2001, a US surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet over international waters near Hainan, inciting further outrage with the Chinese public, already dissatisfied with the US.

On the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of public Falun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside of Zhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China's leaders. Jiang saw it as threatening to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using the mass media to denounce it as an evil cult.

Conversely, Premier Zhu Rongji's economic policies held China's economy strong during the Asian Financial Crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8% annually, pushed back by the 1998 Yangtze River Floods. After a decade of talks, China was finally admitted into the World Trade Organization. Standards of living improved significantly, although a wide urban-rural wealth gap was opened, as China saw the reappearance of the middle class. Wealth disparity between East and the Western hinterlands continued to widen by the day, prompting government programs to "develop the West", taking on such ambitious projects such as the Qinghai-Tibet Railway. The burden of education was greater than ever. Rampant corruption continued despite Premier Zhu's anti-corruption campaign that executed many officials.

2002–present[edit]

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)

The first major issue faced by China in the 21st century as a new generation of leaders led by Hu Jintao after assuming power was the public health crisis involving SARS, an illness that seemed to have originated out of Guangdong province. China's position in the war on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to the United States. The economy continues to grow in double-digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In gradual steps to consolidate his power, Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party Chief Chen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerful Shanghai clique. The assertion of the Scientific Perspective to create a Socialist Harmonious Society is the focus of the Hu-Wen administration, as some Jiang-era excesses are slowly reversed. In the years after Hu's rise to power, respect of basic human rights in China continue to be a source of concern.

The political status and future of Taiwan remain uncertain, but steps have been taken to improving relations between the Communist Party and several of Taiwan's parties that hold a less antagonistic view towards China, notably former rival Kuomintang.

The continued economic growth of the country as well as its sporting power status gained China the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. However, this also put Hu's administration under intense spotlight. While the 2008 Olympic was commonly understood to be a come-out party for People's Republic of China, in light of the March 2008 Tibet protests, the government received heavy scrutiny. The Olympic torch was met with protest en route. Within the country these reactions were met with a fervent wave of nationalism with accusations of Western bias against China.

In May 2008, a massive earthquake registering 8.0 on the Richter scale hit Sichuan province of China, exacting a death toll officially estimated at approximately 70,000. The government responded more quickly than it did with previous events, and has allowed foreign media access to the regions that were hit the hardest. The adequacy of the government response was generally praised, and the relief efforts extended to every corner of Chinese life. In May and June 2008, heavy rains in southern China caused severe flooding in the provinces of Anhui, Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong, with dozens of fatalities and over a million people forced to evacuate. As of 2009 China has increased its internet monitoring capabilities by adding hundreds of new monitoring stations.

See also[edit]

  • History of China
  • History of the Republic of China
  • History of Hong Kong
  • History of Macau
  • Dynasties in Chinese History
  • Economic History of China
  • Historiography of China
  • History of Chinese Art
  • History of Education in China
  • History of Science and Technology in China
  • Legal History of China
  • Linguistic History of China
  • Military history of China
  • Naval History of China
  • Timeline of Chinese history

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ Stephen Rosskamm Shalom. Deaths in China Due to Communism. Center for Asian Studies Arizona State University, 1984. ISBN 0-939252-11-2 pg 24
  2. Jump up ^ The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century , Walter Scheidel, 2017
  3. Jump up ^ Fenby, J (2008). Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present. Ecco Press. p. 351. ISBN 0-06-166116-3. Mao's responsibility for the extinction of anywhere from 40 to 70 million lives brands him as a mass killer greater than Hitler or Stalin, his indifference to the suffering and the loss of humans breathtaking
  4. Jump up ^ Teiwes, Frederick C., and Warren Sun. 1999. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of the great leap forward, 1955-1959. Contemporary China papers. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. pp 52-55.
  5. Jump up ^ MacFarquhar, Roderick. 1974. The origins of the Cultural Revolution. London: Published for Royal Institute of International Affairs, East Asian Institute of Columbia University and Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia by Oxford University Press. p 4.
  6. Jump up ^ Link, Perry (July 18, 2007). "Legacy Of a Maoist Injustice". The Washington Post.
  7. Jump up ^ Galtung, Marte Kjær; Stenslie, Stig (2014). 49 Myths about China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 189. ISBN 978-1442236226.
  8. Jump up ^ Poon, Leon. "The People's Republic Of China: IV". History of China. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
  9. Jump up ^ Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (June 27, 1981). "Comrade Mao Zedong's Historical Role and Mao Zedong Thought --Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China (abridged)". Communist Party of China. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  10. Jump up ^ Malcolm Moore (15 November 2013). "China to ease one-child policy". Telegraph. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
  11. Jump up ^ "China's two-child policy will underwhelm". The Economist. 31 October 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
  12. Jump up ^ Chris Buckley, "In Lee Kuan Yew, China Saw a Leader to Emulate," New York Times March 23, 2015

Further reading[edit]

  • Lynch, Michael. Access to History: Mao's China 1936-97 (3rd ed. Hachette UK, 2015)

Historiography[edit]

  • Eben V. Racknitz, Ines. "Repositioning History for the Future - Recent Academic Debates in China" History Compass (2014) 12#6 pp 465–472.
  • Finnane, Antonia. "Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing." Asian Studies Review 39#1 (2015): 163-164.
  • Longxi, Zhang. "Re-conceptualizing China in our Time: From a Chinese Perspective." European Review 23#2 (2015): 193-209.
  • Unger, Jonathan. Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Routledge, 2015)

External links[edit]

  • Cold War International History Project: Document Collection on China in the Cold War
  • "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China" by Yiching Wu
  • Peoples Republic of China by P.M. Calabrese
  • China Timeline: A Chronology of Key Events in China by Gerhard K. Heilig
  • China from the Inside - 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International and the BBC.
  • Map of situation in East Asia at the time of declaration of the People's Republic of China (omniatlas.com)
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Cold front

Cold front

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Cold wave.
The symbol of a cold front: a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel
A retreating cold front with clear air behind
A cold front over the eastern and central region of the United States of America

A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 °C (54 °F).[1] When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer.

Contents

  • 1 Development of cold fronts
  • 2 Clouds
  • 3 Precipitation
    • 3.1 Frontogenetical circulation
  • 4 Temperature changes
  • 5 Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone
  • 6 See also
  • 7 References
  • 8 External links

Development of cold fronts[edit]

The cooler and denser air wedges under the less-dense warmer air, lifting it. This upward motion causes lowered pressure along the cold front and can cause the formation of a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms when enough moisture is present. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles/spikes (pips) pointing in the direction of travel. A cold front's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop off, which in an isotherm analysis would show up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough.[2] Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and can produce sharper changes in weather. Since cold air is denser than warm air, it rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary.[3]

In the northern hemisphere, a cold front usually causes a shift of wind from southwest to northwest clockwise, also known as veering, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from northwest to southwest (anticlockwise, backing). Normally, cold fronts can be marked by these characteristics:

Weather phenomenon Prior to the passing of the front While the front is passing After the passing of the front
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly Steadily cooling
Atmospheric pressure Decreasing steadily Lowest, then sudden increase Increasing steadily
Winds
  • Southwest to southeast (northern hemisphere)
  • Northwest to northeast (southern hemisphere)
Gusty; shifting
  • North to west, usually northwest (northern hemisphere)
  • South to west, usually southwest (southern hemisphere)
Precipitation/conditions* Light patchy rain can be produced by stratocumulus or stratus in the warm sector. In summer, sometimes thunderstorms if a preceding squall line is present. Prolonged rain (nimbostratus) or thunderstorms (cumulonimbus): depends on conditions. Showers, then clearing
Clouds* Often preceded by cirrus, cirrostratus then altostratus like a warm front (but usually with smaller amounts of these clouds). Areas of cirrocumulus and altocumulus within cirrostratus and altostratus more commonly seen than at a warm front. Larger cumulus clouds under the higher cloud types than at a warm front, where stratocumulus and cumulus humilis usually occur. Some of these cumulus clouds may produce showers ahead of the front. Cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus producing frequent showers, with a sheet of upper altostratus, through which the sun can sometimes be seen. Less commonly nimbostratus occurs with continuous rain. Patchy altocumulus or stratocumulus and higher cirrus clouds along with fast moving stratus fractus then eventually scattered cumulus and sometimes cumulonimbus.
Visibility* Fair to poor in haze Poor, but improving Good, except in showers
Dew Point High, steady Sudden drop Falling

*provided there is sufficient moisture.

Clouds[edit]

If the cold front is highly unstable, cumulonimbus clouds producing thunderstorms commonly form along the front. Anvil cirrus clouds may spread a considerable distance downwind from the thunderstorms.[4] The other cloud types associated with a cold front depend on atmospheric conditions such as air mass stability and wind shear.[5] As the front approaches, middle-étage gives way to altostratus and low-level stratocumulus with intermittent light precipitation if the warm airmass being displaced by the cold front is mostly stable. With significant airmass instability, vertically developed cumulus or cumulonimbus with showers and thunderstorms will form along the front.

After the passage of the cold front, the sky usually clears as high pressure builds in behind the system, although significant amounts of cumulus or stratocumulus, often in the form of long bands called cloud streets may persist if the air mass behind the front remains humid.[6] Small and unchanging amounts of cumulus or cirrus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are usually indications of continuing fair weather as long as the barometric pressure remains comparatively high.

Precipitation[edit]

A cold front as it appeared on the National Weather Service Wichita, Kansas WSR-88D on April 3, 2011. The thin blue line labeled "cold front" is the front, with severe thunderstorms seen developing behind the front, which is moving towards the bottom right.

A cold front commonly brings a narrow band of precipitation that follows along the leading edge of the cold front. These bands of precipitation are often very strong,[7] and can bring severe thunderstorms, hailstorms[8] and/or tornadoes. In the spring, these cold fronts can be very strong, and can bring strong winds when the pressure gradient is higher than normal. During the winter months, cold fronts sometimes come through an area with little or no precipitation. Wider rain bands can occur behind cold fronts which tend to have more stratiform, and less convective, precipitation.[9] These rainstorms sometimes bring flooding, and can move very slowly when the storm steering it is strong and embedded within a meridional flow pattern (with more pole to equator motion rather than west to east motion). In the winter, cold fronts can bring cold spells, and occasionally snow. In the spring or summer in temperate latitudes, hail may occasionally fall along with the rain. If moisture is not sufficient, such as when a system has previously moved across a mountain barrier, cold fronts can pass without cloudiness.

Frontogenetical circulation[edit]

Frontogenesis is the process of creating or steepening the temperature gradient of a front. During this process the atmosphere reacts in an attempt to restore balance, the consequence is a circular motion along the front where air is being lifted up, along the cold front and dropping downward, behind the frontal boundary. This is the actual force of upward motion along a front that is responsible for clouds and precipitation.

As the temperature gradient steepens during frontogenesis, the thermal wind becomes imbalanced. To maintain balance, the geostrophic wind aloft and below adjust, such that regions of divergence/convergence form. Mass continuity would require a vertical transport of air along the cold front where there is divergence (lowered pressure). Although this circulation is described by a series of processes, they are actually occurring at the same time, observable along the front as a thermally direct circulation. There are several factors that influence the final shape and tilt of the circulation around the front, ultimately determining the kind and location of clouds and precipitation.[5][10]

Temperature changes[edit]

Cold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name "cold front". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50 °F (30 °C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs.[11] The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.

Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone[edit]

Occluded cyclone example. The triple point is the intersection of the cold, warm, and occluded fronts.

Cold fronts form when a cooler air mass moves into an area of warmer air in the wake of a developing extratropical cyclone. The warmer air interacts with the cooler air mass along the boundary, and usually produces precipitation. Cold fronts often follow a warm front or squall line. Very commonly, cold fronts have a warm front ahead but with a perpendicular orientation. In areas where cold fronts catch up to the warm front, the occluded front develops. Occluded fronts have an area of warm air aloft. When such a feature forms poleward of an extratropical cyclone, it is known as a trowal, which is short for TRough Of Warm Air aLoft.[12] A cold front is considered a warm front if it begins to retreat ahead of the next extratropical cyclone along the frontal boundary, and called a stationary front if it stalls.

See also[edit]

  • Cold wave
  • Air mass
  • Surface weather analysis
  • Texas Norther
  • Weather front

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ "Cold December: 2013". www.climate.umn.edu. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  2. Jump up ^ David Roth (2006-12-14). "Unified Surface Analysis Manual" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
  3. Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski; Yvette P. Richardson (2011-09-20). Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-119-96667-8. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
  4. Jump up ^ Lee M. Grenci; Jon M. Nese (2001). A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology: A Text / Laboratory Manual (3 ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 207–212. ISBN 978-0-7872-7716-1. OCLC 51160155.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Preview Text, Holton, James R., 2004: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press, 277 pp.
  6. Jump up ^ Weston, K. J. (1980). "An observational study of convective cloud streets". Tellus. 32 (5): 433. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1980.tb00970.x.
  7. Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
  8. Jump up ^ Schemm, S.; L. Nisi, A. Martinov; D. Leuenberg & O. Martius (2016). "On the link between cold fronts and hail in Switzerland". Atmospheric Science Letters. 17 (5): 315–325. doi:10.1002/asl.660.
  9. Jump up ^ K. A. Browning and Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global Energy and Water Cycles. Retrieved on 2008-12-26.
  10. Jump up ^ Preview Text, Carlson, Toby N., 1991: Mid-Latitude Weather Systems. HarperCollins, 435 pp.
  11. Jump up ^ Nav Canada (January 2005). Aviation Weather Services Guide. p. 36.
  12. Jump up ^ St. Louis University (2003-08-04). "What is a TROWAL? via the Internet Wayback Machine". Archived from the original on 2006-09-16. Retrieved 2006-11-02.

External links[edit]

  • Cold Front: transition zone from warm air to cold air
  • Weather Fronts
  • Fronts: the boundaries between air masses
  • Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpegWeather portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cold_front&oldid=861609294"
Categories:
  • Weather fronts
  • Cold

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